NEW PRACTICES AND TRENDS

IN CULTURAL DIPLOMACY*
LUCIAN JORA**

Abstract. The new Cultural Diplomacy strategies require a change in the

attitudes, discourses, behaviors, and strategies of representations of
Cultural Diplomacy practitioners The newer approaches to cultural
relations involve a necessary dynamics: from events to projects from
bilateral to multilateral, from presentation to co-operation, from products
to process, from one-way to two-way, from telling to listening, from self
promotion to values promotion and, at the end, the general shift, from
selling an image to communicating it through image cultural values and
attitudes.

Keywords: Cultural Diplomacy, Public diplomacy, cultural relations,

international relations.

The idea of Cultural Diplomacy is generally referred to as International

Cultural Policy or Foreign Cultural Policy. The most common standpoint, from
the area of political theory, tends to base the concepts of Diplomacy (and
derivated from it Cultural Diplomacy or Public Diplomacy) exclusively around
the state. The close connection between diplomacy and the foreign politics of a
state, add the Public and Cultural Diplomacy to the panoply of specific diplomatic
practices. The new forms of Public or Cultural Diplomacy are limited to adding
new practices and interlocutors to the state as the indisputable subject of any
diplomatic practice. However, the reality is more complex than the political
theory created to explain it. The non-state actors are increasingly becoming
political players in the global sphere. Several authors remark the connection
between cultural relations and the foreign politics of a nation, and take Cultural
Diplomacy as a specific diplomatic practice, embracing the public communication
of foreign policy. Cultural Diplomacy imports methods and norms from various

* This work was supported by the strategic grant POSDRU/89/1.5/S/62259, Project Applied social,
human and political sciences, Postdoctoral training and postdoctoral fellowships in social, human and political
sciences cofinanced by the European Social Fund within the Sectorial Operational Program Human Resources
Development 2007-2013.
** Researcher, Romanian Academy, Institute of Political Sciences and International Relations;
lucian.jora@europaeus.eu.
Pol. Sc. Int. Rel., X, 1, p. 4352, Bucharest, 2013.

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areas of social discourse, but it is normally accepted as kind of Diplomacy in

the strict meaning of the term as far as it remains bounded by governance and
keeps its instrumental nature. Anything else is usually labeled as a kind of
cultural internationalism or citizen diplomacy, not stricto senso Diplomacy,
even if they may help a lot to set up the preconditions for successful
intergovernmental cultural relations. Cultural Diplomacy as a form of Public
diplomacy, naturally, seems to be most effective when civil societies are
interconnected. Diplomacy may still begin and end with interstate relations, but
the effective exercise of influence is related increasingly to forging partnerships,
leveraging private sector support, managing networks and shaping public opinion.
It is a field of study dominated by conceptual confusion. Cultural Diplomacy
is often identified with Cultural Propaganda, and, it is indeed Propaganda as far
as culture is not exposed for culture but for certain political goals. Cultural
Diplomacy as such or under the form of Cultural Propaganda is as old as
international relations. For example, it benefits of Roman civilization, (order,
language fashion, architecture etc.), have been used as a means of persuasion. Also,
Cultural Diplomacy sometimes is associated with Branding. The Branding
dimension of Cultural Diplomacy involves schematization in order to obtain a
lucrative product. What distinguishes the notion of Branding from other forms
of Cultural Diplomacy is its commercial motivation. Cultural Diplomacy aims
to represent the nation in all its complexity by covering multiple facets. Country
Branding is the opposite, a practice that involves simplification and schematization,
restricting message to several concepts of imaging.
The proliferation in recent years of non-state actors is transforming
international relations including the circulation of ideas. Some consequences of
globalization, such as the crisis of the state or the impact of new technologies,
or the emergence of a powerful civil society, have multiplied the players. Non-state
actors are assuming roles that previously belonged to states. In particular, new
technology has made it possible to have a global reach and to contact individuals
and other organizations, weaving a broad net that allows non-state players to share
knowledge and to develop joint actions. They are increasing their autonomy and
have started to define new rules, acting more effectively than the states. NGOs,
transnational companies, religious groups, think tanks, social movements or
university experts have a say on most of the global issues affecting civil society.
In the international relations the coexistence of the state with new players means
that a new kind of diplomatic relations on different scenarios must be developed.
It works very much in coordination, with, and in parallel to the traditional
diplomatic effort. The diplomatic historian Frank Ninkovich observed that public
diplomacy (and the remarque can be extended to Cultural Diplomacy as a kind
of Public Diplomacy) is: the promotion or communication between peoples as
opposed to governments and is designed to build agreement based on common
values.1 More or less, the aim of public and Cultural Diplomacy efforts is to tell

1 Ninkovich (1996), p. 3, Quoted by Margaret j Wyszomirsky (2003), in , International Cultural

Relations, AMulticountry Comparision, Arts Policy and Administration Program, The Ohio State University,
p. 1, available at http://www.culturalpolicy.org/pdf/MJWpaper.pdf.

