Earthing system

1
Earthing system
In electricity supply systems, an earthing system or grounding system is circuitry which connects parts of the
electric circuit with the ground, thus defining the electric potential of the conductors relative to the Earth's
conductive surface. The choice of earthing system can affect the safety and electromagnetic compatibility of the
power supply. In particular, it affects the magnitude and distribution of short circuit currents through the system, and
the effects it creates on equipment and people in the proximity of the circuit. If a fault within an electrical device
connects a live supply conductor to an exposed conductive surface, anyone touching it while electrically connected
to the earth will complete a circuit back to the earthed supply conductor and receive an electric shock.
Regulations for earthing system vary considerably among countries and among different parts of electric systems.
Most low voltage systems connect one supply conductor to the earth (ground).
A protective earth (PE), known as an equipment grounding conductor in the US National Electrical Code, avoids
this hazard by keeping the exposed conductive surfaces of a device at earth potential. To avoid possible voltage drop
no current is allowed to flow in this conductor under normal circumstances. In the event of a fault, currents will flow
that should trip or blow the fuse or circuit breaker protecting the circuit. A high impedance line-to-ground fault
insufficient to trip the overcurrent protection may still trip a residual-current device (ground fault circuit interrupter
or GFCI in North America) if one is present. This disconnection in the event of a dangerous condition before
someone receives a shock, is a fundamental tenet of modern wiring practice and in many documents is referred to as
automatic disconnection of supply (ADS). The alternative is defence in depth, where multiple independent failures
must occur to expose a dangerous condition - reinforced or double insulation come into this latter category.
In contrast, a functional earth connection serves a purpose other than shock protection, and may normally carry
current. The most important example of a functional earth is the neutral in an electrical supply system. It is a
current-carrying conductor connected to earth, often, but not always, at only one point to avoid flow of currents
through the earth. The NEC calls it a groundED supply conductor to distinguish it from the equipment groundING
conductor. Other examples of devices that use functional earth connections include surge suppressors and
electromagnetic interference filters, certain antennas and measurement instruments.
People use an earthing system mainly for these applications:
To protect a structure from lightning strike, directing the lightning through the earthing system and into the
ground rod rather than passing through the structure.
Part of the safety system of mains electricity, preventing problems associated with floating ground and sky
voltage.
The most common ground plane for large monopole antenna and some other kinds of radio antenna.
Other, less common applications of earthing systems include:
single-wire earth return.
part of a system that powers small devices from sky voltage.
one at each end of a ground dipole ELF antenna.
Low-voltage systems
In low-voltage distribution networks, which distribute the electric power to the widest class of end users, the main
concern for design of earthing systems is safety of consumers who use the electric appliances and their protection
against electric shocks. The earthing system, in combination with protective devices such as fuses and residual
current devices, must ultimately ensure that a person must not come into touch with a metallic object whose potential
relative to the person's potential exceeds a "safe" threshold, typically set at about 50V.
In most developed countries, 220/230/240 V sockets with earthed contacts were introduced either just before or soon
after World War II, though with considerable national variation in popularity. In the United States and Canada, 120
Earthing system
2
volt power outlets installed before the mid-1960s generally did not include a ground (earth) pin. In the developing
world, local wiring practice may not provide a connection to an earthing pin of an outlet.
In the absence of a supply earth, devices needing an earth connection often used the supply neutral. Some used
dedicated ground rods. Many 110 V appliances have polarized plugs to maintain a distinction between "live" and
"neutral", but using the supply neutral for equipment earthing can be highly problematical. "Live" and "neutral"
might be accidentally reversed in the outlet or plug, or the neutral-to-earth connection might fail or be improperly
installed. Even normal load currents in the neutral might generate hazardous voltage drops. For these reasons, most
countries have now mandated dedicated protective earth connections that are now almost universal.
