Mani
Mani
Mani
Mni, personified, is attested in thePoetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from
earlier traditional sources, and theProse Edda, written in the 13th century bySno
rri Sturluson. Both sources state that he is the brother of the personified sun,
Sl, and the son ofMundilfari, while theProse Eddaadds that he is followed by the chi
ldrenHjki and Bilthrough the heavens. As aproper noun, Mni appears throughout Old Nor
se literature. Scholarly theories have been proposed about Mni's potential connec
tion to theNorthern Europeannotion of theMan in the Moon, and a potentially otherwi
se unattested story regarding Mni throughskaldickennings.
Contents
[hide]
* 1Attestations
o 1.1Poetic Edda
o 1.2Prose Edda
* 2Theories
* 3See also
* 4Notes
* 5References
Attestations[edit]
Poetic Edda[edit]
pter 11, High says that Mni and his sister Sl are the children of a man by the nam
e of Mundilfari. The children were so fair that Mundilfari named them "moon" and
"sun", which was perceived as arrogance by the gods, and it so angered the gods
that they placed the brother and sister in the heavens. There, Mni "guides the p
ath of the moon and controls its waxing and waning."[9]
Additionally, Mni is followed through the heavens by the brother and sister child
renHjki and Bil"as can be seen from the earth", whom he took from the earth while t
hey fetched water from a well.[9]In chapter 51, High foretells the events of Ragn
ark, including that Mni will be consumed by one of two wolves chasing the heavenly
bodies.[10]
In theProse EddabookSkldskaparml, Sl is referred to in chapter 26 as "sister of Mni"
1]and in chapter 56 names are given for the moon: "lune", "waxer", "waner", "year
-counter", "clipped", "shiner", "gloam", "hastener", "squinter" and "gleamer".[1
2]
Theories[edit]
A 19th century depiction of theThe Man in the Moonfrom folklore in areas of Germa
nic Europe
Kennings in theskaldiccorpus for femalejtnarhave been identified (such as "desired wo
man of Mni" used by the 10th century skaldGuthormr sindri) as pointing to a potent
ial marriage or sexual union between Mni and a femalejtunn. John Lindow states that
if a story about Mni having such a relationship with a female jtunn existed, then
"it has left no other trace in the extant mythology.[13]Rudolf Simekstates that i
n two skaldic kennings "Mni is apparently a gigantic being in a myth of which we
otherwise know nothing".[14]
John Lindow theorizes on Mni's fate at Ragnark in that "as part of the creation of
thesir, that is, the cosmos, Mni must be destroyed at Ragnark, but this is not expl
icitly stated, except perhapsby Snorri, who tells aboutMnagarm, who will swallow a
heavenly body that may be the moon".[13]
Rudolf Simek connects the account of Mni, andHjki and Bil(featuring, as Simek states
, "a man with a pole and a woman with a bushel") found in chapter 11 ofGylfaginni
ngwith modern accounts of theMan in the Moonfound in modern folklore inScandinavia,En
gland, andNorth Germany. Simek additionally points out that a stanza appearing ea
rly in the poemVluspstates that the sir had set up the moon "in order to be able to r
eckon the year", which Simek connects with Germanic computation of time having b
een directed towards the moon rather than the sun, and that shorter amounts of t
ime were given in nights rather than days.[14]
See also[edit]
* Germanic calendar, the lunar calendar of the Germanic peoples.
* Monday, a day of the week named after the moon in Germanic societies.
Notes[edit]
1. Jump up^Orchard (1997:109).
2. Jump up^Thorpe (1907:1).
3. Jump up^Bellows (1923:4).
4. Jump up^Thorpe (1907:12).
5. Jump up^Bellows (1923:7).
6. Jump up^Larrington (1999:57).
7. Jump up^Larrington (1999:111).
8. Jump up^Byock (2005:17).
9. ^Jump up to:abByock (2005:19).
10. Jump up^Byock (2005:71).
11. Jump up^Faulkes (1995:93).
12. Jump up^Faulkes (1995:134).
13. ^Jump up to:abLindow (2001:222 223).
14. ^Jump up to:abSimek (2007:201 202).