NEW PRACTICES AND TRENDS IN CULTURAL DIPLOMACY

45

countrys own story to the world. Genuine Cultural Diplomacy as opposed to

Propaganda a two-way communication process that includes both efforts to
project a nations image and values to other countries and peoples as well as to
receive information and try to understand the culture, values and images of other
countries and their peoples. With the continuing exponential proliferation of
communication across borders, what constitutes true Cultural Diplomacy now
are the elements of exchange and mutuality. From this perspective Cultural
Diplomacy differs from Cultural public relations and from governmental carried
Diplomacy as such, in terms of purpose. Cultural Diplomacy is not only soliciting
admiration or sympathy through the showcasing of national cultural achievements.
It is about building trust. Its purpose is to establish mutually beneficial cooperation
and partnership.
In the past, Cultural Diplomacy was seen as a part of the broader field of
Public Diplomacy, and politicies were believed to generate the necessary space
for cultural exchange. Yet things are different today: it is culture which can generate
the operating conditions for politicies.
The contribution of citizen diplomats and the people-to-people Public/
Cultural Diplomacy can be effective carried out through work like town twinning.
The communicational revolution the intervention of new non state actors into the
diplomatic game allows us to consider that todays Network Diplomacy is very
different from the Club Diplomacy of the past (Anholt).2 The new forms of
Cultural Diplomacy also add a more sophisticated approach to nation Branding
or competitive identity and it can work together to help create prosperity and
improve international relations.3 If we take the case of EUs Cultural Diplomacy
we can note that with or without a centralised official diplomatic strategy, the
communication between Europe and the outside world occurs daily de facto in an
incalculable number of ways: the televised speech of the member states
politicians, the performance of a Verdi opera, the screening of a European
coproduction film, the exhibition of a Renaissance of Baroque masters, the
Euronews TV or Arte TV (but also the good old fashioned BBC World Service,
RFI or Deutsche Welle), the French or Italian fashion shows, the exhibition of
gourmet products, etc.
The first emerging new direction in cultural/public diplomacy is (just like in
any other field of international relations) the entry of new actors, namely the
unconventional non-state actors. The definition of non states actors usually
includes NGOs, multinational corporations but also criminal/terrorist networks
and sometimes even individuals which either through their wealth (George
Soros) or through new technologies are influencing the international arena. Among
the reasons for this evolutions most often are quoted the general consequences
of globalization, or the crises of the state. The impact of new technologies and the

2 Simon Anholt (2010), Places: identity, image and reputation in Frank Go & Robert Govers
International Place Branding Yearbook 2010: Place Branding in the New Age of Innovation, Palgrave
publication London, p. 13.
3 Simon Anholt (2008), The Importance of National Reputation, in Engagement Public Diplomacy in
a Globalised World, Foreign and Commonwealth Office, London, pp. 30-40.

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emergence of a powerful civil society as a cause and effect of it are perhaps

