Wireless Network System Components

Wireless networks utilize components similar to wired networks; however, wireless networks
must convert information signals into a form suitable for transmission through the air medium.
Even though wireless networks directly contribute only to a portion of the overall network
infrastructure, attention to all network functions is necessary to counter impairments resulting
from the wireless medium. This chapter discusses concepts common to all types of wireless
networks, with emphasis on components and information signals.
A wireless network consists of several components that support communications using radio
or light waves propagating through an air medium. Some of these elements overlap with
those of wired networks, but special consideration is necessary for all of these components
when deploying a wireless network. Figure 2-1 illustrates these primary components.
Users
A user can be anything that directly utilizes the wireless network. One of the most common
types of user is a person. For example, a business traveler accessing the Internet from a
public wireless LAN at an airport is a user. In some cases, however, the user might not be
human. A robot, for example, might receive instructions over a wireless network from a
central computer that controls a manufacturing process. Because the wireless network exists
to serve the user, the user is the component that receives the benefits of a wireless network.
As a result, users are an important part of the wireless network.
Users of wireless networks tend to be mobile, constantly moving throughout a facility,
campus, or city. Mobility is one of the most prominent benefits of deploying a wireless
network. For example, a person walking through a convention center while sending and
receiving e-mail from a PDA is exercising mobility. The PDA in this case must have continual
or frequent connections to a wireless network infrastructure.
Other users might actually be stationary, which means that they operate from one place for an
indefinite period of time. An example of this type of user is someone working from a wireless
computer in an office. The biggest difference between a stationary and portable user is that
the stationary user will not require any form of roaming functions. Roaming functions are
difficult to implement in some situations.
Computer Devices
Many types of computer devices, sometimes referred to as clients, operate on a wireless
network. Some computer devices might be specifically designed for users, whereas some
computer devices are end systems. In generally, any computer device might communicate
with any other computer device on the same wireless network.
A computer device also has an operating system, such as Windows XP, LINUX, or MAC OS.
The operating system runs software needed to realize the wireless network application. In
some cases, the operating system has built-in features that enhance wireless networks. For

example, Windows XP has the ability to automatically identify and associate with wireless
LANs.
NICs
The network interface card provides the interface between the computer device and the
wireless network infrastructure. The NIC fits inside the computer device, but external network
adaptors are available that plug in and remain outside the computer device. Figure 2-3 shows
examples of several types of wireless NICs.
Wireless network standards define how a wireless NIC operates. For example, a wireless
LAN NIC might implement the IEEE 802.11b standard. In this case, the wireless NIC will only
be able to interface with a wireless network infrastructure that complies with the 802.11b
standard. As a result, users must be careful to ensure that the wireless NIC they choose
matches the type of wireless network infrastructure they want to access.
Wireless NICs also comply with a specific form factor, which defines the physical and
electrical bus interface that enables the card to communicate with the computer device.
Again, the user must consider this to ensure that the chosen wireless NIC will fit within their
computer device. The following is a summary of the different internal form factors available for
wireless networks:
Industry-Standard Architecture (ISA)ISA has been around since the early 1980s.
Because of this, the proliferation of the ISA bus has been significant. Despite its limited
performance, nearly all PCs manufactured up until recently had at least one ISA bus.
The ISA bus has failed, however, to advance at the pace of the rest of the computer
world, and other higher-speed alternatives are now available. ISA doesn't impose too
much of a performance impact on 802.11b wireless LANs. It's not advisable, however,
to purchase new ISA cards because of the possibility of them becoming obsolete.
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)The PCI bus is the most popular interface
for PCs today and boasts high performance. Intel originally developed and released
PCI in 1993, and it satisfies the needs of the recent generations of PCs for multimedia
and graphics. PCI cards were the first to popularize "plug-and-play" technology, which
makes it easy to install the NIC. PCI circuitry can recognize compatible PCI cards and
work with the computer's operating system to set the configurations for each card. This
saves time and prevents installation headaches for nontechnical users.
PC CardThe PC Card was developed in the early 1990s by the Personal Computer
Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA). The PC Card is a credit-card-sized
device that provides extended memory, modems, connectivity to external devices, as
well as wireless LAN capabilities to small computer devices such as laptops and PDAs.
In fact, they are the most widely available NICs available. They are more popular than
ISA or PCI cards because of use in a growing number of laptops and PDAs.

