PLC Training Ladder, RS232
PLC Training Ladder, RS232
PLC Training Ladder, RS232
net/chapters
What is a PLC?
A PLC (i.e. Programmable Logic Controller) is a device that was invented to replace the
necessary sequential relay circuits for machine control. The PLC works by looking at its inputs
and depending upon their state, turning on/off its outputs. The user enters a program, usually
via software, that gives the desired results.
PLCs are used in many "real world" applications. If there is industry present, chances are
good that there is a plc present. If you are involved in machining, packaging, material
handling, automated assembly or countless other industries you are probably already using
them. If you are not, you are wasting money and time. Almost any application that needs
some type of electrical control has a need for a plc.
For example, let's assume that when a switch turns on we want to turn a solenoid on for 5
seconds and then turn it off regardless of how long the switch is on for. We can do this with a
simple external timer. But what if the process included 10 switches and solenoids? We would
need 10 external timers. What if the process also needed to count how many times the
switches individually turned on? We need a lot of external counters.
As you can see the bigger the process the more of a need we have for a PLC. We can simply
program the PLC to count its inputs and turn the solenoids on for the specified time.
This site gives you enough information to be able to write programs far more complicated
than the simple one above. We will take a look at what is considered to be the "top 20" plc
instructions. It can be safely estimated that with a firm understanding of these instructions one
can solve more than 80% of the applications in existence.
That's right, more than 80%! Of course we'll learn more than just these instructions to help
you solve almost ALL your potential plc applications
PLC History
In the late 1960's PLCs were first introduced. The primary reason for designing such a device
was eliminating the large cost involved in replacing the complicated relay based machine
control systems. Bedford Associates (Bedford, MA) proposed something called a Modular
Digital Controller (MODICON) to a major US car manufacturer. Other companies at the time
proposed computer based schemes, one of which was based upon the PDP-8. The
MODICON 084 brought the world's first PLC into commercial production.
When production requirements changed so did the control system. This becomes very
expensive when the change is frequent. Since relays are mechanical devices they also have
COUNTERS-These again do not physically exist. They are simulated counters and
they can be programmed to count pulses. Typically these counters can count up,
down or both up and down. Since they are simulated they are limited in their counting
speed. Some manufacturers also include high-speed counters that are hardware
based. We can think of these as physically existing. Most times these counters can
count up, down or up and down.
TIMERS-These also do not physically exist. They come in many varieties and
increments. The most common type is an on-delay type. Others include off-delay and
both retentive and non-retentive types. Increments vary from 1ms through 1s.
DATA STORAGE-Typically there are registers assigned to simply store data. They are
usually used as temporary storage for math or data manipulation. They can also
typically be used to store data when power is removed from the PLC. Upon power-up
they will still have the same contents as before power was removed. Very convenient
and necessary!!
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PLC Operation
A PLC works by continually scanning a program. We can think of this scan cycle as
consisting of 3 important steps. There are typically more than 3 but we can focus on the
important parts and not worry about the others. Typically the others are checking the system
and updating the current internal counter and timer values.
Step 1-CHECK INPUT STATUS-First the PLC takes a look at each input to determine if it is
on or off. In other words, is the sensor connected to the first input on? How about the second
input? How about the third... It records this data into its memory to be used during the next
step.
Step 2-EXECUTE PROGRAM-Next the PLC executes your program one instruction at a time.
Maybe your program said that if the first input was on then it should turn on the first output.
Since it already knows which inputs are on/off from the previous step it will be able to decide
whether the first output should be turned on based on the state of the first input. It will store
the execution results for use later during the next step.
Step 3-UPDATE OUTPUT STATUS-Finally the PLC updates the status of the outputs. It
updates the outputs based on which inputs were on during the first step and the results of
executing your program during the second step. Based on the example in step 2 it would now
turn on the first output because the first input was on and your program said to turn on the
first output when this condition is true.
After the third step the PLC goes back to step one and repeats the steps continuously. One
scan time is defined as the time it takes to execute the 3 steps listed above
Response Time
The total response time of the PLC is a fact we have to consider when shopping for a PLC.
Just like our brains, the PLC takes a certain amount of time to react to changes. In many
applications speed is not a concern, in others though...
If you take a moment to look away from this text you might see a picture on the wall. Your
eyes actually see the picture before your brain says "Oh, there's a picture on the wall". In this
example your eyes can be considered the sensor. The eyes are connected to the input circuit
of your brain. The input circuit of your brain takes a certain amount of time to realize that your
eyes saw something. (If you have been drinking alcohol this input response time would be
longer!) Eventually your brain realizes that the eyes have seen something and it processes
the data. It then sends an output signal to your mouth. Your mouth receives this data and
begins to respond to it. Eventually your mouth utters the words "Gee, that's a really ugly
picture!".
Now that we know about response time, here's what it really means to the application. The
PLC can only see an input turn on/off when it's looking. In other words, it only looks at its
inputs during the check input status part of the scan.
In the diagram, input 1 is not seen until scan 2. This is because when input 1 turned on, scan
1 had already finished looking at the inputs.
Input 2 is not seen until scan 3. This is also because when the input turned on scan 2 had
already finished looking at the inputs.
Input 3 is never seen. This is because when scan 3 was looking at the inputs, signal 3 was
not on yet. It turns off before scan 4 looks at the inputs. Therefore signal 3 is never seen by
the plc.
But what if it was not possible for the input to be on this long? Then the plc doesn't see the
input turn on. Therefore it becomes a paper weight! Not true... of course there must be a way
to get around this. Actually there are 2 ways.
Relays
Now that we understand how the PLC processes inputs, outputs, and the actual program we
are almost ready to start writing a program. But first lets see how a relay actually works. After
all, the main purpose of a plc is to replace "real-world" relays.
We can think of a relay as an electromagnetic switch. Apply a voltage to the coil and a
magnetic field is generated. This magnetic field sucks the contacts of the relay in, causing
them to make a connection. These contacts can be considered to be a switch. They allow
current to flow between 2 points thereby closing the circuit.
Let's consider the following example. Here we simply turn on a bell (Lunch time!) whenever a
switch is closed. We have 3 real-world parts. A switch, a relay and a bell. Whenever the
switch closes we apply a current to a bell causing it to sound.
Notice in the picture that we have 2 separate circuits. The bottom(blue) indicates the DC part.
The top(red) indicates the AC part.
Here we are using a dc relay to control an AC circuit. That's the fun of relays! When the switch
is open no current can flow through the coil of the relay. As soon as the switch is closed,
however, current runs through the coil causing a magnetic field to build up. This magnetic field
causes the contacts of the relay to close. Now AC current flows through the bell and we hear
it. Lunch time!
Replacing Relays
Next, lets use a plc in place of the relay. (Note that this might not be very cost effective for
this application but it does demonstrate the basics we need.) The first thing that's necessary
is to create what's called a ladder diagram. After seeing a few of these it will become obvious
why its called a ladder diagram. We have to create one of these because, unfortunately, a plc
doesn't understand a schematic diagram. It only recognizes code. Fortunately most PLCs
have software which convert ladder diagrams into code. This shields us from actually learning
the plc's code.
First step- We have to translate all of the items we're using into symbols the plc understands.
The plc doesn't understand terms like switch, relay, bell, etc. It prefers input, output, coil,
contact, etc. It doesn't care what the actual input or output device actually is. It only cares that
its an input or an output.
First we replace the battery with a symbol. This symbol is common to all ladder diagrams. We
draw what are called bus bars. These simply look like two vertical bars. One on each side of
the diagram. Think of the left one as being + voltage and the right one as being ground.
Further think of the current (logic) flow as being from left to right.
Next we give the inputs a symbol. In this basic example we have one real world input. (i.e. the
switch) We give the input that the switch will be connected to, to the symbol shown below.
This symbol can also be used as the contact of a relay.
A contact symbol
Next we give the outputs a symbol. In this example we use one output (i.e. the bell). We give
the output that the bell will be physically connected to the symbol shown below. This symbol
is used as the coil of a relay.
A coil symbol
The AC supply is an external supply so we don't put it in our ladder. The plc only cares about
which output it turns on and not what's physically connected to it.
Second step- We must tell the plc where everything is located. In other words we have to
give all the devices an address. Where is the switch going to be physically connected to the
plc? How about the bell? We start with a blank road map in the PLCs town and give each item
an address. Could you find your friends if you didn't know their address? You know they live in
the same town but which house? The plc town has a lot of houses (inputs and outputs) but we
have to figure out who lives where (what device is connected where). We'll get further into the
addressing scheme later. The plc manufacturers each do it a different way! For now let's say
that our input will be called "0000". The output will be called "500".
Final step- We have to convert the schematic into a logical sequence of events. This is much
easier than it sounds. The program we're going to write tells the plc what to do when certain
events take place. In our example we have to tell the plc what to do when the operator turns
on the switch. Obviously we want the bell to sound but the plc doesn't know that. It's a pretty
stupid device, isn't it!
The picture above is the final converted diagram. Notice that we eliminated the real world
relay from needing a symbol. It's actually "inferred" from the diagram. Huh? Don't worry, you'll
see what we mean as we do more examples.
Basic Instructions
Now let's examine some of the basic instructions is greater detail to see more about what
each one does.
Load
The load (LD) instruction is a normally open contact. It is sometimes also called examine if
on.(XIO) (as in examine the input to see if its physically on) The symbol for a load instruction
is shown below.
This is used when an input signal is needed to be present for the symbol to turn on. When the
physical input is on we can say that the instruction is True. We examine the input for an on
signal. If the input is physically on then the symbol is on. An on condition is also referred to as
a logic 1 state.
This symbol normally can be used for internal inputs, external inputs and external output
contacts. Remember that internal relays don't physically exist. They are simulated (software)
relays.
LoadBar
The LoaDBar instruction is a normally closed contact. It is sometimes also called LoaDNot or
examine if closed. (XIC) (as in examine the input to see if its physically closed) The symbol
for a loadbar instruction is shown below.
This is used when an input signal does not need to be present for the symbol to turn on.
