ABSTRACT

Performance based seismic design philosophies in seismic design has become the
cardinal point of interest in civil engineering structures Due to the vulnerability of
earthquake, base isolation system should be introduced in major earthquake zone. To
see the dynamic behaviour of the structure, dynamic analysis should be performed for
regular and irregular building with and without isolator in seismic zones. Dynamic
analysis can take the form of a dynamic time history analysis or a linear response
spectrum analysis. The installation of isolator in building considerably increases the
time period of the structure, which means it reduces the possibility of resonance of the
structure. Provision of isolator in building often increase the total cost, but as
reinforcement requirement and construction material cost is reduced due to isolator.
So,isolator may be incorporated at the bottom of the structure to exploit economic and
structurally safe alternative. In this present study, Multi-storey irregular building and
regular building of 9 stories with or without isolator has been modelled using software
packages SAP2000 v15 for different seismic zones. Dynamic response of building
under actual earthquakes. This report highlights the comparison of isolated and nonisolated building performances with Time History Analysis and Response Spectrum
Analysis.
keywords: Base isolator, irregular RCC building, Time History analysis, storey drift.

INTRODUCTION
India has experienced many major earthquakes in the past century, as high as 8.7
magnitude and has lost huge number of lives and properties. Keeping in view there is
an urgency to recheck the safety of the structure which still exist. There are many
analytical methods developed in the past few decades to evaluate the seismic demand
of the structure so as to predict their behavior during the earthquake and thereby take
up the suitable retrofitting measures and hence assure safety against earthquake and
minimise the losses. During an earthquake the principal attack on a structure is by
transient horizontal forces. The earthquake resistance of the structure depends on a
combination of elastic strength, inelastic deformability and damping capacity. The
relative effectiveness of these three factors depends in part on the character of the
attacking earthquake.
Typical earthquakes have one of four characteristics :
Type 1 earthquakes are impulsive with a single dominant lurch in one direction.
Structures may resist these earthquakes by a combination of elastic strength and
inelastic deformability.
Type 2 earthquakes are of long duration with irregular "noise-like" ground motions.
Structures resist them by elastic strength, inelastic deformability.
Type 3 earthquakes are of long duration and have regular motions with one or more
dominant periods. They are a consequent of the partial resonance of flexible ground
and are therefore a microzone effect. Avoidance of such near-coincidence of periods
may be impeded by architectural requirements, by difficulty in predicting earthquake
periods, and by increases in ground period with increasing ground strains.
Type 4 earthquakes are those which include severe ground damage in addition to the
inertia attack, Economy of design is achieved by allowing a structure to deform well
into the inelastic range during severe earthquakes. Effective earthquake resistance
may be obtained provided the structure has adequate capacity for inelastic
deformation.The capacity of a structure to deform inelastically is expressed as a
ductility factor, defined as the ratio of 'the maximum deflection.

The methods like elastic and nonlinear methods are in use in the seismic evaluation of
the structures. The non linear methods can determine the post elastic behavior of the
members and hence it is most preferred method of analysis.
The Role and Use of Nonlinear Analysis in Seismic Design
While buildings are usually designed for seismic resistance using elastic analysis,
most will experience significant inelastic deformations under large earthquakes.
Modern performance-based design methods require ways to determine the realistic
behavior of structures under such conditions. Enabled by advancements in computing
technologies and available test data, nonlinear analyses provide the means for
calculating structural response beyond the elastic range, including strength and
stiffness deterioration associated with inelastic material behavior and large
displacements. As such, nonlinear analysis can play an important role in the design of
new and existing buildings.
Nonlinear analyses involve significantly more effort to perform and should be
approached with specific objectives in mind. Typical instances where nonlinear
analysis is applied in structural earthquake engineering practice are to:

(1) assess

and design seismic retrofit solutions for existing buildings; (2) Design new buildings
that employ structural materials, systems, or other features that do not conform to
current building code requirements; (3) assess the performance of buildings for
specific owner/stakeholder requirements. If the intent of using a nonlinear analysis is
to justify a design that would not satisfy the prescriptive building code requirements,
it is essential to develop the basis for acceptance with the building code authority at
the outset of a project. The design basis should be clearly defined and agreed upon,
outlining in specific terms all significant performance levels and how they will be
evaluated.

Objective and Scope of Work

The objective of the work is to find seismic analysis for a nine storey R. C. C.
Regular and Irregular building frame using SAP 2000, v.15 software package
with Linear Dynamic and Non-linear dynamic analysis.

