Introduction

The LED driver, or ballast, of a modern off-gridlighting

product is responsible for regulating power from the
battery to the LED or LED array. There are many
designs for LED drivers, and each has advantages and
disadvantages in terms of efficiency, cost, and
performance. LED drivers are available as prepackaged
integrated circuits (ICs) or may be built with discrete
components. The term LED Driver can refer to the
entire circuit design, a specific topology, or an IC that
requires external components to set performance
values. This Technical Note will introduce LED driver
basics and discuss typical LED driver topologies
commonly used for off-grid lighting products.
LED Electronic Basics
LEDs are semiconductor diode devices. Electric current
flows through an LED in one direction only, from the
device anode to the cathode. When a positive voltage
is applied to the anode, current will flow and light is
emitted; this is called forward biasing the diode. The
amount of current is dependent on the specific
material of the LED chip and the voltage level higher
voltages produce more current and light output.
LEDs are grouped into forward voltage (V
F
) bins by
the LED manufacturer. LEDs from any single bin have a
range of forward voltages, with a typical forward
voltage for white LEDs being near 3.6V.
When an LED is forward biased (turned ON) with a
constant voltage source, the LED chip will begin to heat
up. This shifts the diode forward voltage curve,
causing more current to flow and further increasing
the temperature (Figure 1).
Lighting Africa - November 2012
Technical
Notes
Issue 7 November 2011
LED Electronic Control Circuits for Off-grid Lighting Products
This Technical Note introduces basic concepts in electronic design for low power off-grid
lighting products and suggests ways to improve power efficiency. It is intended for
manufacturers and engineers.
The Information contained in this article builds on previous Technical Notes. See also:
http://www.lightingafrica.org/resources/briefing-notes.html
This thermal runawaycan potentially damage the LED
or lower its lifetime, and must be controlled by
implementing some type of current or voltage
regulation.
Constant Voltage vs. Constant Current
LED drivers deliver power to the LED by either
regulating the voltage (constant voltage) or current
(constant current). Constant current drivers are
generally considered a better choice, as these have
some mechanism to monitor the current through the
LED and prevent over-current situations from arising.
LEDDriver Topologies
The details of LED electronic control circuits vary
widely. Three broad categories cover most
applications: current limiting resistive, linear, and
switching type drivers. The choice of driver topology
will depend on many factors including LED type and
power, cost, and additional circuit features such as
auxiliary cell phone charging.
Figure 1. LED thermal runaway
LED Electronic Control Circuits for Off-grid Lighting Products
Issue 7 October 2011
Series/Parallel LED Array Configurations
Systems with multiple LEDs will run the LEDs in series,
parallel, or a series/parallel combination (Figure 2). The
choice of configuration is dependent on the input
battery voltage, the driver selection, and the overall
power level. Because of the voltage tolerances
inherent in the LEDs, parallel arrays may have current
balancing problems where some LEDs run at higher
currents and consume more power. These LEDs will
then run at higher temperatures and may have lower
lifetimes. To avoid this problem, current balancing
resistors can be placed in series with each LED string.
Resistive Current Limiting
The most basic type of LED driver places a current
limiting resistor in series with the LED or LED string.
The resistor value must be high enough to compensate
for the forward voltage tolerance of the LEDs, but low
enough to prevent excessive power loss. This circuit
will be the least expensive to produce but is relatively
inefficient and also has a wide operating tolerance. The
delivered LED power will be inconsistent from circuit to
circuit and as a result the light output from product to
product will vary widely.
Linear Regulators (linear current sources)
Linear regulators control the LED current by using a
series transistor operated in the linear region (Figure 3).
This means that the transistor is operating as a variable
resistor, adjusting its resistance to maintain a set
current or voltage. As such, linear regulators can be
configured as constant current devices and have the
advantage that they control LED current (and power) to
a precise value.
Careful matching between regulator input and output
voltages is necessary to keep power loses minimized.
Heat sinking the regulator or transistor is also typically
required to dissipate the generated heat.
Lighting Africa - November 2011
Figure 3. Linear Regulator
Key features
V (in) >V (out)
Low cost
Simple circuit design / low component count
Accurate LED constant current
No EMI switching noise
May require additional heatsinking
Careful voltage matching necessary to achieve
adequate efficiency
Moderate to low efficiency
Figure 4.
Key Features
V (batt) >V (led)
Very low cost
Simple circuit design / low component count
Poor current regulation
Low efficiency
Series/Parallel LED Array with Current
Balancing Resistors
LED Electronic Control Circuits for Off-grid Lighting Products
Issue 7 October 2011
Lighting Africa - November 2011
Switching Regulators
Switching topologies efficiently transfer energy from one
voltage level to another by switching power through an
