CHAPTER 16 KINETICS: RATES AND

MECHANISMS OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

16.1

Changes in concentrations of reactants (or products) as functions of time are measured to determine the reaction
rate.

16.2

Rate is proportional to concentration. An increase in pressure will increase in number of gas molecules per unit
volume. In other words, the gas concentration increases due to increased pressure, so the reaction rate increases.
Increased pressure also causes more collisions between gas molecules. Why does the increased collision rate not
necessarily increase reaction rate?

16.3

The addition of more water will dilute the concentrations of all solutes dissolved in the reaction vessel. If any of
these solutes are reactants, the rate of the reaction will decrease.

16.4

An increase in solid surface area would allow more gaseous components to react per unit time and thus would
increase the reaction rate.

16.5

An increase in temperature affects the rate of a reaction by increasing the number of collisions, but more
importantly the energy of collisions increases. As the energy of collisions increase, more collisions result in
reaction (i.e., reactants products), so the rate of reaction increases.

16.6

The second experiment proceeds at the higher rate. I2 in the gaseous state would experience more collisions with
gaseous H2.

16.7

The reaction rate is the change in the concentration of reactants or products per unit time. Reaction rates change
with time because reactant concentrations decrease, while product concentrations increase with time.

16.8

a) For most reactions, the rate of the reaction changes as a reaction progresses. The instantaneous rate is the rate
at one point, or instant, during the reaction. The average rate is the average of the instantaneous rates over a period
of time. On a graph of reactant concentration versus time of reaction, the instantaneous rate is the slope of the
tangent to the curve at any one point. The average rate is the slope of the line connecting two points on the curve.
The closer together the two points (shorter the time interval), the more closely the average rate agrees with the
instantaneous rate.
b) The initial rate is the instantaneous rate at the point on the graph where time = 0, that is when reactants are
mixed.

16.9

The calculation of the overall rate is the difference between the forward and reverse rates. This complication may
be avoided by measuring the initial rate, where product concentrations are negligible, so the reverse rate is
negligible. Additionally, the calculations are simplified as the reactant concentrations can easily be determined
from the volumes and concentrations of the solutions mixed.

16-1

16.10

At time t = 0, no product has formed, so the B(g) curve must start at the origin. Reactant concentration (A(g))
decreases with time; product concentration (B(g)) increases with time. Many correct graphs can be drawn. Two
examples are shown below. The graph on the left shows a reaction that proceeds nearly to completion, i.e.,
[products] >> [reactants] at the end of the reaction. The graph on the right shows a reaction that does not proceed
to completion, i.e., [reactants] > [products] at reaction end.

Concentration

Concentration

B(g)

A(g)

A(g)
B(g)

Time

Time
16.11

a) Calculate the slope of the line connecting (0, [C]o) and (tf, [C]f) (final time and concentration). The negative of
this slope is the average rate.
b) Calculate the negative of the slope of the line tangent to the curve at t = x.
c) Calculate the negative of the slope of the line tangent to the curve at t = 0.
d) If you plotted [D] versus time, you would not need to take the negative of the slopes in (a)-(c).

16.12

a) The average rate from t = 0 to t = 20.0 s is proportional to the slope of the line connecting these two points:
Rate = -(1/2) [AX2] / t = -(1/2) (0.0088 M - 0.0500 M) / (20.0 s - 0 s) = 0.00103 = 0.0010 M/s
The negative of the slope is used because rate is defined as the change in product concentration with time. If a
reactant is used, the rate is the negative of the change in reactant concentration. The 1/2 factor is included to
account for the stoichiometric coefficient of 2 for AX2 in the reaction.
b)

[AX2] vs time
0.06
0.05

[AX2]

0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0

10

15

20

25

time, s
The slope of the tangent to the curve (dashed line) at t = 0 is approximately -0.004 M/s. This initial rate is
greater than the average rate as calculated in part (a). The initial rate is greater than the average rate because
rate decreases as reactant concentration decreases.

16-2

16.13

a) Rate = - [AX2] / t = - [(0.0088 - 0.0249) mol/L] / [(20.0 - 8.0) s] = 1.34167 x 10-3 = 1.34 x 10-3 mol/Ls
b) The rate at exactly 5.0 s will be higher than the rate in part (a).
Rate = - [AX2] / t = - [(0.0100 - 0.0200) mol/L] / [(12.0 - 9.0) s] = 3.3333 x 10-3 = 3.3 x 10-3 mol/Ls

16.14

Use Equation 16.2 to describe the rate of this reaction in terms of reactant disappearance and product appearance.
Rate = -1/2 [A] / t = [B] / t = [C] / t
Reactant A decreases twice as fast as product C increases because 2 molecules of A disappear for every molecule
of C that appears.
-1/2 [A] / t = [C] / t
[A] / t = -2 [C] / t = -2 (2 M) / (1 s) = -4 M/s or -4 mol/Ls
The negative value indicates that [A] is decreasing as the reaction progresses. The rate of reaction is always
expressed as a positive number, so [A] is decreasing at a rate of 4 mol/Ls.

16.15

Rate = -[D] / t = 2/3 [E] / t = 2/5 [F] / t

[F] / t = 5/3 [E] / t = 5/3 (0.25 mol/L s) = 0.416667 = 0.42 mol/Ls

16.16

Rate = -[A] / t = -1/2 [B] / t = [C] / t

[A] / t = 1/2 (-0.5 mol/Ls) = -0.25 mol/Ls (unrounded)
[B] decreases twice as fast as [A], so [A] is decreasing at a rate of 1/2 (0.5 mol/Ls) or 0.2 mol/Ls.

16.17

Rate = - 1/2 [D] / t = - 1/3 [E] / t = - [F] / t = 1/2 [G] / t = [H] / t

[H] / t = - 1/2 (-0.1 mol/L s) = 0.05 mol/Ls

16.18

A term with a negative sign is a reactant; a term with a positive sign is a product. The inverse of the fraction
becomes the coefficient of the molecule:
2 N2O5(g) 4 NO2(g) + O2(g)

16.19

CH4 + 2 O2 2 H2O + CO2

16.20

a) Rate = - [(0.0033 - 0.0100) mol/L] / [10.00 - 0.00) s] = 6.7 x 10-4 mol/Ls

b) Rate = - [(0.0055 - 0.0071) mol/L] / [4.00 - 2.00) s] = 8.0 x 10-4 mol/Ls
c)

Initial Rate = - y / x = - [(0.0040 - 0.0100) mol/L] / [4.00 - 0.00) s] = 1.5 x 10-3 mol/Ls

16-3

d) Rate at 7.00 s = - [(0.0030 - 0.0050) mol/L] / [11.00 - 4.00) s] = 2.857 x 10-4 = 2.9 x 10-4 mol/Ls
e) Average between t = 3 s and t = 5 s is:
Rate = - [(0.0050 - 0.0063) mol/L] / [5.00 - 3.00) s] = 6.5 x 10-4 mol/Ls
Rate at 4 s 6.7 x 10-4 mol/Ls thus the rates are equal at about 4 seconds.
16.21

Rate = -[N2] / t = -1/3 [H2] / t = 1/2 [NH3] / t

16.22

a) Rate = -1/3 [O2] / t = 1/2 [O3] / t

b) Substitute the rate of O2, decrease into equation a),
[O3] / t = -2/3 [O2] / t
= -2/3 (-2.17 x 10-5 mol/Ls) = 1.44667 x 10-5 = 1.45 x 10-5 mol/Ls

16.23

a) k is the rate constant, the proportionality constant in the rate law. k represents the fraction of successful
collisions which includes the fraction of collisions with sufficient energy and the fraction of collisions with correct
orientation. k is a constant that varies with temperature.
b) m represents the order of the reaction with respect to [A] and n represents the order of the reaction with respect
to [B]. The order is the exponent in the relationship between rate and reactant concentration and defines how
reactant concentration influences rate.
The order of a reactant does not necessarily equal its stoichiometric coefficient in the balanced equation. If a
reaction is an elementary reaction, meaning the reaction occurs in only one-step, and then the orders and
stoichiometric coefficients are equal. However, if a reaction occurs in a series of elementary reactions, called a
mechanism, then the rate law is based on the slowest elementary reaction in the mechanism. The orders of the
reactants will equal the stoichiometric coefficients of the reactants in the slowest elementary reaction.
c) For the rate law rate = k[A] [B]2 substitute in the units:
Rate (mol/Lmin) = k[A]1[B]2
k = Rate / [A]1[B]2
k = (mol/Lmin) / [M]1[M]2
M = mol/L
k = (mol/Lmin) / [mol/L]1[mol/L]2
k = L2/mol2min

16.24

a) Plot either [A2] or [B2] versus time and determine the negative of the slope of the line tangent to the curve at
t = 0.
b) A series of experiments at constant temperature but with different initial concentrations are run to determine
different initial rates. By comparing results in which only the initial concentration of a single reactant is changed,
the order of the reaction with respect to that reactant can be determined.
c) When the order of each reactant is known, any one experimental set of data (reactant concentration and reaction
rate) can be used to determine the reaction rate constant at that temperature.