 Mini-PCIA Mini-PCI card is a smaller version of a standard desktop PCI card and fits
well within small, mobile computer devices. It has all the same features and
functionality of a normal PCI card, but is about one quarter the size. Mini-PCI cards are
integrated within laptops as an option to buyers. A strong advantage of this form of
radio NIC is that it frees up the PC Card slot for other devices, such as memory
extenders and graphics accelerators. In addition, manufacturers can provide Mini-PCI
based wireless NICs at lower costs. The Mini-PCI card is not without disadvantages,
however. The replacement of a Mini-PCI card typically requires the disassembly of the
laptop, which might void the manufacturer's warranty. Mini-PCI cards might also lead to
lower performance because they require the computer to do some, if not all, of the
processing. Despite these drawbacks, the Mini-PCI card is becoming a solid
technology in the wireless laptop world.
CompactFlashSanDisk Corporation first introduced CompactFlash (CF) in 1994, but
wireless NICs were not available in CF form factors until recently. A CF card is small,
weighing half an ounce, and is less than half the thickness of a PC Card. It also holds
only one quarter the volume of PC Card radio card. The CF cards draw little power,
which enables the batteries to last longer than devices using PC Cards. Some PDAs
come with direct CF interfaces, which results in a lightweight and compact wireless
PDA. If the computer device doesn't have a CF slot, you can purchase an adapter so
that the CF card will fit into a standard PC Card slot. A CF radio card is definitely the
way to go, especially for compact computing devices.
In addition to the internal NICs, a variety of external network interfaces connect to the
computer device through parallel, serial, and USB ports. These might be suitable for
stationary computers, but they certainly hinder mobility in most wireless applications.
Air Medium
Air serves many purposes, such as providing a basis for speech, enabling air travel, and
sustaining life. Air also provides a medium for the propagation of wireless communications
signals, which is the heart of wireless networking. Air is the conduit by which information flows
between computer devices and the wireless infrastructure. Think of communication through a
wireless network as similar to talking to someone. As you move farther apart, it's more difficult
to hear each other, especially when a loud noise is present.
Wireless information signals also travel through the air, but they have special properties that
enable propagation over relatively long distances. Wireless information signals cannot be
heard by humans, so it's possible to amplify the signals to a higher level without disturbing
human ears. The quality of transmission, however, depends on obstructions in the air that
either lessen or scatter the strength and range of the signals.
With wireless networks, the air medium supports the propagation of radio and light waves that
travel from one point to another. These types of signals have been in use for more than 100

years, but they are still somewhat mysterious and not well understood by most computer
professionals. Chapter 3 provides details on signal characteristics and impairments that relate
to the air medium.
Wireless Network Infrastructures
The infrastructure of a wireless network interconnects wireless users and end systems. The
infrastructure might consist of base stations, access controllers, application connectivity
software, and a distribution system. These components enhance wireless communications
and fulfill important functions necessary for specific applications.
Base Stations
The base station is a common infrastructure component that interfaces the wireless
communications signals traveling through the air medium to a wired networkoften referred
to as a distribution system. Therefore, a base station enables users to access a wide range of
network services, such as web browsing, e-mail access, and database applications. A base
station often contains a wireless NIC that implements the same technology in operation by the
user's wireless NIC.
Base stations go by different names, depending on their purpose. An access point, for
instance, represents a generic base station for a wireless LAN. A collection of access points
within a wireless LAN, for example, supports roaming throughout a facility. The NIC within a
user's computer device connects with the nearest access point, which provides an interface
with systems within the infrastructure and users associated with other access points.
Residential gateways and routers are more advanced forms of base stations that enable
additional network functions. The gateway might have functions, such as access control and
application connectivity, that better serve distributed, public networks. On the other hand, a
router would enable operation of multiple computers on a single broadband connection.
Access Controllers
In the absence of adequate security, quality of service (QoS), and roaming mechanisms in
wireless network standards, companies offer access-control solutions to strengthen wireless
systems. The key component to these solutions is an access controller, which is typically
hardware that resides on the wired portion of the network between the access points and the
protected side of the network. Access controllers provide centralized intelligence behind the
access points to regulate traffic between the open wireless network and important resources.
In some cases, the access point contains the access control function.
The use of an access controller reduces the need for smart access points, which are relatively
expensive and include many non-802.11 features. Generally, vendors refer to these smarter
access points as being enterprise-grade components. Proponents of access controllers,
however, argue that 802.11 access points should focus on RF excellence and low cost.
The users of access controllers realize the following benefits when deployed with thin access

