LECTURE NOTES

For Medical Laboratory Science Students

Toxicology

Dr. Biruh Alemu (MD), Ato Mistire Wolde (MSC, MSC)

Hawassa University
In collaboration with the Ethiopia Public Health Training Initiative, The Carter Center, the
Ethiopia Ministry of Health, and the Ethiopia Ministry of Education

May 2007

Funded under USAID Cooperative Agreement No. 663-A-00-00-0358-00.

Produced in collaboration with the Ethiopia Public Health Training Initiative, The Carter
Center, the Ethiopia Ministry of Health, and the Ethiopia Ministry of Education.

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Limited permission is granted free of charge to print or photocopy all pages of this
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All copies must retain all author credits and copyright notices included in the original
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2007 by Dr. Biruh Alemu, Ato Misire Wolde
All rights reserved. Except as expressly provided above, no part of this publication may
be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
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without written permission of the author or authors.

This material is intended for educational use only by practicing health care workers or
students and faculty in a health care field.

PREFACE
The scope of toxicology widened tremendously during the last
few years.

An important development in this discipline is

mandatory because of the expansion of different industrial,

medical, environmental, animal and plant noxious substances.
So toxicology has got special attention to the deleterious
effects of chemicals and physical agents on all living systems.
Toxicology can be an independent descriptive, empiric
discipline to the fact of difficulty in diagnosis, controversial
management and unknown end points. Many lethal exposures
deserve early diagnosis & management before the
confirmatory evidences. This lecture note on toxicology is
primarily inspired for undergraduate laboratory technology
students who participate in the care of poisoned patients.
However, other health professionals whose carriers involve
related aspects can find it relevant. The outline format of the
lecture note allows for particular rapid review of essential
information.
The first two chapters of this lecture note focus on the
introduction, basic concepts of toxicology and general
approach to poisoned patients. These chapters empower the
basic toxicological backgrounds.

The third, fourth & fifth

chapters are concerning the basic toxicological testing

methods, which planned specifically as a subject matter to the

students to improve the quality of the diagnosis in poisoned

patients.
The Chapters open with a guiding list of objectives & end up
with questions to challenge the readers about the subject
matter. Most of the sections have an introduction part
designed to provide the background information of the
materials to be covered.
Primary references to particular methods have not been
given, in order to simplify presentation & also because many
tests have been modified over the years, so that reference
back to the original paper could cause confusion. For further
information &supplementations, readers are supposed to
revise the references. At last, we hope this material is
valuable in the handling &management of poisoned patients
by health professionals
The authors
March 2007

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ii

The authors would like to thank the Carter Center for the
initiation &continuous financial support in the preparation of
this lecture note.
We like to extend our thanks to Hawassa university
pharmacology & medical laboratory department heads Dr.
Sintayehu Abebe & Ato Dawit Yidegu respectively, for their
encouragement during the preparation.
The valuable comments made during intra &inter-institutional
review meetings by Hawassa & different university lecturers in
the department of pharmacology &medical laboratory
strengthened the lecture note. On top of that, comments made
by national reviewers [Prof. Eyasu Mekonon (AAU) & Ato
Estifanos Kebede (Jimma University)] further empower the
integrity of the teaching material.
We like to thank also our secretory W/o Tadelech Beriso for
her dedication in writing the drafts.
At last our gratitude also extends to those who provided
support &comments on various drafts during the preparation.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface ................................................................................... i

iii

Acknowledgement .............................................................. iii

Table of contents ................................................................ iv
Abbreviations ..................................................................... vii
Chapter one: Introduction to toxicology ............................1
1. Learning objectives ...................................................1
2. Introduction ................................................................1
3. What is toxicology .....................................................2
4. Epidemiology .............................................................3
5. Toxicologic terms & definitions ..................................5
6. Basic classifications of toxicology ..............................6
7. Toxicokinetics & toxicodynamics ...............................9
8. Potential sources of toxicities ..................................16
9. Environmental considerations .................................18
10. Poison prevention & control strategies ....................19
11. Exercise ...................................................................20
Chapter two: General approach to the poisoned patients .
21
1. Learning objectives .................................................21
2. Introduction ..............................................................21
3. General approach to a poisoned victim ...................22
4. Principles of management of poisoning ...................24
5. Exercise ...................................................................27

iv

Chapter three: Clinical toxicology laboratory

..................................................................................................
28 ..............................................................................................
1. Learning objectives .................................................28
2. Introduction ..............................................................28
3. The role of clinical toxicology ..................................29
4. Basic information necessary for the laboratory .......30
5. Steps in undertaking analytical toxicological
investigations ..........................................................31
6. Laboratory specimens .............................................32
7. Apparatus, reference compounds &reagents ..........36
8. General Laboratory tests in clinical toxicology ........38
9. Exercise ...................................................................42
Chapter four: Practical aspects of analytical toxicology 43
1. Learning objectives .................................................43
2. Introduction ..............................................................43
3. Selection of test Methods ........................................43
4. Common analytical toxicology Laboratory
techniques ...................................46
5. Exercise .................................................................. 52
Chapter five: Toxicants of public health hazard .............53
1. Learning objectives .................................................53
2. Introduction ............................................................. 53
3. Industrial toxicants ...................................................54
A. Lead poisoning .................................................55

B. Hydrocarbon poisoning .....................................61

C. Pesticides .........................................................63
D. Cyanide toxicity .................................................70
E. House hold toxicants ....................................... 75
4. Medical toxicants .....................................................75
A. Acetaminophen ...........................................76
B. Aspirin (salicylates). ..................................80
C. Barbiturate .................................................83
5. Environmental toxicants............................................87
A. Carbon monoxide poisoning .............................87
B. Food born toxins ...............................................91
6. Drugs of abuse ........................................................93
A. Alcohols ...........................................................93
B. Nicotine toxicity ................................................97
C. Opioids ..............................................................98
7. Natural Toxicants ...................................................101
A. Animal toxicants
.........................................................................
102 ..................................................................
B. Plant toxicants ..........................................103
8. Exercise .................................................................104
Glossary ............................................................................105
References ........................................................................110
Annex I (Preparations of reagents .....................................111
Annex II (Apparatuses .......................................................116
Annex III (Analytical toxicology request form .....................119

vi

ABBREVATIONS
AAS- Atomic absorption spectroscopy
ABGs- Arterial blood gas analysis
ALA- D- Delta amino levulinate dehydratase
BUN- Blood urea &nitrogen
CBC- Complete blood count
CNS- Central nervous system
CO- Carbon monoxide
DDT Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane
EPP- Erythrocyte proto porphyrine
GC- Gas chromatography
GC-MS- Gas chromatography-Mass spectrometry
GIT- Gastrointestinal tract
HCl- Hydrochloric acid
HPLC- High performance liquid chromatography
NaOH- Sodium hydroxide
nm- nano meter
NMR- Nuclear magnetic resonance
PH- Power of hydrogen
PT- Prothrombin time
PTT- Partial prothrombin time
t1/2 - Half-life
TLC- Thin layer chromatography
UV- Ultraviolet
Vd- Volume of distribution

vii

Toxicology

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO TOXICOLOGY
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter the student will be able to:
1. Understand the history of toxicology, &epidemiology of
poisoning.
2. Define different terminologies used in toxicology.
3. Understand the basic classification of toxicology.
4. Describe toxicokinetics & toxicodynamics.
5. Describe the potential causes of toxicity
6. Understand the environmental consideration of
toxicology.
7. Describe poison prevention & control strategies.

INTRODUCTION
During the past decades industrialization and agricultural
development, paralleled with increased health care have changed
life in various ways.

Average life expectancy rose, due to better

control of epidemics and infectious diseases. However, increased

industrialization and agricultural development were the chief cause
of pollution that had profound influences on our lives. Man, the other
animals, & the plants in the modern world are increasingly being
exposed to chemicals of an enormous variety. Nearly everyone is at
risk of toxic exposures to hazardous substances in the ambient
environment. In recent years, awareness of the problem of human &
animal exposure to potentially toxic chemicals in our environment
1

Toxicology
has grown. So toxicology has a very important role to play in modern
society & consequently it is now growing rapidly as a new subject.
This short chapter presents an overview of the broad topic of
toxicology.
1. What is toxicology?

The word toxicology is derived from two Greek words;

toxikon, meaning poisonous substance into which arrow
heads were dipped and logos, meaning study.

Toxicology is the qualitative and quantitative study of the

adverse or toxic effect of chemicals and other anthropogenic
materials or xenobiotics on organisms.

It also deals with

food and cosmetics for public consumption both in alive or

dead victims.

It is the science of poison & its scope has been enlarging. It

is one of the multidisciplinary fields of science.

It has got another dimension: the social, the moral & legal
aspects of exposure of populations to chemicals of unknown
or uncertain hazard.

Historical aspects of toxicology it is only recently that

the study of poisons becomes truly scientific & in the past it
was mainly a practical art utilized by murderers & assassins.
Poison has played an important part in human history.
In Ancient time (1500 BC) earliest collection of medical
records contains many references and recipes for poisons.
Dioscorides (50 AD) a Greek physician, classify poisons as
animal, plant or mineral & recognized the value of emetics
Maimmonides (1135-1204 AD), wrote about poisons and
their antidote.
2

Toxicology
Paracelsus (1493 AD), viewed a poison in the body would
be cured by a similar poison but the dosage is very
important. Paracelsus summarized his concept in the
following famous phrase All substances are poisons; there
is none that is not a poison. The right dose differentiates a
poison from a remedy
Orifila (1787-1853 AD), Spanish physician who contributed
to forensic toxicology by devising means of detecting
poisonous substances. From then on toxicology began in a
more scientific manner & began to include the study of the
mechanism of action of poisons.
The 20th century- toxicology has now become much more
than the use of poisons. There are marked improvements in
toxicological diagnosis (that ranges from screening to
confirmatory tests), & management (production of antidote
for them).
2. Epidemiology
The following toxicological data are derived from American
association of poison control center. So it is mostly a
description of the epidemiology of unintentional poisoning. It
is very difficult to find the primary data of poisoning in our
country because most of the screening & confirmatory tests
are not done routinely in our set up. Additionally, we dont
have well organized poison control center.
Today, poisoning (both accidental and intentional), is a
significant contributor to mortality and morbidity. It has been
estimated that 7% of all emergency room visits are the result
of toxic exposures.

Household cleaner, over-the-counter

3

Toxicology
and prescription drugs, cosmetics, and solvents comprise
the most frequent human toxic exposures. Young children
and elderly are most likely to be accidentally exposed to
drugs or household chemicals at home. During adolescence
and young adulthood the exposures are more likely to be
intentional, either through suicide attempts or
experimentation with drugs or alcohol. More than 72.4% of
all poison exposures occur in children and adolescents less
than 17 years of age.

Exposures are equally reported in

males and females. However, adult men have been reported

to be more at risk of occupational exposures than adult
woman. Route of entry of exposures reported was by mouth
in most cases: 77% were the result of ingestion, 7.0% were
transdermal, 5.9% were ophthalmic; and 5.5% were by
inhalation. Site of exposure was a residence in 91.9% of all,
followed by the workplace, schools and health facilities.
Most poison exposures do not result in clinical toxicity. In
general, nearly everyone is at risk of acute and chronic toxic
exposures to hazardous substances in the ambient
environment.

3. Toxicologic terms and definitions

A) Important toxicologic terms

Toxin- a poison of natural origin.

Poison (Toxicant) - a chemical that may harm or kill an

organism
4

Toxicology

Toxicity is the ability of a chemical agent to cause injury.

It is a qualitative term which depends on the amount of
chemical absorbed, severity of the exposure, dose & others.
It can be acute (toxic event which occurs soon after acute or
limited exposure), or chronic (apply to an event which occurs
many weeks, months or years after exposure).

Hazard is the likelihood that injury will occur in a given

situation or setting: the conditions of use and exposure are
primary considerations.

Risk is defined as the expected frequency of the

occurrence of an undesirable effect arising from exposure to
a chemical or physical agent.

Acute exposure is a single exposure or multiple

exposures occurring over 1 or 2 days.

Chronic exposure is multiple exposures continuing over a

longer period of time.

B) Presence of mixtures
Humans normally come in contact with several (or many)
different chemicals concurrently or sequentially. The resulting
biologic effect of combined exposure to several agents can be
characterized as synergistic, additive, Potentiation &
antagonistic
Synergism-when the effect of two chemicals is greater than the
effect of individual chemicals e .g carbontetrachloride + alcohol=
more toxic to the liver than the sum of the individual drugs
Additive effect- when the total pharmacological action of two or
more chemicals taken together is equivalent to the summation of
their individual pharmacological action.

Toxicology
Potentiation effect - the capacity of a chemical to increase the
effect of another chemical without having the effect e .g
Disulfiram at non-toxic doses potentiate the toxicity of alcohol &
used in the treatment of alcohol abuse.
Antagonism -is the phenomenon of opposing actions of two
chemicals on the same system e .g paracetamol causes serious
liver damage when given with alcohol or barbiturates, both of
which induce drug metabolizing enzymes.
4. Basic classification of toxicology
Toxicology is broadly divided into different classes depending on
research methodology, socio-medical & organ/specific effects.
I. Based on research methodology
A. Descriptive toxicology
Descriptive toxicology deals with toxicity tests on chemicals
exposed to human beings and environment as a whole.
B. Mechanistic toxicology
Mechanistic toxicology deals with the mechanism of toxic effects
of chemicals on living organisms. This is important for rational
treatment of the manifestations of toxicity (e.g. organophosphate
poisoning reversed by oximes) ,prediction of risks (e.g.
organophosphate poisoning leads to accumulation of
a c e t y l c h o l i n ea c t i v a t e m u s c a r i n i c a n d n i c o t i n i c
receptorsrespiratory failure) & facilitation of search for safer
drugs (e.g. Instead of organophosphates, drugs which reversibly
bind to cholinesterase would be preferable in therapeutics)
6

Toxicology
C. Regulatory toxicology
Regulatory toxicology studies whether the chemical substances
has low risk to be used in living systems
E .g - Food and drug administration regulates drugs, food,
cosmetics medical devices &supplies in USA.
-

Environmental protection agency regulates pesticides,

toxic chemicals, hazardous wastes and toxic pollutants in
USA

- Occupational safety and health administration regulates

the safe conditions for employees in USA
- Drug administration & control authority (DACA) - regulates
drugs, cosmetics and medical devices &supplies in
Ethiopia.
D. Predictive toxicology
Predictive toxicology studies about the potential and actual risks
of chemicals /drugs. This is important for licensing a new drug/
chemical for use.

II. Based on specific socio-medical issues

A) Occupational toxicology
Occupational toxicology Deals with chemical found in the
workplace
E.g. Industrial workers may be exposed to these agents
during the

synthesis, manufacturing or packaging of

substances

Toxicology
Agricultural workers may be exposed to harmful
amounts of pesticides

during the application in the

field.
B) Environmental toxicology
Environmental toxicology deals with the potentially deleterious
impact of chemicals, present as pollutants of the environment, to
living organisms. Ecotoxicology has evolved as an extension of
environmental toxicology. It is concerned with the toxic effects of
chemical and physical agents on living organisms, especially in
populations and communities with defined ecosystems.
C) Clinical toxicology
Clinical toxicology deals with diagnosis and treatment of the
normal diseases or effects

caused by toxic substances of

exogenous origin i.e. xenobiotics.

D) Forensic toxicology
Forensic toxicology closely related to clinical toxicology. It deals
with the medical and legal aspects of the harmful effects of
chemicals on man, often in post mortem material, for instance,
where there is a suspicion of murder, attempted murder or
suicide by poisoning.
III. Based on the organ/system effect
1. Cardiovascular toxicology
2. Renal toxicology
3. Central nervous system toxicology
4. Gastrointestinal toxicology
8

Toxicology
5. Respiratory toxicology etc.
5. Toxicokinetics and Toxicodynamics
-

Toxicokinetics deals with absorption, distribution,

biotransformation (biotransformation) and excretion of
chemicals.

