Fundamental Concepts in Igneous Fundamental Concepts in Igneous

Petrology (Chapter 1) Petrology (Chapter 1)

Ash-Rich Strombolian Activity, Stromboli Volcano, Italy
Image source: www.photovolcanica.com
1. How do we know we are dealing 1. How do we know we are dealing
i h i k ? i h i k ? with igneous rocks? with igneous rocks?
A Observational criteria (general) A. Observational criteria (general)
ii. Field Criteria . Field Criteria
cross-cut the
country rocks y
and truncate
structures structures
image source: Barb Dutrow image source: Barb Dutrow,
2005
1. How do we know we are dealing 1. How do we know we are dealing
i h i k ? i h i k ? with igneous rocks? with igneous rocks?
A. Observational criteria (general)
ii. Field Criteria . Field Criteria
Contact effects: chilled margins
or contact metamorphic effects or contact metamorphic effects
(above) Salsbury Crags, Teschenite Sill ( ) y g ,
(Edinburgh)
(right) Huttons step contact
metamorphism of sandstone Image source: Barb Dutrow and Darrell Henry (2002)
1. How do we know we are dealing 1. How do we know we are dealing
i h i k ? i h i k ? with igneous rocks? with igneous rocks?
A. Observational criteria (general)
ii. Field Criteria . Field Criteria
Geological forms Geological forms
directly observed
as igneous as igneous
events:
cinder cones cinder cones,
stratovolcanoes,
flows, etc.
Ash-Rich Strombolian Activity, Stromboli Volcano, Italy
Image source: www.photovolcanica.com
1. How do we know we are dealing 1. How do we know we are dealing
i h i k ? i h i k ? with igneous rocks? with igneous rocks?
A. Observational criteria (general)
ii. Textural Criteria ii. Textural Criteria
Macroscopic/
microscopic
development of
interlocking texture.
first-crystallizing minerals
are most euhedral and later
minerals are less euhedral
Gabbro - Rustenberg layered suite,Bushveld Complex:
Image source:
http://web.uct.ac.za/depts/geolsci/dlr/bv_thin.html
(paragenetic sequence)
1. How do we know we are dealing 1. How do we know we are dealing
i h i k ? i h i k ? with igneous rocks? with igneous rocks?
A. Observational criteria (general)
ii. Textural Criteria ii. Textural Criteria
glassy textures
Ash grain from
pyroclastic
Osidian from a flow
Image source: Hamblin and Christiansen (2001)
p
eruption:
e.g. Mt. St. Helens
1. How do we know we are dealing 1. How do we know we are dealing
i h i k ? i h i k ? with igneous rocks? with igneous rocks?
A. Observational criteria (general)
ii. Textural Criteria ii. Textural Criteria
random orientation of
crystals crystals
except where there is crystal
settling or magmatic flow g g
Granite (above) and Gabbro (right)
Image source: Darrell Henry, 2007
1. How do we know we are dealing 1. How do we know we are dealing
i h i k ? i h i k ? with igneous rocks? with igneous rocks?
A. Observational criteria (general)
ii. Textural Criteria ii. Textural Criteria
development of pyroclastic
deposits (explosive eruptive p ( p p
materials)
rapidly cooled/partly sedimentary
Rapidly-cooled fragments Rapidly cooled fragments
of rock and ash extruded as
a hot volcanic ash deposit -
welded tuff
Image source: Hamblin and
Christiansen (2001)
2. What does a igneous petrologist try 2. What does a igneous petrologist try
to assess: to assess:
i f l [h ?] generation of melts [how many?]
source of melting [where?]
material that is melted [what?]
processes that modify melts during p y g
crystallization, etc.? [how changed?]
3. How does a petrologist assess this? 3. How does a petrologist assess this?
A. Experience at looking at rocks and
interpreting textures p g
Tokachi Volcano, Hokkaido, Japan (2006) Walter Maresch (Ruhr Univ.), Barb Dutrow
(LSU) and Dan Dunkley (Univ. Tokyo). Image source: Darrell Henry
3. How does a petrologist assess this? 3. How does a petrologist assess this?
B. Experimental data to simulate the
conditions at depth p
Piston cylinder apparatus and experimental assembly from Ruhr Univ.. Image source: Barb
Dutrow, 1987
3. How does a petrologist assess this? 3. How does a petrologist assess this?
C. Theoretical models to extend experimental
data to other conditions i.e. thermodynamics y
Theoretical melting models to relate decompression melting and the types of melts to
rocks. Image source: Ed Stolper (CalTech).