References[edit]
* Bellows, Henry Adams(1923). The Poetic Edda.The American-Scandinavian Foundation
* Byock, Jesse (Trans.) (2005).The Prose Edda.Penguin Classics.ISBN 0-14-044755-5
* Faulkes, Anthony (Trans.) (1995).Edda.Everyman.ISBN 0-460-87616-3
* Larrington, Carolyne (Trans.) (1999).The Poetic Edda.Oxford World's Classics.ISBN
0-19-283946-2
* Lindow, John(2001).Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Be
liefs.Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-515382-0
* Orchard, Andy (1997).Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend.Cassell.ISBN 0-304-34520
-2
* Simek, Rudolf(2007) translated by Angela Hall.Dictionary of Northern Mythology.D.
S. Brewer.ISBN 0-85991-513-1
* Thorpe, Benjamin(Trans.) (1907).The Elder Edda of Saemund Sigfusson.Norr na Society
.
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Mani(inMiddle PersianM?ni andSyriacM?n?,Greek?????, LatinManes; also?????????, Lat
haeus, from Syriac???? ???M?n? ?ayy?"Living Mani",c. 216 274 AD), ofIranianorigin,[3]
[5][6]was the prophet and the founder ofManichaeism, agnosticreligion ofLate Antiquit
ywhich was once widespread but is now extinct. Mani was born in or nearSeleucia-Ct
esiphoninParthian Babylonia[1](Iraq), at the time still part of theParthian Empire.
Six of his major works were written inSyriac Aramaic, and the seventh, dedicated
to the king of the empire,Shapur I, was written inMiddle Persian, his native langu
age.[7]He died inGundeshapur, under theSassanid Empire.
Contents
[hide]
* 1Sources
* 2Life
* 3Works
* 4Teaching
* 5Christian and Muslim tradition
o 5.1Late Antique Christian accounts
o 5.2Medieval Muslim accounts
* 6See also
* 7References
* 8External links
Sources[edit]
Until the 20th century, no reliable information on Mani's biography was known. S
uch medieval accounts as were known are either legendary orhagiographical, such a
s the account inFihristbyIbn al-Nadim, purportedly byal-Biruni, or were anti-Manicha
ean polemics, such as the 4th centuryActa Archelai. Among these medieval accounts
, Ibn al-Nadim's account of Mani's life and teachings is generally speaking the
most reliable and exhaustive. Notable in this account is the near-complete absen
ce of the "Third Ambassador", who is merely mentioned with the nameba ?r, "messenge
r of good news", and the absence of the topos of "Mani the Painter" (which in ot
her Islamic accounts almost completely replaces that of "the founder of a religi
on").[8]
In 1969 in Upper Egypt aGreekparchment codex dating toca.400 AD was discovered. It i
s now designatedCodex Manichaicus Coloniensisbecause it is conserved at theUniversi
ty of Cologne. It combines ahagiographicaccount of Mani's career and spiritual dev
elopment with information about Mani's religious teachings, and contains fragmen
ts of his writings.
Life[edit]
This work and other evidence discovered in the 20th century establishes Mani as
a historical individual.[9]
Mani was born nearSeleucia-Ctesiphon, perhaps in the townMardinuin theBabyloniandistr
ict ofNahr Kutha, according to other accounts in the townAbrumya. Mani's father P
?tik (Middle PersianPatt?g;[10]Greek ?????????, ArabicFuttuq), a native ofEcbatana[1
1](modern Hamadan, Iran), was a member of the Jewish-Christian sect of theElcesait
es(a subgroup of theGnostic Ebionites). His mother was ofParthian[12][13]descent (fr
om "theArmenianArsacid family ofKamsarakan"[14]); her name is reported variously,
among othersMariam. At ages 12 and 24, Mani had visionary experiences of a heaven
ly twin of his, calling him to leave his father's sect and teach the true messag
e of Christ. In 240 41, Mani travelled to "India" (i.e. to theSakhasin modern-day A
fghanistan), where he studied Hinduism and was probably influenced byGreco-Buddhi
sm. Al-Biruni says Mani traveled to India after being banished from Persia.[15]Re
turning in 242, he joined the court ofShapur I, to whom he dedicated his only wor
k written in Persian, known as theShabuhragan. Shapur was not converted to Manich
aeanism and remainedZoroastrian.[16]
Shapur's successorHormizd I(who reigned only for one year) appears to still have p
atronized Mani, but his successorBahram I, a follower of the Zoroastrian reformerK
artir, began to persecute the Manichaeans. He incarcerated Mani, who died in pri
son within a month, in AD 274.[17]Mani's followers depicted Mani's death as acruci