Toxicodynamics deals with the biochemical and

physiological effects of chemicals to the body and
mechanisms of their actions.

A. Toxicokinetics
i)

Absorption
Absorption is the process by which the chemical enters the
body. It depends on the route of administration, dissociation
(to become ionized), dissolution (ability of solid dosage form to
become soluble), concentration, blood flow to the site, and the
area of the absorptive site.
The common sites of absorption (routes of exposure) are

Oral route the GIT is the most important route of

absorption, as most acute poisonings involve
ingestions.

Dermal route lipid solubility of a substance is an

important factor affecting the degree of absorption
through the skin.

Inhalational route toxic fumes, particulate and

noxious gases may be absorbed through the lungs.

Bioavailability is the fraction of unchanged drug reaching the

systemic circulation following of non-vascular administration.

Toxicology
Therefore, a portion of the chemical fails to reach the systemic
circulation in original form after oral administration
ii) Distribution
Distribution-is defined as the apparent volume into which a
substance is distributed.

Volume of distribution (Vd) is

calculated from the dose taken and the resulting plasma

concentration:
Vd = dose /plasma concentration
The importance of volume of distribution in toxicology is
-

Predicting peak blood concentration of the chemical taken

Calculating the amount of substance in the body to verify

the quantity ingested

Deciding whether to apply systemic toxin elimination

techniques

Factors determining the rate of distribution of chemicals in the

body are
-

Protein binding chemicals highly bound to protein have

small volume of distribution

Plasma concentration when the volume of distribution of

chemicals is small, most of the chemical remains in the
plasma

Physiological barriers chemicals will not uniformly

distributed to the body due to specialized barriers e .g
blood brain barrier

Affinity of chemicals to certain tissues the concentration

of a chemical in certain tissues after a single dose may
persist even when its plasma concentration is reduced e .g
Lead concentrate in bone tissue
10

Toxicology

E .g A 60Kg epileptic victim attempted suicide by ingesting

Phenytoin tablets. Vd listed is 0.6 L/Kg. Peak blood
concentration measured by the laboratory is 50mg/ L. What is
the dose of the drug that was taken by the victim?
Dose=plasma concentration x Vd
=50mg/L x (0.6L/Kg x 60Kg)
= 1800mg
iii) Biotransformation (metabolism)
Biotransformation is the biochemical transformation of a
chemical.

It is a process by which the body transforms a

chemical and makes it more water soluble so the chemical can

be eliminated more rapidly via the kidney into the urine.
Biotransformation can produce metabolites that are
pharmacologically active and toxic E.g. parathion parathoxon
(toxic metabolite). Liver is the major site of biotransformation for
many chemicals & other organs that are involved are lungs,
kidneys, skin &so on. Interactions during biotransformation
includes
There are two phases of biotransformation
Phase I the drug is converted into more polar compound e .g
oxidation, reduction, &hydrolysis
Phase II (conjugation) a drug or its metabolite is conjugated
with an endogenous substance e .g glucuronide conjugate
Enzyme inhibition- by this the biotransformation of drugs is
delayed & is a cause of increased toxicity
Enzyme induction- by this the biotransformation of drugs is
accelerated & is a cause of therapeutic failure
11

Toxicology
First pass effect is the biotransformation of some chemicals
by the liver during the initial pass from the portal circulation after
oral administration.
Half life (t ) is the time required to reduce the blood
concentration of the chemical to half.
IV) Excretion
Excretion is the final means of chemical elimination, either as
metabolites or unchanged parent chemical. Excretion through
the lungs is the major route for gaseous substances; and in the
case of non-volatile water soluble drugs, the kidneys are the
most important routes of excretion.

Additional routes include

sweat, saliva, tears, nasal secretions, milk, bile and feces.

Clearance elimination of chemicals from the body may be
described by the term clearance (CL). It is a quantitative
measure of the volume of blood cleared of drug per unit time,
usually expressed in milliliter pe4r minute.
Clearance is calculated as follows
CL = 0.7 (VD)/ (t1/2) = ml/min
Where the VD is expressed in milliliter per kilogram & the half-life is
expressed in minutes or hours.
N.B - Certain points regarding the toxicokinetics of toxic agents;

Drug absorption after a toxic ingestion may be

delayed and prolonged;

The half-life and total body clearance are often

lengthened;

Liver-metabolizing enzymes may become saturated,

slowing hepatic elimination;
12

Toxicology

Chemicals with large volumes of distribution are

often highly tissue-bound and measures to enhance
their elimination are not effective;

Poor perfusion of the liver and kidneys secondary to

the toxic effects of the

substance may slow

clearance.
B. Toxicodynamics
Toxicodynamics is the mechanism of action of a toxic chemical
to the body (what chemicals do to the body). The targets for the
toxicodynamic actions of toxic chemicals are
o

Enzymes

Membrane receptors

Intracellular receptors

Ion channel

Toxic effects generally result from adverse cellular, biochemical,

or macromolecular changes which attained by
o

Damage to an enzyme system

Disruption of protein synthesis

DNA damage

Modification of an essential biochemical function

The general dose-response principles are of crucial importance

in determining the severity of the intoxication. We have two
types of responses so called Quantal dose response (all- or
none response) & graded dose response (when dose increases,
the response increases in graded fashion). Both responses
show a typical dose response relation (see below). The

13

Toxicology
parameters that are derived from the dose response
relationships are
Median lethal dose (LD50) is the dose which is expected to kill
50% of the population in the particular group.
Median effective dose (ED50) is the dose that produces a
desired response in 50% of the test population when
pharmacological effects are plotted against dosage.
Median toxic dose (TD50) is the dose which is expected to
bring toxic effect in 50% of the population in the particular group.

100

Response

50 .........................................................
.

.
.
ED50

.
TD50

14

.
LD50

Toxicology
Dosage
Fig. Comparison of dose response curves for efficacy (A), toxicity
(B), & lethality (C). The effective,toxic, &lethal dosage for 50% of the
population in the groupcan be estimated as shown.
Common effects of chemicals to cause symptoms
Chemicals can cause symptoms through the following mechanisms
a.Interfere with the transport or tissue utilization of oxygen
(carbon monoxide, cyanide), resulting in hypoxia or a
decrease in an essential substrate such as glucose
b. Depress or stimulate the CNS, producing coma (sedativehypnotics) or convulsions (Sympathomimetics such as
cocaine, amphetamines)
c. Affect the autonomic nervous system, producing cholinergic
action (organophosphate insecticide)
d. Affect the lungs by aspiration (hydrocarbon)
e.Affect the heart and vasculature producing myocardial
dysfunction, dysrrhythmias (antiarrhythmic agents) and
hypertension or hypotension
f. Produce local damage (caustics and corrosives)
g. Delayed effects on the liver (acetaminophen) or kidneys
(heavy metals.
6. Potential sources of toxicities
The potential causes of toxicities include

Therapeutic agents drug toxicity can be due to over

doses, unusual adverse effects, frequent administrations
of therapeutic doses & drug interactions
15

Toxicology

Industrial chemicals- these chemicals may contribute to

environmental pollution & they may be a direct hazard in
the work place they are used.

House-hold chemicals The top household products

ingested are cleaning agents, cosmetics & personal
products & berries.

Environmental contaminants- main sources of pollution

to the environment are industrial processes, pesticides &
smokes from factories & vehicles. Environmental
pollutants may be released into the air, water, or
dumped onto land.

Natural toxicants- many plants & animals produce toxic

substances for both defense & offensive purposes.
Natural toxins may feature in poisoning via containing in
food, by accidental ingestions of poisonous plants or
animals & by stinging & biting

Food additives have usually low biological activity.

Many different additives are added to food to alter the
flavor or colour, prevent spoilage or in some other way
change the nature of the food stuff. There are also many
potentially toxic substances which are regarded as
contaminants.

Traditional medicines (Botanicals) the medical use of

botanicals in their natural &unprocessed form
undoubtedly noticed long time ago. The use of
botanicals has increased dramatically. Unfortunately,
misconceptions regarding safety &efficacy of the agents
are common. In fact, these products can be adulterated,
misbranded or contaminated. Furthermore, the doses for
16

Toxicology
active botanical substances may be higher. Adverse
effects have been documented for a variety of botanical
medications.

Drugs of abuse - Excessive or improper use of drugs or

other substances for non-medical purposes, usually for
altering consciousness but also for body building is
known as abuse of drug. There are a lot of drugs of
abuse with high potential of dependence & tolerance
(e.g alcohol, nicotine)

7. Environmental considerations
Certain chemical and physical characteristics are known to be
important for estimating the potential hazard involved for
environmental toxicants.

In addition to information regarding

effects on different organisms, knowledge about the following

properties is essential to predict the environmental impact:
The degradability of the substance; its mobility through air,
water and soil; whether or not bioaccumulation occurs; and its
transport and biomagnification through food chains.
If the intake of a long-lasting contaminant by an organism
exceeds the latters ability to metabolize or excrete the
substance, the chemical accumulates within the tissues of the
organism (e .g DDT). This is called bioaccumulation.
Although the concentration of a contaminant may be virtually
undetectable in water, it may be magnified hundred or thousand
time as the contaminant passes up the food chain. This is called
biomagnification.
Chemicals that are poorly degraded (by abiotic or biotic
pathways) exhibits environmental persistence and thus can
17

Toxicology
accumulate. Lipophilic substances tend to accumulate in body
fat, resulting in tissue residues. When the toxicant is
incorporated in to the food chain, biomagnification occurs as one
species feed upon others and concentrates the chemical. The
pollutants that have the widest environmental impact are poorly
degradable & relatively mobile in air, water and soil, exhibits
bioaccumulation; and also exhibits biomagnification.
In ecotoxicology there are three interacting components; the
toxicant, the environment and the organisms (community,
population or ecosystem).
8. Poison prevention &control strategies
a) Keep all household poisons separate from food.
b) Keep all products in their original containers
c) Always read all labels carefully before using the product
d) Never give or take any medication in the dark
e) Dispose all products in a safe and proper manner
f)

Encourage periodic home hunts and dispose of old

medicine

g) Teach children never to take medication unless given by

an adult they know and trust
h) Buy only those drugs supplied in childproof packaging
i)

Once a child has been poisoned, be on the alert for

repeat episodes

j)

Teach children not eat plants or berries

k) Store all drugs or potentially toxic substances out of

sight and out of reach of children: use cabinet locks

18

Toxicology

Exercise
1. Define toxicology & the terms used in toxicology.
2. Discuss the epidemiologic aspects of toxicology.
3. Discuss the basic classifications of toxicology.
4. Explain what toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics deals with.
5. Write some of the important environmental considerations in
toxicology.
6. List some of the potential sources of toxicity.
7. Mention poisoning prevention & control strategies.

19

Toxicology

CHAPTER TWO
GENERAL APPROACH TO A POISONED
VICTIM
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter the student will be able to:
1. Understand diagnosis of poisoning by history, physical
examination and different investigations
2. Understand the basic principles of management of
poisoning

Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to provide guidelines for evaluating
the severity of an exposure to a potentially toxic substance, clues to
the identity of the offending substance (its clinical effects on vital
functions, its odor, and its effect on the skin), and, most importantly,
how to manage the severely intoxicated victim initially. The trained
analyst can play a useful role in the management of victims
poisoned with drugs or other chemicals. However, optimal analytical
performance is only possible when the clinical aspects of the
diagnosis and treatment of such victims are understood. The analyst
must therefore have a basic knowledge of emergency medicine and
20

Toxicology
intensive care, and must be able to communicate with clinicians. In
addition, a good understanding of pharmacology and toxicology and
some knowledge of active elimination procedures and the use of
antidotes are desirable. This chapter aims to provide some of the
basic information required in the general approach of poisoned
victims.
General approach to a poisoned victim
Diagnosis of poisoning may be difficult. The victim may either
be unconscious or may not admit self-poisoning. Therefore, a
suspicious mind is required. When acute poisoning is suspected,
the clinician needs to ask a number of questions in order to
establish a diagnosis (history of present illness). In the case of
an unconscious (comatose) victim, the circumstances in which
the victim was found and whether any tablet, bottles or other
containers (scene residues) were present can be important. If
the victim is awake, he or she should be questioned about the
presence of poisons in the home or workplace. The victim's past
medical history (including drugs prescribed and any psychiatric
illness), occupation and hobbies may also be relevant, since
they may indicate possible access to specific poisons.
Physical examination of the victim may indicate
The poison or class of poison involved.

The clinical features associated with some common

poisons may be specific. For example, the combination
of pin-point pupils, hyper salivation, incontinence and
respiratory depression suggests poisoning with a
cholinesterase inhibitor such as an organophosphorus
pesticide. However, the value of this approach is limited
21

Toxicology
if a number of poisons with different actions have been
absorbed. Moreover, many drugs have similar effects on
the body, while some clinical features may be the result
of secondary effects such as anoxia. Thus, if a victim is
admitted with depressed respiration and pin-point pupils,
this strongly suggests poisoning with an opioid.
Diagnoses other than poisoning must also be considered.
For example, coma can be caused by a cerebrovascular
accident, uncontrolled diabetes infections as well as
poisoning. The availability of the results of urgent
biochemical and hematological tests is obviously
important in these circumstances.
Finally, poisoning with certain compounds may be

misdiagnosed, especially if the victim presents in the

later stages of the episode. Examples include:
cardiorespiratory arrest (cyanide), hepatitis
(paracetamol) and so on.
N.B Generally Physical examination should include
Vital signs
Evaluation of specific parts of the body
Investigations
a) General laboratory tests

Hematological

Biochemical

b) Toxicological studies
c) Electrocardiogram
d) X-ray findings

22

Toxicology
Principles of management of poisoning
The initial management of a patient with altered mental status
follows the follow the same approach regardless of the poison
involved. The airway should be checked, breathing &circulation
should be assessed. Then symptomatic &supportive measures are
taken. After this, one can begin in a more detailed evaluation to
make a specific diagnosis. Therefore, in principle, during poisoning,
one should treat the victim first followed by treating the poison itself.
General measures
1. Supportive measures
The first priority is to establish & maintain vital functions.
Subsequently, most victims can be treated successfully
using supportive care alone.
-

M a i n t a i n a i r w a y, a d e q u a t e v e n t i l a t i o n &
oxygenation, provide tracheal intubation if required

If comatose, administer glucose, thiamine, &oxygen

For seizures, administer anticonvulsants

2. Principles of toxin eliminations

- If the poison has been inhaled, the victim should first be
removed from the contaminated environment.
- If skin contamination has occurred, contaminated clothing
should be removed and the skin washed with an appropriate
fluid, usually water.
- In adult victims, gastric aspiration and lavage (stomach
washout) are often performed, if the poison has been
ingested, to minimize the risk of continued absorption.
- Similarly, in children emesis can be induced by the oral
administration of syrup of ipecacuanha (ipecac).
23

Toxicology
- The absorption of any

residue remaining after gastric

lavage can be minimized by leaving a high dose of activated

charcoal in the stomach.
- The role of lavage and induced emesis in preventing
absorption is currently being examined, as is the
effectiveness of a single dose of activated charcoal.
However, repeated oral administration of activated charcoal
appears to

be effective in enhancing elimination of certain

poisons.
- Specific therapeutic procedures, such as antidotal and
active elimination therapy are sometimes indicated. The
results of either a qualitative or a quantitative toxicological
analysis may be required before some treatments are
commenced because they are not without risk to the victim.
In general, specific therapy is only started when the nature
and/or the amount of the poison(s) involved are known.
Antidotes or protective agents are only available for a limited
number of poisons. In summery there are four main methods
of enhancing elimination of the poison from the systemic
circulation:
1. Repeated oral activated charcoal;
2. Forced diuresis with alteration of urine pH;
3. Peritoneal dialysis and haemodialysis; and
4. Haemoperfusion.
Some antidotes &protective agents used to treat acute
poisoning
Antidote
Acetylcysteine

Indication
Paracetamol
24

Toxicology

Atropine

Organophosphate

Deferoxamine

Iron

Methylene blue

Nitrates

Physiostigmine

Atropine

Naloxone

Opioids

Pyridoxine

Isoniazid

Exercise
1. What are the common ways used for diagnosing poisoned
victim?
2. Write the basic principles of management of poisoning

25

Toxicology

CHAPTER THREE
CLINICAL TOXICOLOGY LABORATORY
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter the student will able to:

26

Toxicology
1. Mention the basic necessary information for clinical
toxicology laboratory
2. Explain the role of clinical toxicology laboratory
3. Describe steps in undertaking analytic toxicological
investigations
4. Discuss about collection, transportation, storage,
characteristics, physical examination &analytical tests of
laboratory specimens.
5. Describe about

apparatus, reference compounds &

reagents used in clinical toxicology laboratory

6. Discuss the routine laboratory tests carried out in clinical
laboratory tests.

Introduction
Clinical toxicology involves the detection and treatment of
poisonings caused by a wide variety of substances, including
household and industrial products, animal poisons and venoms,
environmental agents, pharmaceuticals, and illegal drugs. The
toxicology laboratory must provide appropriate testing in three
general areas: Identification of agents responsible for acute
or chronic poisoning; Detection of drugs of abuse; and
therapeutic drug monitoring. Increasingly sophisticated
analytic methods are available to accomplish these tasks, but it
is imperative that they be used judiciously. The numbers of
compounds for which true emergency laboratory results are
needed to guide therapy are still relatively few.

