PTW-Reliability

Tutorial
?

Reliability Analysis Software

for Windows
Copyright 2001, SKM Systems Analysis, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.

SKM Systems Analysis, Inc.

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PTW - Reliability
Tutorial
This tutorial describes the basic concepts required to operate the PTW Reliability module efficiently.

Table of Contents

Distribution Reliability and Economic Evaluation ............................5

Reliability Analysis Study Scope.......................................................6
Reliability Analysis Module vs. Other Study Modules in PTW ........6
Data Entry in Component Editor........................................................7
Setting up a Reliability Study ..........................................................13
Custom Setting Components............................................................15
Running a Reliability Study .............................................................16
Running All Studies .........................................................................16
Load Point Reliability Indices..........................................................17
IEEE Protection Zone Reliability Indices ........................................18
Utility System Evaluation ................................................................20
Copy, Paste and Rename a Study.....................................................22
Distribution System Evaluation .......................................................25
Custom Damage Function Library ...................................................30
Custom Reliability Data Library ......................................................32
Reliability Data Page........................................................................33
Failure Rate Aging Factor ................................................................34
Repair Time Aging Factor................................................................35

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Distribution Reliability and Economic Evaluation

Reliability Analysis Objectives
The Reliability study module provides the following analysis for distribution power systems:
o
o
o
o

Load Point Reliability Indices calculation

Protection Zone Reliability Indices calculation
Utility System Evaluation
Distribution System Evaluation

The Load Point Reliability includes the following indices for each load and motor in the system:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

MTBF
Failure Rate ?
MTTF
Annual Outage Time
MTTR
Annual Availability%
EENS
ECOST

mean time between failure, MTBF = MTTF + MTTR

failures per year
mean time to failure (1/ ?), or years per failure
total hours of downtime per year
average outage time, or average downtime per failure
(1 - total outage hours per year / 8760) * 100
expected energy not supplied per year
total damage cost in k$ per year due to failures

The Protection Zone Reliability includes the following IEEE indices for each protection zone in the system:
o SAIFI
system average interruption frequency index (interruptions/customer-year)
o SAIDI
system average interruption duration index (hours/customer-yr.)
o CAIDI
customer average interruption frequency index (hours/customer-interruption)
o ASAI
average service availability index
o ASUI
average service unavailability index
o EENS
expected energy not supplied index (kWh/year
o AENS
average energy not supplied (kWh/customer-year)
o ECOST
total damage cost in k$ per year due to failures
The Utility System Evaluation includes the following aspects of the utility portion of the system:
equipment costs
switching and lockout complexity
probability of failure and mean time to repair
process that must be shutdown for maintenance and expansion
capacity to isolate from supply line faults
capacity to recover from equipment and bus faults
capacity to recover from breaker failures
o Evaluation
overall system evaluation
To calculate the load point reliability and protection zone reliability indices, you need to collect
information such as equipment failure rate, restoration time. For utility and distribution systems evaluation,
you need to know the system configurations, equipment costs, and whether spare equipments are available
or not, and most importantly, the costs of power outage.
To predict the system reliability at a future time, the program estimates the failure rate and restoration time
at the year of evaluation based on historical data. Enter the historical failure rate and restoration time in the
Customer Reliability Data library and Year Installed for the components of interests in the Component
Editor, and Evaluation Year in the study setup. The program will come up with a mathematical
representation of failure rate and restoration time as a function of (Year Evaluate Year Installed). The
predicted failure rate and restoration time at the evaluation year will be used in the calculation of reliability
indices and cost evaluations.
o
o
o
o
o

Installed Cost
Operation
Reliability
Expansion
Recovery

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Reliability Analysis Study Scope

The reliability analysis is designed to cover distribution and industrial systems. Loop systems with
multiple utilities and co-generation sources can be analyzed. In addition to calculating all the standard
IEEE indices, this module emphasizes risk assessment and design evaluations of industrial facilities where
IEEE indices dont give you a straight forward comparison on the initial investment vs. the cost impact
from loss of production.