16.25

a) The rate doubles. If rate = k[A]1 and [A] is doubled, then the rate law becomes rate = k[2 x A]1. The rate
increases by 21 or 2.
b) The rate decreases by a factor of four. If rate = k[1/2 x B]2, then rate decreases to (1/2)2 or 1/4 of its original
value.
c) The rate increases by a factor of nine. If rate = k[3 x C]2, then rate increases to 32 or 9 times its original
value.

16.26

The order for each reactant is the exponent on the reactant concentration in the rate law. The orders with respect
to [BrO3-] and to [Br-] are both 1. The order with respect to [H+] is 2. The overall reaction order is the sum of each
reactant order: 1 + 1 + 2 = 4.
first order with respect to BrO3- first order with respect to Brsecond order with respect to H
fourth order overall

16.27

second order with respect to O3

(-1) order with respect to O2

16-4

first order overall

16.28

a) The rate is first order with respect to [BrO3-]. If [BrO3-] doubles, the rate doubles.
b) The rate is first order with respect to [Br-]. If [Br-] is halved, the rate is halved.
c) The rate is second order with respect to [H+]. If [H+] is quadrupled, the rate increases by 42 or 16.

16.29

a) The rate increases by a factor of 4.

b) The rate decreases by a factor of 2.
c) The rate increases by a factor of 2.

16.30

The order with respect to [NO2] is 2, and the order with respect to [Cl2] is 1. The overall order is the sum of the
orders of individual reactants: 2 + 1 = 3 for the overall order.

16.31

The order with respect to [HNO2] is 4, and the order with respect to [NO] is -2. The overall order is the sum of
the orders of the individual reactants 4 - 2 = 2 for the overall order.

16.32

a) The rate is second order with respect to [NO2]. If [NO2] is tripled, the rate increases by a factor 32 or 9.
b) If rate = k[2 x NO2]2[2 x Cl2]1, then the rate increases by a factor of 22 x 21 = 8.
c) If Cl2 is halved, the reaction rate is halved because the rate is first order with respect to [Cl2].

16.33

a) Doubling the HNO2 concentration changes the rate by a factor of [2]4 = 16.
b) Doubling the NO concentration changes the rate by a factor of 1 / [2]2 = 1 / 4, thus, the rate decreases by a
factor of 4.
c) One half the HNO2 concentration changes the rate by a factor of [1/2]4 = 1 / 16, thus the rate decreases by a
factor of 16.

16.34

a) To find the order for reactant A, first identify the reaction experiments in which [A] changes but [B] is
constant. Set up a proportionality: rateexp a / rateexp b = ([A]exp a / [A]exp b)m. Fill in the values given for rates and
concentrations and solve for m, the order with respect to [A]. Repeat the process to find the order for reactant B.
Use experiments 1 and 2 (or 3 and 4 would work) to find the order with respect to [A].
rateexp1 / rateexp2 = ([A]exp1 / [A]exp2)m
(45.00 mol/Lmin)/(5.00 mol/Lmin) = (0.300 mol/L / 0.100 mol L)m
9.00 = (3.00)m
log (9.00) = m log (3.00)
m=2
Using experiments 3 and 4 also gives 2nd order with respect to [A].
Use experiments 1 and 3 with [A] = 0.100 M or 2 and 4 with [A] = 0.300 M to find order with respect to [B].
rateexp3 / rateexp1 = ([B]exp3 / [B]exp1)n
(10.0 mol/Lmin) / (5.00 mol/Lmin) = (0.200 mol/L / 0.100 mol L)n
2.00 = (2.00)n
log (2.00) = n log (2.00)
n=1
The reaction is first order with respect to [B].
b) The rate law, without a value for k, is rate = k[A]2[B].
c) Using experiment 1 to calculate k:
k = rate / [A]2[B] = (5.00 mol/Lmin) / [(0.100 mol/L)2(0.100 mol/L)] = 5.00 x 103 L2/mol2min

16.35

a) The rate law is rate = k [A]m[B]n[C]p

Use experiments 1 and 2 to find the order with respect to [A].
rateexp2 / rateexp1 = ([A]exp2 / [A]exp1)m
(1.25 x 10-2 mol/Lmin)/(6.25 x 10-3 mol/Lmin) = [(0.1000 mol/L) / (0.0500 mol L)]m
2.00 = (2.00)m
log (2.00) = m log (2.00)
m=1
The order is first order with respect to A.

16-5

Use experiments 2 and 3 to find the order with respect to [B].

rateexp3 / rateexp2 = ([A]exp3 / [A]exp2)n
(5.00 x 10-2 mol/Lmin) / (1.25 x 10-2 mol/Lmin) = [(0.1000 mol/L) / (0.0500 mol L)]n
4.00 = (2.00)n
log (2.00) = n log (2.00)
n=2
The reaction is second order with respect to B
Use experiments 1 and 4 to find the order with respect to [C].
rateexp4 / rateexp1 = ([A]exp4 / [A]exp1)p
(6.25 x 10-3 mol/Lmin) / (6.25 x 10-3 mol/Lmin) = [(0.0200 mol/L) / (0.0100 mol L)]p
1.00 = (2.00)p
log (1.00) = p log (2.00)
p=0
The reaction is zero order with respect to C
b) Rate = k [A]1[B]2[C]p
Rate = k [A][B]2
c) k = rate / [A][B]2 = (6.25 x 10-3 mol/Ls) / [(0.0500 mol/L) (0.0500 mol/L)2] = 50.0 L2/mol2s
16.36

a) A first order rate law follows the general expression, rate = k[A]. The reaction rate is expressed as a change in
concentration per unit time with units of M/time or mol/Ltime. Since [A] has units of M (the brackets stand for
concentration), then k has units of time-1:
Rate = k[A]
(mol/L)/time = time-1(mol/L)
b) Second order: rate = k[A]2
(mol/L)/time = k(mol/L)2
k = [(mol/L)/time] / (mol/L)2 = L/moltime or M-1 time-1
c) Third order: rate = k[A]3
(mol/L)/time = k(mol/L)3
k = [(mol/L)/time] / (mol/L)3 = L2/mol2time or M-2 time-1
d) 5/2 order: rate = k[A]5/2
(mol/L)/time = k(mol/L)5/2
k = [(mol/L)/time] / (mol/L)5/2 = L3/2/mol3/2time or M-3/2 time-1

16.37

a) zero order

16.38

a) Rate = k [CO]m[Cl2]n
Use experiments 1 and 2 to find the order with respect to [CO].
rateexp1 / rateexp2 = ([CO]exp1 / [CO]exp2)m
(1.29 x 10-29 mol/Lmin)/(1.33 x 10-30 mol/Lmin) = (1.00 mol/L / 0.100 mol L)m
9.699 = (10.0)m
log (9.699) = m log (10.0)
m = 0.9867 = 1
The reaction is first order with respect to [CO].
Use experiments 2 and 3 to find order with respect to [Cl2].
rateexp3 / rateexp2 = ([Cl2]exp3 / [Cl2]exp2)n
(1.30 x 10-29 mol/Lmin) / (1.33 x 10-30 mol/Lmin) = (1.00 mol/L / 0.100 mol L)n
9.774 = (10.0)n
log (9.774) = n log (10.0)
n = 0.9901 = 1
The reaction is first order with respect to [Cl2].
Rate = k [CO][Cl2]

b) first order

c) 1/2 order

d) 7/2 order

16-6

b) k = Rate / [CO][Cl2]
k1 = (1.29 x 10-29 mol/Ls) / [(1.00 mol/L) (0.100 mol/L)] = 1.29 x 10-28 L/mols
k2 = (1.33 x 10-30 mol/Ls) / [(0.100 mol/L) (0.100 mol/L)] = 1.33 x 10-28 L/mols
k3 = (1.30 x 10-29 mol/Ls) / [(0.100 mol/L) (1.00 mol/L)] = 1.30 x 10-28 L/mols
k3 = (1.32 x 10-31 mol/Ls) / [(0.100 mol/L) (0.0100 mol/L)] = 1.32 x 10-28 L/mols
kavg = (1.29 x 10-28 + 1.33 x 10-28 + 1.30 x 10-28 + 1.32 x 10-28) L/mols / 4 = 1.31 x 10-28 L/mols
16.39

The integrated rate law can be used to plot a graph. If the plot of [reactant] versus time is linear, the order is
zero. If the plot of ln [reactant] versus time is linear, the order is first. If the plot of inverse concentration versus
time is linear, the order is second.
a) The reaction is first order since ln[reactant] versus time is linear.
b) The reaction is second order since 1 / [reactant] versus time is linear.
c) The reaction is zero order since [reactant] versus time is linear.

16.40

The half-life (t1/2) of a reaction is the time required to reach half the initial reactant concentration. For a first-order
process, no molecular collisions are necessary, and the rate depends only on the fraction of the molecules having
sufficient energy to initiate the reaction.