If the fault path between accidentally energized objects and the supply connection has low impedance, the fault
current will be so large that the circuit over current protection device (fuse or circuit breaker) will open to clear the
ground fault. Where the earthing system does not provide a low-impedance metallic conductor between equipment
enclosures and supply return (such as in a TT separately earthed system), fault currents are smaller, and will not
necessarily operate the over current protection device. In such case a residual current detector is installed to detect
the current leaking to ground and interrupt the circuit.
IEC terminology
International standard IEC 60364 distinguishes three families of earthing arrangements, using the two-letter codes
TN, TT, and IT.
The first letter indicates the connection between earth and the power-supply equipment (generator or transformer):
"T" Direct connection of a point with earth (Latin: terra)
"I" No point is connected with earth (isolation), except perhaps via a high impedance.
The second letter indicates the connection between earth and the electrical device being supplied:
"T" Direct connection of a point with earth
"N" Direct connection to neutral at the origin of installation, which is connected to the earth
Earthing system
3
TN networks
In a TN earthing system, one of the points in the generator or transformer is connected with earth, usually the star
point in a three-phase system. The body of the electrical device is connected with earth via this earth connection at
the transformer.
The conductor that connects the exposed metallic parts of the consumer's electrical installation is called protective
earth (PE; see also: Ground). The conductor that connects to the star point in a three-phase system, or that carries the
return current in a single-phase system, is called neutral (N). Three variants of TN systems are distinguished:
TNS
PE and N are separate conductors that are connected together only near the power source. This arrangement is
a current standard for most residential and industrial electric systems particularly in Europe.Wikipedia:Citation
needed
TNC
A combined PEN conductor fulfils the functions of both a PE and an N conductor. Rarely used.
TNCS
Part of the system uses a combined PEN conductor, which is at some point split up into separate PE and N
lines. The combined PEN conductor typically occurs between the substation and the entry point into the
building, and separated in the service head. In the UK, this system is also known as protective multiple
earthing (PME), because of the practice of connecting the combined neutral-and-earth conductor to real earth
at many locations, to reduce the risk of electric shock in the event of a broken PEN conductor - with a similar
system in Australia and New Zealand being designated as multiple earthed neutral (MEN).
Earthing system
4
TN-S: separate protective earth (PE) and neutral
(N) conductors from transformer to consuming
device, which are not connected together at any
point after the building distribution point.
TN-C: combined PE and N conductor
all the way from the transformer to the
consuming device.
TN-C-S earthing system: combined PEN
conductor from transformer to building distribution
point, but separate PE and N conductors in fixed
indoor wiring and flexible power cords.
It is possible to have both TN-S and TN-C-S supplies taken from the same transformer. For example, the sheaths on
some underground cables corrode and stop providing good earth connections, and so homes where "bad earths" are
found may be converted to TN-C-S.
TT network
In a TT (Terra- Terra)earthing system, the protective earth connection for the consumer is provided by a local earth
electrode, and there is another independently installed at the generator. There is no 'earth wire' between the two. The
fault impedance is higher, and unless the electrode impedance is very low indeed, a TT installation should always
have an RCD as its first isolator.
The big advantage of the TT earthing system is that it is clear of high and low frequency noises that come through
the neutral wire from connected equipment. TT has always been preferable for special applications like
telecommunication sites that benefit from the interference-free earthing. Also, TT does not have the risk of a broken
neutral.
In locations where power is distributed overhead and TT is used, installation earth conductors are not at risk should
any overhead distribution conductor be fractured by, say, a fallen tree or branch.
In pre-RCD era, the TT earthing system was unattractive for general use because of its worse capability of accepting
high currents in case of a live-to-PE short circuit (in comparison with TN systems). But as residual current devices
mitigate this disadvantage, the TT earthing system becomes attractive for premises where all AC power circuits are
RCD-protected.
The TT earthing system is used throughout Japan, with RCD units in most industrial settings. This can impose added
requirements on variable frequency drives and switched-mode power supplies which often have substantial filters
passing high frequency noise to the ground conductor.