Reliability Analysis Module vs. Other Study Modules in PTW

Like all other study modules in PTW, the reliability analysis module uses the same project database and
one-lines, and has access to all other study results such as load flow, short circuit and protective device
coordination settings, etc.
Similar to TMS, ISIM, and HIWAVE, the reliability analysis module has its own Study-Case Tree to
manage different studies for easy evaluation of alternatives. One scenario could be as simple as running
the study with the intent to repair a motor at failure, while another scenario could be to keep a spare motor
and replace it at failure. The calculated reliability indices and costs from two different scenarios can be
compared and quantitative trade-off can be made.

The Concept of a Zone

A zone is a portion of the power system within which a fault would cause the first upstream protective
device to trip and isolate the entire zone from the system. Basically, any protective device (except a fuse)
and the down stream system that use it as the primary protection make up a zone. A fuse is not considered
the main protection device for a zone since it cant be switched on and off manually.

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Data Entry in Component Editor

A new Reliability Data sub-view is added to each component type in PTW to gather basic information such
as failure rate, restore time, equipment cost, year installed, etc. Make sure that you complete PTW Tutorial
- Part 1, Part 2, and Part 3 before beginning this section. The next steps demonstrate how to enter
reliability related data in the component editor.
1. Since a fuse without a switch can not be the primary zone protection, the first step is to add a switch as
shown below:

Add switch to define

primary protection zone.

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2. Select the Reliability Data sub-view of Utility UTIL-0001 from the Component Editor, press the Library
button and double click the Utility IEEE Single circuit from the Customer Reliability Data library.
The permanent failure rate and restoration time will be displayed from the library. Alternatively, you can
type in custom values directly.

3. Select the Reliability Data sub-view of Transformer, XF2-0001 from the Component Editor, press the
Library button and double click the Transformer (IEEE)-601-15000V from the Customer Reliability Data
library. The Permanent Failure Rate and Repair Time will be filled in from the library. Alternatively, you
can type in the values directly. Enter the Replace Time, Equipment Cost, and the Year Installed as shown.

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4. Select the Reliability Data sub-view of XF2-0002 from the Component Editor, press the Library button
and double click the Transformer, 300 KVA 10 MVA, ERM RAM from the customer reliability data
library. The Permanent Failure Rate and Repair Time will be filled in from the library. Alternatively, you
can type in the values instead of using the library data.
Enter the Replace Time, Equipment Cost, and enter the Year Installed as shown.

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5. Select the Reliability Data sub-view of Cable CBL-0001 from the Component Editor, press the Library
button to bring up the custom reliability data library and double click the Cable, 600V Tray-ERM RAM
from the library. The permanent failure rate and repair time will be filled in from the library.
The cable has another permanent failure rate and restoration time for each termination of each phase. In the
following example, the permanent failure rate is 0.004 and the cable termination (each end) data is entered
as 0.0001 f/yr. For example, if the cable is 3 phase with 5 conductors per phase, the total permanent failure
rate of the cable would be (0.004 + 3 * 2 * 0.0001).
The switching time is used to simulate a disconnect switch. It is assumed that there is a disconnect switch
for each branch. When there is a fault somewhere in the zone, the main protection device for the zone will
trip, then the disconnect switch will open to isolate the fault. After that, the main protection device will
close to restore power for the rest of the zone. The switching time represents the total time it takes for
these actions to take place. For branches where no disconnect mechanism is present, enter a switching time
equal to the repair time.

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6. Select the Reliability Data sub-view of LOAD-0001 from the Component Editor, press the Library
button for Customer Damage Function (CDF) and double click the Type2, Industrial from the library. A
table listing the cost related to each failure duration will be filled in from the CDF library. Move to the
reliability data section and press the library button to select Heater, Electric, General from the Custom
Reliability Data library, enter the number of customers as 1.

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7. Select the Reliability Data sub-view of Protective Device PD-0001 from the Component Editor, press
the Library button for Custom Reliability Data and double click the Fuse, 5-15kV-PREP from the library.
The Permanent Failure Rate and Repair Time will be filled in from the library. Enter the Equipment Cost
and Year Installed.

There are six protective devices in this project. The data for all six devices follows:
Device

Library

Failure
Rate

Repair
Time

(failures/year)

(hours)

Equipment
Cost

Year
Installed

(k$)

PD-0001 Fuse, 5-15kV-PREP

0.0007

0.5

0.22

1990

PD-0002 Protective Relays-IEEE

0.0002

7.5

1990

PD-0003 Circuit Breaker LV-IEEE

0.0027

8.7

1990

PD-0004 Circuit Breaker LV-IEEE

0.0027

1.4

1990

PD-0005 Disconnect Switch-IEEE

0.0061

3.6

0.5

1990

PD-0006 Circuit Breaker MV-IEEE

0.0036

83.1

10.0

1990

Select each protective device and enter the reliability data for each. This completes the data entry portion
of the tutorial. The next section will outline the study setup options.