fixionin conscious analogy to the death of Christ.Al-Birunisays that Bahram ordered
execution of Mani. Then at the order of the emperor, Mani's skin was flayed and
filled with grass, and hung it at the gate of Gundishpur. Bahram also ordered k
illing of many Manicheans.[18]
Works[edit]
The canon of Mani included six works originally written in Syriac, and one inPers
ian, theShapuragan, While none of his books have survived in complete form, there
are numerous fragments and quotations of them, including a long Syriac quotatio
n from one of his works, as well as a large amount of material in Middle Persian
, Coptic, and numerous other languages. Examples of surviving portions of his wo
rks include: theShabuhragan(Middle Persian), theBook of Giants(numerous fragments in
many languages), theFundamental Epistle(quoted in length by Saint Augustine), a n
umber of fragments of hisLiving Gospel(orGreat Gospel), a Syriac excerpt quoted byTh
eodore Bar Konai, and hisLetter to Edessacontained in theCologne Mani-Codex. Mani a
lso wrote the bookArzhang, a holy book of Manichaeism unique in that it contained
many drawings and paintings to express and explain the Manichaeist creation and
history of the world.
Teaching[edit]
Main article:Manichaeism
Mani's teaching is designed as succeeding and surpassing the teachings of Christ
ianity, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism. It is based on a rigiddualismofgood and evil,
locked in eternal struggle. In his mid-twenties, Mani decided that salvation is
possible through education, self-denial, fasting and chastity. Mani claimed to
be theParacletepromised in theNew Testament, theLast Prophet. On what is known of Ma
ni's theology, the following points are made regarding especially Christianity.
While his religion was not strictly a movement of ChristianGnosticismin the earlie
r mode, Mani did declare himself to be an "apostle of Jesus Christ"[1], and exta
nt Manichaean poetry frequently extols Jesus Christ and his mother Mary with the
highest reverence. Manichaean tradition is also noted to have claimed that Mani
was the reincarnation of different religious figures from Buddha, Lord Krishna,
Zoroaster, and Jesus.
Mani's followers were organized in a church structure, divided into a class of "
elects" (electi) and "auditors" (auditores). Only theelectiare required to follow
the laws strictly, while theauditorescare for them, hoping to becomeelectiin their t
urn afterreincarnation.
Christian and Muslim tradition[edit]
Late Antique Christian accounts[edit]
The Christian tradition of Mani is based onSocrates of Constantinople, a historia
n writing in the 5th century. According to this account, one Scythianos, a Sarac
en, husband of an Egyptian woman, "introduced the doctrine ofEmpedoclesandPythagora
sinto Christianity"; that he had a disciple, "Buddas, formerly named Terebinthus,
" who travelled in Persia, where he alleged that he had been born of a virgin, a
nd afterwards wrote four books, one of Mysteries, a second The Gospel, a third T
he Treasure, and a fourth Heads. While performing some mystic rites, he was hurl
ed down a precipice by a daimon, and killed. A woman at whose house he lodged bu
ried him, took over his property, and bought a boy of seven, named Cubricus. Thi
s boy she freed and educated, leaving him the property and books of Buddas-Tereb
inthus. Cubricus then travelled into Persia, where he took the name of Manes and
gave forth the doctrines of Buddas Terebinthus as his own. The king of Persia,
hearing that he worked miracles, sent for him to heal his sick son, and on the c
hild's dying put Manes in prison. Thence he escaped, flying into Mesopotamia, bu
t was traced, captured, and flayed alive by the Persian king's orders, the skin
being then stuffed with chaff and hung up before the gate of the city.
For this narrative, Socrates gives as his authority "The Disputation [with Manes
] of Archelaus bishop of Caschar," a work either unknown to or disregarded byEuse
bius, who in hisHistory(vii.31) briefly vilifies Manes without giving any of the a
bove details. In theChroniconof Eusebius the origin of the sect is placed in the s
econd year of Probus, AD 277.[19]According toJerome, Archelaus wrote his account o
f his disputation with "Manichus" in Syriac, whence it was translated into Greek.
