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Notes of Algebra

The document defines matrices and matrix operations. It introduces the definition of a matrix as a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and columns. It defines types of matrices such as square, identity, upper/lower triangular matrices. It describes basic matrix operations like addition, scalar multiplication, and transpose. It also introduces matrix multiplication and properties like non-commutativity when order is changed. Matrix powers and their application to directed graphs are discussed. Block multiplication is presented as a way to view matrix-vector products.

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Sherif El-soudy
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52 views6 pages

Notes of Algebra

The document defines matrices and matrix operations. It introduces the definition of a matrix as a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and columns. It defines types of matrices such as square, identity, upper/lower triangular matrices. It describes basic matrix operations like addition, scalar multiplication, and transpose. It also introduces matrix multiplication and properties like non-commutativity when order is changed. Matrix powers and their application to directed graphs are discussed. Block multiplication is presented as a way to view matrix-vector products.

Uploaded by

Sherif El-soudy
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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1.

Matrix Algebra
1.1. Definition of a Matrix

An m n matrix is a rectangular array of real numbers, arranged in m rows and n columns. The elements of a matrix are
called the entries. The expression m n denotes the size of the
matrix.

a11 a12 . . . a1n


a

21 a22 . . . a2n
A = ..
..
..
..
.
.
.
.
am1 am2 . . . amn
We write aij to represent the entry in the ith row and j th
column of A. For example, each of the following is a matrix,

A=

2 3 1
4 0 5

7
D = 1 ,
2

4 2
B = 1 7 ,
5 3

E=


4 3 0 ,

1 2 3
C=4 5 6
7 8 9
F=

We say that two m n matrices A and B are equal if and


only if their corresponding entries are equal.
1.2. Square Matrices

A square matrix is a matrix having the same number of rows


as columns. The main diagonal entries of a n n matrix A are
a11, a22, a33 , . . . , ann .

An identity matrix is a square matrix with all main diagonal


entries equal to 1 and all of the other entries equal to zero.

1
0
0
0


0 1 0 0
1 0

I2 =
, I4 =
0 0 1 0
0 1
0 0 0 1
An upper triangular matrix is a square matrix with all entries below the main diagonal equal to zero. Similarly, a lower
triangular matrix is a square matrix with all entries above the
main diagonal equal to zero.

7 2 2 0
3
0
0
0 4 9 5

9 2 0
P=
0 0 0 8 , Q =
14 6 1
0 0 0 3
1.3. Addition and Scalar Multiplication with Matrices

Let A and B both be m n matrices. The sum of A and


B is the m n matrix A + B whose (i, j)th entry is equal to
aij + bij . For example,


6 3 2
7 0 4


+

5 6 3
4 2 4


=

11 9 1
11 2 0

Let A be an m n matrix, and let c be a scalar. Then the


matrix cA, the scalar multiplication of c and A, is the m n
matrix whose (i, j)th entry is equal to caij . For example, if c =
2 and

A=

4 1 6 7
2 4 9 5


,

then2A =
2

8 2 12 14
4 8 18 10

Theorem 1.1. (optional) Let A, B, andC be m n matrices,


and let c and d be scalars. Then
1. A + B=B + A.
2. A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C.
3. There exists an m n matrix O, such that O + A = A for
each A.
4. For each A, there exists an m n matrix, A, such that
A + (A) = O.
5. c(A + B) = cA + cB.
6. (c + d)A = cA + dA.
7. (cd)A = c(dA).
8. 1A = A.
Remark 1.1. Let A and B both be m n matrices. Then
A B denotes A + (B).
1.4. The Transpose of a Matrix

Let A be an m n matrix. The transpose matrix AT is the


n m matrix whose (i, j)th entry is the same as the (j, i)th entry
of the original matrix A. For example,

6
2
if A =
3
1

10
4

0
8

then AT =

6 2 3 1
10 4 0 8

Theorem 1.2. Let A and B both be m n matrices, and let c


be a scalar. Then
1. (AT )T = A
2. (A + B)T = AT + BT
3. (cA)T = c(AT )
3

1.5. Matrix Multiplication

Let A be an m n matrix and B and n p matrix. The


product of A and B, denoted by AB, is the m p matrix whose
(i, j)th entry is given by
n

ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + . . . ain bnj =
aik bkj
k=1

For example,


5 1 4
3 6 0



9 4 8 2
30
34
27
6
7 6 1 0 =
15 24 18 6
2 5 3 4

Remark 1.2. If the order of the factors in a product of matrices


is changed, the product matrix may change or may not exist.
For example:

Let

A=


Then

AB =

6 9
4 6
3 12
2 8

,

,


1 2
B=
1 0


2 3
BA =
6 9

Theorem 1.3. (optional) Assume that k is an arbitrary scalar


and that A, B, and C are matrices of sizes such that the indicated operations can be performed.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

IA = A, BI = B
A(BC) = (AB)C
A(B + C) = AB + AC
(B + C)A = BA + CA
k(AB) = (kA)B = A(kB)
(AB)T = B T AT
4

1.5.1. Nonnegative powers of square matrices

Let A be an n n matrix. Then the nonnegative powers of


A are defined by A0 = In , A1 = A, and for k 2, Ak = Ak1A.
1.5.2. An application to directed graphs

Let G be a directed graph with n vertices v1, v2, . . . , vn. The


adjacency matrix A is the n n matrix whose (i, j)-entry aij
is 1 if there is an edge from vj to vi, and zero otherwise. For
example, the adjacency matrix of the directed graph in Figure 1
is

1 1 0
A=1 0 1
1 0 0
Theorem 1.4. Let A be the adjacency matrix of a directed graph
with n vertices. The (i, j)-entry of Ar , r 1, is the number of
walks of length r from vj to vi.
As an application of Theorem 1.4, the number of walks of
length 3 in the directed graph of Figure 1 is given by the matrix

4 2 1
A3 = 3 2 1
2 1 1
v1

v2

v3

Figure 1: A directed graph

1.5.3. Block Multiplication

Let A be an m n matrix and B an n 1 matrix. When


forming the product AB, it is sometimes convenient to view A
in terms of its columns and B in terms of its entries. Then write

AB = (C1C2 . . . Cn )

x1
x2
..
.
xn

= x 1 C1 + x 2 C2 + . . . x n Cn

For example


5 1 4
3 6 0






1
5
1
4
3 = 1
+ (3)
+2
3
6
0
2

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