20 rules of formulating knowledge in learning

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Contents : Articles

Effective learning: Twenty rules of formulating knowledge

This article will help you overcome one of the greatest difculties you will face when trying to accelerate
learning: formulating knowledge

Dr Piotr Wozniak,
February, 1999
(updated)

German
Portuguese
Serbian

The speed of learning will depend on the way you formulate the material. The same material can be learned many times faster if well
formulated! The difference in speed can be stunning!
The rules are listed in the order of importance. Those listed rst are most often violated or bring most benet if complied with!
There is an underlying assumption that you will proceed with learning using spaced repetition, i.e. you will not just learn once but
you will repeat the material optimally (as in SuperMemo).

The 20 rules of formulating knowledge in learning

1. Do not learn if you do not understand
Trying to learn things you do not understand may seem like an utmost nonsense. Still, an amazing proportion of students
commit the offence of learning without comprehension. Very often they have no other choice! The quality of many textbooks
or lecture scripts is deplorable while examination deadlines are unmovable.
If you are not a speaker of German, it is still possible to learn a history textbook in German. The book can be crammed word
for word. However, the time needed for such "blind learning" is astronomical. Even more important: The value of such
knowledge is negligible. If you cram a German book on history, you will still know nothing of history.
The German history book example is an extreme. However, the materials you learn may often seem well structured and you
may tend to blame yourself for lack of comprehension. Soon you may pollute your learning process with a great deal of
useless material that treacherously makes you believe "it will be useful some day".
2. Learn before you memorize
Before you proceed with memorizing individual facts and rules, you need to build an overall picture of the learned
knowledge. Only when individual pieces t to build a single coherent structure, will you be able to dramatically reduce the
learning time. This is closely related to the problem comprehension mentioned in Rule 1: Do not learn if you do not
understand. A single separated piece of your picture is like a single German word in the textbook of history.
Do not start from memorizing loosely related facts! First read a chapter in your book that puts them together (e.g. the
principles of the internal combustion engine). Only then proceed with learning using individual questions and answers (e.g.
What moves the pistons in the internal combustion engine?), etc.
3. Build upon the basics
The picture of the learned whole (as discussed in Rule 2: Learn before you memorize) does not have to be complete to the last
detail. Just the opposite, the simpler the picture the better. The shorter the initial chapter of your book the better. Simple
models are easier to comprehend and encompass. You can always build upon them later on.
Do not neglect the basics. Memorizing seemingly obvious things is not a waste of time! Basics may also appear volatile and
the cost of memorizing easy things is little. Better err on the safe side. Remember that usually you spend 50% of your time
repeating just 3-5% of the learned material [source]! Basics are usually easy to retain and take a microscopic proportion of
your time. However, each memory lapse on basics can cost you dearly!
4. Stick to the minimum information principle
The material you learn must be formulated in as simple way as it is only possible. Simplicity does not have to imply losing
information and skipping the difcult part. Simplicity is imperative due to the way the brain works. There are two main
reasons for which knowledge must be simple:
Simple is easy
By denition, simple material is easy to remember. This comes from the fact that its simplicity makes is

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easy for the brain to process it always in the same way. Imagine a labyrinth. When making a repetition of a
piece of material, your brain is running through a labyrinth (you can view a neural network as a tangle of
paths). While running through the labyrinth, the brain leaves a track on the walls. If it can run in only one
unique way, the path is continuous and easy to follow. If there are many combinations, each run may leave a
different trace that will interfere with other traces making it difcult to nd the exit. The same happens on
the cellular level with different synaptic connections being activated at each repetition of complex material
Repetitions of simple items are easier to schedule
I assume you will make repetitions of the learned material using optimum inter-repetition intervals (as in
SuperMemo). If you consider an item that is composed of two sub-items, you will need to make repetitions
that are frequent enough to keep the more difcult item in memory. If you split the complex item into
sub-items, each can be repeated at its own pace saving your time. Very often, inexperienced students create
items that could easily be split into ten or more simpler sub-items! Although the number of items
increases, the number of repetitions of each item will usually be small enough to greatly outweigh the cost
of (1) forgetting the complex item again and again, (2) repeating it in excessively short intervals or (3)
actually remembering it only in part!
Here is a striking example:
Ill-formulated knowledge - Complex and wordy
Q: What are the characteristics of the Dead Sea?
A: Salt lake located on the border between Israel and Jordan. Its shoreline is the lowest point on the Earth's surface,
averaging 396 m below sea level. It is 74 km long. It is seven times as salty (30% by volume) as the ocean. Its density
keeps swimmers aoat. Only simple organisms can live in its saline waters
Well-formulated knowledge - Simple and specic
Q: Where is the Dead Sea located?
A: on the border between Israel and Jordan
Q: What is the lowest point on the Earth's surface?
A: The Dead Sea shoreline
Q: What is the average level on which the Dead Sea is located?
A: 400 meters (below sea level)
Q: How long is the Dead Sea?
A: 70 km
Q: How much saltier is the Dead Sea as compared with the oceans?
A: 7 times
Q: What is the volume content of salt in the Dead Sea?
A: 30%
Q: Why can the Dead Sea keep swimmers aoat?
A: due to high salt content
Q: Why is the Dead Sea called Dead?
A: because only simple organisms can live in it
Q: Why only simple organisms can live in the Dead Sea?
A: because of high salt content
You might want to experiment and try to learn two subjects using the two above approaches and see for yourself what
advantage is brought by minimum information principle. This is particularly visible in the long perspective, i.e. the longer the
time you need to remember knowledge, the more you benet from simplifying your items!
Note in the example above how short the questions are. Note also that the answers are even shorter! We want a minimum
amount of information to be retrieved from memory in a single repetition! We want answer to be as short as imaginably
possible!
You will notice that the knowledge learned in the ill-structured example is not entirely equivalent to the well-structured
formulation. For example, although you will remember why the Dead Sea can keep swimmers aoat, you may forget that it at
all has such a characteristic in the rst place! Additionally, rounding 396 to 400 and 74 to 70 produces some loss of