16.41

The rate expression indicates that this reaction is second order overall, so use the second order integrated rate law
to find time. ([AB] = 1/3 [AB]0 = 1/3 (1.50 M) = 0.500 M)
1
1
= kt
[ AB]t [ AB]0

t=

t=

1
1

[ AB]t [ AB]t
k
1
1

0.500 M 1.50 M

0.2 L/mol s
t = 6.6667 = 7 s

16.42

1
1
= kt
AB
AB
[ ]t [ ]0
1
1
= kt +
AB
AB
[ ]t
[ ]0
1
1
= (0.2 L/mols) (10.0 s) +
1.50
M
AB
[ ]t
1
1
= 2.66667
AB
M
[ ]t
[AB]t = 0.375 = 0.4 M

16.43

a) The given information is the amount that has reacted in a specified amount of time. With this information, the
integrated rate law must be used to find a value for the rate constant. For a first order reaction, the rate law is
ln ([A]0 / [A]t) = kt. Using the fact that 50.0% has decomposed, the concentration of A has decreased by half, giving
a value for the ratio of ([A]0 / [A]t) = (1 / (1/2)) = 2. Alternatively, 50.0% decomposition means that one half-life
has passed. Thus, the first order half-life equation may be used:
t1/2 = ln 2 / k
k = ln 2 / t1/2 = ln 2 / 10.5 min = 0.066014 = 0.0660 min-1
b) Use the value for k calculated in part a, use ([A]0 / [A]t) = (1 / (1/4)) = 4.00 and solve for time. If you recognize
that 75.0% decomposition means that two half lives have passed, then t = 2 (10.5 min) = 21.0 min

16-7

16.44

a) t1/2 = ln 2 / k = ln 2 / (0.0012 yr-1) = 577.62 = 5.8 x 102 yr

b) ln ([A]0 / [A]t) = kt
[A]o = 100%
[A]t = 12.5%
k = 0.0012 yr-1 t
100%
ln
= (0.0012 yr-1) t
12.5%
t = 1732.86795 = 1.7 x 103 yr
If the student recognizes that 12.5% remaining corresponds to three half-lives; then simply multiply the answer in
part (a) by three.

16.45

In a first order reaction, ln[NH3] versus time is a straight line with slope equal to k. A new data table is
constructed below.
Note that additional significant figures are retained in the calculations.
x-axis (time, s)
0
1.000
2.000

[NH3]
4.000 M
3.986 M
3.974 M

y-axis (ln[NH3])
1.38629
1.38279
1.37977

1.388
ln[NH3]

1.386
1.384
1.382
1.38
1.378
0

0.5

1.5

Time, s

k = slope = rise/run = (y2 - y1) / (x2 - x1)

k = (1.37977 - 1.38629) / (2.000 - 0) = (0.00652) / (2.) = 3.260 x 10-3 s-1 = 3 x 10-3 s-1
(Note that the starting time is not exact, and hence, limits the significant figures.)
b) t1/2 = ln 2 / k = ln 2 / (3.260 x 10-3 s-1) = 212.62 = 2 x 102 s

16.46

k = Ae E / RT
The Arrhenius equation indicates a negative exponential relationship between temperatures and the rate constant,
k. In other words, the rate constant increases exponentially with temperature.

16.47

The Arrhenius equation, k = Ae E / RT , can be used directly to solve for activation energy at a specified
temperature if the rate constant, k, and the frequency factor, A, are known. However, the frequency factor is
usually not known. To find Ea without knowing A, rearrange the Arrhenius equation to put it in the form of a
linear plot: ln k = ln A - Ea / RT where the y value is ln k and the x value is 1 / T. Measure the rate constant at a
series of temperatures and plot ln k versus 1 / T. The slope equals -Ea / R.

16-8

16.48

a) The value of k increases exponentially with temperature.

b) A plot of ln k versus 1 / T is a straight line whose slope is -Ea / R.

16.49

Substitute the given values into Equation 16.9 and solve for k2.
k1 = 4.7 x 10-3 s-1
T1 = 25C = (273 + 25) = 298 K
k2 = ?
T2 = 75C = (273 + 75) = 348 K
Ea = 33.6 kJ/mol
E
k
1 1
ln 2 = a

R T2 T1
k1
ln

k2

4.7 x 103 s 1

33.6 kJ/mol
1
1

8.314 J/mol K 348 K 298 K

k2

= 1.948515 (unrounded)
4.7 x 103 s 1
k2 / (4.7 x 10-3 s-1) = 7.0182577
k2 = (4.7 x 10-3 s-1) (7.0182577) = 0.0329858 = 0.033 s-1

ln

16-9

103 J
1 kJ

16.50

Substitute the given values into Equation 16.9 and solve for Ea.
k1 = 4.50 x 10-5 L/mols
T1 = 195C = (273 + 195) = 468 K
k2 = 3.20 x 10-3 L/mols
T2 = 258C = (273 + 258) = 531 K
Ea = ?
E
k
1 1

ln 2 = a
R T2 T1
k1
R ln

Ea =

k2
k1

1 1

T2 T1

8.314
=

J
mol K

ln

3.20 x 103 L/mols

4.50 x 105 L/mol s

1
1

531 K 468 K

Ea = 1.3984658 x 105 J/mol = 1.40 x 105 J/mol

16.51

Substitute the given values into Equation 16.9 and solve for Ea.
k1 = 0.0796 L/mols
T1 = 737C = (273 + 737) = 1010. K
k2 = 0.0815 L/mols
T2 = 947C = (273 + 947) = 1220. K
Ea = ?
E
k
1 1

ln 2 = a
R T2 T1
k1
R ln

Ea =

k2
k1

1 1

T2 T1

8.314
=

J
mol K

ln

0.0815 L/mols
0.0796 L/mols

1
1

1220. K 1010. K

Ea = 1.1507477 x 103 J/mol = 1.15 x 103 J/mol

16.52

The central idea of collision theory is that reactants must collide with each other in order to react. If reactants must
collide to react, the rate depends on the product of the reactant concentrations.

16.53

No, collision frequency is not the only factor affecting reaction rate. The collision frequency is a count of the total
number of collisions between reactant molecules. Only a small number of these collisions lead to a reaction. Other
factors that influence the fraction of collisions that lead to reaction are the energy and orientation of the collision. A
collision must occur with a minimum energy (activation energy) to be successful. In a collision, the orientation
which ends if the reactant molecules collide must bring the reacting atoms in the molecules together in order for
the collision to lead to a reaction.

16.54

At any particular temperature, molecules have a distribution of kinetic energies, as will their collisions have a
range of energies. As temperature increases, the fraction of these collisions, which exceed the threshold energy,
increases; thus, the reaction rate increases.

16.55

a) rate increases

16.56

No, for 4 x 10-5 moles of EF to form, every collision must result in a reaction and no EF molecule can decompose
back to AB and CD. Neither condition is likely. In principle, all reactions are reversible, so some EF molecules
decompose. Even if all AB and CD molecules did combine, the reverse decomposition rate would result in an
amount of EF that is less than 4 x 10-5 moles.

b) rate increases

16-10

16.57

Collision frequency is proportional to the velocity of the reactant molecules. At the same temperature, both
reaction mixtures have the same average kinetic energy, but not the same velocity. Kinetic energy equals 1/2 mv2,
where m is mass and v velocity. The methylamine molecule has greater mass than the ammonia molecule, so
methylamine molecules will collide less often than ammonia molecules, because of their slower velocities.
Collision energy thus is less for the N(CH3)3(g) + HCl(g) reaction than for the NH3(g) + HCl(g) reaction.
Therefore, the rate of the reaction between ammonia and hydrogen chloride is greater than the rate of the
reaction between methylamine and hydrogen chloride.
The fraction of successful collisions also differs between the two reactions. In both reactions the hydrogen from
HCl is bonding to the nitrogen in NH3 or N(CH3)3. The difference between the reactions is in how easily the H
can collide with the N, the correct orientation for a successful reaction. The groups bonded to nitrogen in
ammonia are less bulky than the groups bonded to nitrogen in trimethylamine. So, collisions with correct
orientation between HCl and NH3 occur more frequently than between HCl and N(CH3)3 and NH3(g) + HCl(g)
NH4Cl(s) occurs at a higher rate than N(CH3)3(g) + HCl(g) (CH3)3NHCl(s). Therefore, the rate of the
reaction between ammonia and hydrogen chloride is greater than the rate of the reaction between methylamine
and hydrogen chloride.

16.58

Each A particle can collide with three B particles, so there are (4 x 3) = 12 unique collisions are possible.