responsible for the biggest share of recent changes.4
Thanks to the new tehnologies in the last decade non state actors often have
the financial or technical resources available until recently only to the states.
They are more flexible, more responsible to emergencies and for instance often
more effective than the states. China is fighting with Google, US with AL Qaeda,
UK with Wiki-leaks founder Julian Assange.
At the center of International Relations remains the Power defined first of all
as the Power to influence. In terms of power to influence non state players have
nowadays the technical possibility to develop joint actions as powerful and often
more effective than the states. The coexistence of the state with the new players
impose new kind of diplomatic relations and strategies. For instance, in contrast
to the classical model of bi-lateral and multilateral relations between states,
scholars like Geoffrey Wiseman propose a new model, polylateralism, capable
to adapt and to fit a contemporary reality in which states are dealing in the
international arena with the new non-state actors.5 Just like any other theoretic
model who looks well as a theoretical construct in an accademic debate, in practice
it has to have enough flexibility to fit the complexity of the international sistem.
Some questions regarding this new actors seem to be legitimate up to a certain
point. The authority in the international arena, or Legitimacy are two of the most
common. In fact these actors are not pretending to be placed as equals to the states,
and are not members of international treaties in the same way as states do. They
have a clear agenda in which often is more convenient and more effective to be
outside the classical system. The question asked by R. Langhore about the
negotiating power of actors like Google or the guarantees a state may have that
any agreement which such an entity will be observed and respected would be as
well legitimated duting the negociation with some states.6 Issues such the
negotiating power in international relations are open also for nation states and
some of them are more turbulent, and more non predictable (for internal and
external reasons) than a major NGOor multinational company which also in terms
of financial capabilities (and solvability) may be better off than some states.
In the last decade practical reality often overcomes the prior reflections from
the academic circles. The non-state actors defacto and perhaps without prior
intention intervene and act in the international sphere, influence the political
agenda and impose new strategies and methods of action. In the game of power
efficacy may be considered the best legitimacy. They seem to be also more
adapted to the globalization conditions being cause and effect of a post national
post suveran international system. They may be the pioneers of the future

4 Teresa La Porte (2012), The Legitimacy and Effectiveness of Non-State Actors and the Public
Diplomacy Concept, Public Diplomacy Theory and Conceptual Issues. ISA Annual Convention, San Diego,
April 1-4.
5 Wiseman, Geoffrey (2004) Polylateralism and New Modes of Global Dialoguein Christer Jnsson
and Richard Langorne (eds.) Diplomacy, vol. III, London: Sage, pp. 36-57.
6 R. Langhorne, (2005), The Diplomacy of Non-State, Diplomacy and Statecraft, London: Sage,
pp. 331-339.

NEW PRACTICES AND TRENDS IN CULTURAL DIPLOMACY

47

international system. The way they act or adapt instantly to the new realities, the
solutions they found in various circumstances may be a laboratory for many
open minded foreign offices around the world.
Another emerging new evolution affecting Cultural Diplomacy is the
multilateralism which is fast replacing the old fashioned bilateral approach.7
The multilateral approach is triggering an entire set of modified behavior and
new strategies of actions. Perhaps the best ground to notice the trend is the
European Cultural Diplomacy arena. In 2006 EUNIC was created, as the network
of European Union National Institutes for Culture. Concentrating organizations
with offices and programs in over 150 countries, EUNIC have in theory unrivaled
experience and expertise in Cultural Diplomacy. Steven Green is brilliantly
revealing in his essay the acting strategy of EUNIC in at least three stages8:
1. Building up partnerships at local countrylevel by forming clusters of the
institutes operating in a country regardless the cultural field they are involved.
Anyway, the more diversity the better. Is not about a chaotic diversity but rather
about organizations with a complementary field of expertise. This field of
expertise ideally would be specialized at the country level in order to promote
specialization and complementarity at for the upper cluster at the EU level. As
an example some Baltic states clusters are specialized in wood architecture and
restoration while Mediterranean clusters may be specialized in stone
architecture, and so one. Within a cluster the members agree on joint activities in
the arts and language sectors.
2. The thematic clusters once expanding with the help of EU financed programs
once solid established institutionally the European Union are expanding
worldwide carrying with them (intentionally on unintentionally) both the EU
Cultural Diplomacy, and their regions or national states Cultural Diplomacy.
3. While EUNIC is expanding horizontally in EU, Europe at large and the entire
world, it is also deepening its structure vertically. Its members are getting involved
in larger more complex projects in a more diverse range of topics. These currently
include language policies and use, literary translation and shared arts projects.
This multilateralism is well recognized, recommended and encouraged by
the EU strategies, programs and official polices. The European Commission
agenda, A European agenda for culture in a globalizing world proposed a
strategy based around: promotion of cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue;
promotion of culture as a catalyst for creativity in the framework of the Lisbon
Strategy for growth and job creation; promotion of culture as a vital element in
the Unions international relations. In other words working concept like Diversity,
Multilateralism and an extended definition and mission for culture as a development
promoter, are all strategic ideas shaping the EU and its 27 member states official
cultural policies.
The third trend directly related with the multilateralism would be the
formation of foundations set up by governments or international organizations to

7 Steve Green, (2010), New Directions in Culturay Proyeccin Exterior: Nuevos Valores y Estrategias
de Accin, Real Instituto Elcano, Madrid.
8 Ibidem.