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information. These can be remedied by adding more questions or making the present ones more precise.
You will also lose the ability to uently recite the description of the Dead Sea when called up to the blackboard by your
teachers. I bet, however, that shining in front of the class is not your ultimate goal in learning. To see how to cope with
recitations and poems, read further (section devoted to enumerations)
5. Cloze deletion is easy and effective
Cloze deletion is a sentence with its parts missing and replaced by three dots. Cloze deletion exercise is an exercise that uses
cloze deletion to ask the student to ll in the gaps marked with the three dots. For example, Bill ...[name] was the second US
president to go through impeachment.
If you are a beginner and if you nd it difcult to stick to the minimum information principle, use cloze deletion! If you are an
advanced user, you will also like cloze deletion. It is a quick and effective method of converting textbook knowledge into
knowledge that can be subject to learning based on spaced repetition. Cloze deletion makes the core of the fast reading and
learning technique called incremental reading.
Ill-formulated knowledge - Complex and wordy
Q: What was the history of the Kaleida company?
A: Kaleida, funded to the tune of $40 million by Apple Computer and IBM in 1991. Hyped as a red-hot startup, Kaleida's
mission was to create a multimedia programming language It nally produced one, called Script X. But it took three
years. Meanwhile, companies such as Macromedia and Asymetrix had snapped up all the business. Kaleida closed in
1995
Well-formulated knowledge - Simple cloze deletion
Q: Kaleida was funded to the tune of ...(amount) by Apple Computer and IBM in 1991
A: $40 million
Q: Kaleida was funded to the tune of $40 million by ...(companies) in 1991
A: Apple and IBM
Q: Kaleida was funded to the tune of $40 million by Apple Computer and IBM in ... (year)
A: 1991
Q: ...(company) mission was to create a multimedia programming language. It nally produced one, called Script X. But
it took three years
A: Kaleida's
Q: Kaleida's mission was to create a ... It nally produced one, called Script X. But it took three years
A: multimedia programming language
Q: Kaleida's mission was to create a multimedia programming language. It nally produced one, called ... But it took
three years
A: Script X
Q: Kaleida's mission was to create a multimedia programming language. It nally produced one, called Script X. But it
took ...(time)
A: three years
Q: Kaleida's mission was to create a multimedia programming language: Script X. But it took three years. Meanwhile,
companies such as ... had snapped up all the business
A: Macromedia/Asymetrix
Q: Kaleida's mission was to create Script X. But it took three years. Meanwhile, companies such as Macromedia and
Asymetrix had snapped up all the business. Kaleida closed in ...(year)
A: 1995

Optional: SuperMemo Recipe:

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SuperMemo 2002

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SuperMemo 2000

SuperMemo 98/99
Cloze deletions in SuperMemo
98/99:

Generating a cloze deletions from texts placed

in the clipboard in SuperMemo 2000:
Creating cloze deletions in
new SuperMemos:
select the keyword that is to
be replaced with tree dots
and press Alt+Z

1. Press Ctrl+Alt+N to paste the text to

SuperMemo
2. Select the part that is to be replaced with
three dots
3. Right-click to open the component menu
and select Reading : Remember cloze
(or click one of cloze icons on the reading
toolbar)