16.59

[(1.01 mol A) (6.022 x 1023 A/mol A)] x [(2.12 mol B) (6.022 x 1023 B/mol B)]
= 7.76495 x 1047 = 7.76 x 1047 unique collisions

16.60

The fraction of collisions with a specified energy is equal to the e-Ea/RT term in the Arrhenius equation.
f = e-Ea/RT (25C = 273 + 25 = 298 K)

- Ea / RT =

100 kJ/ mol

103 J
(8.314 J/mol K )( 298 K ) 1 kJ

Fraction = 2.9577689 x 10-18 = 2.96 x 10-18

16.61

The fraction of collisions with a specified energy is equal to the e-Ea/RT term in the Arrhenius equation.
f = e-Ea/RT (50.C = 273 + 50. = 323 K)

- Ea / RT =

100 kJ/mol
103 J
(8.314 J/mol K )( 323 K ) 1 kJ

Fraction = 6.725131 x 10-17 (unrounded)

The fraction increased by (6.725131 x 10-17) / (2.9577689 x 10-18) = 22.737175 = 22.7
a) The reaction is exothermic, so the energy of the reactants is higher than the energy of the products.

Ea (fwd)
Ea(rev)

Energy

16.62

ABC + D

Hrxn

AB + CD

Reaction coordinate
b) Ea(rev) = Ea(fwd) - Hrxn = 215 kJ/mol - (-55 kJ/mol) = 2.70 x 102 kJ/mol

16-11

c)
bond forming
B
A

bond weakening

16.63

a)

b) Hrxn = Ea(fwd) 2 Ea(rev) = 125 kJ/mol - 85 kJ/mol = 40 kJ/mol

c)
A.....B
|
|
A.....B
a) The reaction is endothermic since the enthalpy change is positive.
NOCl + Cl

Ea(rev)

= +83 kJ

Energy

16.64

NO + Cl2

Ea(fwd) = +86 kJ

Reaction coordinate
b) Activation energy for the reverse reaction: Ea(rev) = Ea(fwd) - H = 86 kJ - 83 kJ = 3 kJ.

16-12

c) To draw the transition state, look at structures of reactants and products:

Cl

Cl

Cl

N
Cl

The collision must occur between one of the chlorines and the nitrogen. The transition state would have weak
bonds between the nitrogen and chlorine and between the two chlorines.

N
Cl

Cl

16.65

The rate of an overall reaction depends on the slowest step. Each individual steps reaction rate can vary widely,
so the rate of the slowest step, and hence the overall reaction, will be slower than the average of the individual
rates because the average contains faster rates as well as the rate-determining step.

16.66

An elementary step is a single molecular event, such as the collision of two molecules. Since an elementary step
occurs in one-step, its rate must be proportional to the product of the reactant concentrations. Thus, the exponents
in the rate of an elementary step are identical to the coefficients in the equation for the step. Since an overall
reaction is generally a series of elementary steps, it is not necessarily proportional to the product of the overall
reactant concentrations.

16.67

Yes, it is often possible to devise more than one mechanism since the rate law for the slowest step determines the
rate law for the overall reaction. The preferred mechanism will be the one that seems most probable, where
molecules behave in their expected fashion.

16.68

Reaction intermediates have some stability, however limited, but transition states are inherently unstable.
Additionally, unlike transition states, intermediates are molecules with normal bonds.

16.69

A bimolecular step is more reasonable physically than a termolecular step because the likelihood that two reactant
molecules will collide is much greater than the likelihood that three reactant molecules will collide
simultaneously.

16.70

No, the overall rate law must contain reactants only (no intermediates) and is determined by the slow step. If the
first step in a reaction mechanism is slow, the rate law for that step is the overall rate law.

16.71

If the slow step is not the first one, the faster preceding step produces intermediates that accumulate before being
consumed in the slow step. Substitution of the intermediates into the rate law for the slow step will produce the
overall rate law.

16.72

a) The overall reaction can be obtained by adding the three steps together:
(1) A(g) + B(g) X(g) fast
(2) X(g) + C(g) Y(g) slow
(3) Y(g) D(g) fast
Total: A(g) + B(g) + X(g) + C(g) + Y(g) X(g) + Y(g) + D(g)
A(g) + B(g) + C(g) D(g)
b) Intermediates appear in the mechanism first as products, then as reactants. Both X and Y are intermediates in
the given mechanism.
c)
Molecularity
Rate law
Step:
bimolecular
rate1 = k1[A][B]
A(g) + B(g) X(g)
bimolecular
rate2 = k2[X][C]
X(g) + C(g) Y(g)
unimolecular
rate3 = k3[Y]
Y(g) D(g)

16-13

d) Yes, the mechanism is consistent with the actual rate law. The slow step in the mechanism is the second step
with rate law: rate = k2[X][C]. Since X is an intermediate, it must be replaced by using the first step. For an
equilibrium, rateforward rxn = ratereverse rxn. For step 1 then, k1[A][B] = k-1[X]. Rearranging to solve for [X] gives
[X] = (k1 / k-1)[A][B]. Substituting this value for [X] into the rate law for the second step gives the overall rate law
as rate = (k2k1 / k-1)[A][B][C] which is identical to the actual rate law with k = k2k1 / k-1.
e) Yes, The one step mechanism A(g) + B(g) + C(g) D(g) would have a rate law of rate = k[A][B][C], which is
the actual rate law.
(1)
ClO-(aq) + H2O(l) HClO(aq) + OH-(aq) fast
slow
(2)
I-(aq) + HClO(aq) HIO(aq) + Cl-(aq)
fast
(3)
OH -(aq) + HIO(aq) H2O(l) + IO-(aq)
(overall) ClO -(aq) + I -(aq) Cl-(aq) + IO-(aq)
b) HClO(aq), OH -(aq), and HIO(aq)
c)
(1) Bimolecular; Rate1 = k1 [ClO -] [H2O]
(2) Bimolecular; Rate2 = k2 [I -][HClO]
(3) Bimolecular; Rate3 = k3 [OH -][HIO]
d) No. For the slow step: Rate = k[I-][HClO]
However, HClO is an intermediate, and should be replaced. From step (1), leaving out the water,
[HClO] = [ClO-] / [OH-]
Replacing [HClO] in the slow step rate law gives:
Rate = k[I-][ClO-] / [OH-]
This is not the observed rate law.

16.73

a)

16.74

Nitrosyl bromide is NOBr(g). The reactions sum to the equation 2 NO(g) + Br2(g) 2 NOBr(g), so criterion 1
(elementary steps must add to overall equation) is satisfied. Both elementary steps are bimolecular and chemically
reasonable, so criterion 2 (steps are physically reasonable) is met. The reaction rate is determined by the slow
step; however, rate expressions do not include reaction intermediates (NOBr2). Derive the rate law as follows:
(1) Rate1 (forward) = k1[NO][Br2]
(2) Rate1 (reverse) = k-1[NOBr2]
(3) Rate2 (forward) = k2[NOBr2][NO]
Solve for [NOBr2]:
Rate1 (forward) = Rate1 (reverse)
k1[NO][Br2] = k-1[NOBr2]
[NOBr2] = (k1 / k-1)[NO][Br2]
Substitute the expression for [NOBr2] into equation (3):
Rate2 (forward) = k2(k1 / k-1)[NO][Br2][NO]
Combine the separate constants into one constant: k = k2(k1 / k-1)
Rate2 = k[NO]2[Br2]
The derived rate law equals the known rate law, so criterion 3 is satisfied. The proposed mechanism is valid.

16-14

2 NO(g) + O2(g) 2 NO2(g)

Rate = k[NO]2[O2]
II.
a) 2 NO(g) N2O2(g)
b) N2O2(g) + O2(g) 2 NO2(g)
Rate = k[N2O2][O2]
= kb(ka / k-a) [NO]2[O2]
= k[NO]2[O2]
III.
a) 2 NO(g) N2(g) + O2(g)
b) N2(g) + 2 O2(g) NO2(g)
Rate = k[N2][O2]2
= kb (ka / k-a) [NO]2[O2]-1[O2]2
= k[NO]2[O2]
a) All the mechanisms are consistent with the rate law.
b) The most reasonable mechanism is II, since none of its elementary steps are more complicated than being
bimolecular.

16.75

I.

16.76

a) Gold is a heterogeneous catalyst.

b)

16.77

No, a catalyst changes the mechanism of a reaction to one with lower activation energy. Lower activation energy
means a faster reaction. An increase in temperature does not influence the activation energy, but instead increases
the fraction of collisions with sufficient energy to react.

16.78

a) No, by definition, a catalyst is a substance that increases reaction rate without being consumed. The spark
provides energy that is absorbed by the H2 and O2 molecules to achieve the threshold energy needed for reaction.
b) Yes, the powdered metal acts like a heterogeneous catalyst, providing a surface upon which the O2-H2
reaction becomes more favorable because the activation energy is lowered.

16.79

Catalysts decrease the amount of energy required for a reaction. To carry out the reaction less energy must be
generated. The generation of less energy means that fewer by-products of energy production will be released into
the environment.

