Health Protection Agency

Compendium of Chemical Hazards:

Kerosene (Fuel Oil).

Prepared by:

Robert P Chilcott
Chemical Hazards and Poisons Division (HQ), Chilton,
Didcot, Oxfordshire, OX11 0RQ, United Kingdom.
www.hpa.org.uk

Disclaimer

This guidance has been provided by the Chemical Hazards and Poisons
Division of the UK Health Protection Agency (HPA). It is general guidance
based on current knowledge and understanding. The HPA does not warrant
that the information and guidance is complete and correct for use in all
circumstances. The HPA shall not be liable for any damages that might be
incurred as a result of the use of the guidance or information.

HPA Compendium of Chemical Hazards

Kerosene
Key Points
Fire

Flammable
Vapour/air mixtures are explosive
Use normal foam and normal fire kit with breathing apparatus

Health

Toxicity occurs if kerosene is inhaled while being ingested (aspiration)

Irritating to eyes and skin
Aspiration may cause respiratory irritation
Acute and chronic exposure to kerosene may result in CNS effects including
irritability, restlessness, ataxia, drowsiness, convulsions, coma and death
The most common health effect associated with chronic kerosene exposure is
dermatitis
Kerosene does not have a measurable effect on human reproduction or development
IARC concluded that there was inadequate evidence to classify kerosene as s human
carcinogen

Environment

Avoid release into the environment

Inform Environment Agency of substantial incidents

Prepared by R P Chilcott
CHAPD HQ, HPA
2006
Version 1

KEROSENE CONTENTS

Contents
GENERAL INFORMATION
Background
Production and Uses
Frequently Asked Questions
INCIDENT MANAGEMENT
Hazard Identification
Standard (UK) Dangerous Goods Emergency Action Codes
Chemical Hazard Information and Packaging for Supply Classification
Physicochemical Properties
Threshold Toxicity Values
Published Emergency Response Guidelines
Emergency Response Planning Guideline (ERPG) Values
Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs)
Exposure Standards, Guidelines or Regulations
Occupational standards
Public health guidelines
Health Effects
Major route of exposure
Immediate Signs or Symptoms of Acute Exposure
Decontamination and First Aid
Dermal exposure
Ocular exposure
Inhalation
Ingestion
TOXICOLOGICAL OVERVIEW
Toxicological Overview
Summary of Health Effects
Kinetics and metabolism
Sources and route of human exposure
Health Effects of Acute / Single Exposure
Human Data
General toxicity
Inhalation
Ingestion
Dermal / ocular exposure
Neurotoxicity
Delayed effects following an acute exposure
Animal and In-Vitro Data
General toxicity
Delayed effects following an acute exposure

Health Effects of Chronic / Repeated Exposure

Human Data
General toxicity
Inhalation
Ingestion
Dermal / ocular exposure
Neurotoxicity
Genotoxicity
Carcinogenicity
Reproductive and developmental toxicity
Animal and In-Vitro Data
General toxicity
Inhalation
Ingestion
Dermal / ocular exposure
Genotoxicity
Carcinogenicity
Reproductive and developmental toxicity
References
Annex I: Classification of Fuel Oils.
Annex II: Composition of C2 Fuel Oil (Example).

Kerosene
General information
Key Points
Fire

Flammable
Vapour/air mixtures are explosive
Use normal foam and normal fire kit with breathing apparatus

Health

Toxicity occurs if kerosene is inhaled while being ingested (aspiration)

Irritating to eyes and skin
Aspiration may cause respiratory irritation
Acute and chronic exposure to kerosene may result in CNS effects including
irritability, restlessness, ataxia, drowsiness, convulsions, coma and death
The most common health effect associated with chronic kerosene exposure is
dermatitis
Kerosene does not have a measurable effect on human reproduction or development
IARC concluded that there was inadequate evidence to classify kerosene as s human
carcinogen

Environment

Avoid release into the environment

Inform Environment Agency of substantial incidents

Prepared by R P Chilcott
CHAPD HQ, HPA
2006
Version 1

KEROSENE GENERAL INFORMATION

Background
Kerosene is a liquid mixture of chemicals
produced from the distillation of crude oil. In
the UK, kerosene is also known as paraffin
and home heating oil. The word kerosene
comes from the Greek word keros, meaning
wax.
Kerosene is a major component (> 60%) of
aviation (jet) fuels, is used for oil central
heating systems and can be used as a
cleaning agent or solvent. Approximately 7
millions tons of kerosene was used in the UK
in 2005.

Kerosene has traditionally been the fuel of

choice for fire-breathers!

Kerosene is produced on an industrial scale

by distilling crude oil in a process similar to
that used to produce diesel or petrol.
The use of paraffin heaters in UK homes has
substantially decreased since the second
World War due to improved electrical and
gas supplies. However, kerosene is still
extensively used for cooking, heating and
lighting in the developing world and so cases
of accidental poisoning by children are still
relatively common in such countries.
Kerosene is not particularly poisonous.
However, if a child or adult accidentally
swallows kerosene, medical advice should
be obtained immediately as there is a small
risk of short-term lung damage if vomiting
occurs. Frequent skin exposure may lead to
skin damage (dermatitis).