When the physical input is off we can say that the instruction is True. We examine the input
for an off signal. If the input is physically off then the symbol is on. An off condition is also
referred to as a logic 0 state.
This symbol normally can be used for internal inputs, external inputs and sometimes, external
output contacts. Remember again that internal relays don't physically exist. They are
simulated (software) relays. It is the exact opposite of the Load instruction.
*NOTE- With most PLCs this instruction (Load or Loadbar) MUST be the first symbol on the
left of the ladder.
Logic State
Load
LoadBar
False
True
True
False
Out
The Out instruction is sometimes also called an OutputEnergize instruction. The output
instruction is like a relay coil. Its symbol looks as shown below.
When there is a path of True instructions preceding this on the ladder rung, it will also be
True. When the instruction is True it is physically On. We can think of this instruction as a
normally open output. This instruction can be used for internal coils and external outputs.
Outbar
The Outbar instruction is sometimes also called an OutNot instruction. Some vendors don't
have this instruction. The outbar instruction is like a normally closed relay coil. Its symbol
looks like that shown below.
When there is a path of False instructions preceding this on the ladder rung, it will be True.
When the instruction is True it is physically On. We can think of this instruction as a normally
closed output. This instruction can be used for internal coils and external outputs. It is the
exact opposite of the Out instruction.
Logic State
Out
OutBar
False
True
True
False
A Simple Example
Now let's compare a simple ladder diagram with its real world external physically connected
relay circuit and SEE the differences.
In the above circuit, the coil will be energized when there is a closed loop between the + and terminals of the battery. We can simulate this same circuit with a ladder diagram. A ladder
diagram consists of individual rungs just like on a real ladder. Each rung must contain one or
more inputs and one or more outputs. The first instruction on a rung must always be an input
instruction and the last instruction on a rung should always be an output (or its equivalent).
Notice in this simple one rung ladder diagram we have recreated the external circuit above
with a ladder diagram. Here we used the Load and Out instructions. Some manufacturers
require that every ladder diagram include an END instruction on the last rung. Some PLCs
also require an ENDH instruction on the rung after the END rung.
Next we'll trace the registers. Registers? Let's see...
PLC Registers
We'll now take the previous example and change switch 2 (SW2) to a normally closed
symbol (loadbar instruction). SW1 will be physically OFF and SW2 will be physically ON
initially. The ladder diagram now looks like this:
Notice also that we now gave each symbol (or instruction) an address. This address sets
aside a certain storage area in the PLCs data files so that the status of the instruction (i.e.
true/false) can be stored. Many PLCs use 16 slot or bit storage locations. In the example
above we are using two different storage locations or registers.
REGISTER 00
15 14 13 12
11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01
00
11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01
00
REGISTER 05
15 14 13 12
0
In the tables above we can see that in register 00, bit 00 (i.e. input 0000) was a logic 0 and bit
01 (i.e. input 0001) was a logic 1. Register 05 shows that bit 00 (i.e. output 0500) was a logic
0. The logic 0 or 1 indicates whether an instruction is False or True. *Although most of the
items in the register tables above are empty, they should each contain a 0. They were left
blank to emphasize the locations we were concerned with.
LOGICAL CONDITION OF SYMBOL
LOGIC BITS
LD
LDB
OUT
Logic 0
False
True
False
Logic 1
True
False
True
The plc will only energize an output when all conditions on the rung are TRUE. So, looking at
the table above, we see that in the previous example SW1 has to be logic 1 and SW2 must
be logic 0. Then and ONLY then will the coil be true (i.e. energized). If any of the instructions
on the rung before the output (coil) are false then the output (coil) will be false (not
energized).
Let's now look at a truth table of our previous program to further illustrate this important point.
Our truth table will show ALL possible combinations of the status of the two inputs.
Inputs
Outputs
SW1(LD)
SW2(LDB)
COIL(OUT)
SW1(LD)
SW2(LDB)
COIL(OUT)
False
True
False
False
False
False
True
True
True
True
False
False
Notice from the chart that as the inputs change their states over time, so will the output. The
output is only true (energized) when all preceding instructions on the rung are true.
A Level Application
Now that we've seen how registers work, let's process a program like PLCs do to enhance
our understanding of how the program gets scanned.
Let's consider the following application:
We are controlling lubricating oil being dispensed from a tank. This is possible by using two
sensors. We put one near the bottom and one near the top, as shown in the picture below.
Here, we want the fill motor to pump lubricating oil into the tank until the high level sensor
turns on. At that point we want to turn off the motor until the level falls below the low level
sensor. Then we should turn on the fill motor and repeat the process.
Here we have a need for 3 I/O (i.e. Inputs/Outputs). 2 are inputs (the sensors) and 1 is an
output (the fill motor). Both of our inputs will be NC (normally closed) fiber-optic level
sensors. When they are NOT immersed in liquid they will be ON. When they are immersed in
liquid they will be OFF.
We will give each input and output device an address. This lets the plc know where they are
physically connected. The addresses are shown in the following tables:
Inputs
Address
Output
Address
Low
0000
Motor
0500
1000
High
0001
Below is what the ladder diagram will actually look like. Notice that we are using an internal
utility relay in this example. You can use the contacts of these relays as many times as
required. Here they are used twice to simulate a relay with 2 sets of contacts. Remember,
these relays DO NOT physically exist in the plc but rather they are bits in a register that you
can use to SIMULATE a relay.
We should always remember that the most common reason for using PLCs in our
applications is for replacing real-world relays. The internal utility relays make this action
possible. It's impossible to indicate how many internal relays are included with each brand of
plc. Some include 100's while other include 1000's while still others include 10's of 1000's!
Typically, plc size (not physical size but rather I/O size) is the deciding factor. If we are using a
micro-plc with a few I/O we don't need many internal relays. If however, we are using a large
plc with 100's or 1000's of I/O we'll certainly need many more internal relays.
If ever there is a question as to whether or not the manufacturer supplies enough internal
relays, consult their specification sheets. In all but the largest of large applications, the
supplied amount should be MORE than enough.
Initially the tank is empty. Therefore, input 0000 is TRUE and input 0001 is also TRUE.
Scan 1
Scan 2-100
Scan 101-1000
Notice that even when the low level sensor is false there is still a path of true logic from left to
right. This is why we used an internal relay. Relay 1000 is latching the output (500) on. It will
stay this way until there is no true logic path from left to right.(i.e. when 0001 becomes false)
After 1000 scans the oil level rises above the high level sensor at it also becomes open (i.e.
false)
Scan 1001
Scan 1002
Since there is no more true logic path, output 500 is no longer energized (true) and therefore
the motor turns off.
After 1050 scans the oil level falls below the high level sensor and it will become true again.
Scan 1050
Notice that even though the high level sensor became true there still is NO continuous true
logic path and therefore coil 1000 remains false!
After 2000 scans the oil level falls below the low level sensor and it will also become true
again. At this point the logic will appear the same as SCAN 1 above and the logic will repeat
as illustrated above.
Latch Instructions
Now that we understand how inputs and outputs are processed by the plc, let's look at a
variation of our regular outputs. Regular output coils are of course an essential part of our
programs but we must remember that they are only TRUE when ALL INSTRUCTIONS before
them on the rung are also TRUE. What happens if they are not? Then of course, the output
will become false.(turn off)
Think back to the lunch bell example we did a few chapters ago. What would've happened if
we couldn't find a "push on/push off" switch? Then we would've had to keep pressing the
button for as long as we wanted the bell to sound. (A momentary switch) The latching
instructions let us use momentary switches and program the plc so that when we push one
the output turns on and when we push another the output turns off.
Maybe now you're saying to yourself "What the heck is he talking about?". (It's also what I'm
thinking!) So let's do a real world example.
Picture the remote control for your TV. It has a button for ON and another for OFF. (mine
does, anyway) When I push the ON button the TV turns on. When I push the OFF button the
TV turns off. I don't have to keep pushing the ON button to keep the TV on. This would be the
function of a latching instruction.
The latch instruction is often called a SET or OTL (output latch). The unlatch instruction is
often called a RES (reset), OUT (output unlatch) or RST (reset). The diagram below shows
how to use them in a program.
Here we are using 2 momentary push button switches. One is physically connected to input
0000 while the other is physically connected to input 0001. When the operator pushes switch
0000 the instruction "set 0500" will become true and output 0500 physically turns on. Even
after the operator stops pushing the switch, the output (0500) will remain on. It is latched on.
The only way to turn off output 0500 is turn on input 0001. This will cause the instruction "res
0500" to become true thereby unlatching or resetting output 0500.
Click here
Here's something to think about. What would happen if input 0000 and 0001 both turn on at
the exact same time.
Will output 0500 be latched or unlatched?
To answer this question we have to think about the scanning sequence. The ladder is always
scanned from top to bottom, left to right. The first thing in the scan is to physically look at the
inputs. 0000 and 0001 are both physically on. Next the plc executes the program. Starting
from the top left, input 0000 is true therefore it should set 0500. Next it goes to the next rung
and since input 0001 is true it should reset 0500. The last thing it said was to reset 0500.
Therefore on the last part of the scan when it updates the outputs it will keep 0500 off. (i.e.
reset 0500).
Makes better sense now, doesn't it?
Counters
A counter is a simple device intended to do one simple thing - count. Using them, however,
can sometimes be a challenge because every manufacturer (for whatever reason) seems to
use them a different way. Rest assured that the following information will let you simply and
easily program anybody's counters.
What kinds of counters are there? Well, there are up-counters (they only count up 1,2,3...).
These are called CTU,(count up) CNT,C, or CTR. There are down counters (they only count
down 9,8,7,...). These are typically called CTD (count down) when they are a separate
instruction. There are also up-down counters (they count up and/or down 1,2,3,4,3,2,3,4,5,...)
These are typically called UDC(up-down counter) when they are separate instructions.
Many manufacturers have only one or two types of counters but they can be used to count
up, down or both. Confused yet? Can you say "no standardization"? Don't worry, the theory is
all the same regardless of what the manufacturers call them. A counter is a counter is a
counter...