Earthing system
5
IT network
In an IT network, the electrical distribution system has no connection to earth at all, or it has only a high impedance
connection. In such systems, an insulation monitoring device is used to monitor the impedance.
Earthing system
6
Comparison
TT IT TN-S TN-C TN-C-S
Earth fault loop impedance High Highest Low Low Low
RCD preferred? Yes Yes No No No
Need earth electrode at site? Yes Yes No No No
PE conductor cost Low Low Highest Least High
Risk of broken neutral No No High Highest High
Safety Safe Less Safe Safest Least Safe Safe
Electromagnetic
interference
Least Least Low High Low
Safety risks High loop impedance (step
voltages)
Double fault, overvoltage Broken
neutral
Broken
neutral
Broken neutral
Advantages Safe and reliable Continuity of operation,
cost
Safest Cost Safety and
cost
Other terminologies
While the national wiring regulations for buildings of many countries follow the IEC 60364 terminology, in North
America (United States and Canada), the term "equipment grounding conductor" refers to equipment grounds and
ground wires on branch circuits, and "grounding electrode conductor" is used for conductors bonding an earth
ground rod (or similar) to a service panel. "Grounded conductor" is the system "neutral". Australian and New
Zealand standards use a modified PME earthing system called Multiple Earthed Neutral (MEN). The neutral is
grounded(earthed) at each consumer service point thereby effectively bringing the neutral potential difference to zero
along the whole length of LV lines.
Properties
Cost
TN networks save the cost of a low-impedance earth connection at the site of each consumer. Such a connection
(a buried metal structure) is required to provide protective earth in IT and TT systems.
TN-C networks save the cost of an additional conductor needed for separate N and PE connections. However, to
mitigate the risk of broken neutrals, special cable types and lots of connections to earth are needed.
TT networks require proper RCD (Ground fault interrupter) protection.
Safety
In TN, an insulation fault is very likely to lead to a high short-circuit current that will trigger an overcurrent
circuit-breaker or fuse and disconnect the L conductors. With TT systems, the earth fault loop impedance can be
too high to do this, or too high to do it within the required time, so an RCD (formerly ELCB) is usually employed.
Earlier TT installations may lack this important safety feature, allowing the CPC (Circuit Protective Conductor or
PE) and perhaps associated metallic parts within reach of persons (exposed-conductive-parts and
extraneous-conductive-parts) to become energized for extended periods under fault conditions, which is a real
danger.
In TN-S and TT systems (and in TN-C-S beyond the point of the split), a residual-current device can be used for
additional protection. In the absence of any insulation fault in the consumer device, the equation I
L1
+I
L2
+I
L3
+I
N
= 0 holds, and an RCD can disconnect the supply as soon as this sum reaches a threshold (typically 10-500 mA).
Earthing system
7
An insulation fault between either L or N and PE will trigger an RCD with high probability.
In IT and TN-C networks, residual current devices are far less likely to detect an insulation fault. In a TN-C
system, they would also be very vulnerable to unwanted triggering from contact between earth conductors of
circuits on different RCDs or with real ground, thus making their use impracticable. Also, RCDs usually isolate
the neutral core. Since it is unsafe to do this in a TN-C system, RCDs on TN-C should be wired to only interrupt
the live conductor.
In single-ended single-phase systems where the Earth and neutral are combined (TN-C, and the part of TN-C-S
systems which uses a combined neutral and earth core), if there is a contact problem in the PEN conductor, then
all parts of the earthing system beyond the break will rise to the potential of the L conductor. In an unbalanced
multi-phase system, the potential of the earthing system will move towards that of the most loaded live conductor.
Such a rise in the potential of the neutral beyond the break is known as a neutral inversion.