points:
Lower CostsAccess points with limited functionality cost less, which generally results
in lower overall system costs. This is especially true for networks requiring a larger
number of access points, such as an enterprise system. The use of thin access points
results in cost savings of approximately $400 per access point. In larger networks, this
savings far outweighs the additional cost of an access controller, which costs $5000 on
the average.
Open ConnectivitySmart access points offer enhancements related to security and
performance to the basic wireless connectivity that wireless network standards offer.
The problem in many cases is that these enhancements are only possible if the user
devices implement a wireless NIC made by the same vendor as the access point. This
significantly reduces the openness of the system and limits the selection of vendors.
On the other hand, thin access points can easily communicate using the basic wireless
network protocol with wireless NICs made by multiple vendors, while the access
controller transparently provides enhancements.
Centralized SupportAn advantage of placing the smarts of the network in an access
controller is that the system is easier to support, primarily because fewer touch points
are in the network. If all of the intelligence of the network is within the access points,
support personnel must interface with many points when configuring, monitoring, and
troubleshooting the network. An access controller enables the access points to have
fewer functions, reducing the need to interface with the access points when performing
support tasks.
Access controllers generally employ the following features:
AuthenticationMost access controllers have a built-in database for
authenticating users; however, some offer external interfaces to authentication
servers such as Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS) and
Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP). For smaller, private networks, an
internal database might suffice. For enterprise solutions, however, external and
centralized authentication servers provide better results.
Encryptionsome access controllers provide encryption of data from the client
to the server and back, using such common methods such as IPSec. This
provides added protection beyond what the native wireless network standard
provides. Some of these features, however, are also part of web browsers.
Subnet RoamingIn order to support roaming from one network to another,
access controllers provide roaming across subnets without needing to reauthenticate with the system. As a result, users can continue utilizing their
network applications without interruption as they roam about a facility. This

feature is especially useful for larger installations where access to the network
for specific users will span multiple subnets.
Bandwidth Managementbecause users share bandwidth in a wireless
network, it's important to have a mechanism to ensure specific users don't hog
the bandwidth. Access controllers provide this form of bandwidth management
through the assignment of user profiles based on required QoS levels. A profile
specifies the types of services, such as web browsing, e-mail, and video
streaming, as well as performance limits. For example, an unsubscribed visitor
attempting to utilize a public wireless LAN could classify as fitting a "visitor"
profile, which might only allow access to information related to the local hotspot.
A subscriber, however, could have a different role that allows him to have a
broadband Internet connection.
Application Connectivity Software
Web surfing and e-mail generally perform well over wireless networks. All it takes is a browser
and e-mail software on the client device. Users might lose a wireless connection from time to
time, but the protocols in use for these relatively simple applications are resilient under most
conditions.
Beyond these simple applications, however, special application connectivity software is
necessary as an interface between a user's computer device and the end system hosting the
application's software or database. Applications could be warehouse management software
running on an IBM AS/400, a modeling application located on a UNIX box, or a timemanagement system residing on an old mainframe system. The databases are part of a
client/server system where part, or all of the application software, resides on the client device
and interfaces with a database such as Oracle or Sybase. In these cases, application
connectivity software is important in addition to access points and controllers to enable
communications between the user's computer device and the application software or
databases located on a centralized server.
The following are various types of application connectivity software:
Terminal EmulationTerminal emulation software runs on a computer device, making
the device operate as a terminal that provides a relatively simple user interface to
application software running on another computer. The terminal merely presents
screens to the user and accepts input rendered by the applications software. For
example, VT220 terminal emulation communicates with applications running on a UNIX
host, 5250 terminal emulation works with IBM AS/400-based systems, and 3270
terminal emulation interfaces with IBM mainframes.
The advantage of using terminal emulation is its low initial cost and changes made to the
application automatically take affect when the user logs in. Wireless systems using terminal
emulation, however, might not be able to maintain continuous connections with legacy