1. Press Ctrl+A to add a standard

question-and-answer item
2. Paste the text into the question
eld. This will create the
outline of your items
3. Press Ctrl+Alt+U to
Duplicate the element
4. Select the part that is to be
replaced with three dots
5. Cut the selection to the
clipboard (e.g. with Shift+Del)
6. Type in three dots (optionally,
add the explanation in
parentheses as in above
examples)
7. Press Ctrl+T to save the
question eld and move to the
answer eld
8. Paste the text cut in Step 5
(e.g. with Shift+Ins or
Ctrl+V). Your rst item is
ready
9. Press PgUp to go back to the
outline item created in Step 2
10. Goto Step 3 and continue
adding new items

6. Use imagery
Visual cortex is that part of the brain in which visual stimuli are interpreted. It has been very well developed in the course of
evolution and that is why we say one picture is worth a thousand words. Indeed if you look at the number of details kept in a
picture and the easiness with which your memory can retain them, you will notice that our verbal processing power is greatly
inferior as compared with the visual processing power. The same refers to memory. A graphic representation of information is
usually far less volatile.
Usually it takes much less time to formulate a simple question-and-answer pair than to nd or produce a neat graphic image.
This is why you will probably always have to weigh up cost and prots in using graphics in your learning material.
Well-employed images will greatly reduce your learning time in areas such as anatomy, geography, geometry, chemistry,
history, and many more.
The power of imagery explains why the concept of Tony Buzan's mind maps is so popular. A mind map is an abstract picture
in which connections between its components reect the logical connections between individual concepts.
Less benecial formulation
Q: What African country is located between Kenya, Zambia and Mozambique?
A: Tanzania
More effective formulation
Q: What African country is marked white on the map?

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A: Tanzania
7. Use mnemonic techniques
Mnemonic techniques are various techniques that make remembering easier. They are often amazingly effective. For most
students, a picture of a 10-year-old memorizing a sequence of 50 playing cards verges on discovering a young genius. It is
very surprising then to nd out how easy it is to learn the techniques that make it possible with a dose of training. These
techniques are available to everyone and do not require any special skills!
Before you start believing that mastering such techniques will provide you with an eternal solution to the problem of
forgetting, be warned that the true bottleneck towards long-lasting and useful memories is not in quickly memorizing
knowledge! This is indeed the easier part. The bottleneck lies in retaining memories for months, years or for lifetime! To
accomplish the latter you will need SuperMemo and the compliance with the 20 rules presented herein.
There have been dozens of books written about mnemonic techniques. Probably those written by Tony Buzan are most popular
and respected. You can search the web for keywords such as: mind maps, peg lists, mnemonic techniques, etc.
Experience shows that with a dose of training you will need to consciously apply mnemonic techniques in only 1-5% of your
items. With time, using mnemonic techniques will become automatic!
Exemplary mind map:

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(Six Steps mind map generated in Mind Manager 3.5, imported to SuperMemo 2004, courtesy of John England, TeamLink Australia)

8. Graphic deletion is as good as cloze deletion

Graphic deletion works like cloze deletion but instead of a missing phrase it uses a missing image component. For example,
when learning anatomy, you might present a complex illustration. Only a small part of it would be missing. The student's job is
to name the missing area. The same illustration can be used to formulate 10-20 items! Each item can ask about a specic
subcomponent of the image. Graphic deletion works great in learning geography!
Exemplary graphic deletion:

SuperMemo 2000/2002

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This is how you can quickly generate

graphic deletion using a picture from the
clipboard:
1. Press Shift+Ins to paste the picture
to SuperMemo
2. Press Ctrl+Shift+M and choose
Occlusion template to apply
graphic deletion template
3. SuperMemo 2000 only: Choose Ctrl+Shift+F2 to
impose and detach the Occlusion template

4. Fill out the elds and place the

occlusion rectangle to cover the
appropriate part of the picture (use
Alt+click twice to set the rectangle
in the dragging mode)

In SuperMemo 99 you will need a few more steps:

1. Create an item containing the following components:
question text: What is the name of the area covered with the red
rectangle?
empty answer text (click Answer on the component menu)
your illustration (use Import le on the image component
menu)
red rectangle component (choose red color with Color on the
rectangle component menu)
2. Choose Duplicate on the element menu (e.g. by pressing Ctrl+Alt+U)
3. Ctrl+click the rectangle component twice to place it in the dragging
mode
4. Drag and size the red rectangle to cover the area in question
5. Type in the answer in the answer eld
6. Press PgUp to go back to the original element created in Step 1
7. Go to Step 2 to add generate more graphic deletions
Note that you could also paint covering rectangles or circles on the original
image but this would greatly increase the size of your collection. The above
method makes sure that you reuse the same image many times in all items of
the same template. For example, the collection Brain Anatomy available
from SuperMemo Library and on SuperMemo MegaMix CD-ROM uses the
above technique