For most

potentially lethal intoxications the victim must be treated

empirically before the laboratory results are known.

A wide

held misconception is that the laboratory can routinely detect

27

Toxicology
any of the thousands of potential drugs or toxins that may be
present in a sample.

Because the financial and personnel

resources required for such complete screens would be

prohibitive, clinical laboratories must employ selective
procedures suitable for the victim population in question.
Therefore in most cases in clinical or hospital-based settings,
tests are done for only a finite number of compounds, generally
the more common drugs of abuse.

Ideally, a diagnosis of

poisoning would be made clinically, with the laboratory playing a

confirmatory role. This short chapter is meant to discuss the
basic structures which are said to be vital in clinical toxicology
laboratory.

I. The role of clinical toxicology laboratory

Most poisoned victims can be treated successfully without any
contribution from the laboratory other than routine clinical
biochemistry and hematology. This is particularly true for those
cases where there is no doubt about the poison involved and when
the results of a quantitative analysis would not affect therapy.
However, toxicological analyses can play a useful role

If the diagnosis is in doubt,

The administration of antidotes or protective agents is

contemplated, or

The use of active elimination therapy is being considered.

Drug monitoring

II. Basic information necessary for toxicology

laboratory
28

Toxicology
Close communication between clinical and laboratory personnel is
essential.

At a minimum, the ordering requisition for a toxicology

screen should contain the following information (Annex III).

A.Suspected agent(s)
The content of toxicology screens varies among laboratories.
Although a standard screen may not include the suspected
agent, if alerted beforehand the laboratory may be able to
modify procedures as needed in order to search for the
suspected agents.
B. Suspected dose
Analytic sensitivities vary among laboratories, and some
facilities may not be able to detect therapeutic concentrations
of certain drugs in their routine screens.

Knowledge of the

approximate dose ingested is important because in certain

cases the use of analytic methods designed for therapeutic
monitoring, not screening may be necessary.
C. Time of ingestion and sampling
Knowledge of both ingestion and sampling time is necessary
to determine the degree of drug absorption; with serial
determinations, knowledge of sampling times is critical, as a
single quantitative level may be misleading and must be
correlated with the time of ingestion.

Serial levels, timed

appropriately with respect to the pharmacokinetics of the

agent, document that the concentration has peaked, which
helps guide further therapy.
D. Clinical presentation
Knowledge of the clinical presentation helps the laboratory
select the most appropriate screening procedures. The
29

Toxicology
screening procedure for a victim with a depressed level of
consciousness is entirely different from conscious victim.
E. Location of the victim
Location of the victim to the clinical laboratory determines the
type of the test that is going to be done (e. g depending on its
simplicity).
III. Steps in undertaking an analytical toxicological
investigation
The analysis dealings with a case of poisoning are usually divided
into pre-analytical, analytical and post-analytical phases
Pre-analytical phase
Obtain details of current admission, including any
circumstantial evidence of

poisoning and results of

biochemical and hematological investigations

Obtain victim's medical history, if available, ensure

access to the appropriate sample(s), and decide the
priorities for the analysis.

Analytical phase

Perform the agreed analyses.

Post-analytical phase
Interpret the results and discuss them with the clinician
looking after the victim.
Perform additional analyses, if indicated, on the original
samples or on further samples from the victim.
IV. Laboratory specimens

30

Toxicology
Before starting an analysis it is important to obtain as much
information about the victim as possible (medical, social and
occupational history, treatment given, and the results of laboratory
or other investigations). It is also important to be aware of the time
that elapsed between ingestion or exposure and the collection of
specimens, since this may influence the interpretation of results.
No single specimen type is universally appropriate for identification
of toxic agents. The selection of specimen type is based on both
the toxicokinetics of the suspected agent and laboratory
methodology.

In general, quantitative tests are performed on

serum or whole blood, and qualitative tests are performed on

urine and gastric contents.

When in doubt, obtain as many

specimen types as possible and forward to the laboratory, where

the most appropriate specimens can be selected.

For the

broadest possible screening (which, again, is rarely needed,

especially in emergency toxicology), minimally, blood and urine
should be sent (detailed practical aspects of analytical toxicology
is discussed in the next chapters).

A. Specimen collection
Urine
Urine is useful for screening tests as it is often available in large
volumes and usually contains higher concentrations of drugs or
other poisons than blood. The presence of metabolites may
sometimes

assist identification. A 50-ml specimen from an adult,

collected in a sealed, sterile, plastic container, is sufficient for most

purposes; no preservative should be added. Urine can be collected
in acid washed, metal free container for quantification of heavy
31

Toxicology
metals. The

sample should be obtained as soon as possible,

ideally before any drug therapy is initiated. Conversely, little poison

may remain in specimens taken many hours or days later, even
though the victim may be very ill, as in the case acute paracetamol
poisoning.
Stomach contents
Stomach contents may include vomit, gastric aspirate and stomach
washings - it is important to obtain the first sample of washings,
since later samples may be very dilute. A volume of at least 20 ml is
collected in plastic container to carry out a wide range of tests; no
preservative should be added.
perform certain tests.

It is the best sample on which to

If obtained soon after ingestion, large

amounts of poison may be present while

metabolites, which may

complicate some tests, are usually absent. An immediate clue to

certain compounds may be given by the smell; it may be possible to
identify tablets or capsules simply by inspection.
Scene residues (non-biological)
It is important that all bottles or other containers and other
suspect materials found with or near the victim (scene residues)
are retained for analysis if necessary since they may be related to
the

poisoning episode.

A few milligrams of scene residues are usually sufficient for the

tests described here. Dissolve solid material in a few milliliters of
water or other appropriate solvent. Use as small amount as
possible in each test, in order to conserve sufficient amount for
possible further tests.

32

Toxicology
Blood
Blood (plasma or serum) is normally reserved for quantitative
assays but for some poisons, such as carbon monoxide,

whole

blood has to be used for qualitative tests. Specimen should be

collected in a sealed heparinized tube on admission. In addition,
2-ml sample should be collected in a fluoride/oxalate

tube.

The use of disinfectant swabs containing alcohols (ethanol,

propan-2-ol) should be avoided.
significant differences in the

In general, there are no

concentrations of poisons between

plasma and serum.

B. Specimen transport and storage

Specimens sent for analysis must be clearly labeled with the
victim's full name, the date and time of collection, and the nature
of the specimen. This is especially important if large numbers of
victims have been involved in a particular incident, or a number
of specimens have been obtained from one victim. The date and
time of receipt of all specimens by the laboratory should be
recorded and a unique identifying number assigned to each
specimen. Containers of volatile materials, such as organic
solvents, should be packaged separately from biological
specimens to avoid the possibility of cross-contamination. All
biological specimens should be stored at 4C prior to analysis.
Ideally any specimen remaining after the analysis should be kept
at 4C for 3-4 weeks in case further analyses are required. In
view of the medicolegal implications of some poison cases (for
example, if it is not clear how the poison was administered or if
33

Toxicology
the victim dies) then any specimen remaining should be kept
(preferably at -20C) until investigation of the incident has been
concluded.

C. Specimen examination
Urine
High concentrations of some drugs or metabolites can impart
characteristic colors to urine. Treatment given for poisoning may
color urine (E.g. Deferoxamine in iron poisoning color urine red or
methylene blue given in treatment of nitrate poisoning may color
urine blue). Strong-smelling poisons such as methylsalicylate can
sometimes recognized in urine since they are excreted in part
unchanged. Turbidity may be due to underlying pathology (blood,
microorganisms, casts, epithelial cells), or carbonates, phosphates
or urates (in amorphous or microcrystalline forms). Such findings
should not be ignored, even though they may not be related to the
poisoning.
Stomach contents and scene residues
Some characteristic smells can be associated with particular
poisons (e. g alcohol). Very low or very high pH may indicate
ingestion of acid or alkali, while a green/blue color suggests the
presence of

iron or copper salts. Microscopic examination using

a polarizing

microscope may reveal the presence of tablet or

capsule debris. Undegraded tablets or capsules and any plant

remains or specimens of plants thought to have been ingested
should be examined separately.

34

Toxicology
V. Apparatus, reference compounds & reagents
A. Apparatus
Analytical toxicology services can be provided in clinical
biochemistry laboratories that serve a local hospital or accident
and emergency unit. In addition to basic laboratory equipment,
some specialized apparatus, such as that for thin-layer
chromatography, ultraviolet and visible spectrophotometry and
microdiffusion, is needed. A continuous mains electricity supply is
not essential. No reference has been made to the use of more
complex techniques, such as gas-liquid and high-performance
liquid chromatography, atomic absorption spectrophotometry or
immunoassays, even if simple methods are not available for
particular compounds. Although such techniques are more
selective and sensitive than many simple methods, there are a
number of factors, in addition to operator expertise, that have to be
considered before they can be used in individual laboratories.
The standards of quality (purity or cleanliness) of laboratory
reagents and glassware and of consumable items such as
solvents and gases needs to be considerably higher than for the
tests described in this manual if reliable results are to be obtained.
Additional complications, which may not be apparent when
instrument purchase is contemplated, include the need to ensure a
regular supply of essential consumables (gas chromatographic
septa, injection syringes, chromatography columns, solvent filters,
chart or integrator paper, recorder ink or fibre-tip pens) and spare
or additional parts (detector lamps, injection loops, column packing
materials). The instruments must be properly maintained (see
annex II).
35

Toxicology
Some drug-testing techniques are now available in kit form. For
example, there are standardized thin-layer chromatography (TLC)
drug screening systems. Similarly, immunoassay kits are relatively
simple to use, although problems can arise in practice, especially
in the interpretation of results. Moreover, they are aimed primarily
at the therapeutic drug monitoring and drug abuse testing markets
and, as such, have limited direct application in clinical toxicology.

B. Reference compounds and reagents

A supply of relatively pure compounds for use as reference
standards is essential if reliable results are to be obtained.
However, expensive reference compounds of a very high degree
of purity, such as those marketed for use as pharmaceutical
quality control standards, are not normally needed. Some drugs,
such as barbiturates, caffeine and salicylic acid, and many
inorganic and organic chemicals and solvents are available as
laboratory reagents with an adequate degree of purity through
normal laboratory chemical suppliers. Such a reference
collection is a valuable resource, and it should be stored under
conditions that ensure safety, security and stability.
Although the apparatus required to perform the tests described
in this manual is relatively simple, several unusual laboratory
reagents are needed in order to be able to perform all the tests
described. At last, it is beyond the scope of the lecture note to
cover all the reagents (See annex I).
VI. General laboratory tests in clinical toxicology

36

Toxicology
Many clinical laboratory tests can be helpful in the diagnosis of
acute poisoning and in assessing prognosis. More specialized
tests may be appropriate depending on the clinical condition of the
victim, the circumstantial

evidence of poisoning and the past

medical history.

A. Biochemical tests
Blood glucose:
Determination of blood glucose is essential to know those toxic
substances that affect blood glucose biotransformation. A toxicant
that causes hypoglycemia includes insulin, iron, acetyl salicylic
acid & so on.
Hyperglycemia is a less common complication of poisoning than
hypoglycemia, but has been reported after over dosage with
acetylsalicylic acid, salbutamol and theophylline.
Electrolytes, blood gases and pH
Toxic substances or their metabolites, which inhibit key steps in
intermediary biotransformation, are likely to cause metabolic
acidosis owing to the accumulation of organic acids, notably
lactate.
Measurement of the serum or plasma anion gap can be helpful.
The anion gap is usually calculated as the difference between
the sum of sodium & potassium concentration and the sum of the
chloride and bicarbonate concentrations ((Na++k+) + (Cl- + HCO3).
It is normally about 10mmol/l.

37

Toxicology
If arterial blood gas measurement is performed, direct
measurement of oxygen saturation with a CO-oximeter allows
detection of methemoglobin, resulting from intoxication with
various oxidizing drugs or Carbon monoxide-hemoglobin
Plasma enzymes
The plasma activities of liver enzymes, such as aspartate
aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase may increase rapidly
after absorption of toxic doses of substances that can cause liver
necrosis, notably paracetamol, carbon tetrachloride, and copper
salts.
Cholinesterase activity
Plasma cholinesterase is a useful indicator of exposure to
organophosphorus compounds or carbamates, and a normal
plasma cholinesterase activity effectively excludes acute poisoning
by these compounds.
The diagnosis can sometimes be assisted by detection of a poison
or metabolite in a body fluid, but the simplest method available is
relatively insensitive.
Measurement of serum osmolality
The normal osmolality of plasma (280-295mOsm/Kg) is largely
accounted by sodium, urea &glucose. However, large increases in
plasma osmolality may follow the absorption of osmotically active
poisons (especially methanol, ethanol, or propan-2-ol) in relatively
large amounts. Together with the standard chemistry panel, serum
osmolality allows identification of an osmolal gap, which may
indicate intoxication with ethanol or other alcohols.
38

Toxicology
Osmolal gap can be calculated:
Osmolsl gap (Osmolarity) = 2(Na+) + Glucose 18 + BUN 2.8
B. Hematological tests
Hematocrit (Erythrocyte volume fraction)
Acute or acute-on-chronic over dosage with iron salts,
acetylsalicylic acid, indomethacin, and other non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs may cause gastrointestinal bleeding leading to
anemia.
Anaemia may also result from chronic exposure to toxins that
interfere with haem synthesis, such as lead.
Leukocyte count
Increases in the leukocyte (white blood cell) count often occur

in

acute poisoning, for example, in response to an acute metabolic

acidosis, resulting from ingestion of ethylene glycol or methanol, or
secondary to hypostatic pneumonia following prolonged coma.
Blood clotting
The prothrombin time and other measures of blood clotting are
likely to be abnormal in acute poisoning with rodenticides such as
Coumarin anticoagulants.
Carboxyhemoglobin
Measurement of blood carboxyhemoglobin can be used to assess
the severity of acute carbon monoxide poisoning.
However, carboxyhemoglobin is dissociated

rapidly once the

victim is removed from the contaminated atmosphere,

especially

if oxygen is administered, and the sample should therefore be

39

Toxicology
obtained as soon as possible after admission. Even then, blood
carboxyhemoglobin concentrations tend to correlate poorly with
clinical features of toxicity.