To further confuse the issue, most manufacturers also include a limited number of high-speed
counters. These are commonly called HSC (high-speed counter), CTH (CounTer Highspeed?) or whatever.
Typically a high-speed counter is a "hardware" device. The normal counters listed above are
typically "software" counters. In other words they don't physically exist in the plc but rather
they are simulated in software. Hardware counters do exist in the plc and they are not
dependent on scan time.
A good rule of thumb is simply to always use the normal (software) counters unless the
pulses you are counting will arrive faster than 2X the scan time. (i.e. if the scan time is 2ms
and pulses will be arriving for counting every 4ms or longer then use a software counter. If
they arrive faster than every 4ms (3ms for example) then use the hardware (high-speed)
counters. (2xscan time = 2x2ms= 4ms)
To use them we must know 3 things:
1. Where the pulses that we want to count are coming from. Typically this is from one of
the inputs.(a sensor connected to input 0000 for example)
2. How many pulses we want to count before we react. Let's count 5 widgets before we
box them, for example.
3. When/how we will reset the counter so it can count again. After we count 5 widgets
lets reset the counter, for example.
When the program is running on the plc the program typically displays the current or
"accumulated" value for us so we can see the current count value.
Typically counters can count from 0 to 9999, -32,768 to +32,767 or 0 to 65535. Why the weird
numbers? Because most PLCs have 16-bit counters. We'll get into what this means in a later
chapter but for now suffice it to say that 0-9999 is 16-bit BCD (binary coded decimal) and that
-32,768 to 32767 and 0 to 65535 is 16-bit binary.
Here are some of the instruction symbols we will encounter (depending on which
manufacturer we choose) and how to use them. Remember that while they may look different
they are all used basically the same way. If we can setup one we can setup any of them.
Here's the symbol on a ladder showing how we set up a counter (we'll name it counter 000) to
count 100 widgets from input 0001 before turning on output 500. Sensor 0002 resets the
counter.
Below is one symbol we may encounter for an up-down counter. We'll use the same
abbreviation as we did for the example above.(i.e. UDCxxx and yyyyy)
In this up-down counter we need to assign 3 inputs. The reset input has the same function as
above. However, instead of having only one input for the pulse counting we now have 2. One
is for counting up and the other is for counting down. In this example we will call the counter
UDC000 and we will give it a preset value of 1000. (we'll count 1000 total pulses) For inputs
we'll use a sensor which will turn on input 0001 when it sees a target and another sensor at
input 0003 will also turn on when it sees a target. When input 0001 turns on we count up and
when input 0003 turns on we count down. When we reach 1000 pulses we will turn on output
500. Again note that the counter accumulated value ONLY changes at the off to on transition
of the pulse input. The ladder diagram is shown below.
Click here
One important thing to note is that counters and timers can't have the same name (in most
PLCs). This is because they typically use the same registers. We haven't learned about
timers yet but you might make a note of this for future reference because it's pretty important.
Well, the counters above might seem difficult to understand but they're actually quite easy
once we get used to using them. They certainly are an essential tool. They are also one of the
least "standardized" basic instructions that we will see. However, always remember that the
theory is the same from manufacturer to manufacturer
Timers
Let's now see how a timer works. What is a timer? Its exactly what the word says... it is an
instruction that waits a set amount of time before doing something. Sounds simple doesn't it.
When we look at the different kinds of timers available the fun begins. As always, different
types of timers are available with different manufacturers. Here are most of them:
On-Delay timer-This type of timer simply "delays turning on". In other words, after
our sensor (input) turns on we wait x-seconds before activating a solenoid valve
(output). This is the most common timer. It is often called TON (timer on-delay), TIM
(timer) or TMR (timer).
Off-Delay timer- This type of timer is the opposite of the on-delay timer listed above.
This timer simply "delays turning off". After our sensor (input) sees a target we turn on
a solenoid (output). When the sensor no longer sees the target we hold the solenoid
on for x-seconds before turning it off. It is called a TOF (timer off-delay) and is less
common than the on-delay type listed above. (i.e. few manufacturers include this type
of timer)
Retentive or Accumulating timer- This type of timer needs 2 inputs. One input
starts the timing event (i.e. the clock starts ticking) and the other resets it. The on/off
delay timers above would be reset if the input sensor wasn't on/off for the complete
timer duration. This timer however holds or retains the current elapsed time when the
sensor turns off in mid-stream. For example, we want to know how long a sensor is
on for during a 1 hour period. If we use one of the above timers they will keep
resetting when the sensor turns off/on. This timer however, will give us a total or
accumulated time. It is often called an RTO (retentive timer) or TMRA (accumulating
timer).
Let's now see how to use them. We typically need to know 2 things:
1. What will enable the timer. Typically this is one of the inputs.(a sensor connected to
input 0000 for example)
2. How long we want to delay before we react. Let's wait 5 seconds before we turn on
a solenoid, for example.
When the instructions before the timer symbol are true the timer starts "ticking". When the
time elapses the timer will automatically close its contacts. When the program is running on
the plc the program typically displays the elapsed or "accumulated" time for us so we can see
the current value. Typically timers can tick from 0 to 9999 or 0 to 65535 times.
Why the weird numbers? Again its because most PLCs have 16-bit timers. We'll get into what
this means in a later chapter but for now suffice it to say that 0-9999 is 16-bit BCD (binary
coded decimal) and that 0 to 65535 is 16-bit binary. Each tick of the clock is equal to xseconds.
Typically each manufacturer offers several different ticks. Most manufacturers offer 10 and
100 ms increments (ticks of the clock). An "ms" is a milli-second or 1/1000th of a second.
Several manufacturers also offer 1ms as well as 1 second increments. These different
increment timers work the same as above but sometimes they have different names to show
their timebase. Some are TMH (high speed timer), TMS (super high speed timer) or TMRAF
(accumulating fast timer)
Shown below is a typical timer instruction symbol we will encounter (depending on which
manufacturer we choose) and how to use it. Remember that while they may look different
they are all used basically the same way. If we can setup one we can setup any of them.
This timer is the on-delay type and is named Txxx. When the enable input is on the timer
starts to tick. When it ticks yyyyy (the preset value) times, it will turn on its contacts that we
will use later in the program. Remember that the duration of a tick (increment) varies with the
vendor and the timebase used. (i.e. a tick might be 1ms or 1 second or...)
In this diagram we wait for input 0001 to turn on. When it does, timer T000 (a 100ms
increment timer) starts ticking. It will tick 100 times. Each tick (increment) is 100ms so the
timer will be a 10000ms (i.e. 10 second) timer. 100ticks X 100ms = 10,000ms. When 10
seconds have elapsed, the T000 contacts close and 500 turns on. When input 0001 turns
off(false) the timer T000 will reset back to 0 causing its contacts to turn off(become false)
thereby making output 500 turn back off.
Click here
This timer is named Txxx. When the enable input is on the timer starts to tick. When it ticks
yyyyy (the preset value) times, it will turn on its contacts that we will use later in the program.
Remember that the duration of a tick (increment) varies with the vendor and the timebase
used. (i.e. a tick might be 1ms or 1 second or...) If however, the enable input turns off before
the timer has completed, the current value will be retained. When the input turns back on, the
timer will continue from where it left off. The only way to force the timer back to its preset
value to start again is to turn on the reset input.
In this diagram we wait for input 0002 to turn on. When it does timer T000 (a 10ms increment
timer) starts ticking. It will tick 100 times. Each tick (increment) is 10ms so the timer will be a
1000ms (i.e. 1 second) timer. 100ticks X 10ms = 1,000ms. When 1 second has elapsed, the
T000 contacts close and 500 turns on. If input 0002 turns back off the current elapsed time
will be retained. When 0002 turns back on the timer will continue where it left off. When input
0001 turns on (true) the timer T000 will reset back to 0 causing its contacts to turn off
(become false) thereby making output 500 turn back off.
Click here
One important thing to note is that counters and timers can't have the same name (in most
PLCs). This is because they typically use the same registers.
Always remember that although the symbols may look different they all operate the same
way. Typically the major differences are in the duration of the ticks increments
Timer Accuracy
Now that we've seen how timers are created and used, let's learn a little about their
precision. When we are creating a timer that lasts a few seconds, or more, we can typically
not be very concerned about their precision because it's usually insignificant. However, when
we're creating timers that have a duration in the millisecond (1ms= 1/1000 second) range we
MUST be concerned about their precision.
There are general two types of errors when using a timer. The first is called an input error. The
other is called an output error. The total error is the sum of both the input and output errors.
Input error- An error occurs depending upon when the timer input turns on during the
scan cycle. When the input turns on immediately after the plc looks at the status of
the inputs during the scan cycle, the input error will be at its largest. (i.e. more than 1
full scan time!). This is because, as you will recall, (see scan time chapter) the inputs
are looked at once during a scan. If it wasn't on when the plc looked and turns on
later in the scan we obviously have an error. Further we have to wait until the timer
instruction is executed during the program execution part of the scan. If the timer
instruction is the last instruction on the rung it could be quite a big error!
Output error- An another error occurs depending upon when in the ladder the timer
actually "times out" (expires) and when the plc finishes executing the program to get
to the part of the scan when it updates the outputs. (again, see scan time chapter)
This is because the timer finishes during the program execution but the plc must first
finish executing the remainder of the program before it can turn on the appropriate
output.
Below is a diagram illustrating the worst possible input error. You will note from it that the
worst possible input error would be 1 complete scan time + 1 program execution time.
Remember that a program execution time varies from program to program. (depends how
many instructions are in the program!)
Shown below is a diagram illustrating the worst possible output error. You can see from it that
the worst possible output error would be 1 complete scan time.
Based upon the above information we can now see that the total worst possible timer error
would be equal to:
1 scan time + 1 program execution time + 1 scan time
= 2 scan times + 1 program execution time.
What does this really mean? It means that even though most manufacturers currently have
timers with 1ms increments they really shouldn't be used for durations less than a few
milliseconds. This assumes that your scan time is 1ms. If your scan time is 5ms you had
better not use a timer with a duration less than about 15ms. The point is however, just so that
we will know what errors we can expect. If we know what error to expect, we can then think
about whether this amount of error is acceptable for our application. In most applications this
error is insignificant but in some high speed or very precise applications this error can be
VERY significant.