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pursue strategic political goals trough culture. Steven Green gives here two
examples Asia-Europe Foundation (ASEF) and Anna Lindh Foundation, and we
would add here the EU Japan Institute.9
For the new Cultural Diplomacy missions and realities we need to settle or
resettle old concepts, and among them the term culture.
The broader definition of the term culture is contributing to a broader range
ofactivities, of objectives, coming into the Cultural Diplomacy arena. Intercultural
dialogue is perhaps the most obvious current example. Cultural Diplomacy
programs, at both national and multilateral level, are now tackling issues such as
social cohesion, racism, inequality,discrimination against minorities and
migrants, the cultural dimension of inter-religious issues, post conflict resolution.10
An example is the British Councilsproject Our Shared Europe. This is a
response to one of the major cultural challenges facing Western Europe today:
the growing mutual mistrust between Muslims and non Muslims.11 The Council
of Europe as an organization culturally at least larger than the UE has a similar
projects marching on the idea of multilateralism and intercultural dialogue, and
intercultural cities. The past experiences shows that keeping the peace and building
trust internationally is often about managing diversity, an ignored challenge in
the past and a recognized key challenge for the future. Considering this
challenge the contribution on non state actors may be the recipee for success in
particular in those actions which invole public and Cultural Diplomacy. Accepting
the new non state actors as players in the international system as a de-facto
reality in what involes public and Cultural Diplomacy, stimulates diversity, and
diversity stimulates creativity and innovation, two essential attributes for the future
knowledge society and post-industrial world at large.
The web will have a major impact in the development of public and Cultural
Diplomacy although it is difficult to determine exactly the nature of that impact
will be, given the rapid pace of change. Organizations involved in Cultural
Diplomacy practices often use the web primarily not only as an extension of
their marketing or information activities but as a main tool of visibility and
dissemination. It is not just another outlet through which they can inform
audiences of something happening, but a major tool designed to increase visibility,
to collect instant information about the impact of their message and to expand.
The trend is confirmed by the gradual move towards the digital media. Effective
public and Cultural Diplomacy at global stage involves an intercultural dialogue
and it involves an increased level of interaction, and this interaction trough the
virtual space can be effectively realized at very convenient costs.
The search for communication and dialogue achieved trough interactivity
seems to dominate the use of the web for Cultural Diplomacy aims.12 Is not only

9 Steve Green (2009), New Directions, Cultura y Proyeccin Exterior: Nuevos Valores y Estrategias de
Accin, themes presented by the author at the conference La accin cultural exterior: definicin de nuevas
estrategias, organized by the Instituto Cervantes and Real Instituto Elcano, Madrid (unpublished).
10 EC Communication.
11 Our Shared Europe www.oursharedeurope.org, apud Steve Green, (2010), New Directions Cultura y
Proyeccin Exterior: NuevosValores y Estrategias de Accin. Real Instituto Elcano, Madrid.
12 Ibidem.

NEW PRACTICES AND TRENDS IN CULTURAL DIPLOMACY

49

about a platform to reach foreign audiences more easy and more effectively it is
also about an essential dimension of Cultural Diplomacy, more exactly, the ability
to engage the target group. The search for engagement and feed back demands
new kinds of programs and the reshaping of the old ones. Also the entire strategy
must keep on track with the rapid changes in technologies and social behaviors
associated to it. In the last five years there was an explosive growth of social web
communication trough socialization sites like Facebook facilitated by new
dedicated devices like e-tablets and smartphones. Stevee Green remarque brilliant
the way it introduces a kind of instant reality check and a need for instant answers
and instant reactions to various issues including Cultural Diplomacy related ones.13
Probable there is no better recent example of the challenge represented by the
technology revolution than the spread of anger and extreme violence triggered
by a short documentary film Innocence of Muslims posted on YouTube by a
group of extremists. It was instantly perceived as an American government
inspired action. As Philip Seib notes, simply is all about technology14: Ten
years ago, the Innocence of Muslims controversy would not have happened.
YouTube did not exist, and without this means of reaching a global audience the
offensive snippets of the film would never have been seen.15 It shows the
impotence of foreign policy responsible even in a country like US in front of
complex and hard to control realities like those contained by YouTube, Twitter
or Facebook. With around 72 hours of video content uploaded every minute in
2011 and growing, YouTube in particular is too vast to be controlled or screened
even for US dedicated services.16 This incident is old and new at the same time.
In 1988 were recorded several violent Islamic riots following Salman Rushdie
book release, and there was no YouTube. However those riots were targeting a
specific physical person and only tangential a government protecting him. We
cannot agree entirely as far as Cultural Diplomacy is concerned with assertions
like a decade or more ago diplomacy was mostly government to
government, with diplomats talking only to other diplomats because is simply
not that easy.17 A decade or two decades ago, there was indeed a Cultural
Diplomacy practiced very effectively trough literature, cinema, music or popular
fashion products. Also, some classic Diplomacys definitions like the one given
in 1939 by the British diplomat Harold Nicolson who wrote that among his
colleagues it would have been regarded as an act of unthinkable vulgarity to
appeal to the common people upon any issue of international policy18 are just
irrelevant. The British diplomat was talking about a term with a more restrictive
meaning at the time. Even if in 1939 Cultural Propaganda or public diplomacy
did exist under various forms, but, those actions were not labeled as Public or