applications, which have timeouts set for more reliable wired networks. Timeouts will
automatically disconnect a session if they don't sense activity within a given time period. As a
result, IT groups might spend a lot of time responding to end-user complaints of dropped
connections and incomplete data transactions. Therefore, implementing terminal emulation
can have a disastrous effect on long-term support costs.
Direct Database ConnectivityDirect database connectivity, sometimes referred to as
client/server, encompasses application software running on the user's computer
device. With this configuration, the software on the end-user device provides all
application functionality and generally interfaces to a database located on a central
server. This enables flexibility when developing applications because the programmer
has complete control over what functions are implementedand is not constrained by
a legacy application located on a central computer. Direct database connections are
often the best approach when needing flexibility in writing the application software. A
problem, however, is that the direct database approach depends on the use of
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), which is not well-suited for
communications across a wireless network.
Wireless MiddlewareWireless middleware software provides intermediate
communications between user computer devices and the application software or
database located on a server. (See Figure 2-5.) The middlewarewhich runs on a
dedicated computer (middleware gateway) attached to the wired networkprocesses
the packets that pass between the user computer devices and the servers. The
middleware software primarily offers efficient and reliable communications over the
wireless network while maintaining appropriate connections to application software and
databases on the server through the more reliable wired network. Sometimes this is
referred to as session persistence.
Look for the following features in middleware products:
Optimization techniquesmany middleware products include data compression
to help reduce the number of packets sent over the wireless link. Some
implementations of middleware use proprietary communications protocols,
which have little overhead as compared to traditional protocols, such as TCP/IP.
Intelligent restartswith wireless networks, a transmission can be unexpectedly
cut at midstream. Intelligent restart is a recovery mechanism that detects the
premature end of a transmission. When the connection is reestablished, the
middleware resumes transmission from the break point instead of at the
beginning. This avoids errors from occurring in applications that utilize
databases.
Data bundlingsome middleware is capable of combining smaller data packets
into a single large packet for transmission over the wireless network, which can

help lower transmission service costs of WANs. Since some wireless data
services charge users by the packet, data bundling results in a lower aggregate
cost.
Screen scraping and reshapingthe development environment of some
middleware products allows developers to use visual tools to shape and reshape
portions of existing application screens to more effectively fit data on the smaller
display of some non-PC wireless devices, such as PDAs and bar code
scanners.
End system supportWireless middleware interfaces with a variety of end
system applications and databases. If clients need access to tomultiple types of
applications and databases, wireless middleware acts as a concentrator. For
example, a user can use the middleware connection to interface with
applications on an AS/400 and UNIX box simultaneously without needing to be
concerned about running the correct terminal emulation software.
Distribution System
A wireless network is seldom entirely free of wires. The distribution system, which often
includes wiring, is generally necessary to tie together the access points, access controllers,
and servers. In most cases, the common Ethernet comprises the distribution system.
The IEEE 802.3 standard is the basis for Ethernet and specifies the use of the carrier sense
multiple access (CSMA) protocol to provide access to a shared medium, such as twisted-pair
wiring, coaxial cable, and optical fiber. CSMA is the predominant medium access standard in
use today by both wired and wireless networks.
All computer devices on the network must take turns using the medium with Ethernet hubs.
An Ethernet switch, however, enables multiple collision domains that can allow simultaneous
transmission among users to improve performance. For larger networks beyond the size of a
home or small office application, be sure to use switches for optimum performance.
The following are specific types of twisted-pair options for Ethernet common to wireless LAN
distribution systems:
10BASE-T10BASE-T is one of the 802.3 physical layers and specifies data rates of
10 Mbps. A typical 10BASE-T cable uses two of the four pairs within a Cat 5 cable for
sending and receiving data. Each end of the cable includes RJ-45 connectors that are
a little larger than the common RJ-11 telephone connector used within North America.
The advantage of having extra pairs of wires open is support for other uses, such as
Power-over-Ethernet (PoE). This is a mechanism in which a module injects DC current
into the Cat 5 cable, enabling you to supply power to the access point from the
communications closet. PoE often eliminates the need for having an electrician install
new electrical outlets at every access point. For larger networks, definitely consider the

