Introduction to Functions

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Mapping
A function is similar to a number machine or formula, in that you put values in to the function and out
come new values. The input is x, the output is f(x). Mapping is the way of showing the results from a
function. It is basically saying if you have a value of x, what would be the value of the function f(x).
Take a function f:x 6x + 2, (which can also be written as, f(x) = 6x + 2).
If we input x = 2, we get an output of 14.
This means that the function f maps 2 to 14, or 2 14.
This diagram shows how each input value of x maps to only one output value of f(x). This type of
mapping is called 'one-to-one mapping'.

There are certain functions where many values of x give the same value of f(x). This is called 'manyto-one mapping'. An example that shows this is:
f:x x2 + 3x 2.
This function maps 0 to -2 and -3 to -2.
So, some values of f(x) come from more than one input value of x.

Domain and Range

We need to be able to state which values of x produce values for the function f(x) and the set of these
values is called the domain.
Using the example function shown above
f:x x2 + 3x 2.
This function produces solutions for any value of x. This means that x can be any real number - (in
Further Maths there are such things as imaginary numbers!). This means we write that for,
f:x x2 + 3x 2, x R
(where R is the set of real numbers).
The set of output solutions produced by the function is called the range of the function.
Taking the example above, we have already noted that its minimum is at x = -17/4
Therefore all the output values of the function are greater than or equal to -17/4, which is written as:

Sketching graphs
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Using a table
At times you will need to sketch a function to see what it looks like. An easy way of doing this is:
1.
Select values of x and then calculate the corresponding values of the function.
2.
Put these values in a table.
3.
Use this table to sketch the graph.
Using the above example, where f:x x2 + 3x 2.
Select values of x and put the corresponding values of f(x) and into an organized table:

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

f(x)

-2

-4

-4

-2

16

26

38

Now we can plot the values of f(x) on a graph, we can see a pattern in the values of f(x):

There are several important pieces of information about the function that need to be found. In
particular where the graph crosses the x- and y-axes, and where the graph turns.
The graph shows us that:
a) The curve has a line of symmetry at the line

(because values of x that are symmetrical about the line x = -3/2, give the same value for f(x)).
b) The lowest value of y = -17/4 and this happens when

c) Using the quadratic formula,

...we can calculate the roots of this equation (where f(x) = 0).

So,

And,

Quadratics
All quadratics have this same symmetrical shape and for a general quadratic function in the form,
f(x) = ax2 + bx + c
Where a, b, and c are constants.
The main features we need to sketch a quadratic are:
1.

Where the graph crosses the y-axis. (At (0, c) as when x = 0, y = c).

2.

Where the graph crosses the x-axis. (Factorise or use the quadratic formula to solve f(x) = 0.)

3.

Where the graph turns. You can use differentiation, or completing the square (the quadratic
formula), to find that:

Graphically, we see that this means:

Once you know this information you can sketch any quadratic function.
For example:
Sketch the curve that represents f(x) -x2 + 2x
When x = 0, y = 0.
Therefore it crosses the y-axis at (0,0)
f(x) = 0 when -x2 + 2x = 0, or x(2 - x) = 0.
For instance, when x = 0, or when x = 2.
It is a - x2 therefore it is a symmetrical shape, with its maximum value when
x = 1 (a = -1, b = 2, therefore -b/2a = 1) and y = 1.
So, the graph can be sketched as:

More Complex Graphs

If we don't already know what a graph will look like we need to find its main features. These are:

1.

Where the graph crosses the y-axis, which is when x = 0. (i.e. at the constant).

2.

Where the graph crosses the x-axis. To find the roots (where the graph crosses the x-axis),
we solve the equation y = 0

3.

Where the stationary points are. The stationary points occur when the gradient is 0. (i.e.
differentiate.) Whether there are any discontinuities.

4.

Are there any discontinuities? A discontinuity occurs when the graph is undefined for a
certain value of x. This occurs when x appears in the denominator of a fraction (you can't divide by
zero).

5.

What happens as x approaches ? When x becomes a large positive or a large negative

number the graph will tend towards a certain value or pattern.
Now put all this information onto the graph and join up the points.
Example 1:
Sketch the graph

If x = -3 then the denominator is zero. As we cannot divide by zero the graph is undefined, and there is
a discontinuity at x = 3.
As x +, y 2 (The -1 and +3 become insignificant.) As x -, y 2 as well. This means there is
a horizontal asymptote (value that the graph tends towards) at x = 2.
So the final graph looks like this:

Example 2:
The graph of the function f(x) = 2/x looks like this:
The two asymptotes are the x-axis and y-axis.
This curve has a special discontinuity at x = 0 where f(0) is undefined.