3. How does a petrologist assess this? 3. How does a petrologist assess this?
D. Knowledge of the interior of the Earth
direct samples of the mantle p
Seiad Ultramafic Complex, northern
California Image source: Darrell Henry 1973
Mantle xenolith in alkali basalt.
Image source: Barb Dutrow, 2006
California. Image source: Darrell Henry, 1973
3. How does a petrologist assess this? 3. How does a petrologist assess this?
D. Knowledge of interior of the Earth
indirect samples - meteorites p
Meteorites - arrested early
stages of development of stages of development of
solar nebula with no
subsequent alteration or subsequent alteration or
differentiation
clues to the development
M t r Cr t r Ariz n Th pl i
clues to the development
of the planets
Meteor Crater, Arizona. The explosive
impact of a meteorite about 25,000 ybp.
Image source: Press and Siever, 2001
3. How does a petrologist assess this? 3. How does a petrologist assess this?
D. Knowledge of interior of the Earth
indirect samples - meteorites
Irons (Fe-Ni alloy) - planetary
cores?
p
5% of falls
[Iron meteorite MALTAHOHE, Namibia Image
source: http://www.meteoriteman.com/]
Stony-irons (Metal and silicate
source: http://www.meteoriteman.com/]
minerals) - partial differentiation
1% of falls
[Stony-iron meteorite palllasite, Dora, New Mexico.
Image source: Smithsonian Institution]
3. How does a petrologist assess this? 3. How does a petrologist assess this?
D. Knowledge of interior of the Earth
indirect samples - meteorites
Stones (Achondrites)
differentiated also SNC group
p
g p
8% of falls
[Achondrite Martian meteorite, Nakhla, Egypt,
Image source: http://www.meteoriteman.com/]
Stones (Carbonaceous chondrite)
/
g p // /]
primitive/undifferentiated
86% of falls
[Chondrite Allende meteorite: Chihuahua, Mexico.
Image source: http://www.meteoriteman.com/]
4. What do we think we know about 4. What do we think we know about
Earths interior? Earths interior? Earth s interior? Earth s interior?
A. The Earth is layered y
Earth has layered
structure:
crust (oceanic and
continental)
mantle
core (inner and outer)
image source: Press and Siever, 2001
4. What do we think we know about 4. What do we think we know about
Earths interior? Earths interior?
A. The Earth is layered
Earth s interior? Earth s interior?
Internal structure is
largely established by
variations in P- and S-
seismic waves.
The Mohorovicic (Moho)
discontinuity at interface discontinuity at interface
of crust and upper
mantle is compositional
image source: Winter (2001)
discontinuity.
4. What do we think we know about 4. What do we think we know about
Earths interior? Earths interior?
A. The Earth is layered
Earth s interior? Earth s interior?
Low velocity zones in upper
mantle is zone of 1-10%
melting
forms the asthenosphere forms the asthenosphere
serves as interface of serves as interface of
lithospheric plates and
mesophere.
image source: Winter (2001)
4. What do we think we know about 4. What do we think we know about
Earths interior? Earths interior?
A. The Earth is layered
Earth s interior? Earth s interior?
Damping of S waves in the
outer core signals presence
of liquid outer core.
Sharp increase in S and P Sharp increase in S- and P-
wave velocities indicate
solid metallic inner core. solid metallic inner core.
image source: Winter (2001)
4. What do we think we know about 4. What do we think we know about
Earths interior? Earths interior?
A. The Earth is layered
Earth s interior? Earth s interior?
Continental crust vs. ocean crust
Thicker: 25-60 km vs. 0-10 km
Older: some >4 Ga vs. <160 Ma.
Si-richer: 52-75% SiO
2
vs. 50-52% SiO
2
.
Crust/upper mantle are coupled
as lithospheric plate to depths of p p p
initial low velocity zones.
image source: Press and Siever (2001)
4. What do we think we know about 4. What do we think we know about
Earths interior? Earths interior?
A. The Earth is layered
Earth s interior? Earth s interior?
Within mantle there are
additional discontinuities that
mark polymorphic transitions of
olivine:
410 km olivine converts to
spinel-type structures spinel type structures
660 km there is a transition to
image source: Press and Siever (2001)
a perovskite-type structure.
4. What do we think we know about 4. What do we think we know about
Earths interior? Earths interior?