Exercise
1. What is the basic information necessary for clinical
toxicology laboratory?
2. What are the roles of clinical toxicology laboratory?
3. Mention the steps that are necessary to undertake analytic
toxicological investigations.
4. Describe specimen collection, transportation, storage,
characteristics & physical examination used in clinical
toxicology laboratory.
5. Describe apparatus, reference compounds & reagents used
in clinical toxicology laboratory.
6. Describe the routine laboratory tests used in clinical
toxicology laboratory.

40

Toxicology

CHAPTER FOUR
PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF ANALYTICAL
TOXICOLOGY
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter the student will able to:
1. Define the methods used in practical aspects of
analytical toxicology
2. Understand the common toxicology laboratory
techniques
Introduction
Methods for particular toxicologic tests or panels are a well
established part of routine laboratory tests, and information about
them is available on request. In order to interpret toxicology results
properly, the laboratory technician should have a rudimentary
familiarity with the analytic methods employed. Several methods
exist, varying in sensitivity, specificity, assay time, and cost. The
choice depends on the size and budget of the institution, the types of
victims served the proximity to more elaborate toxicology facilities,
and other factors. This chapter focuses on the practical aspects of
analytical toxicology.
41

Toxicology

A. Selection of test methods

Selection of test methods can be generally classified as either
screening or confirmatory.
I.

Screening methods

Screening is the testing or examining of a poisoned person for a

chemical agent causing toxicity. Screening methods are generally
qualitative, relatively simple and inexpensive, and designed to
maximize sensitivity (possibly with some sacrifice of specificity). No
standard toxicology screening tests exists. Currently the most widely
used screening tests are based on immunoassay methods.
Screening methods, give the emphasis on maximizing sensitivity,
may produce significant numbers of false-positive results.
A negative screen can rule out only the finite number of
compounds tested for at concentrations above the threshold of
detection for the particular method used. Because of the inherent
limitations of screening tests, definitive results must be based on a
second method, a confirmatory procedure. It is important to note
that inclusion of chemicals in a screening panel is generally
governed by methodological as well as clinical considerations.
Reporting & interpretation of toxicology screening results
Toxicology screen results are usually reported with a list of the
chemicals tested for and a comment regarding detection or presence
of the chemicals (See annex III).
1. Positive screens: The notation toxin detected is entered next
to the particular chemicals found.
2. Negative screens: The notation toxin tested for not detected
or similar comment is made. Negative toxicology screen results
42

Toxicology
in the face of strong clinical suspicions to the contrary may occur
due to a number of reasons.
a. Toxins clinically suspected and in fact present in a
victim are not tested for. Thus a seemingly negative
toxicology screen result is misleading.

If laboratory

personnel are notified of the suspected agents, they

can generally either modify the existing screen or
suggest alternative strategies.
b. The toxicology screen is performed on a specimen
collected at a time outside the detection period for a
particular toxin. Most of the common drugs of abuse
are detectable in urine for 48-72 hours after ingestion,
e.g., opiates
c.

The toxins may be present in concentrations below

the limits of detectability for the method used.

In general, when faced with an unresponsive victim and an

incomplete clinical history, minimum testing should include
quantification of ethanol, acetaminophen, salicylate, and
barbiturates.
II. Confirmatory methods
Confirmatory methods are designed to have near-perfect
specificity and tend to be technically much more complex and
demanding. Confirmatory methods are of relatively little
importance in the context of emergency toxicology. Their principal
use is in legal situations, where it must be established beyond a
reasonable doubt that a particular drug was present. In these
cases, integrity of specimen handling (chain of custody) becomes

43

Toxicology
as important as the analytic procedure itself in order to rule out the
possibility of specimen tampering or substitution.
B. Common analytical toxicology laboratory techniques
I. Spot tests
Spot tests are rapid, easily performed, non-instrumental qualitative
procedures. They are the most rudimentary toxicology tests, &
generally performed on urine specimens. In the test procedure, the
sample (that is suspected for having a particular toxic chemical)
will react with a chemical or chemicals set as a solution, or coated
on a strip & the result of the reaction expressed by a color
formation detected visually or colorometrically.
Spot tests are available for a number of compounds, including
salicylate, acetaminophen, carbonmonoxide, halogenated
hydrocarbons, and heavy metals. The tests are rapid and
convenient; however sensitivity and specificity are generally poor
and accurate quantification is virtually impossible. Because of
improvements in other technologies, spot tests are now largely
replaced by rapid immuno- assays that may perform at the pointof-care or in the central laboratories.
II. Ultraviolet & visible spectrophotometry
Many toxins have characteristic absorption spectra, but they must
be extracted from body fluids in order to measure these spectra. A
number of the quantitative methods employ ultraviolet (UV)
(200-400 nm) or visible (400-800 nm) spectrophotometry. The
major problem encountered with this technique is interference, and
some form of sample purification, such as solvent extraction or
microdiffusion, is usually employed. For some drugs (e.g.,
44

Toxicology
barbiturates, benzodiazepines and theophylline) the method offers
reasonable sensitivity and specificity, but it is much less powerful
and versatile than chromatographic method.
III.Immunoassays
Immunoassays are diagnostic techniques used for the detection of
antigen and antibody. Depending on the immunoassay techniques
that are employed for the specific test, either antigen or antibody
may be detected from the samples based on their reaction with their
specific antibody or antigen respectively.
Many types of immunoassay configuration can be devised. Those
not involving radioactivity or separation steps (homogeneous
immunoassays) can be automated on routine clinical chemistry
instruments, making them convenient for laboratories of all sizes.
Immunoassay techniques used to screening specimens for
chemicals include: Enzyme-Multiplied immunoassay (EMIA),
Florescence polarization Immunoassay (FPIA), Cloned enzyme
donor Immunoassay (CEDIA), and Radio Immunoassay (RIA).
Immunoassays can be made highly sensitive and quite specific, but
their specificity is never absolute. Molecules with a similar structure
generally cross-react to some degree, and occasionally substances
interfere with the assay in some other fashion.
Immunoassays also have the drawback that each analyte must be
individually assayed using an available antibody reagent.
Nevertheless, some of the more modern, discrete analyzers can
readily perform multiple homogenous immunoassays with minimal
operator intervention, so a panel of commonly abused drugs (e.g.,
barbiturates, cocaine, opiates, cannabinoids, amphetamines,
benzodiazepines) can be readily tested.
45

Toxicology
Immunoassay techniques have also been modified for on-site
testing in the emergency department and other out victim settings.
These tests are known as drug dipsticks; and they utilize paper
strips impregnated with drug-specific antibody. The specimen is
applied to the paper, and reagents produce a color development.
IV.Chromatography
Chromatography is a powerful technique for separating substances
based on slight differences in chemical properties. In this method,
components to be separated are distributed between two phases; as
stationary and mobile phases.
Chromatographic procedure involve a sample to be introduced in a
flowing stream of gas or liquid (mobile phase) that pass through a
bed, layer, or column containing a stationary phase (made from
solid, or gel or a liquid). As the mobile phase carries the sample pass
the stationary phase, the solutes with lesser affinity remain in the
mobile phase & travel faster & separate from those that have great
affinity for it. Different chemicals have different characteristic mobility
in a particular chromatographic system, allowing fairly confident
identification.
In contrast to immunoassays, small chemical changes (e.g., addition
or removal of a methyl group), commonly cause substantial changes
in chromatographic mobility. Thus the parent drug can usually be
distinguished from its metabolites.
Types of chromatographic techniques
a. Thin-layer chromatography (TLC)
TLC has been widely used for urine toxicology. It does
not require special equipment, is suitable for analysis of
46

Toxicology
large batches of samples, is available in commercial kit
form, and allows use of various color reagents in
addition to chromatographic mobilities to aid in chemical
identification. TLC, however, is too slow and
cumbersome to be readily applied to emergency
toxicology, and it is generally not quantitative.

Its

sensitivity is relatively poor.

b. Gas chromatography (GC) and high-performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC) are powerful techniques requiring
dedicated equipment and skilled operators, but they can be
adapted to a wide range of screening or quantitative assays.

Gas chromatography
GC is the technique of choice for volatile agents
(ethanol, methanol, isopropanol, ethylene glycol). Use
of open tubes (capillaries) allows rapid, high-resolution
separations. Many detection methods can be applied,
some with high sensitivity; and definitive drug
identification is possible by coupling the GC with mass
spectrometry.

HPLC
HPLC, which was developed more recently than
GC, is a more natural technique for the analysis of
nonvolatile compounds. Modern columns perform
highly efficient separations, although resolution is
not as good as that of GC. Detection is usually by
ultraviolet spectrophotometry, which in its most
sophisticated form permits spectral scanning of
each eluting peak to aid in identification.
47

Toxicology

V.Mass spectrometry and other specialized techniques.

Mass spectrometry is an analytical instrument that first ionizes a
target molecule and then separates and measures the mass of a
molecule or its fragment. The analysis is qualitative, quantitative
& extremely useful for determining the elemental composition &
structure of both inorganic & organic compounds.
When mass spectroscopy (MS) is coupled to gas
chromatography (GC-MS), nearly full proof chemical
identification is possible because substances are identified from
both their retention time measured by GC and their
characteristic fragmentation pattern on MS. Using computerbased libraries of fragmentation patterns, GC-MS can be used to
screen a wide variety of drugs simultaneously. Despite the
availability of affordable bench-top instruments, however, GCMS remains too sophisticated for routine application in clinical
toxicology, although it has tremendous importance as the
essential confirmatory technique in forensic toxicology.
VI. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
NMR is another technique that can perform both definitive
substance identification and screening of body fluid, although at
a much lower sensitivity than GC-MS. The technique, however,
is even more expensive than GC-MS.
VII. Atomic absorption, plasma emission, neutron activation,
and x-ray fluorescence
Toxic metals, for which most of the previously discussed
methods do not apply, can be analyzed by sophisticated
48

Toxicology
spectroscopic techniques, including atomic absorption, plasma
emission, neutron activation, and x-ray fluorescence.

Exercise
1. What is the test methods used in practical aspects of
analytical toxicology?
2. Explain the common analytical toxicology techniques.

49

Toxicology

CHAPTER FIVE
TOXICANTS OF PUBLIC HEALTH
HAZARD
Learning objectives
At the end of this chapter the student will be able to: 50

Toxicology
1. Understand industrial toxicants like lead, insecticides,
rodenticides, cyanide& hydrocarbons with their
toxicological laboratory investigations.
2. Describe medical poisoning caused by acetaminophen,
salicylates & barbiturates with their toxicological
laboratory investigations.
3. Explain the environmental toxins like carbon monoxide,
& food born toxins with their toxicological laboratory
investigations.
4. Understand the common drugs of abuse like alcohol,
nicotine, & opioids with their toxicological laboratory
investigation.
5. Describe animal intoxications like snakebite with their
laboratory investigation.
Introduction
The rapid industrialization and successful green revolution have
introduced a large variety of chemicals into our environment. The
species and varieties of environmental chemicals are as many as we
can visualize.

We may however, characterize them as: industrial

chemicals which include organic and inorganic substances, metals,

gases, fumes, solvents, and intermediates; agrochemicals, a major
input of farming industry, comprising a variety of pesticides, fertilizers
and growth promoters; pharmaceuticals, in innumerable number;
and food additives, plastics, cosmetics etc. These have caused a
great danger and put human and environment at a high risk. This
chapter is meant for discussion of some of the important toxicants of
public health hazard.

51

Toxicology
I.

Industrial toxicants

Industrial chemicals causing diseases have existed ever since man

began manufacturing on a large scale & during the industrial
revolution occupational diseases became common. Many of the
chemicals used in industry are chemically reactive molecules & are
likely to interact with biological systems & cause damage in some
cases at the site of exposure. Exposure is most commonly via skin &
lungs. There are now many thousands of chemical substances used
in industry ranging from metals & inorganic compounds which risk
people who work with it.
A. Heavy metal poisoning
Some metals such as iron are essential for life, while others such
as lead are present in all organisms but serve no useful biologic
purpose. Some of the oldest diseases of humans can be traced to
heavy metal poisoning associated with metal mining, refining and
use. Heavy metals are found every where: including in food, air,
water...
Lead Poisoning
Lead poisoning is one of the oldest occupational and
environmental diseases in the world.

Despite its recognized

hazards, lead continues to have widespread commercial

application (like ingested lead paints, pica, and lead pipes etc).
Environmental lead exposure, ubiquitous by virtue of the
anthropogenic distribution of lead to air, water and food, has
declined considerably due to diminished use of lead in gasoline
and other applications. Lead serves no useful purpose in the
human body.

Lead is slowly but consistently absorbed via the

52

Toxicology
respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts.

Inorganic lead is poorly

absorbed through the skin Absorption via the GIT varies with the
nature of the lead compound, but in general, adults absorb about
10% of the ingested amount while young children absorb closer to
50%. The daily lead consumption is about 300g. It is unsafe if
consumed at a concentration greater than 0.5 mg/day for 3 months
or more. Once absorbed from the respiratory or GIT, lead is bound
to erythrocytes and widely distributed initially to soft tissues, then
to the subperiosteal surface of bone and bone matrix. It has a halflife of 2-3weeks in blood and 15 years in bone. More than 90% of
the lead that is eliminated appears in the urine.
Lead exerts multi systemic toxic effects through at least three
mechanisms by;
o

Inhibiting enzyme activity (e. g Interference with enzymes

responsible for hemesynthesis) (See the fig below).

Interfering with the action of essential cations, particularly

calcium, iron, and zinc.

Altering the structure of cell membranes and receptors (e.

g attachment of lead to RBC membranes increased
fragility and decreased survival time due to interference of
sodium-potassium pump).
Succinylcholine +glycine
ALA Synthetase

lead
Aminolevulinate

ALA Dehydratase

lead

Coproporphynogen
Coproporphynogen oxidase
53

lead

Toxicology

Protoporphyrin
Ferrochelase +iron

lead
Heme

Hemoglobin
Fig. Lead interference with the biosynthesis of heme
The sign and symptoms of lead poisoning may include anorexia,
apathy, behavioral changes, persistent vomiting, convulsions (acute
poisoning) & ataxia, wrist & ankle drop, chronic nephritis (chronic
poisoning)

Laboratory findings
A. Complete blood count
-

Anemia - Hemoglobin level of less than 10gm/dl can be seen

Reticulocytosis results from early release of immature RBCs.

It is not present in iron deficiency anemia so it is valuable for
differentiating the two forms of anemia.

Eosinophilia common finding but non specific

Basophilic stippling of erythrocytes on wright stain of

peripheral blood has been observed to be a less frequent
occurrence than anemia & the finding is less non specific.

B) Serum Lead level

Levels of 30-60g/dl are regarded as significant for lead
toxicity. Atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) is the most
54

Toxicology
commonly utilized method. Levels below the toxic range do
not rule out toxicity because 90% of lead is stored in bone.
Unexpectedly high lead levels may be due to contamination
of the blood specimen with lead prior to laboratory analysis.
Sample must be taken with lead free needle and containers.
c) Erythrocyte Protoporphyrin (EPP)
EPP often referred free erythrocyte Protoporphyrin (FEP).
Protoporphyrin accumulates as a result of the lead inhibition
of the enzyme ferrochelases, which binds to porphyrin,
forming hemoglobin. EPP is regarded as the foremost test
for chronic lead poisoning. EPP performed in conjunction
with blood lead levels to obtain more accurate picture. EPP
is the most widely utilized screening test. A finger stick
specimen can be used with a fluorometer to perform the
test.
D) Delta-aminolevulinate dehydratase activity (ALA-D)
Lead decreases the activity of ALA-D, which is present in the
erythrocytes. It is more sensitive than Protoporphyrin levels.
E) Urinary ALA and coproporphyrin III
Urinary levels of ALA are increased owing to lead inhibiting the
enzyme ALA-D. Lead inhibition of the enzyme
coproporphyrinogen oxidase has been proposed as a cause for
increased coproporphyrin.
F) Calcium disodium versenate (CaNa2-EDTA) provocation test
CaNa2-EDTA administered to evaluate the chelatable lead store.
55

Toxicology

Specific laboratory tests

Qualitative test
Specimen
Stomach contents and scene residues
Reagents (see annex I)
1. Sodium tartrate buffer, pH 2.8.
2. Aqueous sodium rhodizonate solution (10 g/l).
Procedure
1. Add 0.1 ml of sodium tartrate buffer to 0.1 ml of test solution and
vortex-mix for 5 seconds.
2.