KEROSENE GENERAL INFORMATION

Production and Uses

Key Points
Production and uses

Kerosene is a major component of aviation fuel

It is also used as a solvent, degreaser and domestic fuel

Kerosene is a major component (> 60%) of aviation (jet) fuels and has been used to control
mosquito larvae. Kerosene is also used as a solvent (for example in cleaners, pesticides and
paints), degreaser and domestic fuel. A deodorised form of kerosene (Deobase) is
sometimes used in domestic products. Approximately 45 million tons of kerosene was
transported within the EU in 2001, of which 14 million tons were transported within the UK.

KEROSENE GENERAL INFORMATION

Frequently Asked Questions

What is kerosene?
Kerosene is a liquid fuel, similar in composition to diesel, obtained from the distillation of
crude oil. In the UK, kerosene is also known as paraffin.

What is kerosene used for?

The main use of kerosene is as a base for aviation fuel but it also has application as a
solvent in paints, cleaners, pesticides and some eye medicines. It was previously a common
fuel for stoves, heaters and lamps and is still used today as a fuel for home (oil) central
heating systems.

How does kerosene get into the environment?

Kerosene is found in the environment as a result of accidental release from an industrial site
or transport vehicle. There are no natural sources of kerosene.

If there is kerosene in the environment will I have any adverse health effects?
Like most chemicals, the amount of kerosene you are exposed to must be above a certain
level to cause adverse health effects. Breathing large quantities of kerosene vapour or
drinking kerosene-based liquids may cause non-specific signs such as dizziness, headache
and vomiting. Repeated skin exposure may result in dermatitis (eczema). A short, one-off
exposure to kerosene is unlikely to result in any long-term effects. However, a severe form
of lung injury called pneumonitis (pronounced new-mown-eye-tus) may occur if liquid
kerosene is inhaled directly into the lungs, for example, whilst manually siphoning a tank or
from inhaling vomit after swallowing kerosene. This is why it is important not to make
someone sick if they have swallowed a kerosene product.

Can kerosene cause cancer?

Kerosene is not considered to be a cancer-causing substance (carcinogen) but repeated
exposure of animals to kerosene has caused skin cancer.

Does kerosene affect or damage the unborn child?

Exposure to kerosene is not thought to affect the health of the unborn child.

Kerosene
Incident management
Key Points
Fire

Flammable
Vapour/air mixtures are explosive
Low flashpoint
Use normal foam and normal fire kit with breathing apparatus

Health

Toxicity occurs if kerosene is inhaled while being ingested

Harmful
Irritating to eyes and skin
Aspiration may cause serious lung injury

Environment

Avoid release into the environment

Inform Environment Agency of substantial release incidents

Prepared by R P Chilcott
CHAPD HQ, HPA
2006
Version 1

KEROSENE INCIDENT MANAGEMENT

(a)

Hazard Identification

Standard (UK) Dangerous Goods Emergency Action Codes

UN

1223

EAC

3Y

APP

Class

Sub
risks

Kerosene
Use normal foam. Wear normal fire kit in combination
Spillages
and
with
breathing
apparatus*.
decontamination run-off should be prevented from
entering drains and watercourses. Substance can be
violently or explosively reactive.

Flammable liquid

Hazards

Flammable liquid (flash point between 23 C and 61 C

inclusive).
UN United Nations number; EAC Emergency Action Code; APP Additional Personal
Protection; HIN - Hazard Identification Number
HIN

30

* Normal fire fighting clothing i.e. fire kit (BS EN 469), gloves (BS EN 659) and boots (HO specification
A29 and A30) in combination with self-contained open circuit positive pressure compressed air
breathing apparatus (BS EN 137).

Dangerous goods emergency action code list, HM Fire Service Inspectorate, Publications Section,
The Stationery Office, 2004.

KEROSENE INCIDENT MANAGEMENT

Chemical Hazard Information and Packaging for Supply Classification( a )

Classification

Xn

Harmful

Risk phrases

R65

Harmful: may cause lung damage if swallowed

S(2)

Keep out of the reach of children

S23

Do not breathe gas/fumes/vapour/spray

S24

Avoid contact with skin

S62

If swallowed, do not induce vomiting: seek medical advice

immediately and show this container or label

Safety phrases

Approved supply list (seventh edition): information approved for the classification and labelling of
substances and preparations dangerous for supply. Chemical (Hazard Information and Packaging for
Supply) Regulations 2002. The Stationery Office, 2002.

KEROSENE INCIDENT MANAGEMENT

Physicochemical Properties

(a,b)

Volatility

Low volatility; vapour pressure = 0.48 mm Hg at 20 C

Specific gravity

0.82 at 16 C (water = 1)

Flammability

Flammable

Lower explosive limit

0.7%

Upper explosive limit

5%

Water solubility

Practically insoluble in water

Reactivity

Low flashpoint. Vapour/air mixtures are explosive

Reaction or degradation
products

Data not available

Odour

Characteristic odour

International Chemical Safety Card (ICSC) entry for kerosene. ISCS 0663. International Programme
on Chemical Safety,1998.
b
The Dictionary of Substances and their Effects. Ed. S Gangolli. Second edition, volume 5, 1999.