16-15

16.80

a) Rate = k [NO2]2
b) Rate = k [NO] [O3]
c) The concentration of NO2 is one-half of the original when the reaction is 50% complete.

k [ NO 2 ]
Ratei
=
Rate50%
k 0.5 ( NO 2 )
2

=4

k [ NO ] O3
Ratei
=
=4
Rate50%
k 0.5 ( NO ) 0.5 ( O3 )
d) [NO2]i = 2 [CO]i, when the reaction is 50% complete, [CO] = 1/2 [CO]i and [NO2] = 0.75[NO2]i.

k [ NO 2 ]
Ratei
=
Rate50%
k 0.75 ( NO 2 )
2

= 1.7778 = 1.8

e) [NO]i = 2[O3]i, when the reaction is 50% complete, [O3] = 1/2 [O3]i and [NO] = 0.75[NO]i.
k [ NO ] O3
Ratei
= 2.6667 = 2.7
=
Rate50%
k 0.75 ( NO ) 0.5 ( O3 )
16.81

a) 2 (two peaks)

16.82

a) Water does not appear as a reactant in the rate-determining step.

Note that as a solvent in the reaction, the concentration of the water is assumed not to change even though some
water is used up as a reactant. This assumption is valid as long as the solute concentrations are low (1 M or less).
So, even if water did appear as a reactant in the rate-determining step, it would not appear in the rate law. See rate
law for step 2 below.
b)
Rate law for step (1):
rate1 = k1[(CH3)3CBr]
Rate law for step (2):
rate2 = k2[(CH3)3C+]
Rate law for step (3):
rate3 = k3[(CH3)3COH2+]
+
c) The intermediates are (CH3)3C and (CH3)3COH2+.
d) The rate-determining step is the slow step, (1). The rate law for this step agrees with the actual rate law with
k = k1.

16.83

a) Add the two equations:

(1)
X(g) + O3(g) XO(g) + O2(g)
(2)
XO(g) + O(g) X(g) + O2(g)
Overall O3(g) + O(g) 2 O2(g)
b) Step (1)
rate1 = k1[X][O3]
Step (2)
rate2 = k2[XO][O]
c) X acts as a catalyst, and XO acts as an intermediate.
d) Step (1) is the rate-determining (slow) step, so use its rate law with NO = X.
rate1 = k1[NO][O3] = (6 x 10-15 cm3/molecules) (1.0 x 109 molecule/cm3) (5 x 1012 molecule/cm3)
= 3 x 107 molecule/s
e) Convert mg/L to molecules/cm3, and compare to the given number of molecules per cm3.
10 mg
L

b) the second step (higher peak)

103 g
1 mg

103 L
1 mL

1 mL
1 cm3

1 mol O3
48.00 g O3

c) exothermic (end below beginning)

6.022 x 1023 molecules O3

1 mol O3

= 1.25458 x 1017 = 1.3 x 1017 molecules/cm3

The given concentration is less than the maximum, thus, yes the O3 is reasonable.

16-16

16.84

Rearrange t1/2 = ln 2 / k to k = ln 2 / t1/2

k = ln 2 / 5730 yr = 1.20968 x 10-4 yr-1 (unrounded)
Use the first-order integrated rate law:
14

ln

ln

14

C
C

= - kt

[15.5%]t
[100%]0

= - (1.20968 x 10-4 yr-1) t

t = 1.541176 x 104 = 1.54 x 104 yr

16.85

The activation energy can be calculated using Equation 16.9. Although the rate constants, k1 and k2, are not
expressly stated, the relative times give an idea of the rate. The reaction rate is proportional to the rate constant.
At T2 = 0C = (273 + 0) = 273 K, the rate is slow relative to the rate at T1 = 20C = (273 + 20) = 293 K.
Therefore, rate2 = 1/16 and rate1 = 1/4 are substituted for k2 and k1, respectively.
k1 = 1/4
T1 = 293 K
k2 = 1/16
T2 = 273 K
Ea = ?
E
k
1 1
ln 2 = a

R T2 T1
k1
R ln

Ea =

k2
k1

1 1

T2 T1

8.314

J
mol K

ln

(1/16 )
(1/4 )

1
1

273 K 293 K

Ea = 4.6096266 x 104 J/mol = 4.61 x 104 J/mol

The significant figures are based on the Kelvin temperatures.
16.86

Rearrange t1/2 = ln 2 / k to k = ln 2 / t1/2

k = ln 2 / 9.8 x 103 d = 7.07293 x 10-5 d-1 (unrounded)
Use the first-order integrated rate law with BP = benzoyl peroxide:
[ BP ]t
ln
= - kt
[ BP ]0
ln

[95%]t
[100%]0

= - (7.07293 x 10-5 d-1) t

t = 725.2057 = 7.3 x 102 d

16-17

a)

Energy

16.87

CO + NO2

= -226kJ

CO2 + NO

Reaction coordinate
b) Yes, the alternative mechanism is consistent with the rate law since the rate of the mechanism is based on the
slowest step, 2 NO2(g) N2(g) + 2 O2(g). The rate law for this step is rate = k1[NO2]2, the same as the actual rate
law.
The alternative mechanism includes an elementary reaction (step 2) that is a termolecular reaction. Thus, the
original mechanism given in the text is more reasonable physically since it involves only bimolecular reactions.
16.88

a) The general rate law is: Rate = k[A]x[B]y[C]z

k [ A ]2 [ B]2 [ C ]2
Rate 2
=
x
y
z
Rate1
k [ A ]1 [ B]1 [ C]1
x

[B]1 = [B]2

[C]1 = [C]2

k [ A ]2
Rate 2
=
x
Rate1
k [ A ]1
x

9.6 x 105 mol/L s

6.0 x 106 mol/L s

k [ 0.096 mol/L ]2

k [ 0.096 mol/L ]2 [ 0.085 mol/L ]2

16 = 4x
x=2

k [ 0.024 mol/L ]1

k [ A ]2 [ B]2 [ C]2
Rate 2
=
2
y
z
Rate 4
k [ A ]4 [ B]4 [ C]4
2

[C]2 = [C]4

k [ A ]2 [ B]2
Rate 2
=
2
y
Rate 4
k [ A ]4 [ B]4
2

9.6 x 105 mol/L s

1.5 x 106 mol/L s
64 = (8)2 (0.5)y
y=0

k [ 0.012 mol/L ]4 [ 0.170 mol/L ]4

2

k [ A ]1 [ B]1 [ C]1
Rate1
=
2
0
z
Rate3
k [ A ]3 [ B]3 [ C]3
2

[A]1 = [A]3

k [ B]1 [ C]1
Rate1
=
0
z
Rate3
k [ B]3 [ C]3
0

16-18

6.0 x 106 mol/L s

1.5 x 105 mol/L s

k [ 0.085 mol/L ]1 [ 0.032 mol/L ]1

0

k [ 0.034 mol/L ]3 [ 0.080 mol/L ]3

0

Since y = 0, the B term may be ignored, it is only shown here for completeness.
0.4 = 0.4z
z=1
b) You can use any trial to calculate k, with the rate law: Rate = k[A]2[B]0[C]1 = k[A]2[C]
Using Experiment 1:
k = Rate / [A]2[C] = (6.0 x 10-6 mol/Ls) / [(0.024 mol/L)2(0.032 mol/L)]
= 0.32552 = 0.33 L2/mol2s
This value will need to be divided by the coefficient of the substance to which the initial rate refers.
If the initial rate refers to the disappearance of A or B then the constant (k') is:
k' = k / 2 = 0.32552 / 2 = 0.16276 = 0.16 L2/mol2s
If the initial rate refers to the disappearance of C or the formation of D then the constant (k') is:
k' = k = 0.33 L2/mol2s
If the initial rate refers to the formation of E then the constant (k') is:
k' = k / 3 = 0.32552 / 3 = 0.108507 = 0.11 L2/mol2s
2
c) Rate = = k[A] [C] (substitute the appropriate k value form part (b).)
[C]
[ D]
1 [A]
1 [ B]
1 [E]
=
d) Rate =
=
=
=
t
2 t
2 t
t
3 t
16.89

Use the given rate law, and enter the given values:
rate = k[H+] [sucrose]
[H+]i = 0.01 M [sucrose]i = 1.0 M
The glucose and fructose are not in the rate law, so they may be ignored.
a) If the [sucrose] increases to 2.5 M, then the rate will increase by (2.5 M / 1.0 M) = 2.5 times as fast.
b) If the [sucrose] decreases to 0.5 M, then the rate will increase by (0.5 M / 1.0 M) = 0.5 times as fast.
Thus, the reaction will decrease to half the original.
c) If the [H+] decreases to 0.0001 M, then the rate will increase by (0.0001 M / 0.01 M) = 0.01 times as fast.
Thus, the reaction will decrease to 1/100 the original.
d) If the [sucrose] decreases to 0.1 M, and [H+] increases to 0.1 M, then the rate will increase by
(0.1 M / 1.0 M) (0.1 M / 0.01 M) = 1.0 times as fast. Thus, there will be no change.