[1]
Therefore, TN-C
connections must not go across plug/socket connections or flexible cables, where there is a higher probability of
contact problems than with fixed wiring. There is also a risk if a cable is damaged, which can be mitigated by the
use of concentric cable construction and multiple earth electrodes. Due to the (small) risks of the lost neutral
raising 'earthed' metal work to a dangerous potential, coupled with the increased shock risk from proximity to
good contact with true earth, the use of TN-C-S supplies is banned in the UK for caravan sites and shore supply to
boats, and strongly discouraged for use on farms and outdoor building sites, and in such cases it is recommended
to make all outdoor wiring TT with RCD and a separate earth electrode.
In IT systems, a single insulation fault is unlikely to cause dangerous currents to flow through a human body in
contact with earth, because no low-impedance circuit exists for such a current to flow. However, a first insulation
fault can effectively turn an IT system into a TN system, and then a second insulation fault can lead to dangerous
body currents. Worse, in a multi-phase system, if one of the live conductors made contact with earth, it would
cause the other phase cores to rise to the phase-phase voltage relative to earth rather than the phase-neutral
voltage. IT systems also experience larger transient overvoltages than other systems.
In TN-C and TN-C-S systems, any connection between the combined neutral-and-earth core and the body of the
earth could end up carrying significant current under normal conditions, and could carry even more under a
broken neutral situation. Therefore, main equipotential bonding conductors must be sized with this in mind; use of
TN-C-S is inadvisable in situations such as petrol stations, where there is a combination of lots of buried
metalwork and explosive gases.
Electromagnetic compatibility
In TN-S and TT systems, the consumer has a low-noise connection to earth, which does not suffer from the
voltage that appears on the N conductor as a result of the return currents and the impedance of that conductor.
This is of particular importance with some types of telecommunication and measurement equipment.
In TT systems, each consumer has its own connection to earth, and will not notice any currents that may be
caused by other consumers on a shared PE line.
Regulations
In the United States National Electrical Code and Canadian Electrical Code the feed from the distribution
transformer uses a combined neutral and grounding conductor, but within the structure separate neutral and
protective earth conductors are used (TN-C-S). The neutral must be connected to earth only on the supply side of
the customer's disconnecting switch.
In Argentina, France (TT) and Australia (TN-C-S), the customers must provide their own ground connections.
Japan is governed by PSE law, and uses TT earthing in most installations.
In Australia, the Multiple Earthed Neutral (MEN) earthing system is used and is described in Section 5 of AS
3000. For an LV customer, it is a TN-C system from the transformer in the street to the premises, (the neutral is
earthed multiple times along this segment), and a TN-S system inside the installation, from the Main Switchboard
Earthing system
8
downwards. Looked at as a whole, it is a TN-C-S system.
In Denmark the high voltage regulation (Strkstrmsbekendtgrelsen) and Malaysia the Electricity Ordinance
1994 states that all consumers must use TT earthing, though in rare cases TN-C-S may be allowed (used in the
same manner as in the United States). Rules are different when it comes to larger companies.
Application examples
Most modern homes in Europe have a TN-C-S earthing system. The combined neutral and earth occurs between
the nearest transformer substation and the service cut out (the fuse before the meter). After this, separate earth and
neutral cores are used in all the internal wiring.
Older urban and suburban homes in the UK tend to have TN-S supplies, with the earth connection delivered
through the lead sheath of the underground lead-and-paper cable.
Older homes in Norway uses the IT system while newer homes use TN-C-S.
Some older homes, especially those built before the invention of residual-current circuit breakers and wired home
area networks, use an in-house TN-C arrangement. This is no longer recommended practice.
Laboratory rooms, medical facilities, construction sites, repair workshops, mobile electrical installations, and
other environments that are supplied via engine-generators where there is an increased risk of insulation faults,
often use an IT earthing arrangement supplied from isolation transformers. To mitigate the two-fault issues with
IT systems, the isolation transformers should supply only a small number of loads each and should be protected
with an insulation monitoring device (generally used only by medical, railway or military IT systems, because of
cost).