The scope of work includes finding Base Shear and Time period for given
structure from the results of Modal analysis and to find the variation of Relative
Results with and without Base Isolator In Different Seismic zones.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Arman Chowdhury, wahid Hassan (2013)

Studied the comparative of the

Dynamic Analysis of multi-storie irregular Building with or without Base Isolator.

The Basic objective of the research is to perform non linear dynamic analysis of
building with Isolated Bearing and non-isolated one. The investigation gives
emphasis on the feasibility of

incorporation of

isolators and its structural

implications in buildings in Dhaka. He observed that, the maximum displacements of

buildings in different storeys in x and y direction the displacement is significant in
first five stories and difference between displacement is decreasing

with the

increasing storey height. It is observed that the relative displacement between stories
after using isolator is much less than before. Finally, he concluded axial force on
column will be Reduced which will Reduce the Design reinforcement for column.
So, Base isolation is Economical under design consideration.

Habibi ana Asadi (2013); Studied the Seismic Performance of RC Frames Irregular
in Elevation Designed Based on Iranian Seismic Code. This Paper

addresses

multistory Reinforced Concrete (RC) frame buildings, regular and irregular in

elevation. Several multistory Reinforced Concrete Moment Resisting Frames
(RCMRFs) with different types of setbacks, as well as the regular frames in elevation,
are designed according to the provisions of the Iranian national building code and
Iranian
seismic code for the high ductility class. Inelastic dynamic time-history analysis is
performed on all frames subjected to ten input motions. The assessment of the seismic
performance is done based on both global and local criteria. Results show that when
setback occurs in elevation, the requirements of the life safety level are not satisfied. It
is also shown that the elements near the setback experience the maximum damage.
Therefore it is necessary to strengthen these elements by appropriate method to satisfy
the life safety level of the frames.

Ladjinovic and Folic(2008): Studied the seismic analysis of asymmetric in plan

buildings. The goodbehaviour of the structure can be provided with a well distributed
lateral load resisting system. The inelastic seismic behaviour of asymmetric-plan
buildings is considered by using the histories of base shear and torque(BST). The
procedure to construct the BST surface of the system with an arbitrary number of
resisting elements in the direction of asymmetry and of ground motion is proposed.
The BST surface describes the inelastic properties of a system.

Zbigniew Zembaty (2007)

Studied the spatial seismic excitations and response

spectra . The Formal extensions of the response spectrum method to include spatial
seismic effects are reviewed.Two approaches are described in detail: the first based on
random vibrations of a simple oscillator undertwo-component excitations, and the
second analyzing multi-column building seismic response. Thesubjective choice of
these two complementing approaches aims at analyzing the phenomenon of
spatialseismic vibrations of structures from a broader physical perspective of various
wave types propagating among structural supports, with detailed random vibration
sensitivity analysis of a simple structural system still included.

Sigmund Freeman (2007) : Studied the Response spectra as a useful design and
analysis toolfor practicing structural engineers. The purpose of this paper is to review
the concept of response spectra for design engineers not familiar with their
significance and to summarize a variety of uses that can be applied for purposes such
as rapid evaluation for a large inventory of buildings, performance verification of new
construction, evaluation of existing structures for seismic vulnerability, and post
earthquake estimates of potential damage of buildings.

Devesh and Bharat (2006) A review of studies on the seismic behavior of vertically
irregular structures along with their findings has been presented. It is observed that
building codes provide criteria to classify the vertically irregular structures and
suggest dynamic analysis to arrive at design lateral forces. Most of the studies agree
on the increase in drift demand in the tower portion of set-back structures and on the

increase in seismic demand for buildings with discontinuous distributions in mass,

stiffness, and strength. The largestseismic demand is found for the combinedstiffness-and-strength irregularity.

Khoury et al.,(2005), Considered four nine storey asymmetric setback perimeter

frame structures designed according to the Israeli steel code SI 1225(1998) that
differed with special attention on the influence of the setback level, non-linear
dynamic analyses were performed, and a 3D structural Model was used under bidirectional ground motions. Results showed amplification in response at the upper
storeys, thus suggesting that the higher vibration modes have significant influence,
Particularly the torsional ones. In this respect, the authors recommended that future
research on setback buildings should be conducted on full plan-asymmetric structures.