We should also note that the above errors are only the "software errors". There is also a
hardware input error as well as a hardware output error.
The hardware input error is caused by the time it takes for the plc to actually realize that the
input is on when it scans its inputs. Typically this duration is about 10ms. This is because
many PLCs require that an input should be physically on for a few scans before it determines
its physically on. (to eliminate noise or "bouncing" inputs)
The hardware output error is caused by the time it takes from when the plc tells its output to
physically turn on until the moment it actually does. Typically a transistor takes about 0.5ms
whereas a mechanical relay takes about 10ms.
The error keeps on growing doesn't it! If it becomes too big for the application, consider using
an external "hardware" timer.
One-shots
A one-shot is an interesting and invaluable programming tool. At first glance it might be
difficult to figure out why such an instruction is needed. After we understand what this
instruction does and how to use it, however, the necessity will become clear.
A one-shot is used to make something happen for ONLY 1 SCAN. (you do remember what a
scan is, right??) Most manufacturers have one-shots that react to an off to on transition and a
different type that reacts to an on to off transition. Some names for the instructions could be
difu/difd (differentiate up/down), sotu/sotd (single output up/down), osr (one-shot rising) and
others. They all, however, end up with the same result regardless of the name.
One-shot Instruction
Above is the symbol for a difu (one-shot) instruction. A difd looks the same but inside the
symbol it says "difd". Some of the manufacturers have it in the shape of a box but, regardless
of the symbol, they all function the same way. For those manufacturers that don't include a
differentiate down instruction, you can get the same effect by putting a NC (normally closed)
instruction before it instead of a NO(normally open) instruction. (i.e. reverse the logic before
the difu instruction)
Let's now setup an application to see how this instruction actually functions in a ladder. This
instruction is most often used with some of the advanced instructions where we do some
things that MUST happen only once. However, since we haven't gotten that far yet, let's set
up a flip/flop circuit. In simple terms, a flip/flop turns something around each time an action
happens. Here we'll use a single pushbutton switch. The first time the operator pushes it we
want an output to turn on. It will remain "latched" on until the next time the operator pushes
the button. When he does, the output turns off.
Now this looks confusing! Actually it's not if we take it one step at a time.
Rung 1-When NO (normally open) input 0000 becomes true DIFU 1000 becomes
true.
Rung 2- NO 1000 is true, NO 1001 remains false, NC 1001 remains true, NC 1000
turns false. Since we have a true path, (NO 1000 & NC 1001) OUT 1001 becomes
true.
Rung 1- NO 0000 remains true. DIFU 1000 now becomes false. This is because the
DIFU instruction is only true for one scan. (i.e. the rising edge of the logic before it on
the rung)
Rung 2- NO 1000 is false, NO 1001 remains true, NC 1001 is false, NC 1000 turns
true. Since we STILL have a true path, (NO 1001 & NC 1000) OUT 1001 remains
true.
After 100 scans, NO 0000 turns off (becomes false). The logic remains in the same state as
"next scan" shown above. (difu doesn't react therefore the logic stays the same on rungs 2
and 3)
On scan 101 NO 0000 turns back on. (becomes true)
Rung 1-When NO (normally open) input 0000 becomes true DIFU 1000 becomes
true.
Rung 2- NO 1000 is true, NO 1001 remains true, NC 1001 becomes false, NC 1000
also becomes false. Since we no longer have a true path, OUT 1001 becomes false.
Click here
Executing the program 1 instruction at a time makes this and any program easy to follow.
Actually a larger program that jumps around might be difficult to follow but a pencil drawing of
the registers sure does help!
Master Controls
Let's now look at what are called master controls. Master controls can be thought of as
"emergency stop switches". An emergency stop switch typically is a big red button on a
machine that will shut it off in cases of emergency. Next time you're at the local gas station
look near the door on the outside to see an example of an e-stop.
*IMPORTANT- We're not implying that this instruction is a substitute for a "hard wired" e-stop
switch. There is no substitute for such a switch! Rather it's just an easy way to get to
understand them.
The master control instruction typically is used in pairs with a master control reset. However
this varies by manufacturer. Some use MCR in pairs instead of teaming it with another
symbol. It is commonly abbreviated as MC/MCR (master control/master control reset),
MCS/MCR (master control set/master control reset) or just simply MCR (master control reset).
To make things interesting, many manufacturers make them act differently. Let's now take a
look at how it's used in a ladder diagram. Consider the following example:
Click here
Manufacturer Y- In this example, rungs 2 and 3 are always executed regardless of the status
of input 0000. If input 0000 is not true the plc executes the MC instruction. (i.e. MC becomes
true) It then forces all the input instructions inside the block to be off. If input 0000 is true the
MC instruction is made to be false.
Then, if input 0000 is true, program execution goes to rung 2. If input 0001 is true 0500 will be
true and hence it will turn on when the plc updates the outputs. If input 0002 is true (i.e.
physically off) 0501 will be true and therefore it will turn on when the plc updates the outputs.
MCR just tells the plc "that's the end of the mc/mcr block". When input 0000 is false, inputs
0001 and 0002 are forced off regardless if they're physically on or off. Therefore, outputs
0500 and 0501 will be false.
The difference between manufacturers X and Y above is that in the Y scheme the scan time
will be the same (well close to the same) regardless if the block is on or off. This is because
the plc sees each instruction whether the block is on or off.
Most all manufacturers will make a previously latched instruction (one that's inside the mc/mcr
block) retain its previous condition.
If it was true before, it will remain true.
If it was false before, it will remain false.
Timers should not be used inside the mc/mcr block because some manufacturers will reset
them to zero when the block is false whereas other manufacturers will have them retain the
current time state.
Counters typically retain their current counted value.
Here's the part to note most of all. When the mc/mcr block is off, (i.e. input 0000 would be
false in the ladder example shown previously) an OUTB (OutBar or OutNot) instruction would
not be physically on. It is forced physically off.
OutBar instruction
Shift Registers
In many applications it is necessary to store the status of an event that has previously
happened. As we've seen in past chapters this is a simple process. But what do we do if we
must store many previous events and act upon them later.
Answer: we call upon the shift register instruction.
We use a register or group of registers to form a train of bits (cars) to store the previous on/off
status. Each new change in status gets stored in the first bit and the remaining bits get shifted
down the train. Huh? Read on.
The shift register goes by many names. SFT (ShiFT), BSL (Bit Shift Left), SFR (Shift Forward
Register) are some of the common names. These registers shift the bits to the left. BSR (Bit
Shift Right) and SFRN (Shift Forward Register Not) are some examples of instructions that
shift bits to the right. We should note that not all manufacturers have shift registers that shift
data to the right but most all do have left shifting registers.
A typical shift register instruction has a symbol like that shown above. Notice that the symbol
needs 3 inputs and has some data inside the symbol.
The reasons for each input are as follows:
Data- The data input gathers the true/false statuses that will be shifted down the train.
When the data input is true the first bit (car) in the register (train) will be a 1. This data
is only entered into the register (train) on the rising edge of the clock input.
Clock- The clock input tells the shift register to "do its thing". On the rising edge of
this input, the shift register shifts the data one location over inside the register and
enters the status of the data input into the first bit. On each rising edge of this input
the process will repeat.
Reset- The reset input does just what it says. It clears all the bits inside the register
we're using to 0.
The 1000 inside the shift register symbol is the location of the first bit of our shift register. If we
think of the shift register as a train (a choo-choo train that is) then this bit is the locomotive.
The 1003 inside the symbol above is the last bit of our shift register. It is the caboose.
Therefore, we can say that 1001 and 1002 are cars in between the locomotive and the
caboose. They are intermediate bits. So, this shift register has 4 bits.(i.e.
1000,1001,1002,1003)
Lets examine an application to see why/how we can use the shift register.
Imagine an ice-cream cone machine. We have 4 steps. First we verify the cone is not broken.
Next we put ice cream inside the cone.(turn on output 500) Next we add peanuts.(turn on
output 501) And finally we add sprinkles.(turn on output 502) If the cone is broken we
obviously don't want to add ice cream and the other items. Therefore we have to track the bad
cone down our process line so that we can tell the machine not to add each item. We use a
sensor to look at the bottom of the cone. (input 0000) If its on then the cone is perfect and if
its off then the cone is broken. An encoder tracks the cone going down the conveyor. (input
0001) A push button on the machine will clear the register. (input 0002)
Here's what the ladder would look like:
Let's now follow the shift register as the operation takes place. Here's what the 1000 series
register (the register we're shifting) looks like initially:
10xx Register
15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00
0
A good cone comes in front of the sensor (input 0000). The sensor (data input) turns on. 1000
will not turn on until the rising edge of the encoder (input 0001). Finally the encoder now
generates a pulse and the status of the data input (cone sensor input 0000) is transferred to
bit 1000. The register now looks like:
10xx Register
15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00
0
As the conveying system moves on, another cone comes in front of the sensor. This time it's a
broken cone and the sensor remains off. Now the encoder generates another pulse. The old
status of bit 1000 is transferred to bit 1001. The old status of 1001 shifts to 1002. The old
status of 1002 shifts to 1003. And the new status of the data input (cone sensor) is transferred
to bit 1000. The register now looks like:
10xx Register
15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00
0
Since the register shows that 1001 is now on, the ladder says that output 0500 will turn on
and ice cream is put in the cone.
As the conveying system continues to move on, another cone comes in front of the sensor.
This time it's a good cone and the sensor turns on. Now the encoder generates another pulse.
