Logarithm

provided that b, x and y are all positive and b 1. The

present-day notion of logarithms comes from Leonhard
Euler, who connected them to the exponential function in
the 18th century.
Logarithmic scales reduce wide-ranging quantities to
smaller scopes. For example, the decibel is a logarithmic unit quantifying signal power ratios and amplitude ratios (of which sound pressure is a common example). In chemistry, pH is a logarithmic measure for the
acidity of an aqueous solution. Logarithms are commonplace in scientic formulae, and in measurements of the
complexity of algorithms and of geometric objects called
fractals. They describe musical intervals, appear in formulae counting prime numbers, inform some models in
psychophysics, and can aid in forensic accounting.

The graph of the logarithm to base 2 crosses the x axis (horizontal

axis) at 1 and passes through the points with coordinates (2, 1),
(4, 2), and (8, 3). For example, log2 (8) = 3, because 23 = 8.
The graph gets arbitrarily close to the y axis, but does not meet or
intersect it.

In the same way as the logarithm reverses exponentiation,

the complex logarithm is the inverse function of the exponential function applied to complex numbers. The
discrete logarithm is another variant; it has applications
in public-key cryptography.

In mathematics, the logarithm of a number is the

exponent to which another xed value, the base, must be
raised to produce that number. For example, the logarithm of 1000 to base 10 is 3, because 10 to the power 3 1 Motivation and denition
is 1000: 1000 = 10 10 10 = 103 . More generally, for
any two real numbers b and x where b is positive and b The idea of logarithms is to reverse the operation of
exponentiation, that is raising a number to a power. For
1,
example, the third power (or cube) of 2 is 8, because 8 is
the product of three factors of 2:
y = bx x = logb (y)
The logarithm to base 10 (b = 10) is called the common
logarithm and has many applications in science and engineering. The natural logarithm has the irrational (transcendental) number e ( 2.718) as its base; its use is
widespread in pure mathematics, especially calculus. The
binary logarithm uses base 2 (b = 2) and is prominent in
computer science.

23 = 2 2 2 = 8.
It follows that the logarithm of 8 with respect to base 2 is
3, so log2 8 = 3.

1.1 Exponentiation

Logarithms were introduced by John Napier in the early

17th century as a means to simplify calculations. They
were rapidly adopted by navigators, scientists, engineers,
and others to perform computations more easily, using
slide rules and logarithm tables. Tedious multi-digit multiplication steps can be replaced by table look-ups and
simpler addition because of the factimportant in its
own rightthat the logarithm of a product is the sum of
the logarithms of the factors:

The third power of some number b is the product of three

factors of b. More generally, raising b to the n-th power,
where n is a natural number, is done by multiplying n factors of b. The n-th power of b is written bn , so that

bn = b b b .
{z
}
|
nfactors

Exponentiation may be extended to by , where b is a positive number and the exponent y is any real number. For

logb (xy) = logb (x) + logb (y),

1

3 PARTICULAR BASES

example, b1 is the reciprocal of b, that is, 1/b. (For fur- of two numbers is the dierence of the logarithms. The
ther details, including the formula bm + n = bm bn , see logarithm of the p-th power of a number is p times the
exponentiation or [1] for an elementary treatise.)
logarithm of the number itself; the logarithm of a p-th
root is the logarithm of the number divided by p. The
following table lists these identities with examples. Each
1.2 Denition
of the identities can be derived after substitution of the
logarithm denitions x = blog (x) , and/or y = blog (y) , in the
The logarithm of a positive real number x with respect to left hand sides.
base b, a positive real number not equal to 1[nb 1] , is the
exponent by which b must be raised to yield x. In other
words, the logarithm of x to base b is the solution y to the
equation[2]

2.2 Change of base

by = x.

The logarithm logb(x) can be computed from the logarithms of x and b with respect to an arbitrary base k using
The logarithm is denoted logb(x)" (pronounced as the the following formula:
logarithm of x to base b" or the base-b logarithm of x").
In the equation y = logb(x), the value y is the answer to
log (x)
logb (x) = logk (b) .
the question To what power must b be raised, in order
k
to yield x?". This question can also be addressed (with
a richer answer) for complex numbers, which is done in Typical scientic calculators calculate the logarithms to
section Complex logarithm, and this answer is much bases 10 and e.[4] Logarithms with respect to any base b
more extensively investigated in the page for the complex can be determined using either of these two logarithms
by the previous formula:
logarithm.

1.3

Examples

For example, log2 (16) = 4, since 24 = 2 2 2 2 = 16.

Logarithms can also be negative:
( )
1
log2
= 1,
2

logb (x) =

log10 (x)
loge (x)
=
.
log10 (b)
loge (b)

Given a number x and its logarithm logb(x) to an unknown

base b, the base is given by:
1

b = x logb (x) .

since

3 Particular bases
21

1
1
= 1 = .
2
2

A third example: log10 (150) is approximately 2.176,

which lies between 2 and 3, just as 150 lies between 102
= 100 and 103 = 1000. Finally, for any base b, logb(b) =
1 and logb(1) = 0, since b1 = b and b0 = 1, respectively.

Among all choices for the base, three are particularly

common. These are b = 10, b = e (the irrational mathematical constant 2.71828), and b = 2. In mathematical
analysis, the logarithm to base e is widespread because of
its particular analytical properties explained below. On
the other hand, base-10 logarithms are easy to use for
manual calculations in the decimal number system:[5]

Logarithmic identities

Main article: List of logarithmic identities

log10 (10x) = log10 (10) + log10 (x) = 1 + log10 (x).

