An Overview of

LiDAR Operations

Rob McCarthy
John Chance Land Surveys
ILMF 2009 – New Orleans Lafayette, Louisiana, USA
John Chance Land Surveys
• Part of Fugro
– Geospatial Services Group
• Design and build both FLI-MAP LiDAR systems
and LiDAR processing software
• Operated LiDAR systems commercially since
1995
 What is LiDAR?
• LiDAR is another tool in the
surveyors tool box
– Like a total station, level or RTK unit
– To be used when it is the most
appropriate tool for the job
 What is LiDAR
• LiDAR is the application of a
number of modern technologies:
– Positioning
– Inertial technology
– Laser scanning
– Digital imagery
to provide fast, efficient and cost-
effective surveys using established
survey principles
 Key LiDAR Components
• Most airborne LiDAR systems, regardless of
type have basically similar key components

• Positioning
• GPS
• Airborne
• Base station
• Typically a “post-processed kinematic” solution

• Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU)

• Navigates between GPS updates
 Key LiDAR Components
• Angular Measurement
– Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU)
• Accurate pitch, roll & yaw

• Range Measurement
– Scanning laser
 How it All Works
GPS Satellites

GPS Receivers

Base Station
 Understanding LiDAR Specs
Effective Laser Pulse Rate 150,000 or 250,000 pulses per second

Multiple Return Capability Yes - Maximum of 4 returns per pulse

Laser Intensity Capture Yes – For all laser returns

Laser Eye Safety FDA Certified Class 1 laser

Eye safe at the aperture

Laser Point Density Approx 70 points per square meter @ 100m altitude and
20m/s speed

Laser Ranging Accuracy 1 cm

Laser Swath Angle 60 degrees – Swath width approximates to flying height

Laser Look Angles Nadir

Forward looking (7 degrees)
Rear looking (7 degrees)
Maximum Operating Height 400 meters
 Understanding LiDAR Specs
• Pulse Rate
– Laser Pulse Rate
– Effective Laser Pulse Rate
• Return Capability
– Single
– Multiple
– Waveform Analysis
• Accuracy
– Total System
– Component
– Absolute
– Relative
• Eye Safety
• MPIA
 LiDAR Accuracy
• Accuracy statements
– RMSE
– 1 sigma (67% confidence)
– 2 sigma (95% confidence)
• 20cm at 2σ is approx 10cm RMSE
• Total LiDAR system accuracy
– Affected by a number of factors:
• Platform positioning
• Pointing angles
• Laser spot size
• Laser ranging
 Improving LiDAR Accuracy
• Improve platform positioning
– Multiple independent positioning
solutions
– Multiple short base lines for kinematic
processing
• Reduce effect of pointing angle
errors and spot size
– Fly lower
 What is MPIA
• MPIA is multi pulse in air
• At high laser pulse rates, maximum
altitude is limited by the speed of light
• MPIA allows more than one pulse to be in
the air allowing high pulse rates to be
used at higher altitudes
• The latest sensors offer this technology
 Types of Airborne LiDAR
• Topographic LiDAR

Wide Area Systems

Corridor Mapping
Systems
• Bathymetric LiDAR
 Wide Area LiDAR
• Wide area LiDAR is typically
characterized by:
– Fixed-wing platform
– High altitude data collection
– Wide swath width
– Low point density
– Low resolution
– Lower levels of accuracy
– Non eye-safe laser
 Corridor Mapping LiDAR
• Corridor Mapping LiDAR is typically
characterized by:
– Helicopter platform
– Low altitude data collection
– Narrow swath width
– High point density
– High resolution
– Higher levels of accuracy
– Eye-safe laser
 Additional Sensors
• LiDAR systems are often fitted with additional
sensors which can provide useful information to
accompany the LiDAR data
• Digital Imagery
– Video
– Still
 Additional Sensors
• Orthophotography

• Infra-red cameras
 Wide Area vs Corridor

• The differences are as much related to data

collection methods as they are to hardware
– Data collection altitude and speed (helicopter vs fixed
wing)
– Number of base stations (multiple vs single)
– Length of GPS baselines (short vs long)
• These factors affect the efficiency, and therefore
price, of data collection per unit area
 Applications
• LiDAR can be used for many tasks
as a replacement for conventional
land survey or aerial
photogrammetry