The Greek is lost, and the work, apart from extracts, subsists only in a Latin
translation from the Greek, of doubtful age and fidelity, probably made after th
e 5th century. ByPhotiusit is stated that Heraclean,bishop of Chalcedon, in his boo
k against the Manichans, said theDisputation of Archelauswas written by one Hegemon
ius, an author not otherwise traceable, and of unknown date.
In the Latin narrative, "Manes" is said to have come, after his flight from cour
t, from Arabion, a frontier fortress, to Caschar or Carchar, a town said to be i
nRoman Mesopotamia, in the hope of converting an eminent Christian there, named
Marcellus, to whom he had sent a letter beginning: "Manichus apostle of Jesus Chr
ist, and all the saints and virgins with me, send peace to Marcellus." In his tr
ain he brought twenty-two (or twelve) youths and virgins. At the request of Marc
ellus, he debated on religion with bishop Archelaus, by whom he was vanquished;
whereupon he set out to return to Persia. On his way he proposed to debate with
a priest at the town of Diodorides; but Archelaus came to take the priest's plac
e, and again defeated him; whereupon, fearing to be given up to the Persians by
the Christians, he returned to Arabion. At this stage Archelaus introduces in a
discourse to the people his history of "this Manes," very much to the effect of
the recapitulation in Socrates. Among the further details are these: that Scythi
anus lived "in the time of the Apostles"; that Terebinthus said the name of Budd
as had been imposed on him; that in the mountains he had been brought up by an a
ngel; that he had been convicted of imposture by a Persian prophet named Parcus,
and by Labdacus, son ofMithra; that in the disputation he taught concerning the
sphere, the two luminaries, the transmigration of souls, and the war of thePrinci
piaagainst God; that "Corbicius" or Corbicus, about the age of sixty, translated
the books of Terebinthus; that he made three chief disciples, Thomas, Addas, and
Hermas, of whom he sent the first to Egypt, and the second to Scythia, keeping
the third with him; that the two former returned when he was in prison, and that
he sent them to procure for him the books of the Christians, which he then stud
ied. According to the Latin narrative, finally, Manes on his return to Arabion w
as seized and taken to the Persian king, by whose orders he was flayed, his body
being left to the birds, and his skin, filled with air, hung at the city gate.[
20]
Medieval Muslim accounts[edit]
Painter Mani presenting king Bukhram-Gur (Bahram) with his drawing. 16th-century
painting byAli-Shir Nava'i, Shakrukhia (Tashkent).
Mani is described as a painter who set up a sectarian movement in opposition to
Zoroastrianism. He was persecuted byShapur Iand fled toCentral Asia, where he made
disciples and embellished with paintings aTchighil(orpicturarum domus Chinensis) a
nd another temple calledGhalbita. Provisioning in advance a cave which had a spri
ng, he told his disciples he was going to heaven, and would not return for a yea
r, after which time they were to seek him in the cave in question. They then and
there found him, whereupon he showed them an illustrated book, calledErgenk, orEs
tenk, which he said he had brought from heaven: whereafter he had many followers
, with whom he returned to Persia at the death of Shapur. The new king, Hormisda
s, joined and protected the sect; and built Mani a castle. The next king, Bahram
or Varanes, at first favoured Mani; but, after getting him to debate with certa
in Zoroastrian teachers, caused him to be flayed alive, and the skin to be stuff
ed and hung up. Thereupon most of his followers fled to India and China.
See also[edit]
* Mar Ammo
* Cologne Mani-Codex
* Mandaeism
* Gospel of Mani
* The Gardens of Light
* Arzhang
References[edit]
1. ^Jump up to:abTaraporewala, I.J.S.,Manichaeism, Iran Chamber Society, retrieved 0
8-09-2012Check date values in:|accessdate=(help)
2. Jump up^http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sasanian-dynasty
3. Jump up^Boyce, Mary (2001),Zoroastrians: their religious beliefs and practices,
Routledge, p.111, "He was Iranian, of noble Parthian blood..."