A. The Earth is layered
Earth s interior? Earth s interior?
New player: Post-perovskite -
high-pressure phase of MgSiO
3
g p p g
3
P and T stability at lowermost
Earth's mantle Earth s mantle.
Post-perovskite" derives from p
name of stable phase of MgSiO
3
throughout most of Earth's
image source: Press and Siever (2001)
mantle, i.e. perovskite.
5. Hypothesis for origin of Earth? 5. Hypothesis for origin of Earth?
A Early differentiation (first few 10s of A. Early differentiation (first few 10s of
millions of years?)
Differentiation process
likely results from y
heating due to
combinations of
i i l ll gravitational collapse
accretion of
planetismals
image source: Press and Siever (2001)
planetismals
Sinking of iron to form
core
radioactive decay
Renewed interest in the Early Earth
Possible early evolution of solar system (4.57 Ga)
Alternate Early Earth scenarios
P ibl nt Possible events
Moon-forming
i ( 4 54 G ) impactor (~4.54 Ga)
Magma vs. watery
oceans (4.4-4.0 Ga)
Artist: Ron Miller
The Most Ancient Earth Materials Known
Detrital Zircons from a
conglomerate at Jack Hills, conglomerate at Jack Hills,
Australia
F l l CL i f i t False color CL image of ancient
zircon. (Wilde et al. 2001)
Alternate Early Earth timeline
Places of Other Ancient Earth Materials
5. Hypothesis for origin of Earth? 5. Hypothesis for origin of Earth?
B Resulting heterogeneous Earth composition B. Resulting heterogeneous Earth composition
Differentiation
produced chemical produced chemical
zonation in the Earth
Defines nature of rock
types that will develop. types that will develop.
image source: Press and Siever (2001)
6. P 6. P--TT- -depth relation in the Earth? depth relation in the Earth?
Relationship between
depth and pressure depth and pressure
a function of weight of a function of weight of
the overlying column of
material. material.
image source: Winter (2001)
5. P 5. P--TT- -depth relation in the Earth? depth relation in the Earth?
In systems that flow
(ductile), P is equal in all
directions i.e. lithostatic
P = gh
= density
g = acceleration of
gravity
h = height of rock
column
image source: Winter (2001)
5. P 5. P--TT- -depth relation in the Earth? depth relation in the Earth?
Near surface, rocks
behave brittly
can accommodate small
amount of differential P
(a few kbars) before
fracturing.
density changes primarily
with composition e.g.
crust ~ 2.8 g/cm
3
and
image source: Winter (2001)
mantle ~ 3.3 g/cm
3
.
5. P 5. P--depth depth- -T relation in the Earth? T relation in the Earth?
Variation of T with Variation of T with
depth is geothermal
gradient gradient.
Related to factors Related to factors
including cooling
initiated in the early initiated in the early
Earth and radioactive
decay decay.
Estimated ranges of oceanic and
continental steady-state geotherms to a
image source: Winter (2001)
depth of 100 km using upper and lower
limits based on heat flows measured
near the surface.
5. P 5. P--depth depth- -T relation in the Earth? T relation in the Earth?
Heat is transferred by:
radiation to space p
(minor)
conduction (thermal (
vibration)
convection (density ( y
differences
associated with T))
advection (transfer of
heat with rocks).
image source: Winter (2001)
)
7. Where are magmas from? 7. Where are magmas from? where where
it is hot enough it is hot enough plate tectonics plate tectonics it is hot enough it is hot enough plate tectonics plate tectonics
1 5 3 4
6
7 2
200 km
Continental Crust
?
?
?
?
600 km
400
Oceanic Crust
Lithospheric Mantle
Sub-lithospheric Mantle
Source of Melts
image source: Winter (2001)
1. Mid 1. Mid--ocean Ridges ocean Ridges
22 I i l I i l Rif Rif
5. Back 5. Back--arc Basins arc Basins
6 O I l d B l 6 O I l d B l
2. 2. Intracontinental Intracontinental Rifts Rifts
3. Island Arcs 3. Island Arcs
4 A i C i l M i 4 A i C i l M i
6. Ocean Island Basalts 6. Ocean Island Basalts
7. Miscellaneous Intra 7. Miscellaneous Intra- -
C i l A i i C i l A i i
4. Active Continental Margins 4. Active Continental Margins
Continental Activity Continental Activity
kimberlites kimberlites, , carbonatites carbonatites, ,
anorthosites anorthosites... ...