16.90

a) Enzymes stabilize the transition state to a remarkable degree and thus greatly increase the reaction rate.
b) Enzymes are extremely specific and have the ability to change shape to adopt a perfect fit with the substrate.

16.91

Rearrange t1/2 = ln 2 / k to k = ln 2 / t1/2

k = ln 2 / 9.0 min = 7.7016 x 10-2 min-1 (unrounded)
Use the first-order integrated rate law with BA = biacetyl:
[ BA ]t
ln
= - kt
[ BA ]0
ln

[85%]t
[100%]0

= - (7.7016 x 10-2 min-1) t

t = 2.110 = 2.1min
16.92

The overall order is equal to the sum of the individual orders, i.e., the sum of the exponents equals 11:
11 = 1 + 4 + 2 + m + 2, so m = 2.
The reaction is second order with respect to NAD.

16.93

Taking the natural logarithm of the ratio of the Arrhenius equation with two k values and two Ea values gives:
RT ln (k1 / k2) = Ea2 - Ea1 = (8.314 J/molK) ((273 + 37)K) ln (2.3 x 1014) = Ea2 - Ea1
Ea2 - Ea1 = 8.5230 x 104 = 8.5 x 104 J/mol

16-19

16.94

Rate is proportional to the rate constant, so if the rate constant increases by a certain factor, the rate increases by
the same factor. Thus, to calculate the change in rate the Arrhenius equation can be used and substitute
ratecat/rateuncat = kcat/kuncat.
k1 = Ae-Ea1/RT
Ea 2

RT
k2
Ae
=
=
E a1
k1
RT
Ae

ln

( Ea1Ea2)
RT
e

E Ea 2
k2
= a1
=
k1
RT

5 kJ/mol
103 J
J
8.314
( ( 273 + 37 ) K ) 1 kJ
mol K

= 1.93998 (unrounded)

k2
= 6.95861 = 7
k1
The rate of the enzyme-catalyzed reaction occurs at a rate 7 times faster than the rate of the uncatalyzed reaction
at 37C.

16.95

Initially, the slow step in the mechanism gives:

Rate = k2[CHCl3][Cl]
However, Cl is an intermediate, and should not be in the final answer.
Step (1) shows the relationship between Cl2 and Cl.
[Cl]2 = (k1/k1) [Cl2]
[Cl] = (k1/k1)1/2[Cl2]1/2
Substituting:
Rate = k2(k1/k1)1/2[CHCl3][Cl2]1/2
Combining ks:
Rate = k[CHCl3][Cl2]1/2

16.96

First, find the rate constant, k, for the reaction by solving the first order half-life equation for k. Then use the first
order integrated rate law expression to find t, the time for decay.
Rearrange t1/2 = ln 2 / k to k = ln 2 / t1/2
k = ln 2 / 12 yr = 5.7762 x 10-2 yr-1 (unrounded)
Use the first-order integrated rate law:
[ DDT ]t
ln
= -kt
[ DDT ]0
ln

[10.ppb]t
[ 275 ppb]0

= -(5.7762 x 10-2 yr-1) t

t = 57.3765798 = 57 yr
16.97

Rearrange t1/2 = ln 2 / k to k = ln 2 / t1/2

k = ln 2 / 8.0min = 8.6643 x 10-2 min-1 (unrounded)
The problem states that the interval t = 1/k:
t = 1 / (8.6643 x 10-2 min-1) = 11.5416 = 12 min

16.98

The rate law is: Rate = k[A]2[B]

k is needed to finish the problem:
k = Rate / [A]2[B] =

0.20 mol/Ls

[1.0 mol/L] [1.0 mol/L]

2

= 0.20 L2/mol2s

Using the k just calculated with the rate law:

Rate = (0.20 L2/mol2s) [2.0mol/L]2[3.0mol/L] = 2.4 mol/Ls

16-20

a) The rate constant can be determined from the slope of the integrated rate law plot. To find the correct order, the
data should be plotted as 1) [sucrose] versus time - linear for zero order, 2) ln[sucrose] versus time - linear for
first order, and 3) 1/[sucrose] versus time - linear for second order.
Integrated rate law plots

y = 0.5897x + 1.93
2

R = 0.9935

3
(see legend)

16.99

2
y = -0.077x + 0.4896

R = 0.9875

0
0
-1

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

y = -0.21x - 0.6936
2

-2

R = 0.9998

time, h

Legend:

y-axis is [sucrose]
y-axis is ln[sucrose]
y-axis is 1/[sucrose]
All three graphs are linear, so picking the correct order is difficult. One way to select the order is to compare
correlation coefficients (R2) you may or may not have experience with this. The best correlation coefficient is
the one closest to a value of 1.00. Based on this selection criterion, the plot of ln[sucrose] vs. time for the first
order reaction is the best.
Another method when linearity is not obvious from the graphs is to examine the reaction and decide which order
fits the reaction. For the reaction of one molecule of sucrose with one molecule of liquid water, the rate law would
most likely include sucrose with an order of one and would not include water.
The plot for a first order reaction is described by the equation ln[A]t = -kt + ln[A]0. The slope of the plot of
ln[sucrose] versus t equals -k. So, k = -(-0.21 h-1) = 0.21 h-1.
Half-life for a first order reaction equals ln 2/k, so t1/2 = ln 2 / 0.21 h-1 = 3.3007 = 3.3 h.
b) The time to hydrolyze 75% of the sucrose can be calculated by substituting 1.0 for [A]0 and 0.25 for [A]t in the
integrated rate law equation: ln[A]t = (-0.21 h-1)t + ln[A]0.
[ 25%]t
ln
= -(0.21 h-1) t
[100%]0

t = 6.6014 = 6.6 h
c) The reaction might be second order overall with first order in sucrose and first order in water. If the
concentration of sucrose is relatively low, the concentration of water remains constant even with small changes in
the amount of water. This gives an apparent zero-order reaction with respect to water. Thus, the reaction
appears to be first order overall because the rate does not change with changes in the amount of water.

16-21

16.100 a) False, at any particular temperature, molecules have a range of kinetic energies.
b) False, at reduced pressure, the number of collisions per unit time is reduced, as is the reaction rate.
c) True
d) False, the increase in rate depends on the activation energy for the reaction. Also, biological catalysts
(enzymes) may decompose on heating, reducing their effectiveness.
e) False, they also must have the correct orientation.
f) False, the activation energy is unique to the mechanism of a particular reaction.
g) False, since most reaction rates depend to some extent on the reactant concentrations, as these decrease during
the course of the reaction, the reaction rate also decreases.
h) False, see part f.
i) False, a catalyst speeds up the reaction by lowering the activation energy.
j) False, the speed of a reaction (kinetics) is separate from the stability of the products (thermodynamics).
k) False, the frequency factor, A, is the product of the collision frequency and an orientation probability factor.
l) True
m) False, the catalyst changes the activation energy, not H of reaction.
n) True
o) True
p) False, bimolecular and unimolecular refer to the molecularity or the number of reactant particles involved in
the reaction step. There is no direct relationship to the speed of the reaction.
q) False, molecularity and molecular complexity are not related.
16.101 a) To find concentration at a later time, given starting concentration and the rate constant, use an integrated rate
law expression. Since the units on k are s-1, this is a first order reaction. Subscripted numbers are additional
significant figures retained in preliminary steps of calculation.
N 2 O5 t
= -kt
ln
N 2 O5 0
ln

N 2 O5

[1.58 mol / L]0

N 2 O5

[1.58 mol/L]0

= -(2.8 x 10-3 s-1) (5.00 min) (60 s / 1 min) = -0.84

= 0.43171 (unrounded)

[N2O5]t = (1.58 mol/L) (0.43171) = 0.68210 = 0.68 M

b) Fraction decomposed = [(1.58 - 0.68210) M] / (1.58 M) = 0.56829 = 0.57
16.102 From first two steps:
From step (1):
[I] = (k1/k-1)1/2[I2]1/2
From step (2):
[H2I] = k2[H2][I]
Rate law for slow step
Rate = k3[H2I][I]
Substituting for [H2I]:
Rate = k3[k2[H2][I]][I]
Rate = k3k2[H2][I]2
Substituting for [I]:
Rate = k3k2[H2][(k1/k-1)1/2[I2]1/2]2
Rate = k3k2(k1/k-1) [H2][I2]
Combining ks:
Rate = k[H2][I2]
16.103 a) Conductometric method. The HBr that forms is a strong acid in water, so it dissociates completely into ions. As
time passes, more ions form, so the conductivity of the reaction mixture increases.
b) Manometric method. The reaction involves a reduction in moles of gas, so the rate can be determined from the
change in pressure (at constant volume and temperature) over time.