Thus, log10 (x) is related to the number of decimal digSeveral important formulas, sometimes called logarithmic its of a positive integer x: the number of digits is the
[6]
identities or log laws, relate logarithms to one another.[3] smallest integer strictly bigger than log10 (x). For example, log10 (1430) is approximately 3.15. The next
integer is 4, which is the number of digits of 1430.
Both the natural logarithm and the logarithm to base
2.1 Product, quotient, power and root
two are used in information theory, corresponding to the
The logarithm of a product is the sum of the logarithms of use of nats or bits as the fundamental units of inforthe numbers being multiplied; the logarithm of the ratio mation, respectively.[7] Binary logarithms are also used

4.2

From Napier to Euler

in computer science, where the binary system is ubiquitous, in music theory, where a pitch ratio of two (the
octave) is ubiquitous and the cent is the binary logarithm (scaled by 1200) of the ratio between two adjacent
equally-tempered pitches, and in photography to measure
exposure values.[8]
The following table lists common notations for logarithms
to these bases and the elds where they are used. Many
disciplines write log(x) instead of logb(x), when the intended base can be determined from the context. The
notation b log(x) also occurs.[9] The ISO notation column lists designations suggested by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO 31-11).[10]

4
4.1

History
Predecessors

The Babylonians sometime in 20001600 BC may have

invented the quarter square multiplication algorithm to
multiply two numbers using only addition, subtraction
and a table of quarter squares.[15][16] However, it could
not be used for division without an additional table of
reciprocals (or the knowledge of a suciently simple
algorithm to generate reciprocals). Large tables of quarter squares were used to simplify the accurate multiplication of large numbers from 1817 onwards until this was
superseded by the use of computers.

John Napier (15501617), the inventor of logarithms

4.2 From Napier to Euler

The method of logarithms was publicly propounded by

John Napier in 1614, in a book titled Mirici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio (Description of the Wonderful Rule of Logarithms).[21][22] Joost Brgi independently invented logarithms but published six years after
The Indian mathematician Virasena worked with the conNapier.[23][24]
cept of ardhaccheda: the number of times a number of
the form 2n could be halved. For exact powers of 2, this Johannes Kepler, who used logarithm tables extensively
is the logarithm to that base, which is a whole number; to compile his Ephemeris and therefore dedicated it to
for other numbers, it is undened. He described rela- Napier,[25] remarked:
tions such as the product formula and also introduced
integer logarithms in base 3 (trakacheda) and base 4
the accent in calculation led Justus
(caturthacheda)[17]
Byrgius [Joost Brgi] on the way to these very
Michael Stifel published Arithmetica integra in
logarithms many years before Napiers system
Nuremberg in 1544, which contains a table[18] of
appeared; but instead of rearing up his
integers and powers of 2 that has been considered an
child for the public benet he deserted it in the
[19][20]
early version of a logarithmic table.
birth.
In the 16th and early 17th centuries an algorithm called
Johannes Kepler[26] , Rudolphine Tables
prosthaphaeresis was used to approximate multiplication
(1627)
and division. This used the trigonometric identity
By repeated subtractions Napier calculated (1 107 )L
for L ranging from 1 to 100. The result for L=100 is approximately 0.99999 = 1 105 . Napier then calculated
the products of these numbers with 107 (1 105 )L for L
or similar to convert the multiplications to additions and from 1 to 50, and did similarly with 0.9998 (1 105 )20
table lookups. However, logarithms are more straightfor- and 0.9 0.99520 . These computations, which occupied
ward and require less work. It can be shown using Eulers 20 years, allowed him to give, for any number N from 5
Formula that the two techniques are related.
to 10 million, the number L that solves the equation
1
cos cos = [cos( + ) + cos( )]
2

HISTORY

had already in 1619 compiled a table of what were effectively natural logarithms, based on Napiers work.[32]
Around 1730, Leonhard Euler dened the exponential
function and the natural logarithm by

N = 107 (1 107 ) .

Napier rst called L an articial number, but later introduced the word logarithm to mean a number that indicates a ratio: (logos) meaning proportion, and x
lim (1 + x/n)n ,
(arithmos) meaning number. In modern nota- e = n
tion, the relation to natural logarithms is: [27]
ln(x) = lim n(x1/n 1).
(
L = log(1107 )

N
107

(
107 log 1
e

N
107

(
)
Euler
N also showed that the two functions are inverse to
7
= 10 loge one another.
, [33][34][35]
107

where the very close approximation corresponds to the

observation that
4.3

(1 107 )

107

Logarithm tables, slide rules, and historical applications

1
.
e

The invention was quickly and widely met with acclaim.

The works of Bonaventura Cavalieri (Italy), Edmund
Wingate (France), Xue Fengzuo (China), and Johannes
Kepler's Chilias logarithmorum (Germany) helped spread
the concept further.[28]
The 1797 Encyclopdia Britannica explanation of logarithms

By simplifying dicult calculations, logarithms contributed to the advance of science, and especially of
astronomy. They were critical to advances in surveying,
celestial navigation, and other domains. Pierre-Simon
Laplace called logarithms
"...[a]n admirable artice which, by
reducing to a few days the labour
of many months, doubles the life of
the astronomer, and spares him the
errors and disgust inseparable from
long calculations.[36]

The hyperbola y = 1/ x (red curve) and the area from x = 1 to 6

(shaded in orange).

In 1649, Alphonse Antonio de Sarasa, a former student

of Grgoire de Saint-Vincent,[29] related logarithms to the
quadrature of the hyperbola, by pointing out that the area
f(t) under the hyperbola from x = 1 to x = t satises[30]

f (tu) = f (t) + f (u).