A more detailed recipe for creating occlusion tests is presented in: Flow of knowledge
9. Avoid sets
A set is a collection of objects. For example, a set of fruits might be an apple, a pear and a peach. A classic example of an item
that is difcult to learn is an item that asks for the list of the members of a set. For example: What countries belong to the
European Union? You should avoid such items whenever possible due to the high cost of retaining memories based on sets. If
sets are absolutely necessary, you should always try to convert them into enumerations. Enumerations are ordered lists of
members (for example, the alphabetical list of the members of the EU). Enumerations are also hard to remember and should be
avoided. However, the great advantage of enumerations over sets is that they are ordered and they force the brain to list them
always in the same order. An ordered list of countries contains more information than the set of countries that can be listed in
any order. Paradoxically, despite containing more information, enumerations are easier to remember. The reason for this has
been discussed earlier in the context of the minimum information principle: you should always try to make sure your brain
works in the exactly same way at each repetition. In the case of sets, listing members in varying order at each repetition has
a disastrous effect on memory. It is nearly impossible to memorize sets containing more than ve members without the use of
mnemonic techniques, enumeration, grouping, etc. Despite this claim, you will often succeed due to subconsciously mastered
techniques that help you go around this problem. Those techniques, however, will fail you all too often. For that reason: Avoid
sets! If you need them badly, convert them into enumerations and use techniques for dealing with enumerations
Ill-formulated knowledge - Sets are unacceptable!
Q: What countries belong to the European Union (2002)?
A: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal,
Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom
Well-formulated knowledge - Converting a set into a meaningful listing
Q: Which country hosted a meeting to consider the creation of a European Community of Defence in 1951?
A: France
Q: Which countries apart from France joined the European Coal and Steel Community in 1952?
A: Germany, Italy and the Benelux
Q: What countries make up the Benelux?
A: Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands
Q: Whose membership did Charles de Gaulle oppose in the 1960s?
A: that of UK

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Q: Which countries joined the EEC along the UK in 1973?

A: Ireland and Denmark
Q: Which country joined the EEC in 1981?
A: Greece
Q: Which countries joined the EEC in 1986?
A: Spain and Portugal
Q: Which countries joined the EU in 1995?
A: Austria, Sweden and Finland
Q: What was the historic course of expansion of the European Union membership?
A: (1) France and (2) Germany, Italy and the Benelux, (3) UK and (4) Ireland and Denmark, (5) Greece, (6) Spain and
Portugal and (7) Austria, Sweden and Finland
Note that in the example above, we converted a 15-member set into 9 items, ve of which are 2-3 member sets, and one is a
six member enumeration. Put it to your SuperMemo, and see how easy it is to generate the list of the European Union
members using the historic timeline! Note the tricks used with France and the UK. They joined the union in the company of
others but have been listed as separate items to simplify the learning process. Note also that the sum of information included in
this well-formulated approach is far greater than that of the original set. Thus along simplicity, we gained some useful
knowledge. All individual items effectively comply with the minimum information principle! You could go further by trying
to split the Germany-Italy-Benelux set or using mnemonic techniques to memorize the nal seven-member enumeration (i.e.
the last of the questions above). However, you should take those steps only if you have any problems with retaining the
proposed set in memory.
10. Avoid enumerations
Enumerations are also an example of classic items that are hard to learn. They are still far more acceptable than sets. Avoid
enumerations wherever you can. If you cannot avoid them, deal with them using cloze deletions (overlapping cloze deletions if
possible). Learning the alphabet can be a good example of an overlapping cloze deletion:
Hard to learn item
Q: What is the sequence of letters in the alphabet?
A: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Easy to learn items
Q: What three letters does the alphabet begin with?
A: ABC
Q: Fill out the missing letters of the alphabet A ... ... ... E
A: B, C, D
Q: Fill out the missing letters of the alphabet B ... ... ... F
A: C, D, E
Q: Fill out the missing letters of the alphabet C ... ... ... G
A: D, E, F
The above items will make learning the alphabet much faster. The greatest advantage of the above approach is that is it easier
for psychological reasons: the student does not have to stop repetitions to recite the whole sequence and can only focus on a
small part of the learned material. Still it is recommended that he recite the whole alphabet after making the repetition.
However, once all individual pieces are well remembered, reciting the whole should be a pleasant and speedy action that
produces little frustration.
The cloze deletion used above is an overlapping cloze deletion, i.e. the same parts of the enumeration are strengthened in
memory using different items (for example, the sequence C-D will be needed to recall the second and the third item). This
redundancy does not contradict the minimum information principle because the extra information is added in extra items.
You can also deal with enumerations by using grouping like in the case of sets (see the European Union example) but cloze
deletions should be simpler and should sufce in most cases.
Learning poems is an example of learning enumerations (all words and sentences have to be uttered in a predened sequence);