inductor or other magnetic component. For LED
systems, they are typically configured as constant
current devices and regulate current by monitoring the
voltage drop through a 1%(or better) low ohm series
sense resistor R(sense). Switching regulators are capable
of 95%or better efficiency under certain circumstances.
Buck (step-down) Regulators
A buck regulator (Figure 4) starts by turning on a
transistor (usually an N-type or P-type mosfet) that
allows current to flow through the inductor/LED current
path. Current will ramp up as the inductor is charged,
and when the feedback voltage on R(sense) reaches a
certain level the control turns off the transistor. Energy
stored in the inductor continues to drive the LED
current, using the freewheeling diode as a return path.
As the inductor current falls back down, the control
switches on the transistor again and the cycle repeats.
Current in the inductor/LED path ramps up and down;
both peak and average values must be considered when
choosing components. The switching frequency, a key
metric, influences the inductance value and peak
current. Higher switching frequencies result in smaller
components due to lower peak currents.
Boost (step-up) Regulators
Boost regulators (Figure 5) drive higher output voltages
and are used with LED strings where V(led)>V(batt).
Instead of using a buck regulators freewheeling diode,
they use a clamping diode in line with the inductor to
capture the inductor energy and place an output
capacitor inthe circuit to supply the LED(s) during the off
stage of the switching cycle. As with a buck regulator,
current will ramp up and down in the inductor and LED,
with average and peak values.
Figure 4. Switching (BUCK) Regulator
Key Features
V(batt) >V(led)
Can be very efficient
Accurate LED constant current
High component count
Relatively complex
EMI switching noise
Figure 5. Switching (BOOST) Regulator
Key Features
V(led) >V(batt)
Can be very efficient
Accurate LED constant current
High component count
Most complex
EMI switching noise
Buck-Boost Regulators
Buck regulators require V(batt)>V(led), and boost
regulators require V(batt)<V(led). Buck-boost regulators
are used when the input battery voltage fluctuates
above and below the LED voltage, and are capable of
transitioning the output voltage stage to maintain
current regulation.
SynchronousRectification for Switching Drivers
Advanced designs for switching circuits replace the
freewheeling and clamping diodes with transistor
switches. This lowers the diode losses associated with
forward biasing these components. Low ON resistance
transistors should be used. These elements are often
incorporated directly into the driver IC.
Driver Efficiency
Many factors influence the efficiency of LED drivers.
Driver type, component selection, and printed circuit
board (PCB) layout design are all critical elements and
must be properly integrated to ensure that the system
performs to expected efficiency levels.
Design Tips for Efficient Driver Performance
Use switching drivers for maximum efficiency.
Electronic components should be sized to
handle peak, not average, currents.
Avoid electrolytic capacitors. Use ceramic chip
or tantalum capacitors with low ESR (equivalent
series resistance) values.
PCB layouts should include heavy, short traces
to connect components along the main current
paths and heavy wire gauges to connect
components
Place the inductor, capacitors, and switching
transistor as close together on the PCB as
possible. Follow the IC manufacturers guidelines
on ground connections to avoid ground current
loops and regulator instability.
LED Electronic Control Circuits for Off-grid Lighting Products
Issue 7 October 2011
Lighting Africa - November 2011
Electronic Switching Noise
Switching circuits often generate electromagnetic
interference (EMI) that can be emitted as radiation or
as electronic noise conducting through the wires
connected to the system. This can interfere with the
internal regulation of the device OR cause problems
with nearby electronic devices. FM radio reception in
particular may be adversely effected and can often be
detected while listening to a radio and turning the LED
driver ON and OFF. Careful design and the use of noise
filter components are sometimes necessary to mitigate
EMI problems.

Dimming Control Schemes
Multiple light output levels are often used with off-grid
lighting products to increase battery run times. The two
primary ways to dim an LED array include reducing the
current in the array (linear, analog dimming) OR pulsing
the LED at high frequencies (100+Hz to several kHz).
Most LED manufacturers recommend pulse width
modulation (PWM) techniques to dim LEDs. This turns
the LEDs ON and OFF at frequencies high enough to
avoid the appearance of flicker in the light output.
PWM dimming is very efficient, avoids resistive power
losses associated with linear dimming, and maintains
high tolerances on LED light output and color shift.
Conclusion
Careful selection, design, and testing of the LED driver is
crucial to ensuring the lighting product performs
consistently and delivers the correct amount of power,
and light output, from the LED(s). As with other
components of an off-grid lighting product, the driver is
an essential element that must operate properly for the
product to work. The added cost of increasing the
drivers efficiency can pay for itself with savings in other
components (such as a smaller battery and solar panel)
and provide additional benefits including increased
product lifetime and user satisfaction.