The natural logarithm was rst described by Nicholas
Mercator in his work Logarithmotechnia published in
1668,[31] although the mathematics teacher John Speidell

A key tool that enabled the practical use of logarithms

before calculators and computers was the table of logarithms.[37] The rst such table was compiled by Henry
Briggs in 1617, immediately after Napiers invention.
Subsequently, tables with increasing scope and precision
were written. These tables listed the values of logb(x) and
bx for any number x in a certain range, at a certain precision, for a certain base b (usually b = 10). For example, Briggs rst table contained the common logarithms
of all integers in the range 11000, with a precision of
8 digits. As the function f(x) = bx is the inverse function of logb(x), it has been called the antilogarithm.[38]
The product and quotient of two positive numbers c and
d were routinely calculated as the sum and dierence of
their logarithms. The product cd or quotient c/d came
from looking up the antilogarithm of the sum or dierence, also via the same table:

cd = blogb (c) blogb (d) = blogb (c)+logb (d)

and
c
= cd1 = blogb (c)logb (d) .
d
For manual calculations that demand any appreciable precision, performing the lookups of the two logarithms, calculating their sum or dierence, and looking up the antilogarithm is much faster than performing the multiplication by earlier methods such as prosthaphaeresis, which
relies on trigonometric identities. Calculations of powers
and roots are reduced to multiplications or divisions and
look-ups by
cd = (blogb (c) )d = bd logb (c)
and

1
1
d
c = c d = b d logb (c) .
Many logarithm tables give logarithms by separately providing the characteristic and mantissa of x, that is to say,
the integer part and the fractional part of log10 (x).[39] The
characteristic of 10 x is one plus the characteristic of
x, and their signicands are the same. This extends the
scope of logarithm tables: given a table listing log10 (x)
for all integers x ranging from 1 to 1000, the logarithm
of 3542 is approximated by

to 3 on the upper scale yields a product of 6, which is read

o at the lower part. The slide rule was an essential calculating tool for engineers and scientists until the 1970s,
because it allows, at the expense of precision, much faster
computation than techniques based on tables.[33]

5 Analytic properties
A deeper study of logarithms requires the concept of a
function. A function is a rule that, given one number,
produces another number.[40] An example is the function
producing the x-th power of b from any real number x,
where the base b is a xed number. This function is written

f (x) = bx .

5.1 Logarithmic function

To justify the denition of logarithms, it is necessary to
show that the equation

bx = y

has a solution x and that this solution is unique, provided

that y is positive and that b is positive and unequal to 1. A
proof of that fact requires the intermediate value theorem
from elementary calculus.[41] This theorem states that a
continuous function that produces two values m and n also
produces any value that lies between m and n. A function
is continuous
if it does not jump, that is, if its graph can
log10 (3542) = log10 (10354.2) = 1+log10 (354.2) 1+log
10 (354).
be drawn without lifting the pen.
Another critical application was the slide rule, a pair of
logarithmically divided scales used for calculation, as il- This property can be shown to hold for the function f(x)
= bx . Because f takes arbitrarily large and arbitrarily
lustrated here:
small positive values, any number y > 0 lies between f(x0 )
log(3)
and f(x1 ) for suitable x0 and x1 . Hence, the intermedi1
2
3
4
5
6
7 8 9 1
ate value theorem ensures that the equation f(x) = y has
1
2
3
4
5
6
7 8 9 1
a solution. Moreover, there is only one solution to this
log(2)
equation, because the function f is strictly increasing (for
log(6)
b > 1), or strictly decreasing (for 0 < b < 1).[42]
Schematic depiction of a slide rule. Starting from 2 on the lower
scale, add the distance to 3 on the upper scale to reach the product
6. The slide rule works because it is marked such that the distance
from 1 to x is proportional to the logarithm of x.

The non-sliding logarithmic scale, Gunters rule, was

invented shortly after Napiers invention. William
Oughtred enhanced it to create the slide rulea pair of
logarithmic scales movable with respect to each other.
Numbers are placed on sliding scales at distances proportional to the dierences between their logarithms. Sliding the upper scale appropriately amounts to mechanically adding logarithms. For example, adding the distance from 1 to 2 on the lower scale to the distance from 1

The unique solution x is the logarithm of y to base b,

logb(y). The function that assigns to y its logarithm is
called logarithm function or logarithmic function (or just
logarithm).
The function logb(x) is essentially characterized by the
above product formula

logb (xy) = logb (x) + logb (y).

More precisely, the logarithm to any base b > 1 is the only
increasing function f from the positive reals to the reals
satisfying f(b) = 1 and [43]

5 ANALYTIC PROPERTIES
greater than one. In that case, logb(x) is an increasing
function. For b < 1, logb(x) tends to minus innity instead. When x approaches zero, logb(x) goes to minus
innity for b > 1 (plus innity for b < 1, respectively).

f (xy) = f (x) + f (y).

5.2

Inverse function
5.3 Derivative and antiderivative
b

t
log b ( x)
log b(t )

log b(t )

x
The graph of the natural logarithm (green) and its tangent at x
= 1.5 (black)

Analytic properties of functions pass to their inverses.[41]

Thus, as f(x) = bx is a continuous and dierentiable function, so is logb(y). Roughly, a continuous function is differentiable if its graph has no sharp corners. Moreover,
x
The graph of the logarithm function log (x) (blue) is obtained by as the derivative of f(x) evaluates to ln(b)b by the propreecting the graph of the function bx (red) at the diagonal line erties of the exponential function, the chain rule implies
that the derivative of logb(x) is given by[42][45]
(x = y).
The formula for the logarithm of a power says in particular that for any number x,

d
1
logb (x) =
.
dx
x ln(b)