Athanassiadou and Bervanakis,(2005), Studied the seismic Behaviour of Reinforced

concrete Buildings with setbacks designed to capacity design procedure provided by
Euro code 8. In their study, two ten storey frames with 2 and 4 legs setbacks in the
upper floors respectively, as well as a third one, regular in elevation, have been
designed to the provisions of Euro Code 8 for the high(H) ductility class and a
common peak ground acceleration(PGA) of 0.25g. All frames were subjected to
inelastic dynamic time-history Analyses for selected input motions. They found that
the seismic performance of the studied multi-storey reinforced concrete frame
Buildings with setbacks in the upper storeys designed to EC8 can be considered as
completely satisfactory, not inferior and in some cases even superior of that of the
regular ones, even for motions twice as strong as the design earthquake. Inter-storey
drif ratios of irregular frames were found to remain quite low even in the case of the
Collapse Prevention earthquake with an intensity double that of the design one.

Xavier ROMAO, et.al.,(2004), The purpose of the presented work is the behavior
assessment of reinforced concrete frame structures with irregularities in Elevation. 3
6-storey frame structures with different degrees of irregularity in elevation were
selected and their response were compared with the ones of a corresponding regular

structure. In this study, the effects of the variation of the axial force in the columns
and of different contributions of slab width to the beams flexural strength were
investigated. In addition, a structure similar in configuration with one of the
previously selected was defined and designed using current Portuguese codes to
perform a comparison, between different design approaches. Structural performance
was assessed by comparing local ductility levels, displacements inter storey drifts
and damage indices of the irregular frames and the regular one.

Peng- Hsiang, Chargn(1998) : studied the seismic response of different types of

structures including base isolated, fixed base and segmental buildings with added
damping devices subjected to EI Centro N-S earthquake. A 12- storey building was
designed to New Zealand Standard Code of

Practice for Design of Concrete

Structures NZS 3101:1982 and NZS 3101 :1995 to the different isolation systems
and the effects of added viscous damping based on the equivalent static method
recommended by New Zealand Standard code of Practice for General Structural
Design and Design Loadings for Buildings
NZS 4203: 1992 was also made to evaluate the seismic responses of the stiff and
flexible buildings which was then compared with those of the structures without
additional damping for different earthquake motions.

Andriono and Carr(1990) investigated in more detail the effects of various structural
parameters and ground motion characteristics on the response of base isolated multi
storey structures. The results were then used to develop two simplified analysis
methods for practical design. The first proposed method which is called the Code
Type approach can be accurately estimate the inertia forces, not only at the level of
the base isolation devices but throughout the entire height of the multi storey
structure. This design procedure is suitable for preliminary design or even a final
design of uniform

base isolated multi-storey structures with an

unisolated

fundamental natural period, less than approximately 0.8 seconds. The second
procedure, which is based on the Component Mode Synthesis method, is suggested

for final design purposes of base isolated multi storey structures with more irregular
and flexible superstructures. However, inelastic time history analysis can now be
conducted to evaluate the inelastic behavior of the superstructure under a very severe
earthquake in order to ensure that the superstructure will have a satisfactory failure
mechanism.

DIS, Inc, Design Procedures for Buildings Mounted on Lead- Rubber Bearings
(1984) are based on a single degree- of-freedom representation of the building. It
was stated in this design procedure that provided the period of the non-isolated
building is less than 1.5 seconds and the building is reasonably symmetric, the single
degree-of- freedom assumption is a good approximation for design purposes. The
inelastic response of a multistory building is approximately predicted in these design
procedures by the pseudo elastic response of its fundamental mode. No specific
guidance was given for the lateral force distribution up the height of the
superstructure.

Crosbie et al.,(1997) carried out a research work to study the seismic performance of
four, eight and twelve storey masonry shear walls mounted on base isolation devices.
The main purpose of this study was to examine an alternative method of limiting the
inertia forces in masonry buildings by seismic base isolation and also gave a
significant contribution towards later attempts made to investigate the seismic
response of base isolated multi storey structures. They used a series of deterministic
time history analyses with earthquakes EI Centro 1940 N-S, Taft 1952 N69W, and
two artificial A1 and B1 accelerograms generated by Jennings.