16-22

16.104 Plan: To solve this problem, a clear picture of what is happening is useful. Initially only N2O5 is present at a
pressure of 125 kPa. Then a reaction takes place that consumes the gas N2O5 and produces the gases NO2 and O2.
The balanced equation gives the change in the number of moles of gas as N2O5 decomposes. Since the number of
moles of gas is proportional to the pressure, this change mirrors the change in pressure. The total pressure at the
end, 178 kPa, equals the sum of the partial pressures of the three gases.
Solution:
Balanced equation: N2O5(g) 2 NO2(g) + 1/2 O2(g)
Therefore, for each mole of dinitrogen pentaoxide 2.5 moles of gas are produced.
N2O5(g) 2 NO2(g) + 1/2 O2(g)
Initial P (kPa)
125
0 0
total Pinitial = 125 kPa
Final P (kPa)
125 - x 2 x 1/2 x
total Pfinal = 178 kPa
Solve for x:
PN 2 O 5 + PNO 2 + PO 2 = (125 - x) + 2 x + 1/2 x = 178

x = 35.3333 kPa (unrounded)

Partial pressure of NO2 equals 2 x = 2 (35.3333) = 70.667 = 71 kPa.
Check: Substitute values for all partial pressures to find total final pressure:
(125 - 35.3333) + (2 x 35.3333) + ((1/2) x 35.3333) = 178 kPa
The result agrees with the given total final pressure.
16.105 a) Rearrange t1/2 = ln 2 / k to k = ln 2 / t1/2
k = ln 2 / 90 min = 7.7016 x 10-3 min-1 (unrounded)
[ Aspirin ]t
ln
= - kt
[ Aspirin ]0
ln

[ Aspirin ]t

= - (7.7016 x 10-3 min-1) (2.5 h) (60 min / 1 h) = - 1.15524

[ 2 mg/100 mL]0
[ Aspirin ]t
= 0.31498 (unrounded)
[ 2 mg/100 mL]0

[Aspirin]t = (2 mg / 100 mL) (0.31498) = 0.62996 mg / 100 mL = 0.6 mg / 100 mL

b) The rate constant must be determined first:
SEC = secobarbital sodium
[SEC]t
ln
= - kt
[SEC]0
ln

[18%]t
[100%]0

= - k (8.0 h)

k = 0.2143 h-1 (unrounded)

t1/2 = ln 2 / k = ln 2 / (0.2143 h-1) = 3.23447 = 3.2 h
c) The rate constant must be determined first:
PHE = phenobarbital sodium
[ PHE ]t
ln
= - kt
[ PHE ]0

ln

[59%]t
[100%]0

= - k (20. h)

k = 0.02638 h-1 (unrounded)

t1/2 = ln 2 / k = ln 2 / (0.02638 h-1) = 26.275 = 26 h

16-23

d) The antibiotic pill = PILL. The pill is taken at the fever temperature, so use the fever k.
[ PILL]t
= - kt
ln
[ PILL]0
ln

[ 2/3 PILL]t
[1PILL]0

= - (3.9 x 10-5 s-1) t (3600 s / 1 h)

t = 2.887928 = 2.9 h
Pills should be taken at about three hour intervals.
e) Convert the temperatures toC then to K.
C = [T(F) - 32] (5/9)
K = 273.15 +C = 273.15 + [T(F) - 32] (5/9)
k1 = 3.1 x 10-5 s-1
T1 = 273.15 + [98.6F - 32] (5/9) = 310.15 K (unrounded)
k2 = 3.9 x 10-5 s-1
T2 = 273.15 + [101.9F - 32] (5/9) = 311.98 K (unrounded)
Ea = ?
E
k
1
1
ln 2 = a

R T2 T1
k1

Ea =

k
R ln 2
k1

1
1

T2 T1

8.314

J
mol K

ln

( 3.9 x 10
( 3.1 x 10

5 1

5 1

)
)

1
1

311.98 K 310.15 K

Ea = 1.0092 x 105 J/mol = 1 x 105 J/mol

The subtraction of the 1 / T terms leaves only one significant figure.

16.106 a) The iodide ion approaches from the side opposite the relatively large chlorine.
H
I-

Cl

H
b) The backside attack of the I- inverts the geometry at the carbon bearing the Cl, producing this product:
CH2CH3

CH3
H

c) The planar intermediate can be attached from either side, producing a racemic mixture (that is, an equal
mixture of two optical isomers):
CH2CH3
H3CH2C

CH3
H

and

H3C
H

16-24

16.107 k1 = 1 egg / 4.8 min

T1 = (273.2 + 90.0) K = 363.2 K
k2 = 1 egg / 4.5 min
T2 = (273.2 + 100.0) K = 373.2 K
Ea = ?
The number of eggs (1) is exact, and has no bearing on the significant figures.
E
k
1 1
ln 2 = a

R T2 T1
k1
R ln
Ea =

k2
k1

8.314
=

1 1

T2 T1

J
mol K

ln

(1 egg/4.5 min )
(1 egg/4.8 min )

1
1

373.2 K 363.2 K

Ea = 7.2730 x 103 J/mol = 7.3 x 103 J/mol

16.108 (1) 2 H2SO4 H3O+ + HSO4- + SO3

(2) SO3 + C6H6 H(C6H5+)SO3(3) H(C6H5+)SO3- + HSO4- C6H5SO3- + H2SO4
(4) C6H5SO3- + H3O+ C6H5SO3H + H2O
a) Add the steps together and cancel:
C6H6 + H2SO4 C6H5SO3H + H2O
b) Initially:
Rate = k2[SO3][C6H6]
[SO3] = k1[H2SO4]2
Result: Rate = k2[k1[H2SO4]2][C6H6]
Rate = k[H2SO4]2[C6H6]

[fast]
[slow]
[fast]
[fast]

16.109 a) t1/2 = ln 2 / k = ln 2 / (8.7 x 10-3 s-1) = 79.672 = 8.0 x 101 s

b) If 40.% has decomposed, 60.% remain.
[ Acetone]t
= - kt
ln
[ Acetone]0
ln

[60.%]t
[100%]0

= - (8.7 x 10-3 s-1) t

t = 58.71558894 = 59 s
c) ) If 90.% has decomposed, 10.% remain.
[10.%]t
ln
= - (8.7 x 10-3 s-1) t
100%
[
]0
t = 264.66 = 2.6 x 102 s
16.110 a) Starting with the fact that rate of formation of O (rate of step 1) equals the rate of consumption of O (rate of
step 2), set up an equation to solve for [O] using the given values of k1, k2, [NO2], and [O2].
rate1 = rate2
k1[NO2] = k2[O][O2]
[O] =

k1 [ NO2 ]
k2 [ O 2 ]

( 6.0 x 10

(1.0 x 10

3 1

4.0 x 109 M

L/mol s 1.0 x 10

= 2.4 x 10-15 M

b) Since the rate of the two steps is equal, either can be used to determine rate of formation of ozone.
rate2 = k2[O][O2] = (1.0 x 106 L/mols) (2.4 x 10-15 M) (1.0 x 10-2 M) = 2.4 x 10-11 mol/Ls

16-25

16.111 a) At time = 0.00 min assume [A]0 = 1.00, thus at time = 3.00 min, [A]t = 0.001. Using this information:
ln [A]t / [A]0 = - k t
[ A ]t
[0.001]t
ln
ln
[ A ]0
[1.00]0
= 2.302585 = 2.3 min-1
k=
=
t
3.00 min
b) ln [A]t / [A]0 = - k t
[ A ]t
[0.05]t
ln
ln
[ A ]0
[1.00]0
=
= 1.30103 = 1.3 min
t=
k
2.302585 min 1

16.112 I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.

Rate = k1[N2O5]2
Rate = k1[N2O5]
Rate = k2[NO2][N2O5] = k2Keq1[N2O5]2[NO3] = k[N2O5]2[NO3]-1
Rate
= k2[N2O3][O] = k2Keq11/3[N2O5]2/3[NO2]-2/3[N2O3]2/3
Rate
= k1[N2O5]2

No
Yes
No
No
No

16.113 This problem involves the first-order integrated rate law (ln [A]t / [A]0 = -kt). The temperature must be part of
the calculation of the rate constant. The concentration of the ammonium ion is directly related to the ammonia
concentration.
[NH3]t = 0.35 mol/m3 T = 20C
k1 = 0.47 e0.095(T-15C)
a) [NH3]0 = 3.0 mol/m3

t=

[ A ]t
ln
[ A ]0
k

ln
=

0.35 mol/m3
3.0 mol/m

( 0.47e

3
0

)d

0.095(20 15)

= 2.84272 = 2.8 d

b) Repeating the calculation at the different temperature:

[NH3]0 = 3.0 mol/m3
[NH3]t = 0.35 mol/m3 T = 10C

t=

[ A ]t
ln
[ A ]0
k

ln
=

0.35 mol/m3
3.0 mol/m3

k1 = 0.47 e0.095(T-15C)

t
0

0.47e0.095(10 15) d 1

= 7.35045 = 7.4 d

c) For NH4+ the rate = k1[NH4+]

From the balanced chemical equation:

NH 4 +

1 [O2 ]
2 t
t
Thus, for O2: rate = 2 k1 [NH4+]