KEROSENE INCIDENT MANAGEMENT

Threshold Toxicity Values

THRESHOLD LEVELS
EXPOSURE BY INHALATION
SYMPTOMS
ppm

mg m

-3

Data not available

KEROSENE INCIDENT MANAGEMENT

Published Emergency Response Guidelines

Emergency Response Planning Guideline (ERPG) Values ( a )
Listed value
(ppm)
ERPG-1*
ERPG-2*
ERPG-3*

Calculated value
(mg m-3)

Data not available

* Maximum airborne concentration below which it is believed that nearly all individuals could be
exposed for up to 1 hr without experiencing other than mild transient adverse health effects or
perceiving a clearly defined, objectionable odour.
** Maximum airborne concentration below which it is believed that nearly all individuals could be
exposed for up to 1 hr without experiencing or developing irreversible or other serious health effects or
symptoms which could impair an individual's ability to take protective action.
*** Maximum airborne concentration below which it is believed that nearly all individuals could be
exposed for up to 1 hr without experiencing or developing life-threatening health effects.

Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) ( b )

mg m-3
10 min

30 min

60 min

4 hr

8 hr

AEGL-1
AEGL-2

Data not available

AEGL-3

The level of the chemical in air at or above which the general population could experience notable
discomfort.

The level of the chemical in air at or above which there may be irreversible or other serious longlasting effects or impaired ability to escape.

The level of the chemical in air at or above which the general population could experience lifethreatening health effects or death.

American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA). Emergency Response Planning Guideline values
and Workplace Environmental Exposure Level Guides Handbook, Fairfax, VA, 2005.
b
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

KEROSENE INCIDENT MANAGEMENT

Exposure Standards, Guidelines or Regulations

Occupational standards
LTEL(8 hour reference period): No guideline
value specified
WEL
STEL(15 min reference period): No guideline
value specified

Public health guidelines

DRINKING
No guideline value specified
WATER QUALITY GUIDELINE
AIR QUALITY GUIDELINE

No guideline value specified

SOIL GUIDELINE VALUE AND

HEALTH CRITERIA VALUES

No guideline values specified

WEL Workplace exposure limit; LTEL - Long-term exposure limit; STEL Short-term
exposure limit

KEROSENE INCIDENT MANAGEMENT

(a)

Health Effects
Major route of exposure

Toxicity is principally due to pulmonary complications if some is inhaled while being

ingested (aspiration).

Immediate Signs or Symptoms of Acute Exposure( b , c )

Inhalation: May cause headache, dizziness, drowsiness, incoordination and euphoria.

Aspiration into the lungs causes pneumonitis with choking, cough, wheeze,
breathlessness, cyanosis and fever.
Ingestion: Often no symptoms occur but there may be nausea, vomiting and
occasionally diarrhoea.
Ocular: This product is expected to be pH neutral but may be irritating to the eyes
causing an immediate stinging and burning sensation with lacrimation.
Dermal: Irritant. Drying and cracking due to defatting action. There may be transient
pain with erythema, blistering and superficial burns.

TOXBASE - http://www.spib.axl.co.uk
a
TOXBASE: Kerosene, 2002.
b
TOXBASE: Petroleum distillates features and management, 2002.
c
TOXBASE: Eye irritants, 2002.

KEROSENE INCIDENT MANAGEMENT

(a,b)

Decontamination and First Aid

Important Notes

Many patients remain well and need no treatment.

Ambulance staff, paramedics and emergency department staff treating chemicallycontaminated casualties should be equipped with NHS approved liquid-tight PPE and
blow-over respirators with a A2B2EK filter, where appropriate.

Dermal exposure( c )

Remove patient from exposure.

Remove all soiled clothing.
Wash the contaminated area thoroughly with soap and water.
Treat symptomatically.

Ocular exposure( d )

Remove patient from exposure.

Remove contact lenses if necessary and immediately irrigate the affected eye
thoroughly with water or 0.9% saline for at least 10-15 minutes.

Inhalation(c)

Remove patient from exposure and give oxygen.

Maintain a clear airway and adequate ventilation.
Apply other measures as indicated by the patients clinical condition.

Ingestion(c)

Gastric lavage should not be undertaken. Consider gastric aspiration within 1 hour of
ingestion, if very large amounts have been taken or there is concern about another
toxin, provided the airway can be protected.
Give oxygen if symptomatic.
Patients who have ingested small amounts and have had no symptoms suggestive of
aspiration (choking, coughing, vomiting) or other features since the exposure can be
observed at home under supervision for 6 hours after ingestion, with advice to attend
hospital if features develop.
Patients who have had features of possible aspiration should be referred to hospital.
Patients with persistent respiratory symptoms, drowsiness or convulsions should be
admitted to hospital.
Apply
other
measures
as
indicated
by
the
patients
condition.

Decontamination and chemical personal protective equipment in the National Health Service: Current
provision, consensus opinion, specification and training implications. A report on progress. The
National Focus on Chemical Incidents, 2001.
b
TOXBASE: Kerosene, 2002.
c
TOXBASE: Petroleum distillates features and management, 2002.
d
TOXBASE: Eye irritants, 2002.
TOXBASE - http://www.spib.axl.co.uk

Kerosene
Toxicological overview
Key Points
Kinetics and metabolism

As kerosene is a mixture of chemicals, there is no definitive ADME (absorption,

distribution, metabolism and excretion) data

Limited data from metabolism studies suggest that kerosene is removed from
circulation by the liver and lungs

Health effects of acute exposure

The major route of exposure is by inhalation of liquid (aspiration)