That is, the slope of the tangent touching the graph of

the base-b logarithm at the point (x, logb(x)) equals 1/(x
In prose, taking the x-th power of b and then the base- ln(b)). In particular, the derivative of ln(x) is 1/x, which
b logarithm gives back x. Conversely, given a positive implies that the antiderivative of 1/x is ln(x) + C. The
derivative with a generalised functional argument f(x) is
number y, the formula
logb (bx ) = x logb (b) = x.

blogb (y) = y
says that rst taking the logarithm and then exponentiating gives back y. Thus, the two possible ways of combining (or composing) logarithms and exponentiation give
back the original number. Therefore, the logarithm to
base b is the inverse function of f(x) = bx .[44]
Inverse functions are closely related to the original functions. Their graphs correspond to each other upon exchanging the x- and the y-coordinates (or upon reection
at the diagonal line x = y), as shown at the right: a point
(t, u = bt ) on the graph of f yields a point (u, t = logbu)
on the graph of the logarithm and vice versa. As a consequence, logb(x) diverges to innity (gets bigger than any
given number) if x grows to innity, provided that b is

d
f (x)
ln(f (x)) =
.
dx
f (x)
The quotient at the right hand side is called the
logarithmic derivative of f. Computing f'(x) by means of
the derivative of ln(f(x)) is known as logarithmic dierentiation.[46] The antiderivative of the natural logarithm
ln(x) is:[47]

ln(x) dx = x ln(x) x + C.
Related formulas, such as antiderivatives of logarithms to
other bases can be derived from this equation using the
change of bases.[48]

5.5

5.4

Transcendence of the logarithm

Integral representation of the natural The second equality uses a change of variables
(integration by substitution), w = x1/r .
logarithm
The sum over the reciprocals of natural numbers,
1
1 1
1
+ + + =
,
2 3
n
k
n

1+

k=1

is called the harmonic series. It is closely tied to the

natural logarithm: as n tends to innity, the dierence,

The natural logarithm of t is the shaded area underneath the

graph of the function f(x) = 1/ x (reciprocal of x).

The natural logarithm of t agrees with the integral of 1/x

dx from 1 to t:
ln(t) =

1
1 x

dx.

In other words, ln(t) equals the area between the x axis

and the graph of the function 1/x, ranging from x = 1 to
x = t (gure at the right). This is a consequence of the
fundamental theorem of calculus and the fact that derivative of ln(x) is 1/x. The right hand side of this equation
can serve as a denition of the natural logarithm. Product
and power logarithm formulas can be derived from this
denition.[49] For example, the product formula ln(tu) =
ln(t) + ln(u) is deduced as:

1
ln(n),
k

k=1

converges (i.e., gets arbitrarily close) to a number known

as the EulerMascheroni constant. This relation aids
in analyzing the performance of algorithms such as
quicksort.[50]
There is also another integral representation of the logarithm that is useful in some situations.

ln(x) = lim

)
dt ( xt
e
et
t

This can be veried by showing that it has the same value

at x = 1, and the same derivative.

tu
u5.5 Transcendence of the logarithm
1
1
1
(2)
dx+
dx = ln(t)+
dw = ln(t)+ln(u).
ln(tu) =
x
x
w
Real
numbers that are not algebraic are called
1
t
1
1
[51]
transcendental;
example, and e are such
for
The equality (1) splits the integral into two parts, while

the equality (2) is a change of variable (w = x/t). In the numbers, but 2 3 is not. Almost all real numbers
illustration below, the splitting corresponds to dividing are transcendental. The logarithm is an example of a
the area into the yellow and blue parts. Rescaling the transcendental function. The GelfondSchneider theoleft hand blue area vertically by the factor t and shrink- rem asserts that logarithms usually take transcendental,
[52]
ing it by the same factor horizontally does not change its i.e., dicult values.
size. Moving it appropriately, the area ts the graph of the
function f(x) = 1/x again. Therefore, the left hand blue
area, which is the integral of f(x) from t to tu is the same 6 Calculation
as the integral from 1 to u. This justies the equality (2)
with a more geometric proof.
Logarithms are easy to compute in some cases, such as

tu

1
(1)
dx =
x

log10 (1,000) = 3. In general, logarithms can be calculated

using power series or the arithmetic-geometric mean, or
ln(t)
be retrieved from a precalculated logarithm table that
ln(u)
ln(tu)
provides a xed precision.[53][54] Newtons method, an
iterative method to solve equations approximately, can
also be used to calculate the logarithm, because its inA visual proof of the product formula of the natural logarithm
verse function, the exponential function, can be com[55]
r
The power formula ln(t ) = r ln(t) may be derived in a puted eciently. Using look-up tables, CORDIC-like
methods can be used to compute logarithms if the only
similar way:
available operations are addition and bit shifts.[56][57]
Moreover, the binary logarithm algorithm calculates lb(x)
t
tr
t
(
)
recursively based on repeated squarings of x, taking ad1
1
1
dx =
dw vantage
= r ln(t).
ln(tr ) =
rwr1 dw = r
r
of the relation
x
1 w
1
1 w
u

tu

tu

6 CALCULATION
More ecient series

log2 (x2 ) = 2 log2 (x).

6.1

Another series is based on the area hyperbolic tangent

function:

Power series

Taylor series

z1
ln(z) = 2artanh
=2
z+1

(
)3
(
)5
z1 1 z1
1 z1
+
+
+
z+1 3 z+1
5 z+1

for any real number z > 0.[nb 5][58] Using the Sigma notation, this is also written as

ln(z) = 2

1
2n
+1
n=0

z1
z+1

)2n+1
.