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however, due to strong semantic connections, the rhyme and the rhythm, it may often be possible to effectively remember
poems without using cloze deletion and without the frustration of forgetting small subcomponents again and again. However,
once you notice you stumble with your poem, you should dismember it using cloze deletion and thus make sure that the
learning is fast, easy, effective and pleasurable
A poem that is hard to remember
Q: The credit belongs ... (Teddy Roosevelt)
A: The credit belongs to the man who's actually in the arena, whose face is marred by dust and sweat; a man who knows
the great enthusiasm and the great devotions, who spends himself in a worthy cause, who in the end knows the triumph of
high achievement, so that his place shall never be with those cold and timid souls who know neither victory nor defeat
A poem split into easy items
Q: The credit belongs ... (Teddy Roosevelt)
A: to the man who's actually in the arena
Q: The credit belongs to the man who's actually in the arena ...
A: whose face is marred by dust and sweat (a man who knows the great enthusiasm)
Q: whose face is marred by dust and sweat ... (The credit belongs)
A: a man who knows the great enthusiasm and the great devotions (who spends himself in a worthy cause)
Q: a man who knows the great enthusiasm and the great devotions ... (The credit belongs)
A: who spends himself in a worthy cause (who in the end knows the triumph of high achievement)
Q: who spends himself in a worthy cause ... (The credit belongs)
A: who in the end knows the triumph of high achievement (so that his place shall never be), etc. etc.
Does it all sound articial? It does! But you will never know how effective this approach is until you try it by yourself!
11. Combat interference
When you learn about similar things you often confuse them. For example, you may have problems distinguishing between the
meanings of the words historic and historical. This will even be more visible if you memorize lots of numbers, e.g. optimum
dosages of drugs in pharmacotherapy. If knowledge of one item makes it harder to remember another item, we have a case of
memory interference. You can often remember an item for years with straight excellent grades until ... you memorize another
item that makes it nearly impossible to remember either! For example, if you learn geography and you memorize that the
country located between Venezuela, Suriname and Brazil is Guyana, you are likely to easily recall this fact for years with just
a couple of repetitions. However, once you add similar items asking about the location of all these countries, and French
Guyana, and Colombia and more, you will suddenly notice strong memory interference and you may experience unexpected
forgetting. In simple terms: you will get confused about what is what.
Interference is probably the single greatest cause of forgetting in collections of an experienced user of SuperMemo. You can
never be sure when it strikes, and the only hermetic procedure against it is to detect and eliminate. In other words, in many
cases it may be impossible to predict interference at the moment of formulating knowledge. Interference can also occur
between remotely related items like Guyana, Guyard and Guyenne, as well as Guyana, kayman and ... aspirin. It may work
differently for you and for your colleague. It very hard to predict.
Still you should do your best to prevent interference before it takes its toll. This will make your learning process less stressful
and mentally bearable. Here are some tips:
make items as unambiguous as possible
stick to the minimum information principle (many of the remaining rules in this text are based on avoiding
interference!)
eliminate interference as soon as you spot it, i.e. before it becomes your obsession (e.g. as soon as you see
the word inept you think "I know the meanings of inept and inapt but I will never know which is which!")
in SuperMemo use View : Other browsers : Leeches (Shift+F3) to regularly review and eliminate
most difcult items
read more: Memory interference
12. Optimize wording

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The wording of your items must be optimized to make sure that in minimum time the right bulb in your brain lights up. This
will reduce error rates, increase specicity, reduce response time, and help your concentration.
Less optimum item: cloze deletion that is too wordy
Q: Aldus invented desktop publishing in 1985 with PageMaker. Aldus had little competition for years, and so failed to
improve. Then Denver-based ... blew past. PageMaker, now owned by Adobe, remains No. 2
A: Quark
Better item: fewer words will speed up learning
Q: Aldus invented desktop publishing in 1985 with PageMaker but failed to improve. Then ... blew past (PageMaker
remains No. 2)
A: Quark
Or better:
Q: Aldus invented desktop publishing with PageMaker but failed to improve. It was soon outdistanced by ...
A: Quark
Or better:
Q: PageMaker failed to improve and was outdistanced by ...
A: Quark
Or better:
Q: PageMaker lost ground to ...
A: Quark
Note that the loss of information content in this item is inconsequential. During repetition you are only supposed to learn the
name: Quark. You should not hope that the trailing messages on the ownership of PageMaker and the year of its development
will somehow trickle to your memory as a side effect. You should decide if the other pieces of information are important to
you and if so, store them in separate items (perhaps reusing the above text, employing cloze deletion again and optimizing the
wording in a new way). Otherwise the redundant information will only slow down your learning process!
13. Refer to other memories
Referring to other memories can place your item in a better context, simplify wording, and reduce interference. In the example
below, using the words humble and supplicant helps the student focus on the word shamelessly and thus strengthen the correct
semantics. Better focus helps eliminating interference. Secondly, the use of the words humble and supplicant makes it possible
to avoid interference of cringing with these words themselves. Finally, the proposed wording is shorter and more specic.
Naturally, the rules basics-to-details and do not learn what you do not understand require that the words humble and supplicant
be learned beforehand (or at least at the same time)
Item subject to strong interference
Q: derog: adj: shamelessly conscious of one's failings and asking in a begging way
A: cringing
Item that uses interfering memories to amplify the correct meaning
Q: derog: adj: shamelessly humble and supplicant
A: cringing
14. Personalize and provide examples
One of the most effective ways of enhancing memories is to provide them with a link to your personal life. In the example
below you will save time if you use a personal reference rather than trying to paint a picture that would aptly illustrate the
question
Harder item

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Q: What is the name of a soft bed without arms or back?