Kerosene vapours may be mildly irritating to the respiratory system and spray
applications of kerosene may provoke signs of pulmonary irritation such as coughing
and dyspnoea

Acute dermal exposure may result in local irritation, but it is not considered to be a
skin sensitiser

Acute exposure to kerosene may result in CNS effects including irritability,

restlessness, ataxia, drowsiness, convulsions, coma and death

Health effects of chronic exposure

The most common health effect associated with chronic kerosene exposure is
dermatitis, usually associated with inappropriate use of personal protective equipment

Chronic exposure may also cause non-specific CNS effects such as nervousness,
loss of appetite and nausea

Kerosene does not have a measurable effect on human reproduction or development

IARC concluded that there was inadequate evidence to classify kerosene as a human
carcinogen

Prepared by R P Chilcott
CHAPD HQ, HPA
2006
Version 1

KEROSENE TOXICOLOGICAL OVERVIEW

Toxicological Overview
Kerosene is a liquid mixture of hydrocarbons (chain length C9 16) produced by the
distillation of crude oil. The preferred Chemical Abstracts spelling is kerosine. The (UK)
technical term for kerosene is C2 Fuel Oil (Annex I), as it is derived from the kerosene
fraction of distilled crude oil. Older, flue-less appliances use paraffin (C1) fuel.
The general composition of C2 fuel oil is given at Annex II: For the purpose of this document,
kerosene will be used as a synonym for C2 domestic fuel oil. It is important to note that
kerosene is not a synonym for jet fuels (which are a distinct class of petroleum distillate
product containing a range of chemical additives).

Summary of Health Effects

The principal adverse effect arising from ingestion of kerosene is chemical pneumonitis
secondary to aspiration of vomitus.
Ingestion of kerosene or acute exposure to vapour may lead to general signs of intoxication
such as mild CNS symptoms (dizziness, headache, nausea) and vomiting.
Skin exposure to kerosene may result in dermatitis through the extraction of endogenous
skin lipids.
Whilst kerosene is not considered a direct-acting dermal carcinogen, chronic skin exposure
may result in tumourigenesis.

KEROSENE TOXICOLOGICAL OVERVIEW

Kinetics and metabolism

As kerosene is a mixture of chemicals, there is no definitive ADME (absorption, distribution,
metabolism and excretion) data.
Two studies have indicated poor oral availability in the baboon and dog [1, 2].
Individual components of kerosene are known to undergo dermal absorption [3-6] and
kerosene vapour is absorbed following pulmonary exposure [7]. The extent of dermal and
pulmonary absorption is dose and time-dependent [8].
A limited number of (primate) metabolism studies suggest that kerosene is efficiently
removed from the circulation by the liver and lungs [9].
There is currently no information on the elimination kinetics of kerosene.

Sources and route of human exposure

The main route of exposure to kerosene causing toxicity is via inhalation during ingestion
(aspiration). Acute, oral exposures may occur from accidental or intentional ingestion.
Inhalation or dermal absorption of kerosene may occur through occupational exposures
(petrochemical and aviation sectors), from the use of commercially-available products such
as paints and insecticides, via accidental release (e.g. road traffic incidents) or through
substance abuse. Contaminated water may represent a substantial aspiration risk during
whole body immersion (e.g. swimming or near-drowning).

KEROSENE TOXICOLOGICAL OVERVIEW

Health Effects of Acute / Single Exposure

Human Data
General toxicity
The acute health risks involved in handling and using kerosene are minimal, provided that
the product(s) are used in accordance with current safety practices [10]. The main hazard
associated with kerosene is chemical pneumonitis, resulting from aspiration of vomitus
following ingestion or inhalation of kerosene liquid or contaminated water. A rare
complication of kerosene intoxication may be cardiac arrhythmia and ventricular fibrillation,
attributed to increased myocardial sensitivity to endogenous catecholamines [8].
Inhalation
Whilst kerosene vapours may be mildly irritating to the respiratory system [8], exposure is not
likely to be fatal [7] as the low volatility of kerosene [11] limits air concentrations to below 100
mg m-3 [12], which is the approximate NOAEL (no observable adverse effect level) in several
animal species [7]. However, exposure within a confined space at elevated temperature may
induce narcotic effects such as narcolepsy, cataplexy and confusion [8, 13] and there is one
report of a fatal (vapour) exposure in a child [14].
Spray applications may result in exposure to high concentrations of kerosene aerosol [15]
which may provoke signs of pulmonary irritation such as coughing and dyspnoea [13], in
addition to mild CNS depression.
Inhalation of water contaminated with kerosene may occur when swimming or as a result of
near-drowning incidents and has been associated with exogenous lipoid pneumonia [16].
Aspiration of kerosene-contaminated vomitus is a secondary source of pulmonary exposure
that may lead to chemical (lipoidal) pneumonitis [17], a delayed onset and potentially fatal
lung disorder characterised by cyanosis, dyspnoea and chest x-ray opacities [18].
Ingestion
Signs of oral kerosene poisoning include diarrhoea, nausea and vomiting. Approximately 30
50% of children presenting with suspected kerosene ingestion are asymptomatic [7].
Children have survived ingestion of up to 1.7 g kg-1 and recorded instances of fatal poisoning
have been associated with doses ranging from ~ 2 to 17 g kg-1 [7, 19, 20]. However, death
following oral exposure is normally associated with aspiration of vomit rather than systemic
toxicity per se; vomiting occurs in approximately one third to one half of patients [21].
Dermal / ocular exposure
Kerosene is a mild, transient ocular irritant that may produce conjunctivitis, hyperaemia and
lacrimation [3, 13].