Spot 50 l of acidified solution on to phase-separating filterpaper and add 50 l of sodium rhodizonate solution.

Results
Lead salts give a purple colour in this test. However, the test is not
specific: barium salts give a brown colour and a number of other
metals also give coloured complexes.
Sensitivity
Lead, 2 mg/l
Quantitative tests
Principle

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Toxicology
Whole blood that represents calibrators, controls, or victim
specimens is mixed with ammonium phosphate and Triton X-100 to
prepare it for graphite furnace atomic absorption analysis. The final
step of analysis causes vaporization of lead, which absorbs energy
at the 283.2nm light emitted from a hollow cathode lamp.
Absorbance of energy at this wavelength is specific for lead and
proportional to its concentration. Exposure of the specimen to high
chloride concentration is to be avoided, because the chloride salt of
lead is volatile at the charring temperatures used in atomic
absorption analysis (Annex II).

Reagents (see annex I)

1. Ultra pure concentrated nitric acid.
2. Diluent (matrix modifier)
3. Calibrators
4. Controls. Commercial whole blood control.
Procedure
1. The first two specimens analyzed represent blanks. They
consist of 0.25 mL of triple-distilled water and 1.0 mL of
diluent.
2. Calibrating solutions are made by mixing 1.0 mL of the
diluent with 0.25 mL of each calibrator.
3. The control pool and victim specimens are prepared for
analysis by mixing 0.25 mL of each sample with 1.0 mL of
diluent.
4. Add 10 L of matrix modifier to 10L of each sample and
inject into the Lvov platform.
57

Toxicology
5. Record the absorbance peak area generated by each
specimen. Repeat the analysis at an appropriate dilution for
any specimen with an absorbance greater than that of the
high concentration calibrator
Calculation
1. Subtract the blank absorbance peak area from each
specimen absorbance peak area.
2. Perform a best-fit regression analysis of the calibrator
concentrations versus the respective absorbance peak area
to define the calibration curve.

Compare the absorbance peak area derived from each

specimen against the calibration curve to determine the
concentration of lead. If the results among duplicates vary
by more than 10%, sample contamination during processing
is likely to have occurred.

Management

Chelating agents (Antidotes) E.g. dimercaprol, CaNa2-EDTA

Symptomatic management

B. HYDROCARBON POISONING
Hydrocarbon comprises a broad group of organic compounds
that contain hydrogen & carbon atoms only. Most, but not all, are
derived from petroleum distillation. Hydrocarbons are found
alone or incombination with others in a wide variety of
commercial products ubiquitous around the home or work place.
Lighter fluid, paint thinners, &removers, some furniture polishes,
cleaning agents, solvents, various automotive products &
58

Toxicology
ordinary fuels are common examples. These agents were the
most frequently involved substances in human exposures,
accounting for almost 5% of all poisoning .The overall mortality
rate for accidental ingestion of these agents is difficult to
estimate but may approach 0.5%. Modes of toxicity vary with
age. Most cases involve accidental imbibing by young children.
Abuse by inhalation is generally seen in male adolescents &
young adults. The most common substances reported in toxic
ingestions are gasoline, kerosene, mineral seal oil preparations,
&lighter fluid. Most victims who are exposed to hydrocarbon
develop pulmonary symptoms due to aspiration pneumonitis. It
is clear that non-pulmonary manifestations like CNS toxicity, GI
signs, and cutaneous signs are distinctly uncommon.
LABORATORY STUDIES
-

Routine laboratory tests are of little value for purposes of

screening victims for admission.

Arterial blood gas analysis (ABGs) must be measured in all

victims with respiratory symptoms. Varying degrees of
hypoxia without hypercarbia are the most common finding.

Occasionally a metabolic acidosis is seen.

The CBC may show leukocytosis

Blood hydrocarbon levels are not readily available &have

little diagnostic, prognostic, or therapeutic value. Qualitative
testing is occasionally needed for forensic purposes.

Specific tests
Qualitative test
Reagents
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Toxicology
1. sodium hydroxide solution(20%,w/v, aqueous)
2. Pyridine
3. Positive control (dissolve 500mg chloral hydrate in 100ml of
ethanol.)
Procedure
1. Take 1ml of the urine sample in a test tube
2. Add 1ml of 20% NaOH & 1ml of pyridine
3. Heat in a boiling water bath for 1 minute
4. A pink red color in the pyridine layer indicates the presence
of hydrocarbon.
C. PESTICIDES
Pesticides are any substance or mixture of substances intended
for preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest.
Pesticide can be divided into several groups, such as
insecticides, rodenticides, fungicides & herbicides. This part will
give attention to the most frequent pesticide poisoning.
1) Insecticides
Organophosphates & carbamates are the most frequently used
insecticides world wide. These compounds cause 80% of the
reported toxic exposure to insecticides.
Organophosphurus insecticides
These agents are utilized to combat a large variety of pests.
Some of these agents are used in human and veterinary
medicine as local or systemic antiparasitics or in circumstances
in which prolonged inhibition of cholinesterase is indicated. The
60

Toxicology
compounds are absorbed by the skin as well as by the
respiratory and GITs. Biotransformation is rapid. In mammals as
well as insects, the major effect of these agents is inhibition of
acetyl cholinesterase. The signs and symptoms that characterize
acute intoxication are due to inhibition of this enzyme resulting in
accumulation of acetylcholine (diarrhea, urination, miosis,
bradycardia, lacrimations &salivation)
Laboratory analysis
1. Serum electrolytes (e.g. Hypokalemia, hyperglycemia),
Blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, CBC (e.g. leukocytosis
secondary to increased catecholamine release from the
adrenal medulla), urinalysis (e .g Proteinuria and
glycosuria ), amylase level (elevated due to pancreatic
injury), plasma and RBC cholinesterase levels
2. Toxic specific findings
-

Plasma and RBC cholinesterase levels are depressed

Depression of RBC cholinesterase level is more specific for

organophosphate poisoning and parallels the activity of
neurosynaptic cholinesterase

Plasma cholinesterase levels are a less specific but more

sensitive measure of toxicity

Specific tests
Qualitative test
Specimen
Stomach contents, scene residues.
Reagents
1. Sodium bicarbonate (solid).
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Toxicology
2. Cyclohexane:acetone:chloroform (70:25:5).
3. Acetone:tetraethylenepentamine (9:1).
4. 4-(p-Nitrobenzyl) pyridine (20 g/l) in acetone:
tetraethylenepentamine (9:1).
5.

Silica gel thin-layer chromatography plate (5 20 cm, 20 m

average particle size ;).

Procedure
1.

Carefully adjust the pH of 10 ml of sample to about 7 by adding

solid sodium bicarbonate.

2. Extract 10 ml of sample with 5 ml of methyl tertiary-butyl ether for

5 minutes using a rotary mixer.
3.

Allow to stand for 5 minutes, take off the upper, ether layer and
re-extract with a second 5-ml portion of methyl tertiary-butyl
ether.

4. Combine the extracts, filter through phase-separating filter- paper

into a clean tube and evaporate to dryness under a stream of
compressed air or nitrogen.
5.

Analyze the final solution in thin layer chromatography (see

annex I-number 3)

Results
The compounds of interest give purple spots on a pale brown
background.
Sensitivity
Organophosphorus pesticide, 5 mg/l
Confirmatory test
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Toxicology
Confirmatory test for organophosphorus pesticide is cholinesterase
activity test.
Specimen
Plasma or serum
Cholinesterase activity monograph
Qualitative test
Specimen
Plasma or serum
Reagents (see annex I-number 7)
1. Dithiobisnitrobenzoate reagent. .
2. Aqueous acetylthiocholine iodide solution.
3. Aqueous pralidoxime chloride solution.
4.

Plasma or serum from an unexposed individual (control

plasma).
Procedure
1.

Add 2.0 ml of dithiobisnitrobenzoate reagent and 1.0 ml of

acetylthiocholine iodide solution to each of three 10-ml testtubes.

2. Add 20 l of control plasma to one tube and 20 l of test plasma

to a second.
3. Add 20 l of pralidoxime solution and 20 l of test plasma to the
third tube.
4.

Vortex-mix the contents of all three tubes and allow to stand at

room temperature for 2 minutes.

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Toxicology
Results
The presence of an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor is indicated if the
yellow colour in the control tube is deeper than in the test tube. If the
colour in the tube containing pralidoxime is similar to that in the
control tube, this provides further confirmation that an inhibitor of
acetylcholinesterase is present in the sample. Inhibitors of
acetylcholinesterase, such as many carbamate pesticides, also give
a positive result in this test
Treatment
GI decontamination

Dermal decontamination

Symptomatic treatment

Toxin-specific like atopine, pralidoxime

Carbamate pesticides
Produce a milder form of toxicity, similar to that produced by
organophosphate compounds. These compounds inactivate
acetylcholinesterase leading to excessive accumulation of
acetylcholine. The important differences distinguishing
carbamates from organophosphate toxicity are
-

Carbamate toxicity is typically short-lived in which

spontaneous regeneration of enzymatic activity usually
occur within 24hours

Carbamates produce little or no CNS toxicity because of

their inability to penetrate the blood-brain-barrier & affect
brain cholinesterase activity

Sign & symptoms may be more rapid &usually abate within

24hrs regardless of therapy
Laboratory findings
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Toxicology

RBC &plasma cholinesterase measurement not useful due

to minimal &transient effects on these levels

Qualitative test
Specimen
Stomach contents, scene residues.
Reagents
1. Aqueous hydrochloric acid (2 mol/l)
2. Furfuraldehyde solution (100 ml/l) in methanol, freshly prepared.
3. Concentrated hydrochloric acid (relative density 1.18).
Procedure
1. Acidify 1 ml of sample with 0.5 ml of dilute hydrochloric acid and
extract with 4 ml of chloroform on a rotary mixer for 5 minutes.
2. Centrifuge for 5 minutes, discard the upper, aqueous layer and
filter the chloroform extract through phase-separating filter-paper
into a clean tube.
3.

Evaporate the extract to dryness under a stream of compressed

air or nitrogen at 40C.

4. Dissolve the residue in 0.1 ml of methanol, apply a spot of the

solution to filter-paper and allow drying.
5. Apply 0.1 ml of furfuraldehyde solution to the spot;
6. Allow drying and exposing the paper to concentrated hydrochloric
acid fumes for 5 minutes in a fume cupboard.
Results

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Toxicology
Carbamates give a black spot. Non-pesticide carbamates can
interfere in this test.

Sensitivity
Carbamate, 100 mg/l
Treatment

GI decontamination

Atropine, & pralidoxime can be used as an antidote

2. Rodenticides
Rodenticides are used to control rodent population.
Anticoagulant preparations, currently the most widely used
rodenticides, are safer, although consequential human
poisonings do occur.

Most pediatric ingestions occur

accidentally, whereas ingestions in adults tend to be deliberate.

Coumarin derivatives (E.g. warfarin) are one of the members of
this class. Mechanism of action is by inducing coagulopathic
state by inhibiting activation of the vitamin K dependent
clotting factors II, VII, IX and X. Victims are usually
asymptomatic unless presentation is delayed over a period of
several days, as the anticoagulant effects take place victims may
experience spontaneous bleeding. The main features of warfarin
poisoning in less severe cases are excessive bruising, nose &
gum bleeding, &blood in the urine faeces. Bleeding from several
organs within the body, leading to shock & possibly death,
occurs in the more severe cases. The onset of the signs of
poisoning may not be evident until a few days after exposure.
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Toxicology

Laboratory analysis
-

General tests
-

Check a baseline prothrombin time (PT), partial

prothrombin time (PTT) and CBC

Toxin-specific tests
-

Recommended monitoring factor VII-X complex

levels are sensitive indicators of toxicity

Warfarin may be detected by gas chromatography

Specific laboratory tests

Quantitative test
Specimen
Urine, plasma
Procedure
HPLC method is used for the fluorometric determination of warfarin
& its metabolites. The detection scheme utilizes post column acidbase fluorescence enhancement techniques that provide high
chromatographic specificity &sensitivity. Detection limit are in the low
nanogram range. Other procedures, like UV spectrometry &revisedphase liquid chromatography, with a detection limit in blood serum of
20g/L.
D) CYANIDE TOXICITY
Cyanide is a cellular poison that can readily bind to many
enzymes, having metallic component especially cytochrome
oxidase a terminal enzyme involved in aerobic
67

Toxicology
biotransformation.

Inhibition results in anoxia.

Cyanide has

been also shown to bind to many other proteins. Cyanide

sources can be certain plants (E.g. cassava), cyanide gas (e.g.
cigarette smoke), medicines that liberate cyanide (E.g.
Nitroprusside), exposure in fires etc...Oral absorption of cyanide
is rapid and the toxic effects can present within minutes. It is
widely distribution in the body & about 80% eliminated through
the kidney in a form of thiocyanate. Organs such as the brain
&heart are affected particularly as they require ATP &have
limited capacity to cope with a deficit. The heart has only enough
ATP to last 3 minutes &so cyanide may cause death as a result
of heart or respiratory failure. The sign and symptoms of cyanide
poisoning include headache, hypoxic convulsion, and respiratory
distress, cyanide odor
Laboratory analysis
i) General tests
1. Chemistry Tests
-

Because of the blockade of aerobic biotransformation,

cyanide produces an anion gap metabolic acidosis
secondary to the production of lactic acid

Glucose catabolism is also altered, and the blood glucose

level may be elevated

2. Blood gas analysis

-

PaO2 and oxygen saturation are unaltered except in severe

cases where respiratory failure occurs.

pH and PaCO2 are altered in different ways, depending on

the severity of poisoning
68

Toxicology
ii) Toxin specific tests
1. A spot test is a quick bedside test that can qualitatively
detect the presence of cyanide using gastric aspirate.
2. The specific cyanide level is the gold standard test and
should be done even though the results may not be readily
available.

These levels are usually performed on whole

blood but some laboratories use serum or plasma

Specific laboratory tests

Qualitative test
Specimen
Stomach contents, scene residues.
N.B:- specimens containing cyanides often evolve hydrogen
cyanide if acidified.
Reagents
1. Aqueous sodium hydroxide solution (100 g/l).
2.

Aqueous ferrous sulfate solution (100 g/l, freshly prepared in

freshly boiled and cooled water).

3. Aqueous hydrochloric acid (100 ml/l).

Procedure
1.Dilute 1 ml of sample with 2 ml of sodium hydroxide solution.
2.Add 2 ml of ferrous sulfate solution.
3.Add sufficient hydrochloric acid to dissolve the ferrous hydroxide
precipitate.
Result
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Toxicology
A blue colour indicates the presence of cyanide.
Sensitivity
Cyanide, 10 mg/l
Quantitative assays
Specimen
Heparinized whole blood (0.1-1.0 ml),
N.B .The samples can be stored at 4C for 1-2 days if the analysis
is delayed for any reason. (Cyanide in blood is less stable if stored
at room temperature or at -20C.)
p-Nitrobenzaldehyde/ o-dinitrobenzene method
Reagents
1. Aqueous sodium hydroxide (0.5 mol/l).
2. Aqueous sulfuric acid (3.6 mol/l).
3.

p-Nitrobenzaldehyde (0.05 mol/l) in 2-methoxyethanol.

4.

o-Dinitrobenzene (0.05 mol/l) in 2-methoxyethanol.

Standard
Aqueous potassium cyanide (10 mg/l, i.e., cyanide ion concentration,
4 mg/l)

Method: microdiffusion method

70

Toxicology
1.