This series can be derived from the above Taylor series. It

converges more quickly than the Taylor series, especially
if z is close to 1. For example, for z = 1.5, the rst three
terms of the second series approximate ln(1.5) with an
The Taylor series of ln(z) centered at z = 1. The animation shows error of about 3106 . The quick convergence for z close
the rst 10 approximations along with the 99th and 100th. The
to 1 can be taken advantage of in the following way: given
approximations do not converge beyond a distance of 1 from the
a low-accuracy approximation y ln(z) and putting
center.
For any real number z that satises 0 < z < 2, the following
formula holds:[nb 4][58]
A=

ln(z) = (z 1)

(z 1)2 (z 1)3 (z 1)4

+

+
2
3
4

z
,
exp(y)

the logarithm of z is:

This is a shorthand for saying that ln(z) can be approxi- ln(z) = y + ln(A).
mated to a more and more accurate value by the following
expressions:
The better the initial approximation y is, the closer A is to
1, so its logarithm can be calculated eciently. A can be
calculated using the exponential series, which converges
(z 1)
quickly provided y is not too large. Calculating the loga2
(z 1) (z1)
rithm of larger z can be reduced to smaller values of z by
2 2
(z1)3
writing z = a 10b , so that ln(z) = ln(a) + b ln(10).
(z 1) (z1)
+
2
3
..
A closely related method can be used to compute the log.
arithm of integers. From the above series, it follows that:
For example, with z = 1.5 the third approximation yields
0.4167, which is about 0.011 greater than ln(1.5) =
(
)2k+1

0.405465. This series approximates ln(z) with arbitrary

1
1
ln(n
+
1)
=
ln(n)
+
2
.
precision, provided the number of summands is large
2k + 1 2n + 1
k=0
enough. In elementary calculus, ln(z) is therefore the limit
of this series. It is the Taylor series of the natural loga- If the logarithm of a large integer n is known, then this
rithm at z = 1. The Taylor series of ln z provides a par- series yields a fast converging series for log(n+1).
ticularly useful approximation to ln(1+z) when z is small,
|z| < 1, since then

ln(1 + z) = z

z3
z2
+
z.
2
3

6.2 Arithmetic-geometric mean approximation

The arithmetic-geometric mean yields high precision apFor example, with z = 0.1 the rst-order approximation proximations of the natural logarithm. ln(x) is approxigives ln(1.1) 0.1, which is less than 5% o the correct mated to a precision of 2p (or p precise bits) by the folvalue 0.0953.
lowing formula (due to Carl Friedrich Gauss):[59][60]

7.1

Logarithmic scale

7.1 Logarithmic scale

ln(x)

m ln(2).
2M (1, 22m /x)

Main article: Logarithmic scale

Scientic quantities are often expressed as logarithms of

Here M denotes the arithmetic-geometric mean. It is obtained by repeatedly calculating the average (arithmetic
mean) and the square root of the product of two numbers
(geometric mean). Moreover, m is chosen such that

x 2m > 2p/2 .
Both the arithmetic-geometric mean and the constants
and ln(2) can be calculated with quickly converging series.

Applications

A logarithmic chart depicting the value of one Goldmark in

Papiermarks during the German hyperination in the 1920s

A nautilus displaying a logarithmic spiral

Logarithms have many applications inside and outside

mathematics. Some of these occurrences are related
to the notion of scale invariance. For example, each
chamber of the shell of a nautilus is an approximate
copy of the next one, scaled by a constant factor. This
gives rise to a logarithmic spiral.[61] Benfords law on the
distribution of leading digits can also be explained by
scale invariance.[62] Logarithms are also linked to selfsimilarity. For example, logarithms appear in the analysis
of algorithms that solve a problem by dividing it into two
similar smaller problems and patching their solutions.[63]
The dimensions of self-similar geometric shapes, that is,
shapes whose parts resemble the overall picture are also
based on logarithms. Logarithmic scales are useful for
quantifying the relative change of a value as opposed to
its absolute dierence. Moreover, because the logarithmic function log(x) grows very slowly for large x, logarithmic scales are used to compress large-scale scientic data.
Logarithms also occur in numerous scientic formulas,
such as the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, the Fenske equation, or the Nernst equation.

other quantities, using a logarithmic scale. For example,

the decibel is a logarithmic unit of measurement. It is
based on the common logarithm of ratios10 times the
common logarithm of a power ratio or 20 times the common logarithm of a voltage ratio. It is used to quantify the
loss of voltage levels in transmitting electrical signals,[64]
to describe power levels of sounds in acoustics,[65] and
the absorbance of light in the elds of spectrometry and
optics. The signal-to-noise ratio describing the amount
of unwanted noise in relation to a (meaningful) signal is
also measured in decibels.[66] In a similar vein, the peak
signal-to-noise ratio is commonly used to assess the quality of sound and image compression methods using the
logarithm.[67]
The strength of an earthquake is measured by taking the
common logarithm of the energy emitted at the quake.
This is used in the moment magnitude scale or the Richter
scale. For example, a 5.0 earthquake releases 10 times
and a 6.0 releases 100 times the energy of a 4.0.[68] Another logarithmic scale is apparent magnitude. It measures the brightness of stars logarithmically.[69] Yet another example is pH in chemistry; pH is the negative of
the common logarithm of the activity of hydronium ions
(the form hydrogen ions H+
take in water).[70] The activity of hydronium ions in neutral water is 107 molL1 , hence a pH of 7. Vinegar typically has a pH of about 3. The dierence of 4 corre-

10

7 APPLICATIONS

sponds to a ratio of 104 of the activity, that is, vinegars

hydronium ion activity is about 103 molL1 .
Semilog (log-linear) graphs use the logarithmic scale concept for visualization: one axis, typically the vertical one,
is scaled logarithmically. For example, the chart at the
right compresses the steep increase from 1 million to 1
trillion to the same space (on the vertical axis) as the increase from 1 to 1 million. In such graphs, exponential
functions of the form f(x) = a bx appear as straight lines
with slope equal to the logarithm of b. Log-log graphs
scale both axes logarithmically, which causes functions
of the form f(x) = a xk to be depicted as straight lines
with slope equal to the exponent k. This is applied in visualizing and analyzing power laws.[71]