KEROSENE TOXICOLOGICAL OVERVIEW

Acute dermal exposure may result in local irritation (erythema, pruritis) but is not considered
to be a skin sensitiser [3]. A small proportion of individuals (<5%) may exhibit hypersensitivity to kerosene and skin contact may result in burn-like injuries [22-24]: histological
analysis of full-blown pustular eruptions have shown inter- and intra-cellular oedema with
intra-epidermal vesicles [24, 25]. It is conceivable that hypersensitivity may be the result of
concurrent dermatitis resulting in excited skin syndrome (angry back syndrome) [26].
Neurotoxicity
Acute exposure to kerosene in humans has been associated with a variety of CNS effects,
including irritability, restlessness, ataxia, drowsiness, convulsions, coma and death [12];
these are generally considered to be secondary effects resulting from hypoxia [27]. Lethargy
and other CNS complications were reported in ~ 5% of volunteers ingesting 10 30 ml of
kerosene [12].
Delayed effects following an acute exposure
There is limited evidence to suggest that long-term pulmonary residua may occur following
chemical pneumonitis [17, 21]. These effects are considered minor and are of unknown
clinical relevance [11].

Animal and In-Vitro Data

General toxicity
The oral toxicity (LD50) of kerosene in a variety of laboratory animals is of the order 20 30 g
kg-1 [7, 28]. Intra-tracheal dosing of kerosene liquid (which models the aspiration of vomit in
humans) results in a substantial (10- to 150-fold) increase in toxicity and is consistent with
known human health effects. However, studies with monkeys (unspecified strain) and
guinea pigs have indicated that lung pathology may occur following oral or parenteral
exposure to kerosene, although this effect is not reproducible in all species [7, 28]. It has not
been possible to determine a LCt50 for kerosene vapour due to its relatively low volatility: An
8 hour exposure to saturated (deodorised) kerosene vapour in dogs, cats or rats did not
result in mortality [29].
Delayed effects following an acute exposure
The available literature pertaining to the long-term effects of kerosene following acute
exposure is mainly concerned with jet fuels [12, 30] and thus its relevance is uncertain due to
the presence of chemical additives. In general, single (acute) oral, dermal and ocular
exposures do not result in persistent effects.

KEROSENE TOXICOLOGICAL OVERVIEW

Health Effects of Chronic / Repeated Exposure

Human Data
General toxicity
The most common health effect associated with chronic / repeated kerosene exposure is
dermatitis [30] which may be associated with insufficient or inappropriate use of personal
protective equipment (PPE) in occupational environments. Lung effects (such as dyspnoea)
have been reported, but tend to be associated with high level exposures [30]. It is
conceivable that similar lung and skin effects may be observed in some individuals following
a single, acute exposure.
Inhalation
There are currently no unequivocal studies to relate chronic or repeated kerosene exposures
to long-term pulmonary dysfunction (other than that putatively associated with aspiration of
contaminated water or vomit). There is limited evidence to suggest that chronic exposure
may be associated with a tightness of chest and breathing difficulties, although a review of
the duration and extent of exposure in such studies was not reported [30].
Ingestion
Chronic, oral exposure to kerosene is unlikely to arise under normal circumstances and there
is currently no human data on the chronic effects of kerosene ingestion.
Dermal / ocular exposure
Chronic skin exposure to kerosene is known to cause dermatitis: Table 1 summarises the
result of a dermatological study of ball-bearing workers (n=79) exposed on a daily basis to
kerosene.
Table 1: Summary of lesion severity (as a function of overt skin pathology),
expressed as a percentage of a total factory population [24, 31].

Lesion Severity

Corresponding Sign

% Presenting

Absent

Asymptomatic

16

Low

Erythema

65

Moderate

Eczematous lesions

15

Severe

Defatting dermatitis

KEROSENE TOXICOLOGICAL OVERVIEW

Neurotoxicity
Long-term exposures to low concentrations of kerosene have been reported to produce
non-specific CNS effects such as nervousness, loss of appetite and nausea that are not
related to hypoxia [12].
Genotoxicity
An increase in cytogenetic changes (chromosomal aberrations in peripheral lymphocytes and
bone-marrow micronuclei) has been reported in a limited study of workers exposed to a
mixture of kerosene, bunker fuels, white spirit and xylene [32]. However, the mixed exposure
precludes any specific conclusions and the results do not correlate with the effects of
kerosene-only exposure in animals or in vitro mutagenicity tests.
Carcinogenicity
An excess of lung cancer was seen in a large cohort of Japanese workers exposed to
kerosene, diesel oil, crude petroleum and mineral oil [28]. In another Japanese study, an
excess of stomach cancer was observed amongst workers possibly exposed to kerosene,
machine oil or grease [28]. Three case-control studies found an association between lung
cancer and the use of kerosene stoves for cooking amongst women in Hong Kong; however,
no distinction was made between exposure to kerosene per se and exposure to its
combustion products [28]. Given that such studies could not attribute the effects to a
particular chemical, the IARC evaluated mid-distillate fuel oils as being not classifiable as to
their carcinogenicity to humans (Group 3) [28]: there is inadequate evidence to classify
kerosene as a human carcinogen and limited evidence for the carcinogenicity of kerosene
to experimental animals.
Reproductive and developmental toxicity
Current evidence indicates that kerosene does not have a measurable effect on human
reproduction or development [3]. This is in accordance with animal studies.