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Setting up a Reliability Study

After defining the reliability data for each of the components in the component editor, the next step is to
setup a reliability study. Start the Reliability Analysis module by selecting the Reliability Analysis from
the Run menu, or by pressing the toolbar icon.

Once you start the Reliability Analysis module, the following study manager appears with a default study
named Study1. You can rename it to a more descriptive name.

Selecting each different folder/icon on the left hand side will bring up its corresponding context on the right
hand side. For example, selecting the root of the tree will show a list all major aspects of study results for
all studies in this project, selecting the Study folder will show major results in the current study only,
selecting Reliability Analysis under the study will lists all reliability related indices, and selecting Cost
Evaluation under the study will lists all cost related evaluation results. Since we havent run the study yet,
there are no results listed under the Load Point Indices Results or IEEE Indices Results folders.

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Reliability Study Setup

The reliability study setup contains the following study parameters:

o

Disconnect Switches
Disconnect switches allows restoration of all load points between the supply point and the point of
isolation before the repair process has been completed. The option assumes that you have a
disconnect switch that can isolate each problem area and can re-energize the unaffected areas.
Additional control can be achieved by setting the repair and switching times appropriately for each
branch.

Include Load Reliability

If Include Load Reliability is checked, the reliability analysis will include failure rate and
restoration time of all loads and motors in the Load Point Indices calculations.

Replace or Repair Transformers

Corresponding replace or repair time entered from the component editor will be used in the
calculations. This is a global setting for all transformers in the project for the current study. If
you would like to set a few transformers to use the replace time while all other transformers are
using the repair time as set in the global setting, you will need to select them in the Custom Setting
Components list and make changes from there.

Fuse Settings
Fuses allow disconnection of its load point until the failure is repaired. Thus will not affect or
cause the disconnection of any other load point. The Failure Probability of fuse is the chance of
fuse not being able to operate successfully. If the failure probability is 0.1, the fuses operates
successfully 9 out of 10 times when required. The Isolation Time of fuse is the time it takes for all
failures to be isolated.

Alternative Supply
In the event of a system failure, the normally open tie-breaker can be closed in order to recover
loads that have been disconnected.

Transfer Load Probability

It is not always feasible to transfer all loads that are lost in a distribution system onto another
feeder through a normally open point. All loads that are lost will be transferred if the probability
is 1.0. The Transfer Load Probability is active only when the Alternative Supply option is

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selected.
o

Age Factor
The Customer Reliability Data library allows you to enter the historical data for failure rate and
restoration time for each year in the past. A curve fitting program is used to define a mathematical
representation for failure rate and restoration time as a function relative to the year installed. If the
Include Age Multiplying Factor is checked, the Evaluation Year field can be entered
and the Reliability Analysis program will use the evaluation year and year installed to adjust the
failure rates and repair times. See Reliability Data Library for more information.

Evaluation Year
Enter a current or future year you want to calculate reliability and related costs.

Custom Setting Components

The Study setup parameters apply to all components in the project for the particular study. If you have
parameters that need to be specified at the component level, you can use the Select Components menu to
add these components to the Custom Setting Components list, and change the settings individually. For
example, repair times are used by default for all loads and motors. But you can select LOAD-0001 and
change it to use the replace time instead.

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Running a Reliability Study

Once the study setup parameters are set and the custom setting components are selected and settings are set,
you are ready to select the Run button to run the study.
To run a study, select any folder under the study name you would like to analyze and simply press the
Run button on the bottom left corner of the reliability study tree. Alternatively, you can select Run
Study under the Reliability menu or the right mouse menu.
The load point indices and IEEE indices will be calculated and the study progress/log report will be listed
under the study setup output window. Any input data errors and warnings will be reported in this window
for your review. It is highly recommended that you resolve all errors and understand all warnings before
proceeding to the indice results.