The old status of bit 1000 is transferred to bit 1001. The old status of 1001 shifts to 1002. The
old status of 1002 shifts to 1003. And the new status of the data input (cone sensor) is
transferred to bit 1000. The register now looks like:
10xx Register
15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00
0
Since the register shows that 1002 is now on the ladder says that output 0501 will turn on and
peanuts are put on the cone. Since 1001 now holds the status of a broken cone, 500 remains
off in the ladder above and no ice-cream is inserted into this cone. As the conveying system
continues to move on, another cone comes in front of the sensor. This time it's also a good
cone and the sensor turns on. Now the encoder generates another pulse. The old status of bit
1000 is transferred to bit 1001. The old status of 1001 shifts to 1002. The old status of 1002
shifts to 1003. And the new status of the data input (cone sensor) is transferred to bit 1000.
The register now looks like:
10xx Register
15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00
1
Since the register shows that 1003 is now on the ladder says that output 0502 will turn on and
sprinkles are put on the cone. (Its done, yummy...)Since 1002 now holds the status of a
broken cone, 501 remains off in the ladder above and no peanuts are put onto this cone.
Since the register shows that 1001 is now on the ladder says that output 0500 will turn on and
ice cream is put in that cone.
As the conveying system continues to move on, another cone comes in front of the sensor.
This time it's another broken cone and the sensor turns off. Now the encoder generates
another pulse. The old status of bit 1000 is transferred to bit 1001. The old status of 1001
shifts to 1002. The old status of 1002 shifts to 1003. And the new status of the data input
(cone sensor) is transferred to bit 1000. The register now looks like:
10xx Register
15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00
0
Notice that the status of our first cone has disappeared. In reality its sitting in location 1004
but it's useless for us to draw an application with 16 processes here. Suffice it to say that after
the bit is shifted all the way to the left it disappears and is never seen again. In other words, it
has been shifted out of the register and is erased from memory. Although it's not drawn, the
operation above would continue on with each bit shifting on the rising edge of the encoder
signal.
Click here
The shift register is most commonly used in conveyor systems, labeling or bottling
applications, etc. Sometimes it's also conveniently used when the operation must be delayed
in a fast moving bottling line. For example, a solenoid can't immediately kick out a bad can of
beer when the sensor says its bad. By the time the solenoid would react the can would have
already passed by. So typically the solenoid is located further down the conveyor line and a
shift register tracks the can to be kicked out later when it's more convenient.
A shift register is often very difficult to understand. When in doubt, re-read the above and
you'll understand it soon enough.
( maybe a thumbwheel switch is connected there, for example), do some math and store the
result in a different location, etc...
As was stated before there are typically 2 common instruction "sets" to accomplish this. Some
manufacturers use a single instruction to do the entire operation while others use two
separate instructions. The two are used together to accomplish the final result. Let's now look
briefly at each instruction.
The single instruction is commonly called MOV (move). Some vendors also include a MOVN
(move not). It has the same function of MOV but it transfers the data in inverted form. (i.e. if
the bit was a 1, a 0 is stored/moved or if the bit was a 0, a 1 is stored/moved). The MOV
typically looks like that shown below.
The paired instruction typically is called LDA (LoaD Accumulator) and STA (STore
Accumulator). The accumulator is simply a register inside the CPU where the plc stores data
temporarily while its working. The LDA instruction typically looks like that shown below, while
the STA instruction looks like that shown below to the right.
Regardless of whether we use the one symbol or two symbol instruction set (we have no
choice as it depends on whose plc we use) they work the same way.
Let's see the single instruction first. The MOV instruction needs to know 2 things from us.
Source (xxxx)- This is where the data we want to move is located. We could write a
constant here (2222 for example). This would mean our source data is the number
2222. We could also write a location or address of where the data we want to move is
located. If we wrote DM100 this would move the data that is located in data memory
100.
Destination (yyyy)- This is the location where the data will be moved to. We write an
address here. For example if we write DM201 here the data would be moved into
data memory 201. We could also write 0500 here. This would mean that the data
would be moved to the physical outputs. 0500 would have the least significant bit,
0501 would have the next bit... 0515 would have the most significant bit. This would
be useful if we had a binary display connected to the outputs and we wanted to
display the value inside a counter for the machine operator at all times (for example).
The ladder diagram to do this would look similar to that shown above.
Notice that we are also using a "difu" instruction here. The reason is simply because if we
didn't the data would be moved during each and every scan. Sometimes this is a good thing
(for example if we are acquiring data from an A/D module) but other times it's not (for example
an external display would be unreadable because the data changes too much).
The ladder shows that each time real world input 0000 becomes true, difu will become true for
only one scan. At this time LoaD 1000 will be true and the plc will move the data from data
memory 200 and put it into data memory 201.
Simple but effective. If, instead of DM200, we had written 2222 in the symbol we would have
moved (written) the number (constant) 2222 into DM201.
The two symbol instruction works in the same method but looks different. To use them we
must also supply two things, one for each instruction:
LDA- this instruction is similar to the source of a MOV instruction. This is where the
data we want to move is located. We could write a constant here (2222 for example).
This would mean our source data is the number 2222. We could also write a location
or address of where the data we want to move is located. If we wrote DM100 this
would move the data that is located in data memory 100.
The ladder diagram to do this would look similar to that shown above. Here again we notice
that we are using a one-shot so that the move only occurs once for each time input 0000
becomes true. In this ladder we are moving the constant 2222 into data memory 200. The "#"
is used by some manufactures to symbolize a decimal number. If we just used 2222 this plc
would think it meant address 2222. PLCs are all the same... but they are all different.
Click here
We can think of this instruction as the gateway to advanced instructions. I'm sure you'll find it
useful and invaluable as we'll see in future. Many advanced functions are impossible without
this instruction!
Math Instructions
Let's now look at using some basic math functions on our data. Many times in our
applications we must execute some type of mathematical formula on our data. It's a rare
occurrence when our data is actually exactly what we needed.
As an example, let's say we are manufacturing widgets. We don't want to display the total
number we've made today, but rather we want to display how many more we need to make
today to meet our quota. Lets say our quota for today is 1000 pieces. We'll say X is our
current production. Therefore, we can figure that 1000-X=widgets left to make. To implement
this formula we obviously need some math capability.
In general, PLCs almost always include these math functions:
Addition- The capability to add one piece of data to another. It is commonly called
ADD.
Division- The capability to divide one piece of data from another. It is commonly
called DIV.
As we saw with the MOV instruction there are generally two common methods used by the
majority of plc makers. The first method includes a single instruction that asks us for a few
key pieces of information. This method typically requires:
Source A- This is the address of the first piece of data we will use in our formula. In
other words it's the location in memory of where the first "number" is that we use in
the formula.
Source B- This is the address of the second piece of data we will use in our formula.
In other words it's the location in memory of where the second "number" is that we
use in the formula. -NOTE: typically we can only work with 2 pieces of data at a time.
In other words we can't work directly with a formula like 1+2+3. We would have to
break it up into pieces. Like 1+2=X then X+3= our result.
Destination- This is the address where the result of our formula will be put. For
example, if 1+2=3, (I hope it still does!), the 3 would automatically be put into this
destination memory location.
ADD symbol
The instructions above typically have a symbol that looks like that shown above. Of course,
the word ADD would be replaced by SUB, MUL, DIV, etc. In this symbol, The source A is
DM100, the source B is DM101 and the destination is DM102. Therefore, the formula is
simply whatever value is in DM100 + whatever value is in DM101. The result is automatically
stored into DM102.
Shown above is how to use math functions on a ladder diagram. Please note that once again
we are using a one-shot instruction. As we've seen before, this is because if we didn't use it
we would execute the formula on every scan. Odds are good that we'd only want to execute
the function one time when input 0000 becomes true. If we had previously put the number
100 into DM100 and 200 into DM101, the number 300 would be stored in DM102.(i.e.
100+200=300, right??)
The dual instruction method would use a symbol similar to that shown above. In this method,
we give this symbol only the Source B location. The Source A location is given by the LDA
instruction. The Destination would be included in the STA instruction.
Click here
What would happen if we had a result that was greater than the value that could be stored in
a memory location?
Typically the memory locations are 16-bit locations. (more about number types in a later
chapter) In plain words this means that if the number is greater than 65535 (2^16=65536) it is
too big to fit. Then we get what's called an overflow. Typically the plc turns on an internal relay
that tells us an overflow has happened. Depending on the plc, we would have different data in
the destination location. (DM102 from example) Most PLCs put the remainder here.
Some use 32-bit math which solves the problem. (except for really big numbers!) If we're
doing division, for example, and we divide by zero (illegal) the overflow bit typically turns on
as well. Suffice it to say, check the overflow bit in your ladder and if its true, plan appropriately.
Many PLCs also include other math capabilities. Some of these functions could include:
Square roots
Scaling
Absolute value
Sine
Cosine
Tangent
Natural logarithm
Base 10 logarithm
Some PLCs can use floating point math as well. Floating point math is simply using decimal
points. In other words, we could say that 10 divided by 3 is 3.333333 (floating point). Or we
could say that 10 divided by 3 is 3 with a remainder of 1(long division). Many micro/mini PLCs
don't include floating point math. Most larger systems typically do.
Understand the theory and we can always learn how our manufacturer of choice does it.
Number Systems
Before we get too far ahead of ourselves, let's take a look at the various number systems
used by PLCs.
Many number systems are used by PLCs. Binary and Binary Coded Decimal are popular
while octal and hexadecimal systems are also common.
Let's look at each:
As we do, consider the following formula (Math again!):
Nbase= Ddigit * R^unit + .... D1R^1 + D0R^0
where D=the value of the digit and R= # of digit symbols used in the given number system.
The "*" means multiplication. ( 5 * 10 = 50)
The "^" means "to the power of".
As you'll recall any number raised to the power of 0 is 1. 10^1=10, 10^2 is 10x10=100, 10^3 is
10x10x10=1000, 10^4 is 10x10x10x10=10000...
This lets us convert from any number system back into decimal. Huh? Read on...
Decimal- This is the numbering system we use in everyday life. (well most of us do
anyway!) We can think of this as base 10 counting. It can be called as base 10
because each digit can have 10 different states. (i.e. 0-9) Since this is not easy to
implement in an electronic system it is seldom, if ever, used. If we use the formula
above we can find out what the number 456 is. From the formula:
Nbase= Ddigit * R^unit + .... D1R^1 + D0R^0
we have (since we're doing base 10, R=10)
Binary- This is the numbering system computers and PLCs use. It was far easier to
design a system in which only 2 numbers (0 and 1) are manipulated (i.e. used).