13 Ibidem.
14 Philip Seib is Director, at the Center on Public Diplomacy, USC. US.
15 http://www.huffingtonpost.com/philip-seib/the-perils-of-youtube-dip_b_1885633.html, accessed on
20 of September 2012.
16 Ibidem.
17 Ibidem.
18 Quoted by Philip Seib in The Perils of YouTube Diplomacy available on line and accesed by 2810.2012.,
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/philip-seib/the-perils-of-youtube-dip_b_1885633.html.

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Cultural Diplomacy.19 The importance of the common people gradually

increased partly because of their increased decision power, partly because of
growing (incontrollable) information sources available to them. The recent
information explosion through the internet, places public diplomacy and Cultural
Diplomacy as a part of it at the center of any governmental action. In many
countries young people taping half a day their Smartphone to navigate on the
internet is a common image. Two out of three adults in UK have a Facebook
account, and people seem to be just addicted to the social media. This phenomenon
is growing with the continuous support of major phone companies. The
competition for attention in this environment is fierce and a wise government
must adapt its message for the virtual space, instant answers, etc. There must be
developed new ways not necessarily to control, but to screen properly the
content for a kind of early warning. Is out of question to affect the free speech and
the internet most important asset, its independence. However, a continuous
cultural detente with the Muslim environments capable to explain the difference
between national discourse and extremist discourses condemned by anyone and
any culture is essential. It cannot be practically realized without effective technical
means to compete effectively for audience in the Muslim communities and the
Muslim countries. The issue of representatively in which a certain product, artist
or author is considered as representatives for the US was perhaps the most
powerful and effective de facto tool of the American public and Cultural
Diplomacy during the Cold War for example. However, the boomerang effect occurs
from time to time, when, few extremists are perceived as representatives of US.
The web seems to be well suited as a tool for Cultural Diplomacy actions.
Cultural Diplomacy differs from Cultural Public Relations in terms of its
purpose. Cultural Diplomacy is not only soliciting admiration or sympathy
through the showcasing of national cultural achievements. It is above all about
building trust. Its purpose is to establish mutually beneficial cooperation and
partnership. It is about establishing mutual benefit as the basis for mutual trust.
An important feature of the web seems to be its emphasis on reactions from the
audience, which stimulates a base for dialogue. Contrary to Cultural Propaganda,
Cultural Diplomacy is based on dialogue not on monologue. Engagement in
dialogue at the grass root levels of the society means building a new form of
trust, and effective Cultural Diplomacy is all about building trust. Just consider
that in the last years when buying a product a web published comment about the
product may be more influential that the most expensive advertisement or
publicity related ads. The same thing also happens when deciding to visit a
destination or choosing a hotel. The independent comments positive or negative
are building trust and confidence. Often overlooked but increasingly vital is the
websability toactas a relay function. It is not just thedirect participants whowill
be engaged buttheir ability torelay to others. This acts as a massive indirect

19 At the time, often, actions labeled today as pure Cultural Diplomacy would have been labeled as
Propaganda, at the time a word without negative connotations. Many European countries used to have at the
time a Propaganda ministry or at least a Propaganda department (Germany, Italy Romania etc).