3.METHODOLOGY
Seismic Analysis methods can be done in 5 ways
1)Equivalent Static Analysis
2)Non-linear Static Analysis
3)Linear Dynamic Analysis
4)Non-linear Dynamic Analysis
Suitable for small and at no point the load will reach to collapse load and differs in
obtaining level of forces and their distribution along the height of the structure
whereas, the non-linear static and Non-linear dynamic analyses are the Improved
methods over linear. During Earthquake structural loading will reach to collapse load
and the material stresses will be above yield stresses so in that case, material nonlinearity and geometrical non-linearity should be incorporated into the analyses to get
better Results. These methods provide Information on the strength, deformation and
ductility of the structures as well as distribution of demands.

Equivalent Static Analysis: This Approach defines a series of forces on a building

to represent the effect of earthquake ground motion. It assumes that the building
responds in its fundamental mode for this to be true, the building must be low rise and
must not twist significantly when the ground moves. The response is read from a
design response spectrum, given the Natural frequency of the Building. The
Applicability of this method is Extended in many Building Codes by applying factors
to account for Higher Buildings with some Higher mode, and for low level of
twisting. To account for effects due to yielding of the structure, many codes apply
modification factors that reduce the Design forces ( Eg: force reduction factors)

Methods of Analysis

Non-linear Static Analysis :

Pushover analysis or non linear static analysis has been developed over the past two
decades and has become the preferred analysis procedure for design and seismic
performance evaluation purposes, as the procedure is relatively simple and also
considers post elastic behavior. However, the procedure involves certain
approximations and simplifications that some amount of variation is always expected
to exist in seismic demand prediction of pushover analysis.
Pushover analysis is used mainly to evaluate seismic performance of existing
buildings and retrofit them. It can also be applied for new structures. Reinforced
concrete(RC) framed buildings would become massive if they were to be designed to
behave elastically during earthquakes, without damage also they would become
uneconomical. Therefore the structures must undergo damage to dissipate seismic
energy. To design such a structure, it is necessary to know its performance and
collapse pattern. To know performance and collapse pattern non linear static
procedures are helpful.
Response Spectrum Method:
This method is applicable for those structures where modes other than the
fundamental one affect significantly the response of the structure. In this method, The
response of MDOF system is Expressed as the Superposition of modal response, each
modal response being determined from the spectral analyses of SDOF system, which
are then combined to compute the total response. Modal Analyses leads to the
response history of the structure to a specified ground motion; however, the method
is usually used in Conjunction with a Response Spectrum.

Methodologies for the Study :

1)Linear Dynamic Analyses Response Spectrum Analyses as per IS 1893 -2002
2)Non linear dynamic Analyses Time History Analyses

Linear Dynamic Analysis Response Spectrum Analysis

This method is also known as modal method or mode superposition method. The method is
applicable to those structures where modes other than the fundamental one significantly
affect the response of the structure. Generally, the method is applicable to analysis of the
dynamic response of structures, which are asymmetrical or have the areas of discontinuity
or irregularity in their linear range of behavior. In particular, it is applicable to analysis of
forces and deformations in multi storey buildings due to medium intensity ground
shaking which causes moderately large but essentially linear response in the structure. This
method is based on the fact that, for certain forms of damping which are reasonable
models for many buildings-the response in each natural mode of vibration can be computed
independently of the others, and the model responses can be combined to determine the
particular pattern of deformation( mode shape), with its own frequency ( the modal
frequency) And with its own modal damping. The time history of each modal response can
be computed analysis of SDOF oscillator with properties chosen to be representative of the
particular method.

The Equation of Motion

The equation of motion can be derived by using the d'Alembert's principle which
gives a concept that a mass develops an inertial force proportional to its acceleration
and opposing the acceleration of the mass.

The equation of motion of a dynamic system can be formulated by directly

expressing its equilibrium of all forces acting on the mass of the system using
dAlemberts Principle as:

fI(t) + fD(t) + fS(t) = p(t) . . 1

Each of the forces represented on the left hand side of this equation is a function
of the displacement u(t) or one of its time derivatives. The positive sense of these
forces has been deliberately chosen to correspond with the negative-displacement
sense so that they oppose a positive applied loading.