Rate = ( 2 ) 0.47e

0.095( 20 15 )

) 3.0 mol/m

= 4.5346 = 4.5 mol/m3

16.114 a) Rate1 / Rate4 = [(2.7 x 10-7 mol/Ls) / (1.2 x 10-7 mol/Ls)] = [k(0.100 mol/L)m / k(0.044 mol/L)m]
2.25 = 2.2727m
m=1
Rate = k [CS2]
b) First, calculate the individual k values; then average the values.
k = Rate / [CS2]
k1 = (2.7 x 10-7 mol/Ls) / (0.100 mol/L) = 2.7 x 10-6 s-1
k2 = (2.2 x 10-7 mol/Ls) / (0.080 mol/L) = 2.75 x 10-6 = 2.8 x 10-6 s-1
k3 = (1.5 x 10-7 mol/Ls) / (0.055 mol/L) = 2.7272 x 10-6 = 2.7 x 10-6 s-1
k4 = (1.2 x 10-7 mol/Ls) / (0.044 mol/L) = 2.7272 x 10-6 = 2.7 x 10-6 s-1
kavg = [(2.7 x 10-6 s-1) + (2.75 x 10-6) + (2.7272 x 10-6) + (2.7272 x 10-6)] / 4 = 2.7261 10-6 = 2.7 x 10-6 s-1

16-26

16.115 a) t1/2 = ln 2 / k
k = ln 2 / t1/2 = ln 2 / 11 d = 0.063013 = 0.063 d-1
b) ln [A]t / [A]0 = - k t
[ A ]t
[90%]t
ln
ln
[ A ]0
[100%]0
=
= 1.6720 = 1.7 d
t=
k
0.063013 d -1
Note, this is significantly less than the nearly two years required for radioactive decay of the tritium.
16.116 a) There are a number of dilution calculations using MiVi = MfVf in the form: Mf = MiVi / Vf
Mf S2O32- = [(10.0 mL) (0.0050 M)] / 50.0 mL = 0.0010 M S2O32

[ I2 ]

2
1 S2 O3
=
2
t

= [1/2(0.0010 M)] / time = [0.00050 M] / time = Rate

t
Average rates:
Rate1 = (0.00050 M) / 29.0 s = 1.724 x 10-5 = 1.7 x 10-5 Ms-1
Rate2 = (0.00050 M) / 14.5 s = 3.448 x 10-5 = 3.4 x 10-5 Ms-1
Rate3 = (0.00050 M) / 14.5 s = 3.448 x 10-5 = 3.4 x 10-5 Ms-1
b) Mf KI = Mf I- = [(10.0 mL) (0.200 M)] / 50.0 mL = 0.0400 M I- (Experiment 1)
Mf I- = [(20.0 mL) (0.200 M)] / 50.0 mL = 0.0800 M I- (Experiments 2 and 3)
Mf Na2S2O8 = Mf S2O82- = [(20.0 mL) (0.100 M)] / 50.0 mL = 0.0400 M S2O82- (Experiments 1 and 2)
Mf S2O82- = [(10.0 mL) (0.100 M)] / 50.0 mL = 0.0200 M S2O82- (Experiment 3)
Generic rate law equation: Rate = k [I-]m[S2O82-]n
k3 I
Rate3
=
Rate 2
k2 I

S2 O82

S2 O82

3.4 x 105 Ms 1
3.4 x 105 Ms 1

[0.0200]n
[0.0400]n

1.0 = (0.500)n
n=0
The reaction is zero order with respect to S2O82-.
k2 I
Rate 2
=
Rate1
k1 I

S2 O82

S2 O82

3.4 x 105 Ms 1
1.7 x 105 Ms 1

[0.0800]m
[0.0400]m

2.0 = (2.00)m
m=1
The reaction is first order with respect to I-.
c) Rate = k [I-]
k = Rate / [I-]
Using Experiment 2 (unrounded rate value)
k = (3.448 x 10-5 Ms-1) / (0.0800 M) = 4.31 x 10-4 = 4.3 x 10-4 s-1
d) Rate = (4.3 x 10-4 s-1) [I-]

16-27

16.117 a) To consume one half the oxygen would require one half-life.
First order: t1/2 = ln 2 / k = ln 2 / 1.7 x 10-3 = 407.73 t = 4.1 x 102 t
Thus, the first order reaction takes 4.1 x 102 seconds or 4.1 x 102 minutes
or 4.1 x 102 hours or ....
Second order: t1/2 = 1 / k [A]0 = 1 / [(1.7 x 10-3) (2.045)] = 287.6456 t = 2.9 x 102 t
Again, without time units, the exact time is indeterminate.
If the time units are the same (this is not obvious from the problem), then the first order reaction takes
longer.
b) The consumption of 3/4 of the oxygen in a first order reaction would require two half-lives or
2 (407.73 t) = 815.46 = 8.1 x 102 t
The integrated rate law is needed for the second order reaction:
1
1
=kt
[A]0 = 1
[A]t = 1 - 3/4 = 1/4

[ A ]t [ A ]0
1
1

1
1
[ ]0
4 t
= 1764.7 = 1.8 x 103 t (units unknown)
=t=
3
k
1.7 x 10
If the time units are the same (this is not obvious from the problem), then the second order reaction takes
longer.
c) Rate1 = rate for first order reaction, and Rate2 = rate for second order reaction
Rate1 = Rate2
Rate1 = k [O2]
Rate2 = k [O2]2
The two rates are equal where the two plots intersect. In is not possible to determine the exact time since
the time units are unknown.
1
1

A
A
[ ]t [ ]0

16.118 a) Rate of light intensity decrease = I / l = k I

I / I = k l
where k = fraction of light removed per unit length
At length l = 0, Io = intensity of light entering the solution
At some later length l, I = intensity of light leaving the solution
I

I t

I
l
= l = 0 kl
I

ln I|IIl = kl|l0
0

- (ln Il 2 ln I0) = k(l 2 0)

- ln (Il / I0) = - kt = - (fraction of light leaving per unit length) (length)
b) Rate of savings decline = - (value) / t = k (value)
value

= kt
value
By a similar procedure to (a) above,
ln (value remaining / value initial) = -k (time)
16.119 Treat the concentration of the cells as you would molarity. The increasing cell density changes the integrated rate
law from -kt to +kt.
[ A ]t
a) ln
= +kt
[ A ]0
ln

[ A ]t

= +(0.035 min-1) (2 h) (60 min/h)

1.0 x 10 cells/L

[A]t = 6.66863 x 104 = 7 x 104 cells/L

16-28

b) ln

2.0 x 103 cells/L

= +(0.035 min-1) t

1.0 x 10 cells/L

= 19.804 = 2.0 x 101 min

16.120 a) The shape is tetrahedral and the hybridization of C1 is sp3
H

CH3
b) The shape is trigonal bipyramidal. Because an unhybridized p orbital is needed to overlap p orbitals on I and
Br, the hybridization around C1 is sp2.
H

Br

H
CH3
c) After Br is replaced with I- in the initial replacement reaction, the ethyl iodide is optically active. However, as
other I- ions react with the ethyl iodide by the same mechanism the molecules change from one isomer to the
other. Eventually, equal portions of each isomer exist and the ethyl iodide is optically inactive.
-

16.121 t1/2 = ln 2 / k
k = ln 2 / t1/2 = ln 2 / (8.04 d) = 0.086212 d-1 (unrounded)
[A]t = - k t
ln
[A]0
ln

[ A]t

= - (0.086212 d-1) (30. d)

1.7 x10 M

[A]t = 1.27999 x 10-5 M (unrounded)

Fraction remaining = (1.27999 x 10-5 M) / (1.7 x 10-4 M) = 0.0752935 = 0.075
16.122 a) Use the Monod equation:

16-29

b) Again, use the Monod equation:

=

(
(

)(
) (

1.5 x 104 s 1 0.30 kg/m3

max S
=
Ks + S
0.03 kg/m3 + 0.30 kg/m3

)
)

= 1.3636 x 10-4 s-1 (unrounded)

= k, and change -kt to +kt to get the growth rate.

[ A ]t
ln
= +kt
[ A ]0

ln

[ A ]t
3

5.0 x 10 cells/m

= (1.3636 x 10-4 s-1) (1.0 h) (3600 s/h)

3
0

[A]t = 8.168877 x 103 = 8.2 x 103 cells/m3

c) Again, use the Monod equation:

(
(

)(
) (

1.5 x 104 s 1 0.70 kg/m3

max S
=
=
Ks + S
0.03 kg/m3 + 0.70 kg/m3

)
)

= 1.438356 x 10-4 s-1 (unrounded)

= k, and change -kt to +kt to get the growth rate.

[ A ]t
ln
= +kt
[ A ]0

ln

[ A ]t
3

5.0 x 10 cells/m

= (1.438356 x 10-4 s-1) (1.0 h) (3600 s/h)

3
0

[A]t = 8.39172 x 103 = 8.4 x 103 cells/m3

16-30