Running All Studies

If you made changes on the study setup parameters or custom component settings within each study, it may
be useful to setup a few different studies for comparison and run them in one action. To run all studies in
the project, select the root of the reliability study manager tree and simply press the Run button on the
bottom left corner, or select the Run Study menu option.
If you make change on the system topology from the one-line or change data from the component editor
from one study to another, then you are using different studies just to keep track of output results. In this
case, you should run each study right after the changes are made and do not run all studies in one action.

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Load Point Reliability Indices

The Load Point Reliability includes the following indices for each load and motor in the system.
Definitions for the indices follow. Most of them come from the IEEE Standard 493-1997 Gold Book Design of Reliable Industrial and Commercial Power Systems:
o

MTBF
The mean exposure time between consecutive failures of a component. It can be
estimated by dividing the exposure time by the number of failures in that period, provided that a
sufficient number of failures have occurred in that period. MTBF = MTTF + MTTR

Failure Rate
The mean number of failures of a component per unit exposure time. Usually
exposure time is expressed in years and failure rate is given in failures per year.

MTTF

Annual Outage Time: Total hours per year when a component or system is not available to
properly perform its intended function due to some event directly associated with that component
or system.

MTTR
The mean-time to repair or replace a failed component. It can be estimated by
dividing the summation of repair times by the number of repairs, and, therefore, it is practically
the average repair time.

Availability
The long-term average fraction of time that a component or system is in service
and satisfactorily performing its intended function.

Annual Availability%

EENS

Expected energy (kWh) not supplied per year.

ECOST

Total damage cost in thousands of dollars (k$) per year due to failures.

Mean time to failure (1/ ?), or years per failure

(1 - Annual Outage Time / 8760) * 100, 8760 I the total hours per year.

c(r): cost which depending on the outage time ($/kW), this can be obtained from Customer damage
function (CDF) of each load.

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IEEE Protection Zone Reliability Indices

The IEEE Protection Zone Reliability includes the following indices for each protection zone in the system.
Since the only protection zone in the Tutorial project that has loads in it is PD-0004, it is the only one listed
here. Any other protection zones will have zero results for all indices since there are no loads within the
zones. Whereas many of the IEEE indices refer to the number of customers affected as would be typical
for a Utility network, for industrial or commercial systems a customer can represent a Process, Building, or
Area. Whereas utility costs are associated by lost customer revenue, commercial and industrial losses may
be even more dramatic through loss of product, lost worker productivity or lost sales.
o System Average Interruption Frequency Index, SAIFI (interruptions/customer-yr.)

where ? i is the failure rate and Ni is the number of customers of load point i.

System Average Interruption Duration Index, SAIDI (hours/customer-yr.)

where Ui is the annual outage time and Ni is the number of customers of load point i.

Customer Average Interruption Frequency Index, CAIDI (hours/customer-interruption)

Average Service Availability Index, ASAI

Average Service Unavailability Index, ASUI

Expected Energy Not Supplied Index, ENS (kWh/yr.)

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where La (i) is the average load connected to load point i.

Average Energy not Supplied, AENS (kWh/customer-yr.)

where La(i) is the average load connected to load point i.

c(r): cost which depending on the outage time ($/kW), this can be obtained from Customer
damage function(CDF) of each load.

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Utility System Evaluation

The economic analysis for cost-reliability evaluation cannot be considered in a general sense. Most of the
reasons and justifications are managerial decisions that can only be made based on your business goals.
However, the reliability analysis conducted in Part 3 and Part 4 should provide you with one of the most
important input parameters in your decision making process. The basis for the method used in the program
for utility and distribution system evaluation comes from IEEE paper No. PCIC 2000-02 Improvements in
Modeling and Evaluation of Electrical Power System Reliability by John E. Propst and Daniel R. Doan.
Combining the reliability indices with these system evaluation methods bring reliability and cost
considerations together in an easy to manage, scenario-based tool to help you make decisions effectively.

Utility System Configurations

Selecting the Utility System Installed Cost under the Cost Evaluation folder will bring up the following
dialog for you to select a utility system configuration. There are 7 choices ranging from the simplest (least
expensive, and least reliable) Single Source, Single Transformer, to the most complex (most expensive, and
most reliable) Dual Source, Dual Transformer with Ring Bus configuration. As you select a different
configuration, a sample one-line next to the selection will show its basic design.
Refer to John E. Propst and Daniel R. Doans paper for more detail on the cost-reliability trade-off for these
configurations.

