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TRANSCRIPT EPISODE 14: JUNK DNA

Hello. Im Margot Politis. Welcome to Study English, IELTS preparation.

Today were going to look at conditional sentences. Theyre sentences that use if.

If you listen carefully, youll be able to hear Dr Malcolm Simons talking about junk
DNA, the parts of DNA that people used to think were just rubbish. Listen to the
different types of sentences he uses.

Under Darwinistic notions, you would think that junk would drop off under the theory
of natural selection, just like species drop off if they hit ecological niches, which is
incompatible with survival. If they can adapt to those niches, then those that can,
survive, and those that cant, die, is the notion. If you apply that to the DNA
sequence, then the coding region genes, which survive, have a function, and by the
way the non-coding sequences have survived as well. So the proposition would
have to be that if theyre there, theyve got a function.

In listening to Dr Simons, you can hear that he uses a variety of sentences. This
makes for much more interesting language. You should practice using sentences of
different lengths and types, especially complex sentences.

Today were going to look at one of the ways you can create complex sentences
using an if clause.

An if clause is a phrase that gives a condition thats necessary for something else to
happen.

Theyre often called conditional clauses.

If means when, provided that, or on condition that.

There are a few basic patterns for the if clause.

Listen to this.

If they can adapt to those niches, then those that can, survive, and those that cant,
die.

So the proposition would have to be that if theyre there, theyve got a function.

If they can adapt, then those that can survive.

The pattern here is: if + simple present tense verb, then .

Then introduces a clause describing the consequences.

Look at the second example in the extract.

If they are there, they have got a function.
















Notice that the then is left out in this example. Then is optional.

He could have said if they are there, then they have a function.

Lets look at some more.

If you have a university education, then you have more opportunities.

But the then is optional you can leave it out.

If you have a university education, you have more opportunities.



Notice that this pattern can be reversed.

You have more opportunities if you have a university education.


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We never include then when the pattern is
reversed like this.

Lets try with the example from the story.

If theyre there, they have a function.

They have got a function, if theyre there.

OK, now heres the second pattern for if
sentences.

This is for when the suggestion is less definite, or less likely.

If you had a university education, then you would
have more opportunities.

The pattern here is: if + past tense, then + would
+ verb.

If you had a university education, then you would
have more opportunities.

We use this pattern when we are talking about
the future, and about something that may not be
as likely to happen.

Compare these 2 patterns.

If you study hard, then you will pass your test.

If you studied hard, then you would pass your test.

















In the first example, its a bit like making a useful suggestion.

The second sentence is less definite, and less polite. It suggests that the person
doesnt study hard now.

So thats 2 ways of making the conditional tense how to say that one thing will
happen, or might happen, if something else happens. There are other forms of the
conditional tense too.

If you learn them, then your English will improve!

OK, now were going to look at ways of making opposites by using prefixes.

Listen to Dr Simons again.

Under Darwinistic notions, you would think that junk would drop off under the theory
of natural selection, just like species drop off if they hit ecological niches, which is
incompatible with survival. If they can adapt to those niches, then those that can,
survive, and those that cant, die, is the notion.

If you apply that to the DNA sequence, then the coding region genes, which survive,
have a function and by the way the non-coding sequences have survived as well.

In the passage we heard the words survive and die. They have opposite
meanings.

To survive means to keep on living and to die means to stop living. We call words
with opposite meanings opposites.

Sometimes opposites are formed from the same word stem using prefixes. Two of
the prefixes he uses are in and non.

Listen

And by the way the non-coding sequences have survived as well.

He calls the junk DNA the non-coding sequences.

Non-coding means not coding. Notice that we
use a hyphen with the non- prefix.

Non- usually forms adjectives.

It means not in the group of, so we have non-
European, non-Aboriginal or non-government.

Non- can also just means not, giving a negative
sense to a word - non-fiction, non-smoking and
non-stick.



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The prefix in is used with adjectives as well. It also makes opposites, and means
not.

It forms words like: insignificant, not significant; inexpensive, not expensive;
intolerant, not tolerant.

Another common opposite prefix is un-.

We can have unfair, unattractive, unusual,
unnatural.

But un- can also be used with verbs. It means
that an action is reversed.

So we have undo, undress or unbend.

There arent many rules about what sorts of
words take these prefixes. Youll have to learn
most opposites one by one.

A good way to do this is to try to find out the opposite every time you come across a
new word.

Finally for today, lets have a look at how you can form adjectives from peoples
names.

Under Darwinistic notions, you would think that junk would drop off under the theory
of natural selection.

He says under Darwinistic notions.

Darwinistic here is an adjective, but its got a capital letter do you know why?

Well, thats because It comes from the name Darwin referring to Charles Darwin,
who developed the theory of natural selection.




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But its got 2 suffixes -ist, and -ic.

The -ic suffix forms adjectives that mean belonging to, or like. So Darwinistic
means like a Darwinist.

But a Darwinist?

Well the suffix -ist forms adjectives too, but it forms an adjective that describes a
type of person with a certain set of beliefs.

When -ist is added to peoples names, it means someone who follows that person,
or who believes in what they wrote or said.



















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So we can have a Darwinist, someone who believes in Darwins theories, or a
Marxist, someone who follows the writings of Marx, or a Buddhist, someone who
follows the teachings of the Buddha.

Well, were out of time for today. Remember to watch out for those opposites, and
try using if clauses.

See you next time. Bye Bye.