use of PoE.
Optical FiberOptical fiber is more expensive than twisted pair, but fiber can be cost
effective because it supports gigabit speeds and has a range of up to two kilometers.
Instead of using the traditional electrical-signal-over-copper-wire approach, optical fiber
cable uses pulses of light over tiny strips of glass or plastic. This makes optical fiber
cable resistant to electromagnetic interference, making it valuable in situations where
electronic emissions are a concern. In addition, it's nearly impossible to passively
monitor the transmission of data through optical fiber cable, making it more secure than
twisted-pair wiring.
Management Systems
As with other types of networks, enterprise wireless networks require effective management
that ensures user needs are met over the life of the network. A network management system,
which involves both people and software tools, satisfies this need. The following are functions
that management systems should provide.
Security
The security element involves mechanisms that avoid the compromise or damage of network
resources, such as databases and e-mail messages. This includes enforcing security policies
for the configuration of the wireless network in a way that counters issues related to the
propagation of wireless signals. For example, policies could specify the use of a particular
type of encryption to ensure a mischievous person can't receive and decode e-mail messages
being sent between a user and an access point.
Help Desk
The help desk provides the first level of support for users. A user having difficulties with a
wireless connection should know how to reach the help desk. Users often have problems with
association or experience erratic performance.
Help desk personnel are capable of solving simple connection problems, such as assisting
the user configure a radio card and operating system to comply with specific wireless network
policies. The help desk should have a communications interface with more advanced support
functions, such as maintenance and engineering, to solve more complex problems that arise
from contact with users.
Configuration Management
Configuration management consists of controlling changes made to the wireless network
architecture and installed system. Changes might consist of installing or moving access
points, changing access point parameters, and updating firmware. Because of the dynamic
nature of wireless networks, changes are more common than with wired networks.
An enterprise should review all wireless network modification proposals that impact the
performance or security of the network. This review enables a company to take into account

relevant implications that involve additional costs and use of resources. The company should
implement an independent design review process that evaluates each proposed wireless
network solution and verifies conformance to a common architecture and support elements.
The verification should, for example, include reviewing access point placement, radio
frequency channel assignments, and security settings.
Network Monitoring
Network monitoring includes continuously measuring various attributes of the wireless
network, including access point utilization and user traffic routes through the distribution
system. This plays a key role in proactively managing the wireless network to support a
growth of users and solve issues before they hamper the performance and security of the
network.
An enterprise should continually measure the usage of base stations to properly scale the
wireless network as user traffic changes. Base stations act as a gauge to indicate when
additional base stations, access controllers, and Internet bandwidth are necessary. A problem
with wireless networks is that network managers might not notice that a base station is
inoperative for quite some time.
Reporting
The reporting element offers information regarding various aspects of the wireless network,
including usage statistics, security alarm notifications, and performance. These reports are
necessary for managers to effectively gauge the operation of the network and make decisions
on changes. This reporting should, at a minimum, indicate potential breaches of security,
inoperable access points, and utilization. This type of information should be available to all
operational support functions, such as the help desk, maintenance, and engineering.
Engineering
The engineering element provides advanced technical support for reengineering the wireless
network to include newer technologies and solve problems to ensure effective performance
and security. Ordinarily, the company or group that designs the initial wireless network will
perform the engineering functions. The engineering function should review and verify
compliance of designs with the common architectural design. In addition, the engineering
group should continually monitor the evolution of wireless network technologies and products
to ensure effective migration in a manner that meets growing network utilization.
Maintenance
The maintenance element repairs and configures the wireless network, including replacing
broken antennae, setting channels on access points, and re-evaluating radio wave
propagation. Some maintenance tasks might result from the engineering support function. For
example, engineers might find the need to install an additional access point in an area where
new coverage is necessary. In this case, maintenance personnel would install the access
point at a location that the engineer identifies.