The binary system uses the same basic principles as the decimal system. In decimal
we had 10 digits. (0-9) In binary we only have 2 digits (0 and 1). In decimal we count:
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, and instead of going back to zero, we start a new digit and then
start from 0 in the original digit location.
In other words, we start by placing a 1 in the second digit location and begin counting
again in the original location like this 10,11,12,13, ... When again we hit 9, we
increment the second digit and start counting from 0 again in the original digit
location. Like 20,21,22,23.... of course this keeps repeating. And when we run out of
digits in the second digit location we create a third digit and again start from scratch.
(i.e. 99, 100, 101, 102...)
Binary works the same way. We start with 0 then 1. Since there is no 2 in binary we
must create a new digit.
Therefore we have 0, 1, 10, 11 and again we run out of room. Then we create another
digit like 100, 101, 110, 111. Again we ran out of room so we add another digit... Do
you get the idea?
The general conversion formula may clear things up:
Nbase= Ddigit * R^unit + .... D1R^1 + D0R^0.
Since we're now doing binary or base 2, R=2. Let's try to convert the binary number
1101 back into decimal.
2^14
2^13 2^12 2^11 2^10 2^9 2^8 2^7 2^6 2^5 2^4 2^3 2^2 2^1 2^0
Octal- The binary number system requires a ton of digits to represent a large number.
Consider that binary 11111111 is only decimal 255. A decimal number like 1,000,000
("1 million") would need a lot of binary digits! Plus it's also hard for humans to
manipulate such numbers without making mistakes.
Therefore several computer/plc manufacturers started to implement the octal number
system.
8^6
8^5
8^4
8^3
8^2
8^1
8^0
2097152
262144
32768
4096
512
64
Lastly, the octal system is a convenient way for us to express or write binary numbers in plc
systems. A binary number with a large number of digits can be conveniently written in an octal
form with fewer digits. This is because 1 octal digit actually represents 3 binary digits.
Believe me that when we start working with register data or address locations in the advanced
chapters it becomes a great way of expressing data. The following chart shows what we're
referring to:
1
6
1
2
0
4
From the chart we can see that binary 1110010011100101 is octal 162345. (decimal 58597)
As we can see, when we think of registers, it's easier to think in octal than in binary. As you'll
soon see though, hexadecimal is the best way to think. (really)
popular number system used with computers and PLCs. (we should learn each one
though)
The hexadecimal system is also referred to as base 16 or just simply hex. As the
name base 16 implies, it has 16 digits. The digits are
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F.
So we count like
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F,10,11,12,13,...
1A,1B,1C,1D,1E,1F,20,21... 2A,2B,2C,2D,2E,2F,30...
Using the formula again, we can convert a hex number to decimal quite easily.
Nbase= Ddigit * R^unit + .... D1R^1 + D0R^0
So hex 6A4 would be:(remember here that R=16)
16^7
16^6
16^5
16^4
4294967296
268435456
16777216
1048576
16
Finally, the hex system is perhaps the most convenient way for us to express or write binary
numbers in plc systems. A binary number with a large number of digits can be conveniently
written in hex form with fewer digits than octal. This is because 1 hex digit actually represents
4 binary digits.
Believe me that when we start working with register data or address locations in the advanced
chapters it becomes the best way of expressing data. The following chart shows what we're
referring to:
1
7
0
4
1
A
0
5
From the chart we can see that binary 0111010010100101 is hex 74A5. (decimal 29861) As
we can see, when we think of registers, it's far easier to think in hex than in binary or octal.
4 digits go a long way after some practice!
Boolean Math
Let's now take a look at some simple "boolean math". Boolean math lets us do some vary
basic functions with the bits in our registers. These basic functions typically include AND, OR
and XOR functions. Each is described below.
AND- This function enables us to use the truth table below. Here, we can see that the
AND function is very much related to multiplication. We see this because the only
time the Result is true (i.e. 1) is when both operators A AND B are true (i.e. 1).
The AND instruction is useful when your plc doesn't have a masking function. Oh
yeah, a masking function enables a bit in a register to be "left alone" when working on
a bit level. This is simply because any bit that is ANDed with itself will remain the
value it currently is. For example, if you wanted to clear ( make them 0) only 12 bits in
a 16 bit register you might AND the register with 0's everywhere except in the 4 bits
you wanted to maintain the status of.
See the truth table below to figure out what we mean. (1 AND 1 = 1, 0 AND 0= 0)
Result = A AND B
A
Result
OR- This functions based upon the truth table below. Here, we can see that the OR
function is very much related to addition. We see this because the only time the
Result is true (i.e. 1) is when operator A OR B is true (i.e. 1). Obviously, when they
are both true the result is true. (If A OR B is true...)
Result = A OR B
A
Result
EXOR- This function enables us to use the truth table below. Here, we can see that
the EXOR (XOR) function is not related to anything I can think of ! An easy way to
remember the results of this function is to think that A and B must be one or the other
case, exclusively. Huh?
In other words, they must be opposites of each other. When they are both the same
(i.e. A=B) the result is false (i.e. 0).
This is sometimes useful when you want to compare bits in 2 registers and highlight
which bits are different. It's also needed when we calculate some checksums. A
checksum is commonly used as error checking in some communications protocols.
Result = A XOR B
A
Result
The ladder logic instructions are commonly called AND, ANDA, ANDW, OR, ORA, ORW,
XOR, EORA XORW.
As we saw with the MOV instruction there are generally two common methods used by the
majority of plc makers. The first method includes a single instruction that asks us for a few
key pieces of information. This method typically requires:
Source A- This is the address of the first piece of data we will use. In other words its
the location in memory of where the A is.
Source B- This is the address of the second piece of data we will use. In other words
its the location in memory of where the B is.
Destination- This is the address where the result will be put. For example, if A AND B
= 0 the result (0) would automatically be put into this destination memory location.
AND symbol
The instructions above typically have a symbol that looks like that shown here. Of course, the
word AND would be replaced by OR or XOR. In this symbol, The source A is DM100, the
source B is DM101 and the destination is DM102. Therefore, we have simply created the
equation DM100 AND DM101 = DM102. The result is automatically stored into DM102.
The boolean functions on a ladder diagram are shown below.
Please note that once again we are using a one-shot instruction. As we've seen before, this is
because if we didn't use it, we would execute the instruction on every scan. Odds are good
that we'd only want to execute the function one time when input 0000 becomes true.
The dual instruction method would use a symbol similar to that shown above. In this method,
we give this symbol only the Source B location. The Source A location is given by the LDA
instruction. The Destination would be included in the STA instruction.
Below is a ladder diagram showing what is meant:
The results are the same as the single instruction method shown above. It should be noted
that although the symbol and ladder diagram above show the AND instruction, OR or EXOR
can be used as well. Simply substitute the word "AND" within the instruction to be either "OR"
or "EXOR". The results will be the same as shown in their respective truth tables.
We should always remember that the theory is most important. If we can understand the
theory of why things happen as they do, we can use anybody's plc. If we refer to the
manufacturers documentation we can find out the details for the particular plc we are using.
Try to find the theory in that documentation and you might come up short. The details are
insignificant while the theory is very significant.
DC Inputs
Let's now take a look at how the input circuits of a plc work. This will give us a better
understanding of how we should wire them up. Bad things can happen if we wire them up
incorrectly!
Typically, dc input modules are available that will work with 5, 12, 24, and 48 volts. Be sure to
purchase the one that fits your needs based upon the input devices you will use.
We'll first look at how the dc inputs work. DC input modules allow us to connect either PNP
(sourcing) or NPN (sinking) transistor type devices to them. If we are using a regular switch
(i.e. toggle or pushbutton, etc.) we typically don't have to worry about whether we wire it as
NPN or PNP. We should note that most PLCs won't let us mix NPN and PNP devices on the
same module. When we are using a sensor (photo-eye, prox, etc.) we do, however, have to
worry about its output configuration. Always verify whether it's PNP or NPN. (Check with
the manufacturer when unsure)
The difference between the two types is whether the load (in our case, the plc is the load) is
switched to ground or positive voltage. An NPN type sensor has the load switched to ground
whereas a PNP device has the load switched to positive voltage.
Below is what the outputs look like for NPN and PNP sensors.
On the NPN sensor we connect one output to the PLCs input and the other output to the
power supply ground. If the sensor is not powered from the same supply as the plc, we
should connect both grounds together. NPN sensors are most commonly used in North
America.
Many engineers will say that PNP is better (i.e. safer) because the load is switched to ground,
but whatever works for you is best. Just remember to plan for the worst.
On the PNP sensor we connect one output to positive voltage and the other output to the
PLCs input. If the sensor is not powered from the same supply as the plc, we should connect
both V+'s together. PNP sensors are most commonly used in Europe.
Inside the sensor, the transistor is just acting as a switch. The sensors internal circuit tells the
output transistor to turn on when a target is present. The transistor then closes the circuit
between the 2 connections shown above. (V+ and plc input).
The only things accessible to the user are the terminals labeled COMMON, INPUT 0000,
INPUT 0001, INPUTxxxx... The common terminal either gets connected to V+ or ground.
Where it's connected depends upon the type of sensor used. When using an NPN sensor this
terminal is connected to V+. When using a PNP sensor this terminal is connected to 0V
(ground).
A common switch (i.e. limit switch, pushbutton, toggle, etc.) would be connected to the inputs
in a similar fashion. One side of the switch would be connected directly to V+. The other end
goes to the plc input terminal. This assumes the common terminal is connected to 0V
(ground). If the common is connected to V+ then simply connect one end of the switch to 0V
(ground) and the other end to the plc input terminal.
The photocouplers are used to isolate the PLCs internal circuit from the inputs. This
eliminates the chance of any electrical noise entering the internal circuitry. They work by
converting the electrical input signal to light and then by converting the light back to an
electrical signal to be processed by the internal circuit.