In remote areas, where the cost of an additional PE conductor outweighs the cost of a local earth connection, TT
networks are commonly used in some countries, especially in older properties or in rural areas, where safety
might otherwise be threatened by the fracture of an overhead PE conductor by, say, a fallen tree branch. TT
supplies to individual properties are also seen in mostly TN-C-S systems where an individual property is
considered unsuitable for TN-C-S supply.
In Australia, New Zealand and Israel the TN-C-S system is in use; however, the wiring rules currently state that,
in addition, each customer must provide a separate connection to earth via both a water pipe bond (if metallic
water pipes enter the consumer's premises) and a dedicated earth electrode. In Australia and New Zealand this is
called the Multiple Earthed Neutral Link or MEN Link. This MEN Link is removable for installation testing
purposes, but is connected during use by either a locking system (locknuts for instance) or two or more screws. In
the MEN system, the integrity of the Neutral is paramount. In Australia, new installations must also bond the
foundation concrete re-enforcing under wet areas to the earth conductor (AS3000), typically increasing the size of
the earthing, and provides an equipotential plane in areas such as bathrooms. In older installations, it is not
uncommon to find only the water pipe bond, and it is allowed to remain as such, but the additional earth electrode
must be installed if any upgrade work is done. The protective earth and neutral conductors are combined until the
consumer's neutral link (located on the customer's side of the electricity meter's neutral connection) - beyond this
point, the protective earth and neutral conductors are separate.
Medium-voltage systems
In medium-voltage networks (1 kV to 72.5 kV), which are far less accessible to the general public, the focus of
earthing system design is less on safety and more on reliability of supply, reliability of protection, and impact on the
equipment in presence of a short circuit. Only the magnitude of phase-to-ground short circuits, which are the most
common, is significantly affected with the choice of earthing system, as the current path is mostly closed through the
earth. Three-phase HV/MV power transformers, located in distribution substations, are the most common source of
supply for distribution networks, and type of grounding of their neutral determines the earthing system.
There are five types of neutral earthing:
Earthing system
9
Solid-earthed neutral
Unearthed neutral
Resistance-earthed neutral
Low-resistance earthing
High-resistance earthing
Reactance-earthed neutral
Using earthing transformers
Solid-earthed neutral
In solid or directly earthed neutral, transformer's star point is directly connected to the ground. In this solution, a
low-impedance path is provided for the ground fault current to close and, as result, their magnitudes are comparable
with three-phase fault currents. Since the neutral remains at the potential close to the ground, voltages in unaffected
phases remain at levels similar to the pre-fault ones; for that reason, this system is regularly used in high-voltage
transmission networks, where insulation costs are high.
Unearthed neutral
In unearthed, isolated or floating neutral system, as in the IT system, there is no direct connection of the star point
(or any other point in the network) and the ground. As result, ground fault currents have no path to be closed and
thus have negligible magnitudes. However, in practice, the fault current will not be equal to zero: conductors in the
circuit particularly underground cables have an inherent capacitance towards the earth, which provides a path
of relatively high impedance.
Systems with isolated neutral may continue operation and provide uninterrupted supply even in presence of a ground
fault. However, while the fault is present, the potential of other two phases relative to the ground reaches of the
normal operating voltage, creating additional stress for the insulation; insulation failures may inflict additional
ground faults in the system, now with much higher currents.
Presence of uninterrupted ground fault may pose a significant safety risk: if the current exceeds 45A an electric arc
develops, which may be sustained even after the fault is cleared. For that reason, they are chiefly limited to
underground and submarine networks, and industrial applications, where the reliability need is high and probability
of human contact relatively low. In urban distribution networks with multiple underground feeders, the capacitive
current may reach several tens of amperes, posing significant risk for the equipment.
The benefit of low fault current and continued system operation thereafter is offset by inherent drawback that the
fault location is hard to detect.