Take three microdiffusion cells and add to each of the centre

wells:
(a) 0.5 ml of p-nitrobenzaldehyde solution;
(b) 0.5 ml of o-dinitrobenzene solution;
(c) 0.1 ml of sodium hydroxide solution

2. To the outer wells add 0.1 ml of:

- Purified water (cell 1);
- Potassium cyanide solution (cell 2);
- Test blood specimen (cell 3).
3.

To each outer well add 0.5 ml of purified water and, on the

opposite side of the outer well, 1.0 ml of dilute sulfuric acid.

4.

Seal each well using silicone grease and carefully mix the
components of the outer wells.

5.

Incubate at room temperature for 20 minutes and then add 1 ml

of aqueous methanol (1:1) to the centre wells.

6.

Transfer the contents of the centre wells to 5.0-ml volumetric

flasks and make up to volume with aqueous methanol (1:1).

Results
The red coloration obtained with cyanide-containing solutions is
stable for about 15 minutes. Measure the absorbance of the
solutions from cells 2 and 3 at 560 nm against the purified water
blank (cell 1). Assess the cyanide ion concentration in the sample by
comparison with the reading obtained from the standard.

Sensitivity
Cyanide, 0.5 mg/l

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Toxicology
Treatments
Symptomatic management
Toxin specific measures

Nitrite-thiosulfate, hydroxycobalamin

E) TOXICITY OF HOUSEHOLD PRODUCT

The ingestion of household products by a child is the most common
pediatric medical emergency. Most household products are of
relatively low toxicity. The top household products ingested are
cleaning agents, cosmetics & personal products & berries. The
manifestations when they do occur usually consist of mild GI upset.
Bleach is perhaps the substance most commonly involved in
poisoning cases. When bleach is ingested orally it causes burning to
the throat, mouth &esophagus. The tissue damage results in edema
in the pharynx &larynx. In the stomach the presence of endogenous
hydrochloric acid generates hypochlorous acid which is irritant &
chlorine gas which may be inhaled causing toxic effects in the lungs.

II MEDICAL TOXICANTS
Drugs are biologically active molecules used in the treatment,
prevention & diagnosis of disease. However, drugs have made & will
continue to make a major contribution to human health, we must
accept the risks attached to these benefit.
The basic mechanisms for the toxicities arising from drugs are
-

Direct& predictable toxic effects due to over doses

Toxic effects occurring after repeated therapeutic doses

72

Toxicology
-

Direct but unpredictable toxic effects occurring after single

therapeutic doses due to idiosyncratic response (peculiar
response of an individual to a drug).

Toxic effects due to another drug or substance interfering

with the disposition or pharmacological response.

So, we do have a short overview of some of the common medical

toxicants
A. Acetaminophen
Acetaminophen is analgesics for mild &moderate pain which is
very safe provided only the normal therapeutic dose.
Acetaminophen is one of the drugs most commonly involved in
suicide and accidental poisoning. Initial symptoms after an
overdose are mild and non specific, often resulting in delayed
arrival for medical care or a missed diagnosis. Acute ingestion of
more than 150-200mg/kg (children) or 7gm (adults) is
considered potentially toxic. Paracetamol is metabolized mainly
by conjugation & minor proportion metabolized by oxidation
which produces toxic products which detoxified normally.
However, overdoses change the metabolic scheme giving a rise
in toxic metabolite which react with liver proteins & cause tissue
damage (leading to hepatic toxicity). Initially, the victim is
asymptomatic or has mild GI upset (nausea, vomiting) which is
followed by evidence of liver injury.
Laboratory analysis
-

Severity of poisoning is determined from serum

acetaminophen level.

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Toxicology
-

Detection of bilirubin level and prothrombin time can tell

prognosis

Elevated aminotransferase levels can be seen

Monitor blood glucose because in toxic cases hypoglycemia

and hyperglycemia have been reported.

The plasma creatinine rises more rapidly than BUN when

renal failure is present. Liver failure may keep the BUN low.

Serum amylase is determined because of reports of

pancreatitis

Specific laboratory tests

Qualitative tests
Reagents (See annex I- number 8)
1. Saturated o-cresol.
2. Ammonium hydroxide, 4 mol/L
3. Concentrated hydrochloric acid.

Procedure
1. Mix 1 mL of specimen (victim or control urine, water blank)
and 1 mL of concentrated hydrochloric acid. Heat at 1000C
for 10 min.
2. Cool and add 100 L of the above solution to 10 mL of ocresol reagent and then 2 mL of ammonium hydroxide, 4
mol/L
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Toxicology

Result
Acetaminophen is hydrolyzed to p-aminophenol, which reacts with ocresol and ammonium hydroxide to form an indophenol blue
chromogen.
Quantitative tests
Principle
Acetaminophen and 3-acetamidophenol, added as an internal
standard, are extracted from serum and analyzed by reverse-phase
HPLC with an octadecylsilane bonded-phase column. The peak
height absorbance ratio for acetaminophen relative to the internal
standard is determined at 254 nm (annex II).
Reagents (see annex I)
1.

Acetaminophen stock reference solution

2.

Calibrator. Acetaminophen 20 and 100 g/mL.

3.

3-Acetamidophenol stock internal standard, 1000 mg/L.

4.

3-Acetaminophen working internal standard, 50 mg/ml.

5.

Phosphate buffer.

6.

Mobile phase: sodium acetate buffer/acetonitrile (92/8) by

volume).

Procedure
1. Pipette 100 L of each calibrator, control, and victims serum
into properly labeled 13 x 100-mm glass tubes.
2. Add 100 L of working internal standard solution and 100 L
of phosphate buffer (0.225 mol/L, pH 7.4). Mix.
3. Add 3mL of ethyl acetate. Mix in a Vortex mixer for 15 s.
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Toxicology
4. Centrifuge all tubes at 1000 x g for 5 min.
5. Transfer the organic (top) layer to labeled 12 x 75-mm glass
tubes and evaporate under a stream of dry air at 50 0C.
6. Reconstitute the contents of each tube with 100 L of the
mobile phase and inject 10 to 20 L into the HPLC
instrument.
Calculation
Determine the peak height (or peak area) ratios of acetaminophen
relative to the internal standard. Calculate the concentration of
acetaminophen in the unknown by comparing its peak height ratio
versus acetaminophen concentration response for the calibrator.
Treatment
GI decontamination

Antidote (acetylcysteine)

B. Aspirin (salicylate)
Acetylsalicylic acid, commonly known as aspirin, is still one of
the most widely used minor analgesics. Salicylate poisoning is a
much less common cause of childhood poisoning deaths since
the introduction of child-resistant container and the reduced use
of baby aspirin. Salicylates, however still accounts for numerous
suicidal and accidental poisonings. Salicylate Poisoning can also
result from chronic over medication; this occurs most commonly
in elderly victims using salicylates for chronic pain because of
impaired biotransformation, excretion & others. Salicylic acid is
then metabolized by conjugation. These conjugation steps are
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Toxicology
saturable so the half life of aspirin increases significantly with
only small increase in the number of tablets. The first sign of
salicylate toxicity is often hyperventilation and respiratory
alkalosis due to medullary stimulation.

Metabolic acidosis

follows due to accumulation of intracellular lactate as well as

excretion of bicarbonate by the kidney to compensate for
respiratory alkalosis.
Laboratory tests
Urine should be tested for pH, the presence of ketone bodies
and hemoglobin. A rapid qualitative test for the presence of
salicylates may be done in urine. Serum measurements of
salicylate are important after acute ingestions.

Specific laboratory tests

Qualitative test
Specimen
Urine, stomach contents, scene residues.
Reagent (see annex I)
Trinder's reagent
Procedure
Add 0.1 ml of Trinder's reagent to 2 ml of sample and mix for 5
seconds.
N.B- To test for acetylsalicylic acid or methyl salicylate in
stomach contents or scene residues, and to test for
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Toxicology
salicylamide in urine, stomach contents or scene residues,
first boil 1 ml of sample with 1 ml of aqueous hydrochloric
acid (0.1 mol/l) for 10 minutes, & cool (filter if necessary),
and then neutralize with 1 ml of aqueous sodium
hydroxide (0.1 mol/l).
Results
A strong violet color indicates the presence of salicylates. Azide
preservatives react strongly in this test, and weak false positives can
be given by urine specimens containing high concentrations of
ketone bodies.
This test is sensitive and will detect therapeutic dosage with salicylic
acid, acetylsalicylic acid, 4-aminosalicylic acid, methyl salicylate and
salicylamide.
Sensitivity
Salicylate, 10 mg/l
Quantitative assay
Specimen
Plasma or serum (1 ml)
Reagent
Trinder's reagent
Standards
Aqueous solutions containing salicylic acid at concentrations of 0,
200, 400 and 800 mg/l. Store at 4C when not in use.

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Toxicology
Procedure
1. Add 5 ml of Trinder's reagent to 1 ml of sample or standard.
2. Vortex-mix for 30 seconds and centrifuge for 5 minutes.
3.

Measure the absorbance of the supernatant at 540 nm against

plasma blank
Results
Calculate the plasma salicylate concentration from the graph
obtained on analysis of the salicylate standards. Some salicylate
metabolites interfere, but plasma concentrations of these
compounds are usually low. Oxalates, for example, from fluoride/
oxalate blood tubes, also interfere in this test.

Sensitivity
Salicylate, 50 mg/l
Treatment

GI decontamination

Facilitating diuresis

Symptomatic management

C) Barbiturates
Barbiturates belong to a class of sedative-hypnotic drugs with
abuse potential & a recognized withdrawal syndrome. Toxic
manifestations of barbiturates vary with the amount of ingestion,
type of drug and time elapsed since ingestion. Lower doses of
short acting barbiturates (E.g. pentobarbital) than the long-acting
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Toxicology
barbiturates (e.g. Phenobarbital) generally cause toxicity, but
fatalities are more common with the latter. Mild intoxication
resembles that of alcohol intoxication. Moderate intoxication is
characterized by greater depression of mental status and severe
intoxication causes coma.
Laboratory analysis
1. Plasma barbiturate (e.g. Phenobarbital) levels are helpful for
making a diagnosis but of little value when predicting the
severity of the over dose.
2.As with alcohol, chronic abusers of Phenobarbital may have
elevated serum levels with little CNS depression.
Specific laboratory tests
Quantitative assay
Specimen
Whole blood, plasma or serum (5 ml)
Reagents (see annex I)
1. Borate buffer, pH 8.4.
2. Aqueous hydrochloric acid (2 mol/l)
3. Concentrated sulfuric acid (relative density 1.83).
4. Concentrated ammonium hydroxide (relative density 0.88).
5. Sodium sulfate/charcoal mixture.
Standards (see annex I)
Solutions containing barbital at concentrations of 5, 10, 25 and 50
mg/l in blank human plasma

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Toxicology
Procedure
1. Add 5 ml of sample, 2 ml of hydrochloric acid and 60 ml of
diethyl ether to a 250-ml separating funnel.
2. Lubricate (with purified water) and insert the funnel and shake
gently for 2 minutes.
3. After standing for 5 minutes, and then discard the lower
aqueous phase, add the diethyl ether extract to 10 ml of
borate buffer in a second separating funnel and mix for 1
minute.
4. Allow to stand for 5 minutes and again discard the lower,
aqueous phase through the funnel tap.
5. Wash round the funnel with 5 ml of purified water; allow
standing for 5 minutes and again discarding the lower,
aqueous phase through the funnel tap.
6. Add about 4 g of sodium sulfate/charcoal mixture to the ether
extract in the funnel, shake to disperse, and filter the extract
through phase-separating filter-paper into a 150-ml conical
flask.
7. Add a further 20 ml of diethyl ether to the separating funnel,
shake and add to the extract in the flask through the filter
funnel.
8. Evaporate the extract to dryness on a water-bath at 40C
under a stream of compressed air or nitrogen.
9. Add 5.0 ml of purified water to the dry extract in the flask, swirl
gently and allow to stand for 5 minutes.
10.

Filter the reconstituted extract through phase-separating

filter-paper into a 12.5-cm test-tube.

11.

Check the spectrophotometer zero at 240 nm using purified

water in both sample and reference positions.
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Toxicology
12.

Add 4 ml of filtrate from the test-tube to a clean, dry cell, add

50 l of concentrated ammonium hydroxide and mix using a
plastic paddle. Check that the pH is about 10.

13.

Quickly measure the absorbance at 240 nm against purified

water blank. If necessary, accurately dilute a portion of the
extract with purified water to bring the reading on to the
scale, and record the magnitude of the dilution. If a scanning
spectrophotometer is available, scan in the region 200-450
nm.

14.

Repeat the reading or scan after 5 minutes.

15.

Add 0.1 ml of concentrated sulfuric acid to the cell, mix using

the plastic paddle, and check that the pH is about 2.

16.

Repeat the reading (240 nm) or scan (200-450 nm).

Results
1) To perform a quantitative measurement, measure the
difference between absorbance at pH 10 and at pH 2,
construct a calibration graph by analysis of the standard
barbiturate solutions, and calculate the barbiturate
concentration in the sample.
Alternatively, use the following formula:
((absorbance at pH 10) - (absorbance at pH 2)) Dilution
factor (if any) 25 = barbiturate (mg/l)
2) Sample volumes of less than 5 ml may be used, but there
will be a corresponding loss of sensitivity unless "micro"volume fused silica spectrophotometer cells are available.
Sensitivity

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Toxicology
Barbiturate, 2 mg/l
Treatment

GI decontamination

Alkalinization of urine

Hemodialysis

III. Environmental toxicants

Exposure of biological systems to chemicals may occur through
environmental pollution of the atmosphere, water or soil. This results
from industrial, agricultural & other human activities. Food born
toxins derived from different microbes also can contribute in causing
environmental intoxication. The atmosphere may be polluted by
gases such as carbon monoxide & particulates.
a) Carbon monoxide poisoning
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless gas that is
ubiquitous because it is produced by the incomplete combustion
of carbon compounds.

The possibility of carbon monoxide

poisoning is obvious for the victim of fire and smoke inhalation;

but accidental and suicidal exposures are also common. The
gas is readily absorbed across the alveolus and combines with
hemoglobin with high affinity than oxygen. This displacement of
oxygen from hemoglobin leads to a decrease in oxygen
transport and causes tissue hypoxia. Elimination of carbon
monoxide is predominantly through respiration; only about 1% is
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Toxicology
metabolized to carbon dioxide. Victims with mild to moderate CO
poisoning often complain of headache, dizziness and nausea
and vomiting.

Severe poisoning may result in chest pain,

dyspnea, syncope, seizures and coma.

Laboratory analysis
-

Carboxyheamoglobin level should be measured as early as

possible to establish the diagnosis of carbon monoxide
poisoning. Carboxyheamoglobin should be measured from
blood sample using spectrophotometric methods. Although not
as accurate, carboxyheamoglobin levels can be estimated
from expired air using a breath analyzer for carbon monoxide.

Arterial blood gas assays are poor indicators of carbon

monoxide poisoning.

The PaO2 is often normal, as it is a

measure of oxygen dissolved in plasma, not a measure of

oxygen bound to hemoglobin.
Specific laboratory tests
Qualitative test
Applicable to whole blood treated with heparin, edetic acid or
fluoride/oxalate.
Reagent
Aqueous ammonium hydroxide (0.01 mol/l)
Procedure
Add 0.1 ml of blood to 2 ml of ammonium hydroxide solution and
vortex-mix for 5 seconds.

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Toxicology
Results
A pink tint in comparison with the colour obtained from a normal
blood specimen suggests the presence of carboxyhaemoglobin.
Cyanide may give a similar tint, but acute cyanide poisoning is
generally much less common than carbon monoxide poisoning.
Sensitivity
HbCO, 20%
Quantitative assay
Specimen:whole blood treated with heparin, edetic acid or fluoride/
oxalate.
Reagents
1. Aqueous ammonium hydroxide (1 ml/l).
2. Sodium dithionite (solid, stored in a desiccator).
3. A supply of pure carbon monoxide or carbon monoxide/nitrogen.
4. A supply of oxygen or compressed air.
Procedure
1.