AC Inputs
Now that we understand how dc inputs work, let's take a close look at ac inputs. An ac
voltage is non-polarized. Put simply, this means that there is no positive or negative to "worry
about". However, ac voltage can be quite dangerous to work with if we are careless.
(Remember when you stuck the knife in the toaster and got a shock? Be careful)
Typically, ac input modules are available that will work with 24, 48, 110, and 220 volts. Be
sure to purchase the one that fits your needs based upon the input devices (voltage) you will
use.
AC input modules are less common these days than dc input modules. The reason being that
today's sensors typically have transistor outputs. A transistor will not work with an ac voltage.
Most commonly, the ac voltage is being switched through a limit switch or other switch type. If
your application is using a sensor it probably is operating on a dc voltage.
We typically connect an ac device to our input module as shown above. Commonly the ac
"hot" wire is connected to the switch while the "neutral" goes to the plc common. The ac
ground (3rd wire where applicable) should be connected to the frame ground terminal of the
plc.(not shown) As is true with dc, ac connections are typically color coded so that the
individual wiring the device knows which wire is which. This coding varies from country to
country but in the US is commonly white (neutral), black (hot) and green (3rd wire ground
when applicable). Outside the US it's commonly coded as brown (hot), blue (neutral) and
green with a yellow stripe (3rd wire ground where applicable).
The PLCs ac input module circuit typically looks like this:
The only things accessible to the user are the terminals labeled COMMON, INPUT 0000,
INPUTxxxx... The common terminal gets connected to the neutral wire.
A common switch (i.e. limit switch, pushbutton, toggle, etc.) would be connected to the input
terminals directly. One side of the switch would be connected directly to INPUT XXX. The
other end goes to the ac hot wire. This assumes the common terminal is connected to neutral.
Always check the manufacturers specifications before wiring, to be sure AND SAFE.
The photocouplers are used to isolate the PLCs internal circuit from the inputs. This
eliminates the chance of any electrical noise entering the internal circuitry. They work by
converting the electrical input signal to light and then by converting the light back to an
electrical signal to be processed by the internal circuit.
One last note, typically an ac input takes longer than a dc input for the plc to see. In most
cases it doesn't matter to the programmer because an ac input device is typically a
mechanical switch and mechanical devices are slowwwwww. It's quite common for a plc to
require that the input be on for 25 or more milliseconds before it's seen. This delay is required
because of the filtering which is needed by the plc internal circuit. Remember that the plc
internal circuit typically works with 5 or less volts dc.
Relay Outputs
By now we should have a good understanding of how the inputs are used. Next up is the
output circuits.
One of the most common types of outputs available is the relay output. A relay can be used
with both AC and DC loads. A load is simply a fancy word for whatever is connected to our
outputs. We call it a load because we are "loading the output" with something. If we
connected no load to the output (i.e. just connect it directly to a power supply) we would
certainly damage the outputs. This would be similar to replacing the lightbulb in the lamp
you're using to read this with a piece of wire. If you did this, the lamp would draw a
tremendous amount of current from the outlet and certainly pop your circuit breaker or blow
your fuse or your brains. (Take our word. Please don't try it! Extremely dangerous!)
Some common forms of a load are a solenoid, lamp, motor, etc. These "loads" come in all
sizes. Electrical sizes, that is. Always check the specifications of your load before connecting
it to the plc output. You always want to make sure that the maximum current it will consume is
within the specifications of the plc output. If it is not within the specifications (i.e. draws too
much current) it will probably damage the output. When in doubt, double check with the
manufacturer to see if it can be connected without potential damage.
Some types of loads are very deceiving. These deceiving loads are called "inductive loads".
These have a tendency to deliver a "back current" when they turn on. This back current is like
a voltage spike coming through the system.
A good example of an inductive load that most of us see about 6 months per year is an air
conditioning unit. Perhaps in your home you have an air conditioner. (unless you live in the
arctic you probably do!) Have you ever noticed that when the air conditioner "kicks on" the
lights dim for a second or two. Then they return to their normal brightness. This is because
when the air conditioner turns on it tries to draw a lot of current through your wiring system.
After this initial "kick" it requires less current and the lights go back to normal. This could be
dangerous to your PLCs output relays. It can be estimated that this kick is about 30 times the
rated current of the load. Typically a diode, varistor, or other "snubber" circuit should be used
to help combat any damage to the relay. Enough said. Let's see how we can use these
outputs in the "real plc world".
Shown above is a typical method of connecting our outputs to the plc relays. Although our
diagram shows the output connected to an AC supply, DC can be used as well. A relay is nonpolarized and typically it can switch either AC or DC. Here the common is connected to one
end of our power supply and the other end of the supply is connected to the load. The other
half of our load gets connected to the actual plc output you have designated within your
ladder program.
The relay is internal to the plc. Its circuit diagram typically looks like that shown above. When
our ladder diagram tells the output to turn on, the plc will internally apply a voltage to the relay
coil. This voltage will allow the proper contact to close. When the contact closes, an external
current is allowed to flow through our external circuit. When the ladder diagram tells the plc to
turn off the output, it will simply remove the voltage from the internal circuit thereby enabling
the output contact to release. Our load will than have an open circuit and will therefore be off.
Simple, isn't it?
Transistor Outputs
The next type of output we should learn about is our transistor type outputs. It is important to
note that a transistor can only switch a dc current. For this reason it cannot be used with an
AC voltage.
We can think of a transistor as a solid-state switch. Or more simply put, an electrical switch. A
small current applied to the transistors "base" (i.e. input) lets us switch a much larger current
through its output. The plc applies a small current to the transistor base and the transistor
output "closes". When it's closed, the device connected to the plc output will be turned on.
The above is a very simple explanation of a transistor. There are, of course, more details
involved but we don't need to get too deep.
We should also keep in mind that as we saw before with the input circuits, there are generally
more than one type of transistor available. Typically a plc will have either NPN or PNP type
outputs. The "physical" type of transistor used also varies from manufacturer to
manufacturer. Some of the common types available are BJT and MOSFET. A BJT type
(Bipolar Junction Transistor) often has less switching capacity (i.e. it can switch less current)
than a MOS-FET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor- Field Effect Transistor) type. The BJT also has
a slightly faster switching time. Once again, please check the output specifications of the
particular plc you are going to use. Never exceed the manufacturers maximum switching
current.
Shown above is how we typically connect our output device to the transistor output. Please
note that this is an NPN type transistor. If it were a PNP type, the common terminal would
most likely be connected to V+ and V- would connect to one end of our load. Note that since
this is a DC type output we must always observe proper polarity for the output. One end of the
load is connected directly to V+ as shown above.
Let's take a moment and see what happens inside the output circuit. Shown below is a typical
output circuit diagram for an NPN type output.
Notice that as we saw with the transistor type inputs, there is a photocoupler isolating the
"real world" from the internal circuit. When the ladder diagram calls for it, the internal circuit
turns on the photocoupler by applying a small voltage to the LED side of the photocoupler.
This makes the LED emit light and the receiving part of the photocoupler will see it and allow
current to flow. This small current will turn on the base of the output transistor connected to
output 0500. Therefore, whatever is connected between COM and 0500 will turn on. When
the ladder tells 0500 to turn off, the LED will stop emitting light and hence the output transistor
connected between 0500 and COM will turn off.
One other important thing to note is that a transistor typically cannot switch as large a load as
a relay. Check the manufacturers specifications to find the largest load it can safely switch. If
the load current you need to switch exceeds the specification of the output, you can connect
the plc output to an external relay. Then connect the relay to the large load. You may be
thinking, "why not just use a relay in the first place"? The answer is because a relay is not
always the correct choice for every output. A transistor gives you the opportunity to use
external relays when and only when necessary.
In summary, a transistor is fast, switches a small current, has a long lifetime and works with
dc only. Whereas a relay is slow, can switch a large current, has a shorter lifetime and works
with ac or dc. Select the appropriate one based upon your actual application needs.
Communications History
By far, the most popular method of communicating with external devices is by using the "RS232" communications method. Communication with external devices is viewed by many plc
programmers to be difficult if not "all but impossible" to understand. This is far from true! It's
not "black art", "witchcraft" or "weird science". Read on...
All plc communication systems have their roots in the old telegraph we may have seen in the
old movies. (Remember the guy working at the train station with the arm band and plastic
visor?) Early attempts to communicate electronically over long distances began as early as
the late 1700's. In 1810 a German man (von Soemmering) was using a device with 26 wires
(1 for each letter of the alphabet) attached to the bottom of an aquarium. When current
passed through the wires, electrolytic action produced small bubbles. By choosing the
appropriate wires to energize, he was able to send encoded messages "via bubbles". (It's
true...really) This then caught the attention of the military and the race to find a system was
on.
In 1839, 2 Englishmen, Cooke and Wheatstone, had a 13 mile telegraph in use by a British
railroad. Their device had 5 wires powering small electromagnets which deflected low-mass
needles. By applying current to different combinations of 2 wires at a time the needles were
deflected so that they pointed to letters of the alphabet arranged in a matrix. This "2 of 5"
code only allowed 20 combinations so the letters "z,v,u,q,j and c" were omitted. This telegraph
was a big step for the time, but the code was not binary (on/off) but rather it was trinary (the
needle moved left,right,or not at all).
The biggest problems with these devices was the fact that they were parallel (required
multiple wires). Cooke and Wheatstone eventually made a two wire device but the first
practical fully serial binary system generally gets credited to S.F.B. Morse. In Morse code,
characters are symbolized by dots and dashes(binary- 1's and 0's). Morse's first system isn't
like we see today in the movies. (It's on display at the Smithsonian in DC if you want to see it)
It actually had a needle contacting a rotating drum of paper that made a continuous mark. By
energizing an electromagnet the needle would "bounce" away from the paper creating a
space. Very soon telegraph operators noticed that they didn't have to look at the paper to read
the code but they could interpret the code by the sound the needle made when scratching the
paper. So this device was replaced by a sounder that produced click sounds instead of paper
etchings. Teleprinters came later, and todays serial communications devices are more closely
related to them. The rest is history... extinct, but history anyway!