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Utility System Installed Cost - Single Source, Single Transformer

Select single source, single transformer, and the program will fill in the equipment required for this
configuration, the cost for each piece of equipment, and the total cost for the utility portion of the system.

Customize the a Default Configuration

You can customize whats in each default configuration by entering new equipment with the cost and
number of each. Once you choose Save As Template, the list will be saved as the new default. The next
time you choose the same configuration, you will see your customized equipment list and pricing for the
utility portion of the system.

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Utility System Evaluation - Single Source, Single Transformer

Once the utility system configuration is selected and the installed cost is known, you can proceed to the
Utility System Evaluation folder under the study. Select one of the following 3 types of default
weighting factors and press OK.

Each type of default weighting factor emphasizes different aspects that affect the decision. The default
weighting factors come from Tables 1, 3 and 7 of John E. Propst and Daniel R. Doans paper.
Adjust the Value and Weights % for each aspect that affects the system evaluation, based on the
particular needs of your business or system. The total system value is 140 in the configuration. This is a
relative value to be compared with other proposed configurations.

You can customize Value and Weights % in each default configuration by modifying them and
choosing Save As Template.

Copy, Paste and Rename a Study

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To compare the simple configuration you selected with a more complex one, rename the study study1 we
just created to Single SRC-TX by clicking on the study name (two single clicks), or by using the
Rename feature from the menu item. Then Copy the study and select the root of the tree to Paste the
study. The copy and paste functions are available from the Right Mouse menu and also from the Edit
menu. Notice that you are not allowed to paste a study under another study, you must paste with the main
Root (Reliability Analysis) selected. Rename the study you just copied to Dual SRC-TX, Ring Bus.
You should see two different study folders displayed as follows:

Utility System Installed Cost - Dual Source, Dual Transformer with Ring Bus
Select the Dual Source, Dual Transformer with Ring Bus utility system configuration for the new study,
and overwrite the old evaluation data.

You can see that the total utility system cost changed from $880,000 for the single source, single
transformer case to $ 2,670,000 for the dual source, dual transformer with ring bus case.

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Once again, select the Reliability Dominated Weighting as the default weighting factors for the new
study and press OK.

Utility System Evaluation - Dual Source, Dual Transformer with Ring Bus
Proceed to the Utility System Evaluation folder under the Dual SRC-TX, Ring Bus study to adjust the
Value and Weights% for each aspect that affect the system value.

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Utility System Evaluation - Result Comparisons

After an increase of capital investing from k$880 for the single source, single transformer case to k$2670
for the dual source, dual transformer with ring bus case, how much have we improved in terms of system
reliability, maintainability, recovery, and operability? The Study shows that the System Evaluation value
increased from 140 to 230. Remember that these are relative numbers to help you compare qualitative
factors in a quantitative manner.
For more in-depth discussion on the weighting factors and financial risk using this evaluation model, refer
to IEEE paper No. PCIC 2000-02 Improvements in Modeling and Evaluation of Electrical Power System
Reliability by John E. Propst and Daniel R. Doan.

Distribution System Evaluation

Select the Distribution System Installed Cost under the Cost Evaluation folder will bring up the
following dialog to select a Distribution system configuration. There are 8 choices ranging from the simple
radial (least expensive, and least reliable) to the most complex (most expensive, and most reliable) Double
Bus/Breaker Primary Selective configuration. As you select a different configuration, a one-line next to the
selection will show its general design. Alternatively, you can build a detailed one-line that includes the
entire distribution system.

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Distribution System Installed Cost - Single Radial

Under the Distribution System Installed Cost folder of Single SRC-TX, choose Single Radial and
press OK. The following table will appear as the typical single radial distribution system installed cost list.

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Distribution System Installed Cost Load Data From Database

The most useful option on top of the 8 fixed configurations is Load Data from Database. Once you select
this option, the check box Auto Sync. Data with Database will be enabled.

The Distribution System Installed Cost folder will show all equipments/devices in this project with the cost
of each (including whether there is a spare or not) reading from the components you entered in the project
database. If you choose to let the program automatically synchronize the data, the distribution installed
cost list becomes read only. Any changes made to project (add/destroy components, or change cost data
from component editor) will be updated to the distribution installed cost list automatically.