Add 0.2 ml of blood to 25 ml of ammonium hydroxide solution

and mix.

2. Take three approximately equal portions: x, y and z. Keep portion

x in a stoppered tube while the following procedures are
performed:
(a) Saturate portion y with carbon monoxide (to give 100%
HbCO) by bubbling the gas through the solution for 5-10
minutes. Take care to minimize frothing.
(b) Saturate portion z with oxygen by bubbling pure oxygen or
compressed air through the solution for at least 10 minutes to
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Toxicology
remove all bound carbon monoxide (to give 0% HbCO). Again,
take care to minimize frothing.
3.

Add a small amount (about 20 mg) of sodium dithionite to each

test solution (x, y and z) and also to 10 ml of ammonium
hydroxide solution and mix well.

4.

Measure the absorbance of solutions x, y and z against the

dithionite-treated ammonium hydroxide solution at 540 nm and
579 nm.

Results
The percentage carboxyhemoglobin saturation (% HbCO can be
calculated from the equation:
(A540/A579solution x) - (A540/A579solution z)
%HbCO =

_____________

100

(A540/A579solution y) - (A540/A579solution z)
Approximate normal values are:
(A540/A579 solution y) = 1.5, corresponding to 100% HbCO
(A540/A579 solution z) = 1.1, corresponding to 0% HbCO.
Note that the hemoglobin content of blood varies from person to
person, and thus the volume of diluents used may need to be
altered. A dilution giving a maximum absorbance of about 1
absorbance unit at 540 nm is ideal.
N.B - It is important to use sodium dithionite that has been freshly
obtained or stored in a sealed container in desiccators, since
this compound is inactivated by prolonged contact with moist air.

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Toxicology
- This method is unreliable in the presence of other pigments such
as methaemoglobin

(indicated by a relatively high absorbance

in the region 580-600 nm).

- Lipaemic blood specimens may give turbid suspensions, which
also give unreliable results.
Sensitivity
HbCO, approximately 10%
Treatment

100% oxygen

b) Food born toxins

A microbial toxin is a compound produced by a microorganism
that acts to cause disease.

Food poisoning syndromes result

after ingestion of a wide variety of foods contaminated with

pathogenic microorganisms or microbial toxins. The pathogenic
organisms are Clostridium perferinges, Bacillus cereus,
Escherichia coli, Closterdium botulinium and Vibrio cholerae.
Preformed toxins are from Staphylococcus aureus, B.cereus and
C.botulinum. The illnesses produced usually are not associated
with fever or blood, pus, or mucus in the stools because it
doesnt have tissue involvement.

Most of them produce GI

symptoms. Except for botulism and cholera, the clinical course

of most of these food-borne toxin related illnesses is self-limiting.
Laboratory analysis
General tests

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Toxicology
-

CBC may reveal hemoconcentration (there will be

increase in hematocrit level)

Urinalysis shows a trace of protein

Fecal leucocytes are absent in the presence of foodborne toxin induced illness

Stool culture in general is not helpful for the diagnosis

of microbial toxin intoxication. However, in a common
source outbreak, examination of food, gastric
contents, or stool may be useful.

Because the clinical course of poisoning with the following

organisms is self-limited, preparing & identifying cultures is
not cost-effective and rarely alters treatment plans.
However, confirmatory tests may be warranted in the case of
a mass outbreak of food poisoning. In such instances the
following tests can be done.
1. S. aureus Gram-stain of the suspected food and
culture.
2. B. cereus - Bacteria count of 105 organisms per
gram of food is suspicious for B. cereus because it
is the normal fecal flora.
3. C. perferingens -anaerobic culture of the implicated
foods can isolate C. perfringens.
4. E. coli - Stool culture identifies the presence of E.
coli strains, but differentiation of the various strains
of E.coli requires expensive animal testing, which is
not cost effective

Toxin specific tests

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Toxicology
- Cholera dark field microscopic examination of freshstool or stool culture on specialized selective culture
media can be diagnostic.
- Food borne-botulism: stool, serum, vomits, gastric
contents and suspected food should be collected to
examine for spores or toxin.
- Hemorrhagic colitis caused by enterohemorrhagic E. coli
can be detected by latex agglutination test.

IV DRUGS OF ABUSE
The term `drug abuse` connotes social disapproval. Any use of a
drug for non-medical purposes, usually for altering consciousness
but also for body building is known as abuse of drug. Psychological
dependence (drug seeking behavior in which the individual uses the
drug repetitively for personal satisfaction), physiologic dependence
(withdrawal of the drug produces symptoms & signs), &tolerance
(necessitating large doses of the drug to achieve the same
response) are the main features of drugs of abuse. Some of the
common drugs of abuse are discussed here.
a. Alcohols
Alcohol, primarily in the form of ethyl alcohol (ethanol), has
occupied an important place in the history of human kind for at
least 8000 years. Young children, chronic alcoholics or suicidal
persons may ingest toxic quantities of one or several of the
alcohols. Whether intentional or accidental, alcohol ingestions
remain one of the more common, yet potentially devastating,
poisonings commonly encountered in the emergency
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Toxicology
department. Ethanol is mildly polar and readily penetrates cell
membrane. Approximately 25% of ingested ethanol is absorbed
unaltered from the stomach and the rest from the small intestine.
Distribution is rapid and wide. Over 90% of alcohol consumed is
oxidized in the liver; much of the remainder is excreted through
the lungs and in the urine. Alcohol is a central nervous system
depressant.

It can cause sedation, impaired motor function,

slurred speech, emesis, ataxia etc.

At high blood

concentrations, it induces coma, respiratory depression, and

death.
Laboratory analysis
Routine laboratory tests
CBC, electrolyte, BUN, glucose, creatinine, arterial blood gas
analysis
Specific laboratory tests
Qualitative test
Specimen
Urine, stomach contents, scene residues.
Reagent
Potassium dichromate (25 g/l) in aqueous sulfuric acid (500 ml/l)
Procedure

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Toxicology
1.

Apply 50 l of potassium dichromate solution to a strip of

glass- fibre filter- paper and insert the paper in the neck of
a test- tube containing 1 ml of sample.

2. Lightly stopper the tube and place in a boiling water-bath for

2 minutes.
Results
A change in colour from orange to green indicates the presence of
volatile reducing agents such as ethanol; metaldehyde, methanol
and paraldehyde.
Sensitivity
Ethanol, 0.5 g/l
Quantitative assay
Specimen
Whole blood, plasma, or serum (0.5 ml)
Reagents (see annex I)
1. Semicarbazide reagent.
2. Aqueous nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) This solution
is stable for 2-3 months at 4C, but can be decomposed by
vigorous agitation.
3. Alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) suspension.
4

Aqueous perchloric acid

Standards
Solutions containing ethanol concentrations of 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and 4.0
g/l prepared in heparinized whole blood to which 10 g/l sodium
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Toxicology
fluoride has been added. These solutions are stable for up to 1
month if stored at 4C in well-sealed containers.
Procedure
1.

Add 0.5 ml of blood to 2 ml of perchloric acid solution in a testtube.

2. Vortex-mix for 30 seconds and then centrifuge for 5 minutes.

3. Add 0.1 ml of the supernatant (or 0.2 ml of an aqueous dilution
(1:9) of plasma/serum) to a 10-ml tube containing 4.5 ml of
semicarbazide reagent and vortex-mix for 10 seconds.
4. Add 0.1 ml of NAD solution and 0.02 ml of ADH suspension and
mix gently so as not to cause foaming.
5.

Allow to stand for 70 minutes at 20-25C and measure the

absorbance at 340 nm against a reagent blank

Results
Construct a calibration graph of absorbance against blood ethanol
concentration by analysis of the standard ethanol solutions and
calculate the concentration of ethanol in the sample.
N. B -If the specimen contains an ethanol concentration of more than
4.0 g/l, the analysis should be repeated using a dilution (1:1 or
1:3) of the sample in blank plasma. Methanol does not
interfere, but propan-2-ol and some higher alcohols will reduce
NAD under the conditions used in this assay.
- In all cases where the analysis may be delayed, it is
important to add 10 g/l sodium fluoride to the specimen to
inhibit microbial biotransformation.
Sensitivity
Ethanol, 0.5 g/l
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Treatment

Symptomatic management

Gastric lavage

Hemodialysis

In chronic toxicity thiamine can be given

b. Nicotine toxicity
Nicotine is one of the most widely abused chemical and now
considered to be one of the most addicting substances. It is the
principal pharmacologically active component of tobacco in
which poisoning may occur in accidental ingestions of tobacco
products (especially by children), use of nicotine-containing
gums, and industrial exposure to tobacco products, contact with
some pesticides and so on.
Nicotine has both stimulant and depressant action. Nicotine is
readily absorbed through intact skin as well as through mucus
membranes and the respiratory tract. It is metabolized by the
liver and excreted by the kidney. Victims can complain of
nausea, emesis, excessive salivation, and diarrhea at low
doses.

But at high dose it can cause respiratory paralysis,

cardiovascular collapse, and convulsions.

There is no simple qualitative test for Nicotine, but this
compound can be detected and identified by thin layer
chromatography of a basic solvent extract of urine.

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Toxicology
Laboratory analysis
General test
CBC (polymorph nuclear leukocytosis), electrolytes, BUN,
creatinine, arterial blood-gas analysis, liver function tests, urine
analysis (Glycosuria)
Toxin specific tests
-

Serum nicotine levels should be determined as early as

possible, but the short half-life of nicotine makes it
difficult to accurately assess the level of intoxication.

Urine nicotine levels are inconsistent owing to the

altered excretion of nicotine with changes in urine pH.
They may be useful as a guide to the level of chronic
exposures.

C. Opioids
Opioids comprise a broad spectrum of substances that include
opiate alkaloids (e .g morphine &codeine), synthetic opioids (e .g
pethidine) & semi synthetic opioids (e .g heroin). They exert their
effect acting on opiate receptors located within the CNS resulting
in analgesia & euphoria. Opioids are used to treat cough,
diarrhea, dyspnea (congestive heart failure), and sometimes
anxiety as well as pain. The most commonly abused drugs in
this group are heroin, and morphine. Tolerance and dependence
of opioids develop with chronic use. The classic triad for opioid
poisoning is miosis, coma and respiratory depression.

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Toxicology
Laboratory analysis
General tests
Arterial blood gas analysis (ABGs), CBC, electrolytes,
BUN, creatinine and blood glucose measurements in
victims with abnormal vital signs or mental status.
Toxic-specific tests
Quantitative opioid blood levels are not clinically useful.
Qualitative analysis (screening) of the urine by thin-layer
chromatography can detect some but not all opioids.
Gas chromatography and enzyme-linked immunoassays
or radioimmunoassay are more sensitive for detecting
specific agents. Confirming the presence of a specific
opioid is not necessary when the history and response
to antidote (naloxone) are consistent with a generic
diagnosis of opioid poisoning.
Specific laboratory tests
Qualitative test
PRINCIPLE
The Quick Screen One-Step Rapid Opiates Test technology (screen
test for Morphine, Heroin, Codeine, &opium) incorporates a
chromatographic absorbent device in which the drug or drug
metabolites in the sample compete with an opiates derivative
immobilized on a porous membrane for limited antibody sites. This
is the preferred method for qualitative assay.
In the assay procedure, urine mixes with labeled antibody-dye
conjugate and migrates through test device.
95

When opiates levels

Toxicology
are below 2000 ng/ml (the detection cutoff sensitivity of the test)
unbound antibody-dye conjugate binds to immobilized antigen
conjugate in the Test Zone (T), producing a pink-rose colored band
that indicates a negative result. Conversely, when opiates levels are
above the detection limit, antibody-dye conjugate binds to the free
drug, forming an antigen-antibody-dye complex.

The complex

competes with immobilized antigen conjugate in the Test Zone,

preventing the development of a pink-rose colored band.
Regardless of the test result, a color band is produced in the Control
Zone (C) by a non-specific sandwich dye conjugate reaction. This
band serves as a built-in quality
Specimen
Urine
Procedure
1. Collect a urine sample from test subject using a suitable clean
container preferably glass
2. Refrigerated specimens or other materials should be
equilibrated to room temperature before testing
3. Open the foil pouch at the notch, remove the test device, and
label the device with specimen ID.
4. Holding the dropper vertically, add four drops of urine into the
sample wellS waiting 5 seconds between drops.
5. Observe migration or lateral flow of the sample across the entire
test panel. Add additional sample drops if migration is not
complete.
6. Positive results may be observed as soon as 5 minutes,
depending on the concentration of opiates in the tested
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Toxicology
specimen. To confirm negative results, a complete reaction time
of 8-10 minutes is required. Do not interpret results after 15
minutes.
Results
Positive: One pink rose band appears in the control zone and no
band appears in the test zone. A positive result indicates the
opiates level is 2000ng/ml or higher in the test urine sample.
Negative: One band appears in the test zone and other band
appears in the control zone. A negative result indicates that the
opiates level is below the detection sensitivity of 2000ng/ml.

N.B. any line, no matter how faint appearing in the test area confirms
a negative test.
Invalid: If there are no distinct color bands visible in both the test
zone and the control zone or if there is a visible band in the test
zone but not in the control zone, then the test is invalid. In the
instant, retesting of the specimen is recommended.
V. Natural toxicants
Natural substances are also still occasionally featured in accidental
poisoning cases, when compared to poisoning by others. Many
plants & animals produce toxic substances for both defense &
offensive purposes. Natural toxins may feature in poisoning via
containing in food, by accidental ingestions of poisonous plants or
animals & by stinging & biting. Natural toxins are of diverse structure
& mode of action, & there are far too many categories to cover in this
short topic. So we like to give an overview on it.
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Toxicology
a. Animal toxins
Animal toxins comprise a diverse range of structures & modes of
action. A simple & well known example is formic acid which is
found in ants. Animal toxins are often mixtures of complex
proteins. Most of us suffer from animal toxins at some time in our
lives. However, in some countries death & illness due to animal
poisons represents a significant proportion of cases.
Snake venom
Snake bite is one of the most common forms of poisoning by
natural toxins world wide. The snake venom is a complex
mixture of compounds. The enzymatic components of snake
venom cause local and sometimes systemic effects, and the
non-enzymatic components provide lethality. Absorption of
snake venom is variable but most rapid through the blood
vessels.

Distribution depends on protein binding, membrane

permeability and pH.

The kidney excretes venom. Clinical

presentations of snakebite may be obvious, but not always. It

can cause anaphylactic reactions, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea,
hemolytic anemia, hemorrhage, respiratory failure
Laboratory tests
-

Basic studies should be performed: CBC; platelet count;

coagulation tests; electrolytes, creatinine and BUN levels.

Urinalysis initially and with subsequent bedside checks

using dip sticks can signal developing hematuria or
myoglobinuria.

Attempts to develop assays that identify the presence of

venom at the puncture site or within the victims serum have
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Toxicology
met with little success. A radioimmunoassay was developed
for this purpose, but it has never become a practical
methodology and is useful only as a research tool.

The

enzyme-linked immunmosorbant assay bridges the gap

because it can detect small amounts of antigen antibody
complex.
Treatment
-

Incision & suction (source of controversy because of tissue

damage & it is better to use with a vacuum pump)

Antivenoms (definitive)

b) Plant toxins
Many species of plants contain toxic chemicals. There are many
well known plant toxins ranging from the irritant formic acid
found in nettles to more poisonous compounds such as atropine
(atropa belladonna). The concentration of toxic chemicals is
variable among the same species & different species. Major
toxic effects are on the skin (e. g allergic dermatitis), GIT (e. g
gastroenteritis), cardiovascular
(E .g arrhythmia)

Exercise
1. What are industrial toxicants? What types of general
laboratory diagnostic techniques are used?
2. What are medical toxicants? What kinds of laboratory
techniques are used to identify them?
3. What are environmental toxicants? What kinds of laboratory
techniques are used to identify them?
4. What are drugs of abuse? Discuss the laboratory techniques
used to identify ethanol.
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Toxicology
5. 5. What are animal & plant toxicants?