Animal and In-Vitro Data

General toxicity
In general, animal data is in accordance with the known human effects of kerosene.
Inhalation
Pulmonary pathology (inflammatory cell infiltrates and morphological changes to tracheal
epithelia) and cardiovascular changes (resembling atherosclerosis) have been observed in
guinea pigs following exposure to high concentrations (up to 34 g m-3) of kerosene aerosol
for 15 minutes per day over a three week period [33-35]. Continuous (3 month) exposure of
rats and mice to up to 1 g m-3 aviation fuel (JP-8) vapour resulted in male rat-specific
pathology (nephropathy) that was not thought to be of relevance to humans [36].

KEROSENE TOXICOLOGICAL OVERVIEW

Ingestion
No studies on the chronic effects of oral exposure to kerosene were identified. In a study
with JP-8 jet fuel, male rat-specific effects (-2-microglobulin nephropathy) were noted
following three month oral gavage (up to 3 g kg-1) [37]. Interestingly, there were also effects
that were not species-specific, including perianal dermatitis and gastritis. However, it should
be noted that JP-8 contains a variety of chemical moieties in addition to those associated
with kerosene.
Dermal / ocular exposure
Dermatitis was observed in mice topically exposed to kerosene (applied in muslin cloth) for
15 to 60 minutes each day for one week which resolved within three weeks [38].
Pathological changes (hyperplasia and visual scores of irritation) were also observed in mice
exposed twice a week for two weeks to deodorised kerosene, but the lesion severity did not
correlate with tumour-promoting activity when compared against four other petroleum
products [39]. When applied three times a week for up to six weeks, repeated cycles of
necrosis and regeneration were observed that were deemed sufficient to represent an
epigenetic mechanism for tumourigenesis.
Genotoxicity
Negative results were obtained when kerosene was investigated for its ability to induce gene
mutation using Salmonella typhimurium TA98 or TA100, with and without an exogenous
metabolic activation system [28].
Negative results were also obtained in a mammalian cell assay, using the mouse lymphoma
L5178Y TK+/- cells (also in the presence or absence of metabolic activation) [28].
There is one report of an in vivo assay investigating the ability of kerosene to induce
chromosomal aberrations in the bone marrow of rats using the intra-peritoneal route of
administration (single dose or daily for five days). No aberrations were observed [28].
Together, these data imply that kerosene does not have any significant mutagenic activity.
Carcinogenicity
There is limited evidence from skin-painting studies that kerosene can induce skin tumours in
mice and the IARC concluded that there was limited evidence in animals for the
carcinogenicity of straight-run kerosene and fuel oil [28].
It is recognised that kerosene does not have any significant mutagenic potential and that the
tumorigenic activity of middle distillate fuels (including kerosene) is likely a result of a nongenotoxic processes resulting from chronic irritation [8, 13, 28, 30, 40, 41].
Reproductive and developmental toxicity
Deodorised kerosene was assessed using OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation
and Development) Guideline 421 for reprotoxic or developmental effects in rats [42]. The
evaluation involved dermal exposure to up to 494 mg kg-1 day-1 for up to 8 weeks. No

KEROSENE TOXICOLOGICAL OVERVIEW

pathological effects were observed on reproductive organs and no excessive anomalies were
found in the first generation of pups. The authors concluded that the NOAEL for deodorised
kerosene was 494 mg kg-1 day-1. Kerosene (unspecified grade) was also investigated in a
developmental toxicity study in rats using inhalation exposure of up to 315 ppm (2.55 g m-3):
no teratogenic effects were noted [43].

KEROSENE TOXICOLOGICAL OVERVIEW

References
[1]

Wolfe, B. M., Brodeur, A. E. and Shields, J. B. (1970). The role of gastrointestinal

absorption of kerosene in producing pneumonitis in dogs. J Pediatr 76, 867-73.

[2]

Mann, M. D., Pirie, D. J. and Wolfsdorf, J. (1977). Kerosene absorption in primates. J

Pediatr 91, 495-8.

[3]

Koschier, F. J. (1999). Toxicity of middle distillates from dermal exposure. Drug Chem
Toxicol 22, 155-64.

[4]

Mattorano, D. A., Kupper, L. L. and Nylander-French, L. A. (2004). Estimating dermal

exposure to jet fuel (naphthalene) using adhesive tape strip samples. Ann Occup Hyg
48, 139-46.

[5]

Riviere, J. E., Brooks, J. D., Monteiro-Riviere, N. A., Budsaba, K. and Smith, C. E.

(1999). Dermal absorption and distribution of topically dosed jet fuels jet-A, JP-8, and
JP-8(100). Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 160, 60-75.

[6]

Singh, S., Zhao, K. and Singh, J. (2003). In vivo percutaneous absorption, skin barrier
perturbation, and irritation from JP-8 jet fuel components. Drug Chem Toxicol 26,
135-46.

[7]

Risher, J. F. and Rhodes, S. W. (1995). Toxicological profiles for fuel oils. US

Department of Health and Human Services.