• The type of LiDAR system that is

most appropriate for the job will
depend on specifications and
deliverables
 Wide Area Applications
• Base mapping
– Lidar DEMs are accurate for
orthorectification as well as for
contour generation with
supplemented 3D breaklines.
• Floodplain mapping
– Lidar data supports flood hazard
analyses and hydrologic and
hydraulic modeling.
• Natural resources management
– Lidar data is used to calculate
tree-stand heights, biomass, and
timber volumes and is useful in
establishing volume calculations
for mineral extraction.
 Wide Area Applications
• Transportation and utility
corridor mapping
– LiDAR data can supplement
traditional ground and aerial surveys
in the planning and design of new
transportation and utility corridors.
• Urban modeling
– 3D models from bare-earth and
reflective-surface lidar data can be
used in analysis and visualization of
urban planning, line-of-sight studies,
etc.
 Corridor Applications
• Transmission Lines
– Lidar data is suited for design,
rebuild and thermal rating
analysis. LiDAR data interfaces
well with engineering packages
such as PLS-CADD
• Railways
– Lidar data supports engineering
design, GIS population and track
data requiredfor Positive Train
Control
• Highways
– Lidar data can be used to
provide accurate data for
highway design
 Corridor Applications
• Levees
– Lidar data is suited for as-built
assessment of levees, including
generation of levee cross
sections and damage
assessment
• Pipelines
– Lidar data supports engineering
design for new pipeline routes
• Area Projects
– Those that require the level of
detail and accuracy provided by
a corridor mapping system
 Deliverables
• A LiDAR “point cloud” looks
impressive, but is of little use to
most clients
• Accuracy, detail and deliverable
requirements will dictate which type
of LiDAR system should be used for
data collection
• Raw LiDAR data sets are very large
– Filtering
– Digitizing
– Vectorizing
can reduce data sets to be
manageable, while maintaining
accuracy and detail
 Deliverables
• LiDAR data processing is a large subject on its own but is
outside of the scope of this presentation
 LiDAR Misconceptions
• All LiDAR systems are basically the same
– Technically, some components are similar, but
they are optimized to provide data sets that can
differ greatly
• More points are always better
– Just because you can does not mean that you
should
– The highest quality LiDAR data set is not
required for every project
– Using an appropriate system for a project should
ensure you get the data you need and provide
the most “bang for the buck”
 LiDAR Misconceptions
• LiDAR point density is purely a function
of laser pulse rate
– Laser point density is a function of:
• Laser pulse rate
• Data collection altitude
• Data collection speed
• The angle of the laser swath
– A 150,000 Hz system operated at 6,000 feet and
at 120mph will provide a very different data set to
a 150,000 Hz system operated at 300 feet and
40 mph
 LiDAR Misconceptions
• LiDAR data can only be collected “leaf
off”
– Some LiDAR points can reach the ground
through gaps in the tree canopy
– Performance in vegetated areas is optimized by
• High point density
• Small laser spot size
• Multiple return capability
– Mid day sun analogy
– However, there is a limit
Multiple Returns
Full
st Filtered
3nd
14th
2 rd
Returns
VegetatedReturns
Returns
GroundROW Set
 LiDAR Misconceptions
• LiDAR replaces traditional mapping
techniques
– LiDAR in general cannot completely replace
conventional survey
– LiDAR cannot identify the following features:
• Boundary information
• Underground utilities
• Water or water depth
– Edge of water will
be mapped
– Conventional survey
still needed for construction
staking etc.
 LiDAR Misconceptions
• LiDAR is an all-weather system
– Although LiDAR has fewer weather limitations than
photogrammetry there are significant weather
limitations
• Target must be able to reflect the laser (near infra-red)
light
• Does not work well on snow covered ground
– Degraded data set
– Survey would be “top of snow”
– Imagery (if required) is poor
• Does not work well through precipitation (rain, fog,
snow)
• It is very difficult to fly accurate flightlines in high and
gusty wind conditions
 LiDAR Advantages
• LiDAR can offer considerable advantages
over conventional survey or
photogrammetry for the right project
– Fast data collection
– Fast data processing (dependent on
deliverables)
– Little or no need for access
– Less weather dependent than
photogrammetry
• Night operations
– Not if imagery is required
 LiDAR Advantages
– LiDAR performs better in vegetated areas
than photogrammetry
• Able to collect data in “leaf on” condition
– Robust data sets with many possible
products
– In office data mining
• No need to return to the field to collect more data
– Cost savings for the right project
• Economies of scale
 Questions?
Geospatial
Services

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John Chance Land Surveys – FLI-MAP (Corr Map)
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Fugro SESL – FLI-MAP (Corr Map)
Fugro Pelagos – SHOALS 1000T (Bathymetric)