7.2

Psychology
Three probability density functions (PDF) of random variables

Logarithms occur in several laws describing human per- with log-normal distributions. The location parameter , which is
ception:[72][73] Hicks law proposes a logarithmic relation zero for all three of the PDFs shown, is the mean of the logarithm
between the time individuals take for choosing an alter- of the random variable, not the mean of the variable itself.
native and the number of choices they have.[74] Fittss law
predicts that the time required to rapidly move to a target area is a logarithmic function of the distance to and
the size of the target.[75] In psychophysics, the Weber
Fechner law proposes a logarithmic relationship between
stimulus and sensation such as the actual vs. the perceived
weight of an item a person is carrying.[76] (This law,
however, is less precise than more recent models, such as
the Stevens power law.[77] )
Psychological studies found that individuals with little
mathematics education tend to estimate quantities logarithmically, that is, they position a number on an unmarked line according to its logarithm, so that 10 is positioned as close to 100 as 100 is to 1000. Increasing edDistribution of rst digits (in %, red bars) in the population of the
ucation shifts this to a linear estimate (positioning 1000
237 countries of the world. Black dots indicate the distribution
10x as far away) in some circumstances, while logarithms predicted by Benfords law.
are used when the numbers to be plotted are dicult to
plot linearly.[78][79]

7.3

Probability theory and statistics

Logarithms arise in probability theory: the law of large

numbers dictates that, for a fair coin, as the number of
coin-tosses increases to innity, the observed proportion
of heads approaches one-half. The uctuations of this
proportion about one-half are described by the law of the
iterated logarithm.[80]

of parametric statistical models. For such a model, the

likelihood function depends on at least one parameter that
must be estimated. A maximum of the likelihood function occurs at the same parameter-value as a maximum
of the logarithm of the likelihood (the "log likelihood"),
because the logarithm is an increasing function. The loglikelihood is easier to maximize, especially for the multiplied likelihoods for independent random variables.[83]

Benfords law describes the occurrence of digits in many

data sets, such as heights of buildings. According to Benfords law, the probability that the rst decimal-digit of an
item in the data sample is d (from 1 to 9) equals log10 (d +
1) log10 (d), regardless of the unit of measurement.[84]
Thus, about 30% of the data can be expected to have
1 as rst digit, 18% start with 2, etc. Auditors examine deviations from Benfords law to detect fraudulent
Logarithms are used for maximum-likelihood estimation accounting.[85]
Logarithms also occur in log-normal distributions. When
the logarithm of a random variable has a normal distribution, the variable is said to have a log-normal
distribution.[81] Log-normal distributions are encountered in many elds, wherever a variable is formed as the
product of many independent positive random variables,
for example in the study of turbulence.[82]

7.6

7.4

Fractals

Computational complexity

Analysis of algorithms is a branch of computer science

that studies the performance of algorithms (computer
programs solving a certain problem).[86] Logarithms are
valuable for describing algorithms that divide a problem into smaller ones, and join the solutions of the
subproblems.[87]
For example, to nd a number in a sorted list, the binary
search algorithm checks the middle entry and proceeds
with the half before or after the middle entry if the number is still not found. This algorithm requires, on average,
log2 (N) comparisons, where N is the lists length.[88] Similarly, the merge sort algorithm sorts an unsorted list by
dividing the list into halves and sorting these rst before
merging the results. Merge sort algorithms typically require a time approximately proportional to N log(N).[89]
The base of the logarithm is not specied here, because
the result only changes by a constant factor when another
base is used. A constant factor, is usually disregarded
in the analysis of algorithms under the standard uniform
cost model.[90]
A function f(x) is said to grow logarithmically if f(x) is
(exactly or approximately) proportional to the logarithm
of x. (Biological descriptions of organism growth, however, use this term for an exponential function.[91] ) For
example, any natural number N can be represented in
binary form in no more than log2 (N) + 1 bits. In other
words, the amount of memory needed to store N grows
logarithmically with N.

7.5

Entropy and chaos

11
Moreover, pi is the probability that the state i is attained
and k is the Boltzmann constant. Similarly, entropy in
information theory measures the quantity of information.
If a message recipient may expect any one of N possible
messages with equal likelihood, then the amount of information conveyed by any one such message is quantied
as log2 (N) bits.[92]
Lyapunov exponents use logarithms to gauge the degree
of chaoticity of a dynamical system. For example, for
a particle moving on an oval billiard table, even small
changes of the initial conditions result in very dierent paths of the particle. Such systems are chaotic in a
deterministic way, because small measurement errors of
the initial state predictably lead to largely dierent nal
states.[93] At least one Lyapunov exponent of a deterministically chaotic system is positive.

7.6 Fractals

The Sierpinski triangle (at the right) is constructed by repeatedly

replacing equilateral triangles by three smaller ones.

Logarithms occur in denitions of the dimension of

fractals.[94] Fractals are geometric objects that are selfsimilar: small parts reproduce, at least roughly, the entire
global structure. The Sierpinski triangle (pictured) can be
covered by three copies of itself, each having sides half
the original length. This makes the Hausdor dimension
of this structure log(3)/log(2) 1.58. Another logarithmbased notion of dimension is obtained by counting the
number of boxes needed to cover the fractal in question.

7.7 Music

Billiards on an oval billiard table. Two particles, starting at the

center with an angle diering by one degree, take paths that diverge chaotically because of reections at the boundary.

Four dierent octaves shown on a linear scale, then

shown on a logarithmic scale (as the ear hears them).