NEW PRACTICES AND TRENDS IN CULTURAL DIPLOMACY

51

extension of the audience. The web hasalready changed the business model of
many trades (music, hospitality electric and electronic appliances) and the
publishing business is adapting too. Cultural Diplomacy is not an exception. Just
like in any other domain involving culture there is always the challenge of
adaptation to the mass culture and tests while keeping uncompromised the quality
of the cultural message.
The Network Cultural Diplomacy is also a new term evolving around the new
internet technologies. It refers to the increasing trend to engage with people in
networks built around a common theme. This people to people approach brings
together the broader definition of culture, the move to multilateral activity and
the focus on a theme. The European Unions current policies of putting culture
into its external relations have a clear focus on networks and capacity building.
Its about a three-step approach also used by standard marketing categories of
awareness, perceptions, attitudes, beliefs. To change a persons view on each of
these takes a progressive and deeper engagement. Its about a shift fromproduct
orientation to process based facilitation and as a result can be noticed that
longer-term projects are gradually replacing isolated and unconnected events.20
What now constitutes true and effective Cultural Diplomacy is not the show
and exhibition factor but rather the elements of exchange and mutuality.21 The more
interactive, collaborative and experiential a communication is, the more successful
it will be. Government needs to look beyond one-way announcement-style
communication and start the process of engagement, participation and collaboration
in pursuit of joint outcomes regardless the often rigid diplomatic practices.
Diplomacy, in general and Cultural Diplomacy, in particular, in order to be effective
is about achieving a sense of we. In order to achieve that different strategies
are pursued, with different results. Facilitating the integration of those coming
from different cultural backgrounds in mutual cultural practices may be among
the sucesfull strategies. The obsessive repetition of few key words in official
discourses and documents could be an indicator of this trend. One of these key
words for sure are mutual and mutuality.22
This trend is confirmed by ERICarts Mobility Matters report in 2008 which
noted the shift towards a thematic approach within the national Cultural Diplomacy
agencies, foundations and other agencies.23 The thematic approach is meant to
facilitate the networks and the formation of clusters across borders and cultures.
It helps creating an image of independence and depolitisation or in other words
from self promotion to value promotion.24 Among the value promotion goals

20 Steve Green (2009), New Directions, Cultura y Proyeccin Exterior: Nuevos Valores y Estrategias
de Accin. themes presented by the author at the conference La accin cultural exterior: definicin de nuevas
estrategias, organized by theInstituto Cervantes and Real Instituto Elcano, Madrid, 14-15 December 2009
(unpublished).
21 Martin Rose and Nick Wadham Smith (2004), Mutuality, trust and cultural relations Counterpoint,
available on line at, www.counterpoint-online.org/mutuality-trust-and-culturalrelations/ accessed by 15.09.2012.
22 The idea of mutuality, of benefit for all, is a fundamental organizing principle in cultural relations.
Cultural relations activity is based on exchange, from which each partner gets something tangible.
23 Mobility Matters http://ec.europa.eu/culture/key-documents/doc/ericarts/final_report_ERICarts.pdf.
24 Steve Green, (2010), New Directions in Culturay Proyeccin Exterior: Nuevos Valores y Estrategias
de Accin. Real Instituto Elcano, Madrid.

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10

are usually recommended the following strategies: building of common

understanding on issues relating to humanity as a whole, changes from monologue
to dialogue, expressing tolerance and openness to different ideas. Practicing
naturally these strategies requires a change in the attitudes, discourses, behaviors,
and strategies of representations of Cultural Diplomacy practitioners. It is
challenging and unexpected to occur in a short term perspective.
In summary, the newer approaches to cultural relations involve several
trends: from events to projects, from bilateral to multilateral, from presentation
to co-operation, from products to process, from one-way to two-way, from
telling to listening, from self promotion to values promotion and at the end, the
general shift, from selling an image to communicating it through image cultural
values and attitudes.25
SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY
Green, Steve, New Directions in Cultura y Proyeccin Exterior: Nuevos Valores y Estrategias de
Accin. Real Instituto Elcano, Madrid, 2010;
La Porte, Teresa, The Legitimacy and Effectiveness of Non-State Actors and the Public Diplomacy
Concept, Public Diplomacy Theory and Conceptual Issues. ISA Annual Convention, San Diego,
April 1-4, 2012;
Langhorne, R. (2005) The Diplomacy of Non-State, Diplomacy and Statecraft, 16: 331-339;
Wiseman, Geoffrey (2004) Polylateralism and New Modes of Global Dialogue in Christer
Jnsson and Richard Langorne (eds.) Diplomacy, vol. III, London: Sage.

25 Joseph Nye refers to the passive kind of listening when he states that by definition, soft power means
getting others to want the outcomes you want, and that requires understanding how they are hearing your
message, and fine-tuning it accordingly. In contrast, listening as part of cultural relations reflects a genuine
interest in the others perspective and demonstrates that different viewpoints are taken seriously and that
other perspectives are given consideration.