Distribution System Evaluation - Single Radial

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Proceed to the Distribution System Evaluation folder under study Single SRC-TX. Select the
Reliability Dominated Weighting as the default Value and Weights%.

The following distribution system evaluation results will appear. Again, you can customize the distribution
installed cost list or the distribution system evaluation Value and Weights % in each default configuration
by making your modifications and choosing Save As Template.

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Distribution System Installed Cost - Dual Supply Radial with Tie Breaker
For the purpose of comparison, select Dual Supply Radial with Tie Breaker as the distribution system
configuration for the Dual SRC-TX, Ring Bus study folder, and choose the Reliability Dominated
Weighting option.

You will get the following distribution system evaluation results. Comparison of the two distribution
system configurations Single Radial and Dual Supply Radial with Tie Breaker show that the installed
cost jumps from k$2310 to k$3088, and the overall system evaluation value improved from 128 to 268.

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Custom Damage Function Library

To display the custom damage function library, select Library under the Document menu and choose the
PTW Library. The custom damage function library is part of the PTW library under the Reliability folder.

Al l library related features you have learned from other library types apply here. These include copy,
paste with in the same library or between different libraries, etc.

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A typical custom damage function library follows. Each row in the table represents failure duration and its
associated cost per kW for not being able to supply power to the load. The table shows for longer failure
durations, cost may increase. For example, in some process facilities, the costs from a short loss of power
may be minimal, but a for longer power losses the lost product costs could be extremely large.

The advantage of having such a user definable library allows you to model your plant accurately. You can
select the same library for all loads with the same characteristic. If you need to modify or update your
damage function, you can simply change the library without changing any of the loads.

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Custom Reliability Data Library

The custom reliability data library is right next to the custom damage function library. A long list of
existing library entries is shipped with the program. Most data comes from IEEE papers including:
Survey of Reliability and Availability Information for Power Distribution, Power Generation, and HVAC
Components for Commercial, Industrial, and Utility Installations by Peyton S. Hale and Robert G. Arno.
The libraries are completely user-definable and should be updated as more historical data pertinent to your
own industry becomes available.

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Reliability Data Page

The custom reliability data for all equipment types are kept in the same library. There are no subcategories to distinguish them. It is therefore important that you enter a meaningful name and description
for each entry.
The Failure Rate Units are useful only for cables and transmission lines that have a length in the
component. Pi-equivalents using a single core or pipe type library also have a length in the component to
adjust the selected failure rate unit. For all other components, choose no unit, which simply means failures
per year for the component.
The failure rate aging factor equation is defined as:
Failure Rate Aging Factor = C5X5 + C4X4 + C3X3 + C2X2 + C1X1 + C0
The total failure rate is calculated as:

Total Failure Rate = Failure Rate * Multiplying Factor * Failure Rate Aging Factor
The repair time aging factor equation is defined as:
Repair Time Aging Factor = C5X5 + C4X4 + C3X3 + C2X2 + C1X1 + C0
The total repair time is calculated as:
Total Repair Time = Failure Rate * Multiplying Factor * Repair Time Aging Factor
The parameters C5, C4, C3, C2, C1, C0 are disabled because they are calculated from historical data entered
on the Failure Rate Aging Factor page, and Repair Time Aging Factor page. If no historical data are
entered on the 2nd and 3rd pages, these parameters will be enabled for the user to enter.

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Failure Rate Aging Factor

Enter the Year (number of years in service) and its associated Failure Rate in the table. The longer the
equipment has been in service, the more likely it is going to fail in most cases. The aging factor can also be
used to adjust for different levels of maintenance and environmental factors. Choose a Fitting Model to find
a set of equation parameters that would best fit the original data. In the following example, we choose a 3Order fitting model, which implies that C5 and C4 are zero. The original data is plotted in blue, the curve
fitting result is plotted in red, and the calculated aging factor equation parameters are displayed.

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Repair Time Aging Factor

Enter the Year (number of years in service) and its associated Repair Time in the table. The equipment
may not necessarily take longer to repair even though it has been in service longer. Choose a Fitting Model
to find a set of equation parameters that best fit the original data. In the following example, we chose a 2Order fitting model, which implies that C5, C4 and C3 are zero. The original data are plotted in blue, the
curve fitting result is plotted in red, and the calculated aging factor equation parameters are displayed.

This completes the Reliability section of the Tutorial.

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