Entropy is broadly a measure of the disorder of some system. In statistical thermodynamics, the entropy S of some
Logarithms are related to musical tones and intervals. In
physical system is dened as
equal temperament, the frequency ratio depends only on
the interval between two tones, not on the specic fre
quency, or pitch, of the individual tones. For example,
S = k
pi ln(pi ).
the note A has a frequency of 440 Hz and B-at has a frei
quency of 466 Hz. The interval between A and B-at is
The sum is over all possible states i of the system in ques- a semitone, as is the one between B-at and B (frequency
tion, such as the positions of gas particles in a container. 493 Hz). Accordingly, the frequency ratios agree:

12

8 GENERALIZATIONS

466
493
12

1.059
2.
440
466
Therefore, logarithms can be used to describe the intervals: an interval is measured in semitones by taking
the base-21/12 logarithm of the frequency ratio, while the
base-21/1200 logarithm of the frequency ratio expresses
the interval in cents, hundredths of a semitone. The latter is used for ner encoding, as it is needed for non-equal
temperaments.[95]

7.8

Number theory

Natural logarithms are closely linked to counting prime

numbers (2, 3, 5, 7, 11, ...), an important topic in number
theory. For any integer x, the quantity of prime numbers
less than or equal to x is denoted (x). The prime number
theorem asserts that (x) is approximately given by
Polar form of z = x + iy. Both and ' are arguments of z.

x
,
ln(x)
in the sense that the ratio of (x) and that fraction approaches 1 when x tends to innity.[96] As a consequence,
the probability that a randomly chosen number between 1
and x is prime is inversely proportional to the numbers of
decimal digits of x. A far better estimate of (x) is given
by the oset logarithmic integral function Li(x), dened
by

Li(x) =
2

1
dt.
ln(t)

are called complex logarithms. Here, z is a complex number. A complex number is commonly represented as z = x
+ iy, where x and y are real numbers and i is the imaginary
unit. Such a number can be visualized by a point in the
complex plane, as shown at the right. The polar form encodes a non-zero complex number z by its absolute value,
that is, the distance r to the origin, and an angle between
the x axis and the line passing through the origin and z.
This angle is called the argument of z. The absolute value
r of z is

r=

x2 + y 2 .

The Riemann hypothesis, one of the oldest open mathematical conjectures, can be stated in terms of comparing (x) and Li(x).[97] The ErdsKac theorem describing the number of distinct prime factors also involves the
natural logarithm.

The argument is not uniquely specied by z: both and

' = + 2 are arguments of z because adding 2 radians
or 360 degrees[nb 6] to corresponds to winding around
the origin counter-clock-wise by a turn. The resulting
complex number is again z, as illustrated at the right.
The logarithm of n factorial, n! = 1 2 ... n, is given by However, exactly one argument satises < and
. It is called the principal argument, denoted Arg(z),
with a capital A.[99] (An alternative normalization is 0
ln(n!) = ln(1) + ln(2) + + ln(n).
Arg(z) < 2.[100] )
This can be used to obtain Stirlings formula, an approx- Using trigonometric functions sine and cosine, or the
complex exponential, respectively, r and are such that
imation of n! for large n.[98]
the following identities hold:[101]

8
8.1

Generalizations
Complex logarithm

Main article: Complex logarithm

The complex numbers a solving the equation

ea = z.

=
=

r (cos + i sin )
rei .

This implies that the a-th power of e equals z, where

a = ln(r) + i( + 2n),
is the principal argument Arg(z) and n is an arbitrary
integer. Any such a is called a complex logarithm of

8.3

Related concepts

13

bn = x,
where x is an element of the group. Carrying out the
exponentiation can be done eciently, but the discrete
logarithm is believed to be very hard to calculate in
some groups. This asymmetry has important applications
in public key cryptography, such as for example in the
DieHellman key exchange, a routine that allows secure exchanges of cryptographic keys over unsecured information channels.[106] Zechs logarithm is related to the
discrete logarithm in the multiplicative group of non-zero
elements of a nite eld.[107]

The principal branch of the complex logarithm, Log(z). The

black point at z = 1 corresponds to absolute value zero and
brighter (more saturated) colors refer to bigger absolute values.
The hue of the color encodes the argument of Log(z).

z. There are innitely many of them, in contrast to the

uniquely dened real logarithm. If n = 0, a is called the
principal value of the logarithm, denoted Log(z). The
principal argument of any positive real number x is 0;
hence Log(x) is a real number and equals the real (natural) logarithm. However, the above formulas for logarithms of products and powers do not generalize to the
principal value of the complex logarithm.[102]

Further logarithm-like inverse functions include the double logarithm ln(ln(x)), the super- or hyper-4-logarithm
(a slight variation of which is called iterated logarithm
in computer science), the Lambert W function, and the
logit. They are the inverse functions of the double exponential function, tetration, of f(w) = wew ,[108] and of the
logistic function, respectively.[109]

8.3 Related concepts

From the perspective of pure mathematics, the identity

log(cd) = log(c) + log(d) expresses a group isomorphism
between positive reals under multiplication and reals under addition. Logarithmic functions are the only continuous isomorphisms between these groups.[110] By means of
that isomorphism, the Haar measure (Lebesgue measure)
dx on the reals corresponds to the Haar measure dx/x on
the
positive reals.[111] In complex analysis and algebraic
The illustration at the right depicts Log(z). The discontinuity, that is, the jump in the hue at the negative part geometry, dierential forms of the form df/f are known
[112]
of the x- or real axis, is caused by the jump of the prin- as forms with logarithmic poles.
cipal argument there. This locus is called a branch cut. The polylogarithm is the function dened by
This behavior can only be circumvented by dropping the
range restriction on . Then the argument of z and, con
sequently, its logarithm become multi-valued functions.