A: divan
Easier item
Q: What is the name of a soft bed without arms or back? (like the one at Robert's parents)
A: divan
If you remember exactly what kind of soft bed can be found in Robert's parents' apartment you will save time by not having to
dig exactly into the semantics of the denition and/or looking for an appropriate graphic illustration for the piece of furniture
in question. Personalized examples are very resistant to interference and can greatly reduce your learning time
15. Rely on emotional states
If you can illustrate your items with examples that are vivid or even shocking, you are likely to enhance retrieval (as long as
you do not overuse same tools and fall victim of interference!). Your items may assume bizarre form; however, as long as they
are produced for your private consumption, the end justies the means. Use objects that evoke very specic and strong
emotions: love, sex, war, your late relative, object of your infatuation, Linda Tripp, Nelson Mandela, etc. It is well known that
emotional states can facilitate recall; however, you should make sure that you are not deprived of the said emotional clues at
the moment when you need to retrieve a given memory in a real-life situation
Harder item
Q: a light and joking conversation
A: banter
Easier item
Q: a light and joking conversation (e.g. Mandela and de Klerk in 1992)
A: banter
If you have vivid and positive memories related to the meetings between Nelson Mandela and F.W. de Klerk, you are likely to
quickly grasp the meaning of the denition of banter. Without the example you might struggle with interference from words
such as badinage or even chat. There is no risk of irrelevant emotional state in this example as the state helps to dene the
semantics of the learned concept! A well-thought example can often reduce your learning time several times! I have recorded
examples in which an item without an example was forgotten 20 times within one year, while the same item with a subtle
interference-busting example was not forgotten even once in ten repetitions spread over ve years. This is roughly equivalent
to 25-fold saving in time in the period of 20 years! Such examples are not rare! They are most effectively handled with the
all the preceding rules targeted on simplicity and against the interference
16. Context cues simplify wording
You can use categories in SuperMemo 2000/2002, provide different branches of knowledge with a different look (different
template), use reference labels (Title, Author, Date, etc.) and clearly label subcategories (e.g. with strings such as chem for
chemistry, math for mathematics, etc.). This will help you simplify the wording of your items as you will be relieved from the
need to specify the context of your question. In the example below, the well-dened prex bioch: saves you a lot of typing and
a lot of reading while still making sure you do not confuse the abbreviation GRE with Graduate Record Examination. Note
that in the recommended case, you process the item starting from the label bioch which puts your brain immediately in the
right context. While processing the lesser optimum case, you will waste precious milliseconds on ashing the standard
meaning of GRE and ... what is worse ... you will light up the wrong areas of your brain that will now perhaps be prone to
interference!
Wordy item can cause accidental lapses through interference
Q: What does GRE stand for in biochemistry?
A: glucocorticoid response element
Context-labeled items increase success rate

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Q: bioch: GRE
A: glucocorticoid response element
17. Redundancy does not contradict minimum information principle
Redundancy in simple terms is more information than needed or duplicate information, etc. Redundancy does not have to
contradict the minimum information principle and may even be welcome. The problem of redundancy is too wide for this
short text. Here are some examples that are only to illustrate that minimum information principle cannot be understood as
minimum number of characters or bits in your collections or even items:
passive and active approach: if you learn a foreign language, e.g. Esperanto, you will often build word pairs such as
phone-telefono, language-lingvo, hope-esperanto, etc. These pairs require active recall of the foreign word. Active
recall does not, however, guarantee passive recognition and you may fail with telefono-phone, lingvo-language, or
esperanto-hope. Adding new elements with swapped questions and answers may in some cases be redundant but it does
not contradict the minimum information principle! Your items are still as simple as possible. You just get more of them
In SuperMemo 2000/2002, you can quickly generate swapped word-pair items with Duplicate (Ctrl+Alt+D) and
Swap (Ctrl+Shift+S)
reasoning cues: you will often want to boost your reasoning ability by asking about a solution to the problem. Instead
of just memorizing the answer you would like to quickly follow the reasoning steps (e.g. solve a simple mathematical
equation) and generate the answer. In such a case, providing the hint on the reasoning steps in the answer will only
serve helping you always follow the right path at repetitions
derivation steps: in more complex problems to solve, memorizing individual derivation steps is always highly
recommended (e.g. solving complex mathematical problems). It is not cramming! It is making sure that the brain can
always follow the fastest path while solving the problem. For more on boosting creativity and intelligence read: Roots of
genius and creativity, as well as more specic: Derivation, reasoning and intelligence
multiple semantic representation: very often the same knowledge can be represented and viewed from different
angles. Memorizing different representations of the same fact or rule is recommended in cases where a given memory is
of high value. This will increase the expected recall rate (beyond that specied with the forgetting index)!
exible repetition: if there are many valid responses to the same question make sure that your representation makes it
possible to identify the equivalence and reward you with good grades by providing just one of the equivalent choices.
For example, if you learn a language, it rarely make sense to learn all synonyms that meet a denition of a concept. It is
more adequate to consider a single synonym as the sufcient answer (e.g. a mark made by ink spilt on sth = blot/blob
/blotch)
more