Incidentally, the terms MARK and SPACE (we'll see them later) originated from Morse's
original device. When the needle contacted the paper we called this a MARK and when the
needle bounced it was called a SPACE. His device only produced UPPERCASE letters which
wasn't a big problem though. Further, the Titanic sinking "standardized" the code of "SOS"
which means "Save Our Ship" or if you were ever in the US military you might know it better
as "S*%$ On a Shingle" which was chipped beef on bread.
their timing) communications method. We use a binary system (1's and 0's) to transmit our
data in the ASCII format. (American Standard Code for Information Interchange- pronounced
ASS-KEY) This code translates human readable code (letters/numbers) into "computer
readable" code (1's and 0's). Our plcs serial port is used for transmission/reception of the
data. It works by sending/receiving a voltage. A positive voltage is called a MARK and a
negative voltage is called a SPACE. Typically, the plc works with +/- 15volts. The voltage
between +/- 3 volts is generally not used and is considered noise.
There are 2 types of RS-232 devices. The first is called a DTE device. This means Data
Terminal Equipment and a common example is a computer. The other type is called a DCE
device. DCE means Data Communications Equipment and a common example is a modem.
Your plc may be either a DTE or DCE device. Check your documentation.
The plc serial port works by turning some pins on while turning other off. These pins each are
dedicated to a specific purpose. The serial port comes in 2 flavors-- a 25-pin type and a 9-pin
type. The pins and their purposes are shown below. (This chart assumes your plc is a DTE
device)
9-PIN
25-PIN
PURPOSE
frame ground
20
signal ground
22
frame ground- This pin should be internally connected to the chassis of the device.
receive data- This pin is where the data from the external device enters the plc serial
port.
transmit data- This pin is where the data from the plc serial port leaves the plc
enroute to the external device.
data terminal ready- This pin is a master control for the external device. When this pin
is 1 the external device will not transmit or receive data.
signal ground- Since data is sent as + or - voltage, this pin is the ground that is
referenced.
data set ready- Usually external devices have this pin as a permanent 0 and the plc
basically uses it to determine that the external device is powered up and ready.
request to send- This is part of hardware handshaking. When the plc wants to send
data to the external device it sets this pin to a 0. In other words, it sets the pin to a 0
and basically says "I want to send you data. Is it ok?" The external device says it's
OK to send data by setting its clear to send pin to 0. The plc then sends the data.
clear to send- This is the other half of hardware handshaking. As noted above, the
external device sets this pin to 0 when it is ready to receive data from the plc.
What happens when your plc and external device are both DTE (or both DCE) devices? They
can't talk to each other, that's what happens. The picture below shows why 2 same type
devices can't communicate with each other.
Notice that in the picture above, the receive data line (pin2) of the first device is connected to
the receive data line of the second device. And the transmit data line (pin3) of the first device
is connected to the transmit data of the second device. It's like talking through a phone with
the wires reversed. (i.e. your mouth piece is connected directly to the other parties
mouthpiece and your ear piece is connected directly to the other parties earpiece.) Obviously,
this won't work well!
The solution is to use a null-modem connection as shown below. This is typically done by
using a reverse (null-modem) cable to connect the devices.
sending data on its TD terminal and the external device receives it on its RD terminal. The plc
runs out of data to send and turns off its RTS terminal. The external device sits and waits for
more data.
space
"
&
'
<
>
0
1
XON
STX
ETX
XOFF
4
5
6
NAK
ACK
LF
CR
start bit- In RS-232 the first thing we send is called a start bit. This start bit
("invented" during WW1 by Kleinschmidt) is a synchronizing bit added just before
each character we are sending. This is considered a SPACE or negative voltage or a
0.
stop bit- The last thing we send is called a stop bit. This stop bit tells us that the last
character was just sent. Think of it as an end-of -character bit. This is considered a
MARK or positive voltage or a 1. The start and stop bits are commonly called framing
bits because they surround the character we are sending.
Baud rate- I'll perpetuate the incorrect meaning since it's most commonly used
incorrectly. Think of baud rate as referring to the number of bits per second that are
being transmitted. So 1200 means 1200 bits per second are being sent and 9600
means 9600 bits are being transmitted every second. Common values (speeds) are
1200, 2400, 4800, 9600, 19200, and 38400.
RS232 data format- (baud rate-data bits-parity-stop bits) This is the way the data
format is typically specified. For example, 9600-8-N-1 means a baud rate of 9600, 8
data bits, parity of None, and 1 stop bit.
The picture below shows how data leaves the serial port for the character "E" (45h 100
0101b) and Even parity.
Another important thing that is sometimes used is called software handshaking (flow control).
Like the hardware handshaking we saw in the previous chapter, software handshaking is
used to make sure both devices are ready to send/receive data. The most popular "character
flow control" is called XON/XOFF. It's very simple to understand. Simply put, the receiver
sends the XOFF character when it wants the transmitter to pause sending data. When it's
ready to receive data again, it sends the transmitter the XON character. XOFF is sometimes
referred to as the holdoff character and XON as the release character.
The last thing we should know about is delimiters. A delimiter is simply added to the end of a
message to tell the receiver to process the data it has received. The most common is the CR
or the CR and LF pair. The CR (carriage return) is like the old typewriters. (remember
them??) When you reached the end of a line while typing, a bell would sound. You would then
grab the handle and move the carriage back to the start. In other words, you returned the
carriage to the beginning. (This is the same as what a CR delimiter will do if you view it on a
computer screen.) The plc/external device receives this and knows to take the data from its
buffer. (where the data is stored temporarily before being processed) An LF (line feed) is also
sometimes sent with the CR character. If viewed on a computer screen this would look like
what happens on the typewriter when the carriage is returned and the page moves down a
line so you don't type over what you just typed.
Sometimes an STX and ETX pair is used for transmission/reception as well. STX is "start of
text" and ETX is "end of text". The STX is sent before the data and tells the external device
that data is coming. After all the data has been sent, an ETX character is sent.
Finally, we might also come across an ACK/NAK pair. This is rarely used but it should be
noted as well. Essentially, the transmitter sends its data. If the receiver gets it without error, it
sends back an ACK character. If there was an error, the receiver sends back a NAK character
and the transmitter resends the data.
RS-232 has a lot of information to absorb, so feel free to reread it. It's not so difficult if
you take your time and think about each step. Other communication methods get easier
We should start out as always, remembering that a plc is a plc is a plc... In other words,
understand the theory first and then figure out how our manufacturer of choice "makes it
work". Some manufacturers include RS-232 communication capability in the main processor.
Some use the "programming port" for this. Others require you to purchase (i.e. spend extra
$'s) a module to "talk RS-232" with an external device.
What is an external device, you maybe asking? The answer is difficult because there are so
many external devices. It may be an operator interface, an external computer, a motor
controller, a robot, a vision system, a ... get the point??
To communicate via RS-232 we have to setup a few things. Ask yourself the following
questions:
Where, in data memory, will we store the data to be sent? Essentially we have to
store the data we will send... somewhere. Where else but in our data memory!
Where, in data memory, will we put the data we receive from the external device?
How will we tell the plc when it's time to send our data (the data we stored in data
memory) out the serial port?
How will we know when we have received data from our external device?
If you know the above, then the rest is easy. If you don't know the above, then make
something up and now the rest is easy. Huh??? Simple, pick a memory area to work with and
figure out if we can choose the internal relays to use to send and receive data or if the plc has
ones that are dedicated to this purpose. Sounds too simple?? (No way, it is simple!!)
Before we do it, let's get some more technical terms out of the way so we're on the same
playing field.
Buffer- A buffer is a fancy technical word that means a plastic bag. In other words, it's
a temporary storage location where the plc or external device stores data it has
received (or is waiting to send) via RS-232. When I go to the supermarket to buy my
favorite tv dinners, I carry them home in a plastic bag. The plastic bag is not a
permanent place for my food (are tv dinners really food??) but rather a temporary
storage place for them until I get home. When I get home, I take them out of the bag
and cook them. The supermarket was the external device where I got the data (tv
dinners) from and my microwave is the plc. The plastic bag was the buffer (temporary
storage place) that was holding my data (tv dinner) until I took them out to use (i.e
cook).
String- A string is a cool way of saying "a bunch of characters". The word "hello" is a
string. It's a bunch of characters (i.e. h-e-l-l-o) that are connected (strung) together to
mean something useful. "43770" is also a string. Although it makes no sense to us, it
may mean something valuable to your plc or external device. It could be a command
that tells your robot to send out its current coordinates. (or it could simply be the word
"hello" upside down)
With the mumbo-jumbo out of the way let's see it in action. Again, the memory locations and
relays vary by manufacturer but the theory is universal.
1. We assign memory locations DM100 through DM102 to be where we'll put our data
before we send it out the serial port. Note- Many plcs have dedicated areas of
memory for this and only this purpose.
2. We'll assign internal relay 1000 to be our send relay. In other words, when we turn on
1000 the plc will send the data in DM100-DM102 out the serial port to our external
device. Note again- Many plcs have dedicated relays (special utility relays) for this
and only this purpose. It's great when the manufacturer makes our life easy!
We'll send the string "alr" out the plc serial port to an operator interface when our temp sensor
input turns on. This means our oven has become too hot. When the operator interface
receives this string it will displayed an alarm message for the operator to see. Look back on
the ASCII chart and you'll see that "alr" is hexadecimal 61, 6C, 72. (a=61, l=6C, r=72) We'll
write these ASCII characters (in hexadecimal form) into the individual data memory locations.
We'll use DM100-102. How? Remember the LDA or MOV instruction? We'll turn on our send
relay (1000) when our temperature sensor (0000) turns on. The ladder is shown below.
Some plcs may not have dedicated internal relays that send out our data through the RS-232
port. We may have to assign them manually. Further, some plcs will have a special instruction
to tell us where the data is stored and when to send the data. This instruction is commonly
called AWT (ASCII Write) or RS. The theory is always the same though. Put the data in a
memory location and then turn on a relay to send the data.