zk
Lis (z) =
.
ks
k=1

8.2

Inverses of other exponential functions

It is related to the natural logarithm by Li1 (z) = ln(1

Lis(1) equals the Riemann zeta function
Exponentiation occurs in many areas of mathematics and z). Moreover,
[113]
(s).
its inverse function is often referred to as the logarithm.
For example, the logarithm of a matrix is the (multivalued) inverse function of the matrix exponential.[103]
Another example is the p-adic logarithm, the inverse 9 See also
function of the p-adic exponential. Both are dened via
Taylor series analogous to the real case.[104] In the context
Exponential function
of dierential geometry, the exponential map maps the
tangent space at a point of a manifold to a neighborhood
Index of logarithm articles
of that point. Its inverse is also called the logarithmic (or
log) map.[105]
In the context of nite groups exponentiation is given by
repeatedly multiplying one group element b with itself.
The discrete logarithm is the integer n solving the equation

10 Notes
[1] The restrictions on x and b are explained in the section
Analytic properties.

14

11

[2] Some mathematicians disapprove of this notation. In his

1985 autobiography, Paul Halmos criticized what he considered the childish ln notation, which he said no mathematician had ever used.[12] The notation was invented by
Irving Stringham, a mathematician.[13][14]

REFERENCES

[12] Paul Halmos (1985), I Want to Be a Mathematician: An

Automathography, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag,
ISBN 978-0-387-96078-4

[3] For example C, Java, Haskell, and BASIC.

[13] Irving Stringham (1893), Uniplanar algebra: being part I

of a propdeutic to the higher mathematical analysis, The
Berkeley Press, p. xiii

[4] The same series holds for the principal value of the complex logarithm for complex numbers z satisfying |z 1| <
1.

[14] Roy S. Freedman (2006), Introduction to Financial Technology, Amsterdam: Academic Press, p. 59, ISBN 9780-12-370478-8

[5] The same series holds for the principal value of the complex logarithm for complex numbers z with positive real
part.
[6] See radian for the conversion between 2 and 360 degrees.

11

References

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reproduced in: Hermann Robert Gieswald, Justus Byrg als
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1856), pages 26 .
[24] Boyer 1991, Chapter 14, section Jobst Brgi
[25] Gladstone-Millar, Lynne (2003), John Napier: Logarithm John, National Museums Of Scotland, ISBN 9781-901663-70-9, p. 44
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15

[28] Maor, Eli (2009), e: The Story of a Number, Princeton

University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-14134-3, section 2
[29] In 1647, Gregoire de Saint-Vincent published his book,
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proportion, then the areas between a hyperbola and the
abscissas are in arithmetic proportion. This nding allowed Saint-Vincents former student, Alphonse Antonio
de Sarasa, to prove that the area between a hyperbola and
the abscissa of a point is proportional to the abscissas
logarithm, thus uniting the algebra of logarithms with
the geometry of hyperbolas. See: Alphonse Antonio de
Sarasa, Solutio problematis a R.P. Marino Mersenne Minimo propositi [Solution to a problem proposed by the
reverend father Marin Mersenne, member of the Minim
order ], (Antwerp, (Belgium): Johannes and Jakob
Meursius, 1649). Sarasas critical nding occurs on page
16 (near the bottom of the page), where he states: Unde
hae supercies supplere possunt locum logarithmorum datorum " (Whence these areas can ll the place of the
given logarithms ). [In other words, the areas are proportional to the logarithms.]
See also: Enrique A. Gonzlez-Velasco, Journey through
Mathematics: Creative Episodes in Its History (New York,
New York: Springer, 2011), page 118.
[30] Alphonse Antonio de Sarasa, Solutio problematis a R.P.
Marino Mersenne Minimo propositi [Solution to a problem proposed by the reverend father Marin Mersenne,
member of the Minim order ], (Antwerp, (Belgium):
Johannes and Jakob Meursius, 1649).
Sarasa realized that given a hyperbola and a pair of points
along the abscissa which were related by a geometric progression, then if the abscissas of the points were multiplied
together, the abscissa of their product had an area under
the hyperbola which equaled the sum of the points areas
under the hyperbola. That is, the logarithm of an abscissa
was proportional to the area, under a hyperbola, corresponding to that abscissa. This nding united the algebra
of logarithms with the geometry of hyperbolic curves.
Sarasas critical nding occurs on page 16 (near the
bottom of the page), where he states: Unde hae supercies supplere possunt locum logarithmorum datorum " (Whence these areas can ll the place of
the given logarithms ). [In other words, the areas
are proportional to the logarithms.]
See also: Enrique A. Gonzlez-Velasco, Journey
through Mathematics: Creative Episodes in Its History (New York, New York: Springer, 2011), pp.
119-120.
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[33] Maor 2009, sections 1, 13

[34] Eves, Howard Whitley (1992), An introduction to the

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sections 11.5 and 13.8

16

[51] Nomizu, Katsumi (1996), Selected papers on number theory and algebraic geometry 172, Providence, RI: AMS
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18

12

12

External links

Media related to Logarithm at Wikimedia Commons

The dictionary denition of logarithm at Wiktionary
Khan Academy: Logarithms, free online micro lectures
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), Logarithmic
function, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer,
ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4
Colin Byeet, Educational video on logarithms, retrieved 12/10/2010 Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
Edward Wright, Translation of Napiers work on logarithms, retrieved 12/10/2010 Check date values in:
|accessdate= (help)

EXTERNAL LINKS

19

13
13.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Logarithm Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logarithm?oldid=629916720 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Peter Winnberg, Brion VIBBER,

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