[8]

Bebarta, V. and DeWitt, C. (2004). Miscellaneous hydrocarbon solvents. Clin Occup

Environ Med 4, 455-79, vi.

[9]

Wolfsdorf, J. and Paed, D. (1976). Kerosene intoxication: an experimental approach

to the etiology of the CNS manifestations in primates. J Pediatr 88, 1037-40.

[10]

Henry, J. A. (1998). Copmposition and toxicity of petroleum products and their

additives. Human and Experimental Toxicology 17, 111-123.

[11]

Seymour, F. K. and Henry, J. A. (2001). Assessment and management of acute

poisoning by petroleum products. Human and Experimental Toxicology 20, 551-562.

[12]

Ritchie, G. D., Still, K. R., Alexander, W. K., Nordholm, A. F., Wilson, C. L., Rossi, J.,
3rd and Mattie, D. R. (2001). A review of the neurotoxicity risk of selected
hydrocarbon fuels. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev 4, 223-312.

[13]

CONCAWE (1995). Kerosines / jet fuels. Product Dossier No. 94/106.

[14]

Moller, J. C., Vardag, A. M., Jonas, S. and Tegtmeyer, F. K. (1992). [Poisoning with
volatile hydrocarbons. 3 cases and a review]. Monatsschr Kinderheilkd 140, 113-6.

[15]

CONCAWE (1985). Health aspects of petroleum fuels. Potential hazards and

precautions for individual classes of fuel. Report No. 85/51.

[16]

Segev, D., Szold, O., Fireman, E., Kluger, Y. and Sorkine, P. (1999). Keroseneinduced severe acute respiratory failure in near drowning: reports on four cases and
review of the literature. Crit Care Med 27, 1437-40.

KEROSENE TOXICOLOGICAL OVERVIEW

[17]

Eade, N. R., Taussig, L. M. and Marks, M. I. (1974). Hydrocarbon pneumonitis.

Pediatrics 54, 351-7.

[18]

Mabie, M. and Wunderink, R. G. (2003). Use and limitations of clinical and radiologic
diagnosis of pneumonia. Semin Respir Infect 18, 72-9.

[19]

Dudin, A. A., Rambaud-Cousson, A., Thalji, A., Jubeh, II, Ahmad, H. M. and Libdeh,
B. A. (1991). Accidental kerosene ingestion: a 3-year prospective study. Ann Trop
Paediatr 11, 155-61.

[20]

Santhanakrishnan, B. R. and Chithra, S. (1978). Accidental kerosene poisoning in

infants and children. Indian J Pediatr 45, 265-73.

[21]

Litovitz, T. and Greene, A. E. (1988). Health implications of petroleum distillate

ingestion. Occup Med 3, 555-68.

[22]

Mosconi, G., Migliori, M., Greco, V. and Valsecchi, R. (1988). Kerosene "burns": a
new case. Contact Dermatitis 19, 314-5.

[23]

Nussinovitch, M., Amir, J. and Varsano, I. (1992). Chemical pneumonia and

dermatitis caused by kerosene. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 31, 574.

[24]

Tagami, H. and Ogino, A. (1973). Kerosine dermatitis. Factors affecting skin irritability
to kerosine. Dermatologica 146, 123-31.

[25]

Lupulescu, A. P. and Birmingham, D. J. (1976). Effect of protective agent against

lipid-solvent-induced damages. Ultrastructural and scanning electron microscopical
study of human epidermis. Arch Environ Health 31, 33-6.

[26]

Nethercott, J. R. and Lawrence, M. (1983). The effect of the guinea pig maximization
protocol on the irritant response to deodorized kerosene - the excited skin syndrome.
Contact Dermatitis 9, 439-43.

[27]

Majeed, H. A., Bassyouni, H., Kalaawy, M. and Farwana, S. (1981). Kerosene

poisoning in children: a clinico-radiological study of 205 cases. Ann Trop Paediatr 1,
123-30.

[28]

International Agency for the Research on Cancer (IARC) (1989). Occupational

exposures in petroleum refining: Crude oil and major petroleum fuels. IARC
Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Lyon.

[29]

Carpenter, C. P., Geary, D. L., Jr., Myers, R. C., Nachreiner, D. J., Sullivan, L. J. and
King, J. M. (1976). Petroleum hydrocarbon toxicity studies. XI. Animal and human
response to vapors of deodorized kerosene. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 36, 443-56.

[30]

Ritchie, G., Still, K., Rossi, J., 3rd, Bekkedal, M., Bobb, A. and Arfsten, D. (2003).
Biological and health effects of exposure to kerosene-based jet fuels and
performance additives. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev 6, 357-451.

[31]

Jee, S. H., Wang, J. D., Sun, C. C. and Chao, Y. F. (1986). Prevalence of probable
kerosene dermatoses among ball-bearing factory workers. Scand J Work Environ
Health 12, 61-5.

[32]

Hogstedt, B., Gullberg, B., Mark-Vendel, E., Mitelman, F. and Skerfving, S. (1981).
Micronuclei and chromosome aberrations in bone marrow cells and lymphocytes of
humans exposed mainly to petroleum vapors. Hereditas 94, 179-87.

KEROSENE TOXICOLOGICAL OVERVIEW

[33]

Noa, M., Illnait, J. and Gonzalez, R. (1985). Cytologic and biochemical changes in
pulmonary washings of guinea pigs exposed to kerosene. Allergol Immunopathol
(Madr) 13, 193-6.