In accordance with d'Alembert's principle, the inertial force is the product of the
mass and acceleration

fI(t) = m(t) 2

Assuming a viscous damping mechanism, the damping force is the product of the
damping constant c and the velocity

fD(t) = c (t) 3

Finally, the elastic force is the product of the spring stiffness and the displacement

fS(t) = ku(t) 4

When Eqs. (4) are introduced into Eq. (3), the equation of motion for this SDOF
system is found to be

m(t) + c (t) + ku(t) = p(t) . . 5

Integrating over the domain, the equation of motion for vibration of a multiple degree
of freedom (DOF) system is defined as a linear system of ordinary differential
equations as:

[M]{} + [C]{ } + [K]{U} = {P(t)} 6

Free Vibration
The equilibrium equations for the free vibration of an undamped multiple degree
of freedom system are defined as a set of linear homogeneous second-order ordinary
differential equations as:

[M]{} + [K]{U} = {0} 7

Assuming a harmonic motion for the temporal displacement, ({U} = {} e

-it

Eq. (7) is transformed to a set of linear homogeneous algebraic equations as:

([K] ( )[M]{} = {0} 8

Or

([K] {} = ( )[M]{} 9

Eq. (8) is known as a generalized Eigen-value problem between the stiffness and mass
matrices of the system.

The values of () are the natural circular frequencies and the vectors {} are the
corresponding mode shapes
Solution to Eigen value Problem
For non-trivial solutions, the determinant of ([K] () [M]) must be zero. This
leads to a scalar equation, known as the characteristic equation, whose roots are the
systems natural circular frequencies of the system ().

Substituting each value of circular frequency in Eq. (8) yields a corresponding

eigenvector or mode shape, that is defined to an arbitrary multiplicative constant. The
modal matrix [{} ... {n}] spans the N-dimensional linear vector space.

This means that the eigenvectors [{} ... {n}] form a complete basis, i.e., any vector
such as the vector of dynamic response of a multiple degree of freedom (MDOF) system,
{U(t)}, can be expressed as a linear combination of the mode shapes:

* ( )+

+ ( )+*

+ ( )+.+*

( ) =

* +

( )10

in which, the terms y (t) n are modal coordinates and therefore, {U(t)} is defined in
modal coordinate space, since the values of { } are independent of time for linear
systems
Furthermore, the temporal derivatives of total response can be expressed as:

{ ( )}

+ ( )+*

+ ( )+.+*

+ ( ) =

* + ( ) 11

{ ( )}

+ ( )+*

+ ( )+.+*

+ ( ) =

* + ( )12

Which are also defined in modal coordinate space.

Orthogonality of Modes
Considering the generalized Eigen-value problem for the mth and nth circular
frequencies and corresponding mode shapes:

([K] (m )[M]{m} = {0} 13

2

([K] (n )[M]{n} = {0} 14

Pre-multiplying Eq. (13) and Eq. (14) by {n} and {m} , respectively:

{n} [K]{m} (m ) {n} [M]{m} = {0} 15

T

{m} [K]{n} (n ) {m} [M]{n} = {0} 16

Then, transposing Eq. (16) and invoking the symmetric property of the [K] and
[M] matrices yields:

{n} [K]{m} (n ) {n} [M]{m} = {0} 17

Subtracting Eq. (17) from Eq. (15) yields:

((m (n )) {n} [M]{m} = {0} 18

For any (m n), if (m (n ) :

{n} [M]{m} = {0} 19

T

{n} [K]{m} = {0} 20

Eqs. (19,20) express the characteristic of orthogonality of mode shapes with

respect to mass and stiffness matrices, respectively.

7 Response History Analysis (RHA)

In response history analysis (RHA), N uncoupled SDOF modal equations, Eq.

(20), are solved for the modal coordinates (Dn(t)), and then, by superposing the modal
responses, the total displacement response of the system is obtained as:
* ( )+ =

( )) (

)*

+21

In which the time history of the total response is obtained by the summation of
modal responses as products of time history of modal coordinates (Dn(t)), modal
participation factors (n), and modal displacements (mode shapes) {n}. Moreover,
the time history of any load effect, R(t) , may be expressed as:
* ( )+

( )) (

)*

+22

In which, {Rn} is a static modal load effect.

2.7.8 Response Spectrum Analysis (RSA)

In response spectrum analysis (RSA), for each uncoupled generalized SDOF
modal equation, Eq. (22), the maximum modal coordinate (Dn,max) is obtained using
the response spectrum of the external excitation p(t) and assumed modal damping n
(Figure 2.1).
Response spectra are found by obtaining the maximum dynamic amplification
(maximum ratio of dynamic to static responses) for a set of natural frequencies.

A generic response spectrum for an external excitation p(t)

Therefore, the modal response is obtained as:

{

}=(

)(

)*

2.7.8 Response Spectrum Analysis Summary

Response spectrum analysis to compute the dynamic response of a MDOF to

external forces and ground excitation can be summarized as a sequence of steps as:
1

Define the structural properties.