4. Jump up^Ball, Warwick (2001),Rome in the East: the transformation of an empire,
Routledge, p.437, "Manichaeism was a syncretic religion, proclaimed by the Irani
an Prophet Mani".
5. Jump up^Sundermann, Werner (2009),Mani, the founder of the religion of Manichei
sm in the 3rd century CE,Iranica(Sundermann), "According to the Fehrest, Mani was
of Arsacid stock on both his father s and his mother s sides, at least if the readin
gs al-?ask?niya (Mani s father) and al-as??niya (Mani s mother) are corrected to ala k?niya and al-a ??niya (ed. Flgel, 1862, p. 49, ll. 2 and 3) respectively. The fore
fathers of Mani s father are said to have been from Hamadan and so perhaps of Iran
ian origin (ed. Flgel, 1862, p. 49, 5 6). The Chinese Compendium, which makes the f
ather a local king, maintains that his mother was from the house Jinsajian, expl
ained by Henning as the Armenian Arsacid family of Kamsarakan (Henning, 1943, p.
52, n. 4 = 1977, II, p. 115). Is that fact, or fiction, or both? The historicit
y of this tradition is assumed by most, but the possibility that Mani s noble Arsa
cid background is legendary cannot be ruled out (cf. Scheftelowitz, 1933, pp. 40
3 4). In any case, it is characteristic that Mani took pride in his origin from ti
me-honored Babel, but never claimed affiliation to the Iranian upper class."
6. Jump up^Bausani, Alessandro (2000),Religion in Iran: from Zoroaster to Baha'ull
ah, Bibliotheca Persica Press, p.80, "We are now certain that Mani was of Iranian
stock on both his father's and his mother's side".
7. Jump up^Henning, W.B.,The Book of Giants, BSOAS, Vol. XI, Part 1, 1943, pp. 52 74
:"...Mani, who was brought up and spent most of his life in a province of the Per
sian empire, and whose mother belonged to a famous Parthian family, did not make
any use of the Iranian mythological tradition. There can no longer be any doubt
that the Iranian names of S?m, Nar?m?n, etc., that appear in the Persian and So
gdian versions of the Book of the Giants, did not figure in the original edition
, written by Mani in the Syriac language."
8. Jump up^W. Sundermann, "Al-Fehrest, iii. Representation of Manicheism.",Encyclo
paedia Iranica, 1999.
9. Jump up^Bhlig,Manichismus, 5ff.
10. Jump up^D. N. MacKenzie. A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary. Routledge Curzon, 2005
.
11. Jump up^Encyclopdia Britannica.Mani (Iranian religious leader)(2011)
12. Jump up^Henning, W.B., The Book of Giants, BSOAS, Vol. XI, Part 1, 1943, pp.
52 74: "It is noteworthy that Mani, who was brought up and spent most of his life
in a province of the Persian empire, and whose mother belonged to a famous Parth
ian family, did not make any use of the Iranian mythological tradition. There ca
n no longer be any doubt that the Iranian names of S?m, Nar?m?n, etc., that appe
ar in the Persian and Sogdian versions of the Book of the Giants, did not figure
in the original edition, written by Mani in the Syriac language."
13. Jump up^W. Eilers (1983), "Iran and Mesopotamia" in E. Yarshater, The Cambrid
ge History of Iran, vol. 3, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 500: "Mani
, a Parthian on his mother's side, was born at Ctesiphon in the last decade of t
he Arsacid era (AD 216). "
14. Jump up^Sundermann, Werner (2009),Mani, the founder of the religion of Maniche
ism in the 3rd century CE,Iranica, "...his mother was from the house Jinsajian, e
xplained by Henning as theArmenian Arsacid family of Kamsarakan".
15. Jump up^Al-Biruni(translator:Edward Sachau) (1910).Al Beruni's India. London.
16. Jump up^Marco Frenschkowski (1993)."Mani (iran. M?n?<; gr. M???????? < ostaram
. M?n? ?ayy?der lebendige Mani)". In Bautz, Traugott.Biographisch-Bibliographisches
Kirchenlexikon(BBKL)(in German)5. Herzberg: Bautz. cols. 669 80.ISBN3-88309-043-3.