[34]

Noa, N. and Sanabria, J. (1984). Tracheal ultrastructure in kerosene treated guinea

pigs. A preliminary report. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr) 12, 33-6.

[35]

Noa, M. and Illnait, J. (1987). Induction of aortic plaques in guinea pigs by exposure
to kerosene. Arch Environ Health 42, 31-6.

[36]

Mattie, D. R., Alden, C. L., Newell, T. K., Gaworski, C. L. and Flemming, C. D. (1991).
A 90-day continuous vapor inhalation toxicity study of JP-8 jet fuel followed by 20 or
21 months of recovery in Fischer 344 rats and C57BL/6 mice. Toxicol Pathol 19, 7787.

[37]

Mattie, D. R., Marit, G. B., Flemming, C. D. and Cooper, J. R. (1995). The effects of
JP-8 jet fuel on male Sprague-Dawley rats after a 90-day exposure by oral gavage.
Toxicol Ind Health 11, 423-35.

[38]

Upreti, R. K., Das, M. and Shanker, R. (1989). Dermal exposure to kerosene. Vet
Hum Toxicol 31, 16-20.

[39]

Walborg, E. F., Jr., DiGiovanni, J., Conti, C. J., Slaga, T. J., Freeman, J. J., Steup, D.
R. and Skisak, C. M. (1998). Short-term biomarkers of tumor promotion in mouse skin
treated with petroleum middle distillates. Toxicol Sci 45, 137-45.

[40]

Ingram, A. J., King, D. J., Grasso, P. and Sharratt, M. (1993). The early changes in
mouse skin following topical application of a range of middle distillate oil products. J
Appl Toxicol 13, 247-57.

[41]

Nessel, C. S. (1999). A comprehensive evaluation of the carcinogenic potential of

middle distillate fuels. Drug Chem Toxicol 22, 165-80.

[42]

Schreiner, C., Bui, Q., Breglia, R., Burnett, D., Koschier, F., Podhasky, P., Lapadula,
L., White, R., Feuston, M., Krueger, A. and Rodriquez, S. (1997). Toxicity evaluation
of petroleum blending streams: reproductive and developmental effects of
hydrodesulfurized kerosine. J Toxicol Environ Health 52, 211-29.

[43]

Schreiner, C. (1984). Petroleum and petroleum products: a brief review of studies to

evaluate reproductive effects. In 'Advances in modern environmental toxicology.'
Volume 3: Assessment of reproductive and teratogenic hazards. Page 29-45. ed.
M.S. Christian, W.M. Galbraith, P. Voytek and M.A. Mehlman. Princeton Scientific
Publishers. Princeton.

[44]

Anon (1998). Specification for fuel oils for agricultural, domestic and industrial
engines and boilers. British Standard 2869:1998.

[45]

Potter, T. L. and Simmons, K. E. (1998). Composition of chemical mixtures. Total

Petroleum Hydrocarbon Criteria Working Group Series 2.

KEROSENE TOXICOLOGICAL OVERVIEW

Annex I: Classification of Fuel Oils.

Classification of various grades of fuel oil according to crude distillate fraction (crude
fraction) and application. Source: Annex A to BS 2869:1998 [44].

Category

Crude Fraction

A1

Primary Application
Automotive diesel fuel.

Middle distillate
A2

Agricultural engine fuel.

C1

Paraffin

C2

Kerosene

Middle distillate

E-H

Residual
distillate

Flue-less heating appliances.

Vaporising or atomising domestic heating appliances.
Atomising burners for
industrial applications.

domestic,

commercial

or

Atomising burners for boilers or certain industrial

engines which may require pre-treatment or additives.

Conversion factor 1ppm = 6.99 mg/m3; 1 mg/m3 = 0.143 ppm.

KEROSENE TOXICOLOGICAL OVERVIEW

Annex II: Composition of C2 Fuel Oil (Example).

Summary of the main constituents of kerosene (C2 Fuel Oil), expressed as average
percentage weight per volume (% w/v). Note that the actual composition will differ
according to batch and geographical source. Adapted from Potter and Simmons [45]
and IARC Monograph 45 [28].

Class

n-Alkanes

Branched alkanes

Alkyl-monoaromatics
Di-aromatics
Mono-aromatics

Naphthalenes

Polynuclear aromatics

Example Compound(s)
n-heptane
n-octane
n-nonane
n-decane
n-undecane
n-dodecane
n-tridecane
n-tetradecane
n-pentadecane
n-hexadecane
n-heptadecane
n-octadecane
n-nonadecane
n-eicosane
n-heneicosane
Isodecane
Isoundecane
Isododecane
Isotridecane
Isotetradecane
1,2,3,4-tetramethylbenzene
Fluorene
Indene
Tetralin
1-methyltetralin
2-methyltetralin
Napthalene
1-methylnaphthalene
2-methylnaphthalene
1,4-dimethylnaphthalene
Acenaphthene
Acenaphthylene
Anthracene
Phenanthrene
2-methylanthracene
9,10-dimethlanthracene
Fluoranthene
Pyrene
2,3-benzofluorene
Benzo()fluorene
7,12-dimethylbenz()anthracene

Average Concentration (%)

80

13

This document will be reviewed not later than 3 years or sooner if substantive evidence
becomes available.