What kind of routine

laboratory tests are used in snake bite?

GLOSSARY

Abuse - Excessive or improper use of drugs or other

substances.

Acetylcholine - the main neurotransmitter of the vertebrate and

invertebrate in the peripheral nervous systems

Acetylcholinesterase - enzyme that hydrolyses the

neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

Acidosis - Pathological condition resulting from accumulation of

acid in, or loss of base from, the blood or body tissues.
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Acute - Sudden or short-term.

Anemia - Deficiency of erythrocytes or of hemoglobin in the

blood.

Antibody - A protein produced in the body in response to

exposure to an antigen; it recognizes and specifically binds the
antigen.

Anticoagulant - A drug that prevents clotting of blood.

Antidote - An agent that neutralizes or opposes the action of a

poison on an organism.

Arrhythmia (dysrrythmia) -Any variation from the normal rhythm

of the heartbeat.

Antigen -Any substance that stimulates the body to produce an

antibody.

Bilirubin -A pigment, derived from the breakdown of hemoglobin

that occurs in soluble form in blood and in bile.

Blank- Used in analytical chemistry to denote a specimen not

containing the analyte of interest and from which a background
reading can be obtained.

Carboxyhaemoglobin - Product formed when carbon monoxide

binds to hemoglobin.

Chelate - Compound in which a central metallic ion is attached

to an organic molecule (chelating agent) at two or more
positions

Chelating agent - A compound capable of forming a chelate with

a metal ion.

Cholinesterase - Enzyme that catalysis the breakdown of a

choline ester to choline (see also: Acetylcholinesterase).

Chronic - Long-term (cf. Acute).

Contaminant - An impurity.
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Corrosive - Able to eat away or dissolve by chemical action.

Cosmetic - Concerned with improving appearance or hygiene.

Cross-contamination - Accidental introduction of an impurity.

Crystalluria - Presence of crystals in the urine.

Cutaneous - Associated with the skin.

Cyanosis - Blue appearance, especially of the skin and mucous

membranes, due to deficient oxygenation.

Dermal - Relating to the skin.

Detergent -A chemical cleaning agent.

Diuresis- Increased production of urine.

Diuresis, forced - Abnormally enhanced urine production, for

example following administration of intravenous fluids or
diuretics.

Drug- A substance that, when administered to an organism or a

system derived from an organism, may modify one or more of its
functions.

Emesis- Vomiting.

Emetic- Substance causing emesis.

Erythrocyte- Red blood cell.

Fumigant - A vapour used to kill pests.

Fungicide - A pesticide used to kill fungi or check the growth of

spores.

Haematocrit - Erythrocyte volume fraction; the ratio by volume

of the blood cells to plasma.

Haematuria presence of red blood cells in the urine.

Haemodialysis- Procedure whereby blood is dialysed against a

large volume of isotonic fluid outside the body and then returned
to the systemic circulation. Used to remove unwanted
compounds of low relative molecular mass from the circulation.
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Toxicology

Haemoglobin -An iron-containing pigment found in erythrocytes,

which binds oxygen for transport within the bloodstream.

Haemolysis- Rupture of erythrocytes leading to the appearance

of free haemoglobin in the plasma.

Herbicide- A pesticide used to control or kill plants or plant

seeds.

Hydrolysis -Decomposition caused by or involving water.

Hyperglycaemia -Abnormally high blood sugar (glucose)

concentration.

Hyperventilation -Increased rate and depth of respiration

Hypoglycaemia -Abnormally low blood sugar (glucose)

concentration.

Hypostatic- caused by the combined effects of gravity & poor

circulation of the blood.

Hypoxia -Reduction of oxygen in an animal body below

physiological

requirements.

Metabolic acidosis -Acidosis of metabolic origin.

Metabolite -A substance produced by biotransformation.

Methaemoglobin -Oxidized haemoglobin.

Miosis -Contraction of the pupil of the eye.

Mixer, rotar- A device for mixing solutions or suspensions by

means of a gentle rotating motion. Used for solvent extraction or
other procedures requiring mixing of relatively large quantities of
material.

Opiate - A pharmacologically active agent, such as morphine,

derived

from opium.

Osmolality -The osmotic strength of a solution.

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Pesticide -Substance used to kill or control any pest, including

animals, plants, fungi, or other organisms in agricultural,
industrial and domestic situations

Pipette, automatic -Device used to dispense repeatedly known

volumes of a fluid.

Pipette, positive-displacement- Device with a washable tip, used

to take up and dispense known volumes of a fluid, and in which
the plunger is in contact with the fluid. Used to dispense viscous
solutions such as whole blood.

Pipette, semi-automatic- Device, often with disposable tips, used

to take up and dispense known volumes of aqueous fluids such
as plasma or serum. Reliable only for fluids with a viscosity
similar to that of water.

Scene residue- Material found at the scene of a poisoning

incident.

Supernatant - An upper layer of liquid.

Tolerance- (i) The ability of an organism to experience exposure

to potentially harmful amounts of a poison without showing
evidence of toxicity. (ii) An adaptive state whereby the
pharmacological effects of the same dose of a substance
become diminished as a result of repeated exposure.

Toxic -Able to cause injury to living organisms as a result of

chemical interaction within the organism.
Relative volume of distribution -is volume of distribution
divided by body weight.
Respiratory acidosis- Acidosis of respiratory origin.
Vortex-mixer -A device for mixing solutions or suspensions
by means of

a whirling motion which creates a cavity in

the centre of the mixture. Used for solvent extraction and

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other procedures requiring efficient mixing of relatively
small quantities of material (up to about 10 ml total
volume).
Xenobiotic- Compound foreign to the biotransformation of
an organism.

REFERENCES
1. Peter Viccellio, MD, Hand book of Medical Toxicology, First
edition, 1993
2. B. Widdop, F.A. & de Wolff,

R.A. Braithwaite, R.J. Flanagan,

S.S. Brown, Basic Analytical toxicology, 1995, WHO.

3. Katzung B.G., Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 8th edition,
2001
4. Carl A .B, &Edward R.A, Teitz Textbook of clinical chemistry, 3rd
edition, 1999
5. Eyasu Mekonon., Pharmacology for Medical Students, vol. II,
2nd edition, Addis Ababa, 1999.
6. P.D Sharma, Environmental Biology and toxicology, secondary
edition, 2002-2003
7. John T., introduction to toxicology, 3rd edition, 2002
8. Amare Mengistu, Dawit, Eshetu Legesse, Solomon Worku,
Srinivasa A.R, Tefera Abula, Musie Aberra. , Pharmacology for
health science students, 1st edition, 2004

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ANNEX I
Preparation of reagents
1. Reagents for lead qualitative tests
a. Sodium tartrate buffer, pH 2.8.
Sodium bitartate.19 g
Tartaric acid15 g
Purified water.1000ml
PH2.8
b. Aqueous sodium rhodizonate solution (10 g/l).
2. Reagents preparation for quantitative tests of lead using AAS
a. Nitric acid- Sub-boiling redistilled ultra pure concentrated
nitric acid is required to prepare the reagents.
b. Diluent- The diluent (and matrix modifier) is 10.0 mL/L Triton
X-100 and 2.0-g/L ammonium dihydrogen phosphate in
0.2% nitric acid.
c.

Calibrators- The calibrators are prepared from a stock

reference solution containing lead at 1000 g/mL, and then
diluted further with diluent to achieve final concentrations of

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10, 20, 40, and 60 g/dL, which are used to calibrate the
instrument as described below.
d. Controls- The control material is a commercial whole blood
control.

3. Thin layer preparation for organophosphorus insecticides

A. Reconstitute the extract in 100 l of methanol and spot 20
l on a column marked on the plate.
B.

Spot 10 l of the standard mixture on a second column.

C. Develop the chromatogram (10-cm run) using

cyclohexane: acetone: chloroform (saturated tank) and
allow to dry.
D. Spray the plate with 4-(p-nitrobenzyl) pyridine solution and
heat, preferably in an oven, at 110C for 30 minutes.
E. A l l o w t o c o o l a n d s p r a y w i t h a c e t o n e :
tetraethylenepentamine (9:1).
4. Reagent preparation in the qualitative test of aspirin
Trinder's reagent- Mix 40 g of mercuric chloride dissolved in 850
ml of purified water with 120 ml of aqueous hydrochloric acid
(1mol/l) and 40 g of hydrated ferric nitrate, and dilute to 1 liter
with purified water.
5. Reagent preparation for quantitative assay of barbiturates
A. Borate buffer, pH 8.4. Mix 22.4 g of disodium tetraborate
with 76 ml of aqueous hydrochloric acid (1 mol/l) and dilute
to 2 liters with purified water.
B. Aqueous hydrochloric acid (2 mol /l).
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C. Concentrated sulfuric acid (relative density 1.83).
D.

Concentrated ammonium hydroxide (relative density 0.88).

E. Sodium sulfate/charcoal mixture. Add 100 mg of activated

charcoal to 100 g of anhydrous sodium sulfate, mix
thoroughly and heat in an evaporating basin at 100C for 8
hours. Allow to cool and store in a tightly stoppered bottle.
Standard solution preparation for qualitative assay of
barbiturates
Solutions containing barbital at concentrations of 5, 10, 25 and
50 mg/l in blank human plasma, prepared by dilution from an
aqueous solution of barbital sodium (1.12 g/l), equivalent to
diethylbarbituric acid at a concentration of 1.00 g/l.
6. Reagent preparation for cholinesterase activity test
A. Dithiobisnitrobenzoate reagent. 5, 5-Dithiobis (2nitrobenzoic add) (0.2 g/l) in sodium dihydrogen
orthophosphate buffer (0.1 mol/l, pH 7.4).
B. Aqueous acetylthiocholine iodide solution (5 g/l).
C. Aqueous pralidoxime chloride solution (200 g/l).
D. Plasma or serum from an unexposed individual (control
plasma).
7. Reagent preparation for qualitative test of acetaminophen
A. Saturated o-cresol- Mix 10 mL of o-cresol with 1 L of
deionized water. Allow to stand for 24 h before use. Solution
will be stable for 1 year at room temperature.

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B. Ammonium hydroxid, 4 mol /L - Dilute 284 mL of
concentrated ammonium hydroxide to 1 L with deionized
water. Solution will be stable for 1 year at room temperature.
C. Concentrated hydrochloric acid.
8. Reagents preparations for quantitative test of Acetaminophen
A. Acetaminophen stock reference solution, 1000 mg/L Dissolve 100 mg of acetaminophen in 20 mL of methanol
and then dilute to 100mL with deionized water. Solution is
stable for at least 6 months when stored refrigerated.
B. Calibrator - Dilute the acetaminophen stock reference
solution with deionized water to provide working calibrators
of 20 and 100 g/mL. Calibrators are stable for 2 months
when stored refrigerated.
C. 3-Acetamidophenol stock internal standard, 1000 mg/L Dissolve 100 mg of 3-acetamidophenol in 20 mL of methanol
and dilute to 100 mL with deionized water. Solution is stable
for 6 months when stored refrigerated.
D. 3-Acetaminophen working internal standard, 50 mg/ml.
Dilute 5 mL of the stock internal standard to 100 mL with
deionized water. Solution is stable for 2 months when stored
refrigerated.
E. Phosphate buffer, 0.225 mol/L, pH 7.4 - Mix 80.4 mL of
disodium hydrogen phosphate (Na2HPO4) solution (30.6 g/
L) with 19.6 mL of potassium dihydrogen phosphate
(KH2PO4) solution (31.9 g/L). Adjust to pH 7.4, if necessary,
with the appropriate phosphate solution. Solution is stable
for 2 months when stored at room temperature.

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Toxicology
F. Mobile phase: sodium acetate buffer/acetonitrile (92/8) by
volume) - Add 80 mL of acetonitrile to a 1-L volumetric flask
and dilute to volume with 0.01 mol/L sodium acetate buffer,
pH 4.0. Filter through a 0.5-m pore-size filter and degas by
applying gentile vacuum
9. Reagents for quantitative test of ethanol.
A. Semicarbazide reagent.
Tetrasodium pyrophosphate dehydrated .10 g.
Semicarbazide hydrochloride2.5 g
Glycine..0.5 g
Distilled water250 ml
Sodium hydroxide (2 mol/l) .10ml
Dilute the solution by Distilled water up to 300ml
B. Aqueous nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) This
solution is stable for 2-3 months at 4C, but can be
decomposed by vigorous agitation.
C. Alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) suspension.
Ammonium sulfate..45.5 g
Tetra sodium pyrophosphate (dehydrated). 3 g
Distilled water 100 ml
Crystalline yeast ADH.2.5 g
Adjust pH to 7.3 with either aqueous hydrochloric acid or
sodium hydroxide (both1 mol/l) this solution is stable for 2-3
months at 4C.
D. Aqueous perchloric acid
Perchloric acid (700 ml/l) ..2.9 ml
Distilled water 100ml

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ANNEX II
Apparatuses
1. Atomic Absorption spectrophotometer for quantitative
analysis of Lead
A good-quality graphite furnace atomic absorption
spectrometer is required for analysis. The graphite furnace
requires a Lvov platform to give optimal sensitivity and
accuracy. Zeemans background correction is useful to
reduce the effect of background to a minimum.
2. Supplies for spectrophotometer for quantitative analysis of
Lead

Polypropylene pipette tips, specimen cups, and Teflon

reagent storage bottles are required. Before use, they are
leached in 10% nitric acid for 1 week and rinsed in tripledistilled water.

3. HPLC equipment for quantitative test of Acetaminophen

A 250 x 4.5-mm I.D. column containing octadecylsilane

(C18) bonded-silica particles (5-m diameter) is used for the
analysis of acetaminophen. The HPLC system is equipped
with a fixed-(254-nm) or variable-wavelength detector set at
a sensitivity of 0.1 or 0.2 absorbance units full scale for

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Toxicology
acetaminophen concentrations of 0 to 200 or 200 to 500-g/
mL, respectively. The pump flow rate is 1.5 ml/min.
4. Summary of basic equipment required for toxicological
analyses

Reliable, regularly serviced and calibrated laboratory

balances

Bench-top centrifuge (electrical or hand-driven) for

separating blood samples and solvent extracts

Vortex-mixer or other form of mechanical or hand-driven

shaker such as a rotary mixer

Water-bath and (electrical) heating block

Spirit lamp or butane gas burner

Refrigerator (electrical or evaporative) for storing

standards/samples

PH meter

Range of automatic and semi-automatic pipettes

Low-power, polarizing microscope

An adequate supply of laboratory glassware, including

volumetric

apparatus, and adequate cleaning facilities

A supply of chemically pure water

A supply of compressed air or nitrogen

A supply of thin-layer chromatography plates or facilities

for preparing such plates

Facilities for developing and visualizing thin-layer

chromatograms, including an ultraviolet lamp (254 nm
and 366 nm) and a fume cupboard or hood

Single-beam or dual-beam ultraviolet/visible

spectrophotometer and associated cells
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Toxicology

Conway microdiffusion apparatus

Porcelain spotting tile

Modified Gutzeit apparatus

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ANNEX III
Example of an analytical toxicology request form

Date or admission :
Date/time

of

ingestion

or

exposure:
Drugs prescribed or
used in treatment
Doctor:
Telephone:
Hospital address for report:
Signed:

Date:

Drugs/poisons
claimed or suspected
(if possible with the

Victim:
Age/Date of birth:

Sex:

Consultant:

Ward:

suspected dose)

Reference no:

Clinical
details/
Sample type

Date

Time

investigation
required/
priority:

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investigation

Toxicology
Blood

required/
(10ml

priority:

heparinized)
Urine(50ml)
Other(give details)

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