18. Provide sources

Except for well-tested and proven knowledge (such as 2+2=4), it is highly recommended that you include sources from which
you have gathered your knowledge. In real-life situation you will often be confronted with challenges to your knowledge.
Sources can come to your rescue. You will also nd that facts and gures differ depending on the source. You can really be
surprised how frivolously reputable information agencies publish gures that are drastically different from other equally
reputable sources. Without SuperMemo, those discrepancies are often difcult to notice: before you encounter the new fact,
the old one is often long forgotten. With sources provided, you will be able to make more educated choices on which pieces of
information are more reliable. Adding reliability labels may also be helpful (e.g. Watch out!, Other sources differ!, etc.).
Sources should accompany your items but should not be part of the learned knowledge (unless it is critical for you to be able
to recall the source whenever asked).
19. Provide date stamping
Knowledge can be relatively stable (basic math, anatomy, taxonomy, physical geography, etc.) and highly volatile (economic
indicators, high-tech knowledge, personal statistics, etc.). It is important that you provide your items with time stamping or
other tags indicating the degree of obsolescence. In case of statistical gures, you might stamp them with the year they have
been collected. When learning software applications, it is enough you stamp the item with the software version. Once you
have newer gures you can update your items. Unfortunately, in most cases you will have to re-memorize knowledge that
became outdated. Date stamping is useful in editing and verifying your knowledge; however, you will rarely want to
memorize stamping itself. If you would like to remember the changes of a given gure in time (e.g. GNP gures over a
number of years), the date stamping becomes the learned knowledge itself.
20. Prioritize
You will always face far more knowledge that you will be able to master. That is why prioritizing is critical for building
quality knowledge in the long-term. The way you prioritize will affect the way your knowledge slots in. This will also affect
the speed of learning (e.g. see: learn basics rst). There are many stages at which prioritizing will take place; only few are
relevant to knowledge representation, but all are important:
1. Prioritizing sources - there will always be a number of sources of your knowledge. If you are still at

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student years: these will most likely be books and notes pertaining to different subjects. Otherwise you will
probably rely more on journals, Internet, TV, newspapers, encyclopedias, dictionaries, etc. It is always
worth being aware what is the optimum proportion of time devoted to those varied sources. As you progress
with learning, you will quickly develop a good sense of which learning slots bring better results and which
might be extended at the cost of others
2. Extracting knowledge - unless you are about to pass an important exam, it nearly never makes sense to
memorize whole books or whole articles. You will need to extract those parts that are most likely to impact
the quality of your knowledge. You can do it by (1) marking paragraphs in a book or journal, (2) pasting
relevant web pages to SuperMemo, (3) pasting relevant passages to SuperMemo, (4) typing facts and
gures directly to SuperMemo notes, etc. You will need some experience before you can accurately
measure how much knowledge you can indeed transfer to your brain and what degree of detail you can
feasibly master. Your best way to prioritize the ow of knowledge into your memory is to use incremental
reading tools
3. Transferring knowledge to SuperMemo - you may try to stick with the 20 rules of formulating
knowledge at the moment of introducing your material to SuperMemo. However, you can also literally
transfer your notes or import whole les and later use the mechanisms provided by SuperMemo to
determine the order of processing the imported material. Probably the best criterion for choosing between
formulating or just importing is the time needed for accurately formulating the item or items. If formulation
requires more knowledge, more time, comparing with other sources, etc. you can just import. Otherwise, if
you believe that formulating an accurate item is a matter of seconds, formulate it
4. Formulating items - make sure that explanatory or optional components of the answer are placed in the
parentheses so that your attention is focused on the most important part of the item. The parts in the
parentheses can be read after the repetition to strengthen the memory in its context
5. Using forgetting index - you can use the forgetting index to prioritize pending items. The sequence of
repetitions will naturally be determined by SuperMemo; however, you can request higher retention level for
items that are more important and lower retention level for items of lower priority
6. Learning - the process of prioritizing does not end with the onset of repetitions. Here are the tools you can
use to continue setting your priorities while the learning process is under way:
1. Remember (Ctrl+M) - re-memorize items of high priority that have changed or which are extremely
important to your knowledge at a given moment. If you choose Ctrl+M you will be able to determine
the next interval for the currently reviewed item (its repetition counter will be reset to zero). It is
recommended that you always re-memorize items whose content has changed signicantly
2. Reschedule (Ctrl+J) - manually schedule the date of the next repetition
3. Execute repetition (Ctrl+Shift+R) - manually execute a repetition even before the repetition's due
date (e.g. when reviewing particularly important material)
4. Forget (Ctrl+R) - remove the current item from the learning process and place it at the end of the
pending queue
5. Dismiss (Ctrl+D) - ignore the current item in the learning process altogether
6. Delete (Ctrl+Shift+Del) - remove the current item from your collection
7. Change the forgetting index of memorized items or change the ordinal of pending items
(Ctrl+Shift+P)