2.

3.

Determine the stiffness matrix [K] and mass matrix [M].

Assume the modal damping ratio n.

Perform a generalized Eigen-value problem between the stiffness and mass

matrices.

Determine natural circular frequencies n.

Determine mode shapes {n}.

Compute the maximum modal response.

Determine the maximum modal coordinate (Dn,max) using the

excitation response spectrum for the corresponding natural circular

frequency and modal damping ratio.

Determine the modal participation factor n.

Compute the maximum modal response as a product of maximum

modal coordinate, modal participation factor and mode shape.

4.

Combine the contributions of all maximum modal responses to determine

the maximum total response using SRSS or other combination methods.

2.7.10 Limitations to RSA

In the presence of uncertainty in the structures physical or geometrical

parameters, the deterministic structural dynamic analysis cannot be performed and
hence, a new method must be developed to incorporate an uncertainty analysis into
the conventional response spectrum analysis.

Non-linear Dynamic Analysis:

When the load Acting on the structure and the resulting deflections are small Enough, the
load-deflection Relationship for the structure is linear. For the most part, Analyses assumes such
linear behavior. The linear Equilibrium Equations are in dependent of the Applied load and the
resulting deflection. Thus the results of different static or dynamic loads can be superposed,
resulting in great computations efficiency. If the loads on the structure and/or the resulting
deflections are large, then the load deflection behavior may become non-linear. Several causes of
this non-linear Behaviour can be identified.

P-delta (large-Stress) effect: When large Stress (or forces and moments) are presented with in a
structure, Equilibrium equations written for the original and the deformed geometries may differ
significantly, even if the deformations are very small.

Large-Displacement effect : when the Structure undergoes large deformations (In particular
large strains and rotations) the usual engineering Stress and Strain Measures no longer apply, and
the equilibrium equations must be written for the deformed geometric. This is true even if the
stresses are small.

Material Non-linearity : When a material is Strained beyond its yield point may Exhibit
History-dependent Behaviour material non-linearity may affect the load-deflection behavior of a
structure even when the equilibrium equations for the original geometry are still valid.

Other effects: Other Sources of non-linearity are also possible, including non linear loads,
Boundary condition and Constraints. The large-stress and large-displacement effects are both

termed geometric( or Kinetic) non-linearity, as distinguished from material non-linearity

kinematic non-linearity may also be referred as second-order geometric effects.

For Non-linear direct integration time history Analyses, Only the non-linear Behaviour of the
link/support Elements is included. If the modes used for this Analyses were computed using the
stiffness from the end of a non-linear Analyses, all other types of non-linearities are looked into
the state that Existed at the end of that non-linear Analysis.

Non-linear Time History Analysis :

In Non-linear dynamic Procedure the Building Model is similar to the one used in
the non-linear static procedures Incorporating directly the inelastic material response using in
general finite elements. The main difference is that seismic input is modeled using a TimeHistory Analyses, which involves time-step-by-time-step Evaluation of the Building Response.
This is the most sophisticated Analyses procedure for predicting forces and
displacements under seismic input. However, the calculated response can be very sensitive to the
characteristics of the individual ground motion used as seismic input, therefore several different
ground motion records the most basic Inelastic Method at this time is considered over by
Complex and Inappropriate for general use.
Whenever Structure is Subjected to strong earthquake Excitation, it maynt
Remain in linear range. The Main advantage of Non-linear time history Analyses is stiffness of
the structure is updated Each and Every time step. The governing Equation for an Elastic system
is:
A simple single degree of freedom system (a mass, M, on a spring of stiffness, k for example)
has the following equation of motion:

where

is the acceleration (the double derivative of the displacement) and x is the

displacement.
If the loading F(t) is a Heaviside step function (the sudden application of a constant load), the
solution to the equation of motion is:

Where,

and the

fundamental natural frequency,

The static deflection of a single degree of freedom system is:

so you can write, by combining the above formulae:

This gives the (theoretical) time history of the structure due to a load F(t), where the false
assumption is made that there is no damping.
Although this is too simplistic to apply to a real structure, the Heaviside Step Function is a
reasonable model for the application of many real loads, such as the sudden addition of a piece of
furniture, or the removal of a prop to a newly cast concrete floor. However, in reality loads are
never applied instantaneously - they build up over a period of time (this may be very short
indeed). This time is called the rise time.

REFERENCES