Other functions
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Exponential Functions
This kind of function is one in which the variable (i.e. the x) is an index or exponent (i.e. is the power).
For example:
3x or 52-3x + 9 or e-x
For exponential functions in the form ax these are the important facts:

f(x) > 0 for all real values of x.

f(x) = 1 when x = 0.

f(x) increases at an accelerating rate as x increases.

f(x) becomes smaller as x decreases.

f(x) approaches zero as x approaches negative infinity. You may see this written as: as x
, f(x) 0.
Example:
The graph of f(x) 3x can be drawn as:

The curve gets very close to the negative x-axis but never touches it. When this happens, we say that
the x-axis is an asymptote to the curve.
An alternative way of stating that f(x) approaches a limit of zero as x approaches negative infinity can
be written as :

For any value of k > 1, the exponential function of the form kx is similar to the graph f(x) 3x drawn
above.

Logarithmic Functions
(For further information on logarithmic functions see the Algebra Learn-It.)
In order to sketch to logarithmic function you need to learn a few rules.

1 If you have a logarithmic function f(x) log ax, then the function is undefined (it does not exist) for x
. 0

2 f(x) > 0

for x > and as x , f(x) .

3
f(x) = 0
.

for x = (ao = 1 therefore log a1 =

1
0)

4
f(x) < 0
.

for 0 < as x decreases to zero from

x<1
a positive side.

The sketch of f(x) log ax and any function of this form will have a similar shape to this graph:

Note: This is the inverse of f(x) = ax and hence is a reflection of the previous graph in the line y = x.

Inverse functions
Inverse for one-to-one functions
This area takes functions, but where we usually take values of x and look at the corresponding values
of f(x), here we take values of f(x) and look at what value of x produces this.
Inverse functions with one to one mapping
Let's look at an example:
If we have the function, f: x 3x, and the 'domain' x {1, 2, 3}
Then we see the mappings are for this function over these x values is:

So now we have the mapping of x to f(x). But we can also go backwards and map the range values (i.e.
the values produced by f(x)) to those in the domain (i.e. the values of x used).

So forward mapping gives

13

26

39

And inverse mapping gives

31

62

93

Looking at the inverse mapping, the values produced can also be written as another
function:
x x/3, where x {3, 6, 9}.
This reverse mapping is a one-to-one mapping and is called the inverse function of f where f: x 3x.
The symbol for any inverse is f1.

So, f1

x x/3,

x {3, 6, 9}

is the inverse of f

x 3x,

x {1, 2, 3}

The relationship between the graphs of f and the inverse f 1 is shown in the diagram:

From the diagrams you can see that the transformation to get from f(x) to f 1(x) is a reflection in the
line y = x.
This helps us to find the inverse of more complicated functions, and we do so by:
Writing the equation as y = f(x).
Swapping the letters x and y. (This is the same as reflecting in the line y = x.)
Rearranging the formula into a new y = f(x). This is the inverse function.
Example:
Find the inverse function of

Therefore:

Rearrange to get,
xy + 2x = y
2x = y(1 x)

This means that the inverse function is,

Inverse functions with one-to-many mapping

The above example had a 'one to one' mapping (see lesson 1 - mapping). If you have a one to many
mapping this causes complications.

This is because a single value of f(x) can be generated from many different values of x and this cannot
be defined using a single inverse function. The way we can get around this is to set the domain (the
range of x values the function can use), such that only one value of x will produce one value of f(x).
This is quite a complex idea, so let's look at an example.
Using the function x2 the rearrangement gives us,
f1(x) = x
This would then define a one-to-many mapping and therefore not give a function (as a function
cannot be a one-to-many mapping).
Therefore, f: x x2, x R does not have an inverse function.
You can obtain the reverse mapping by only allowing x to take positive real numbers (or only negative
real numbers).
So we have, f: x x2, x R+ which is a one-to-one mapping.
The reverse mapping only allows positive square roots in the range.
So, the inverse is, f1 :x x, where x R+

Graphs of Inverse Functions

As mentioned earlier, all you need to do to sketch the graph of the inverse function f 1 is to reflect f
in the line y = x.
However, if f does not have an inverse, you will still be able to reflect the graph, but it will not
represent the inverse function.
Example:
Find the inverse function of f(x) 3x, x R, and sketch the graph.
To find f1 we have to map values of 3x back onto the values of x.
Therefore:
for f(x), y = 3x
For f1(x), x = 3y, and by taking logarithms we get,

f1(x) log3x