Summary
Here again are the twenty rules of formulating knowledge. You will notice that the rst 16 rules revolve around making memories
simple! Some of the rules strongly overlap. For example: do not learn if you do not understand is a form of applying the
minimum information principle which again is a way of making things simple:
1. Do not learn if you do not understand
2. Learn before you memorize - build the picture of the whole before you dismember it into simple items in SuperMemo. If the
whole shows holes, review it again!
3. Build upon the basics - never jump both feet into a complex manual because you may never see the end. Well remembered
basics will help the remaining knowledge easily t in
4. Stick to the minimum information principle - if you continue forgetting an item, try to make it as simple as possible. If it
does not help, see the remaining rules (cloze deletion, graphics, mnemonic techniques, converting sets into enumerations, etc.)
5. Cloze deletion is easy and effective - completing a deleted word or phrase is not only an effective way of learning. Most of
all, it greatly speeds up formulating knowledge and is highly recommended for beginners
6. Use imagery - a picture is worth a thousand words
7. Use mnemonic techniques - read about peg lists and mind maps. Study the books by Tony Buzan. Learn how to convert
memories into funny pictures. You won't have problems with phone numbers and complex gures
8. Graphic deletion is as good as cloze deletion - obstructing parts of a picture is great for learning anatomy, geography and
more
9. Avoid sets - larger sets are virtually un-memorizable unless you convert them into enumerations!
10. Avoid enumerations - enumerations are also hard to remember but can be dealt with using cloze deletion
11. Combat interference - even the simplest items can be completely intractable if they are similar to other items. Use examples,

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context cues, vivid illustrations, refer to emotions, and to your personal life
12. Optimize wording - like you reduce mathematical equations, you can reduce complex sentences into smart, compact and
enjoyable maxims
13. Refer to other memories - building memories on other memories generates a coherent and hermetic structure that forgetting
is less likely to affect. Build upon the basics and use planned redundancy to ll in the gaps
14. Personalize and provide examples - personalization might be the most effective way of building upon other memories. Your
personal life is a gold mine of facts and events to refer to. As long as you build a collection for yourself, use personalization
richly to build upon well established memories
15. Rely on emotional states - emotions are related to memories. If you learn a fact in the sate of sadness, you are more likely to
recall it if when you are sad. Some memories can induce emotions and help you employ this property of the brain in
remembering
16. Context cues simplify wording - providing context is a way of simplifying memories, building upon earlier knowledge and
avoiding interference
17. Redundancy does not contradict minimum information principle - some forms of redundancy are welcome. There is little
harm in memorizing the same fact as viewed from different angles. Passive and active approach is particularly practicable in
learning word-pairs. Memorizing derivation steps in problem solving is a way towards boosting your intellectual powers!
18. Provide sources - sources help you manage the learning process, updating your knowledge, judging its reliability, or
importance
19. Provide date stamping - time stamping is useful for volatile knowledge that changes in time
20. Prioritize - effective learning is all about prioritizing. In incremental reading you can start from badly formulated knowledge
and improve its shape as you proceed with learning (in proportion to the cost of inappropriate formulation). If need be, you
can review pieces of knowledge again, split it into parts, reformulate, reprioritize, or delete. See also: Incremental reading,
Devouring knowledge, Flow of knowledge, Using tasklists
See also:
FAQ: Knowledge structuring
the above rules have been grouped and prioritized for you to easily get a grasp of the problems you will encounter when
formulating knowledge in learning. For a more in-depth analysis in a more systematic manner, you can read: Knowledge
structuring and representation in learning based on active recall (this text is rather theoretical and more hermetic)
see Genius and creativity, which includes a section on the role of knowledge representation in problem solving and creativity

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