SOLVINGillGH-VOLTAGEPROBLEMS

IN WIRELESS/UTILITY COLLOCATIONS
ClaytonHallmark
GroundingSystems
LLC
Chagrin Falls, OH 44023

ErnestM Duckworth,Jr., P.E.

Positron Industries,Inc.
Sedalia, CO 80135

ABSTRACT
Wirelesscommunicationsprovidersare using electric-utility transmissiontowersin high-voltage
corridors throughoutthe world as sitesfor their equipmentandantennalocations. This collocationwith
high-powertransmissionlinesoffers challengingengineeringproblemsbecauseof the effects of ground
potentialrise (GPR). In the absenceof actualtestresults,calculatedGPRlevels mustbe used in
determiningthe engineeringdesignnecessary
to properlyisolatewire-line communicationsfrom
damagingGPReffects. ThesecalculatedGPRlevelscan be very large;and if it were not for the ability
to reducetheselevels by improvingthe groundingsystem,therewould be limitations on useof wire-line
communicationsservingsomeof theselocations. Limiting the useof wire-line communicationsserving
cell sites in high-voltagecorridorswould limit cost-effectiveengineeringdesign. New methodologiesfor
greatly improving smallcell-site groundingsystemsare keyto reducingGPRin high-voltagecorridorsto
levels that canbe safelyhandledby isolationequipment.

I. INTRODUCTION
Isolation equipmentis readilyavailablethat will protectwire-line communicationsfacilities entering
PCSlocationswithin high-voltagecorridorsfrom a GPRas high as 50 kV rms and 90 kV surge. Properly
installed,this isolationequipmentwill offer manyyears of maintenance-free,
reliable protectionfrom the
effectsof GPR
ThosePCSlocationswithin high-voltagecorridors that haveoverheadgroundconductors(OGC) with
no neutralwill experiencetheoreticalGPRlevels under45 kV peak, provided that the PCS grounding
systemresistanceis lessthan 5 ohms. If a neutralis also presentin the overhead,the theoreticalGPR
levels will be lessthan 20 kV peak. This representsthe vastmajority of the type of high-voltage
corridors in usetoday, andthesemagnitudescan easilybe isolatedwith equipmentavailableon the
market.
The PCSlocationswithin high-voltagecorridorsthat haveno OGC andno neutralwill experience
muchhighertheoreticalGPRlevels,evenwith a 5-ohmPCS groundingsystemat the towerbase. This is
becauseall of the fault energywill passdownthroughthe single towerinto the ground. Worst case

theoreticalGPRlevels undertheseconditionscould reacha maximumof85 kV. Note: Actual real-life

GPRlevels muchover30 kV peakasymmetricalmaynot occur,becauseearth ionizationincreasesthe
earth conductivityif the currentdensitybecomeshigh enough.
Obtaininglessthan 5 ohmsfor a PCSgroundingsystemin poor resistivity soils maybe very difficult
at a cell site with a small groundingsystem.However,significantgroundingimprovementto thesesmall
groundingsystemscanbe obtainedwithout expensiveor elaborategroundingsystems,as one of the
authorshasshown.
II. GROUND POTENTIAL RISE (GPR)
Electricaldamagefrom groundpotentialrise (GPR)throughoutthe wireless industryhasan estimated
cost in the manymillions of dollars eachyear, but few engineersin the industryare evenawareof the

phenomenon.
Most times,the first signthat somethingis wrongcomesright aftera thunderstormor aftera fault on
the powerline. Suddenly,the wire-line servicecominginto your cell site hasfailed, andthe delicate
circuitry of your communicationsequipmentis damaged.This is often misdiagnosedasan unavoidable
maintenanceproblem,and muchmoneyis spenton repairingequipmentand replacingprotectivefuses
andgastubes-to saynothingof potentiallost revenue.In the worst case,the safetyof personnel
working at the site maybe seriouslycompromised.

ill. SOLVINGTHE MYSTERY

In reality, this type of damagevery well could be dueto a phenomenoncalled groundpotentialrise

(GPR).
Whena groundfault occursat a powersubstation,someof the fault currentwill returnto its source,
namelythe substationtransformer,via the earth,throughthe substation'sgroundgrid (Figure 1). This
groundgrid has its own characteristicimpedance.Following Ohm'slaw, a currentpassingthroughan
impedancewill result in a voltage. This increasein the potentialof the groundingsystem,referencedto
remoteearth,is calledgroundpotentialrise (GPR).

Figure 1. DevelopmentofGPR from power systemfault.

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".'1'"l

As Figure 2 shows, if your telecommunications lines coming into a cell site are copper, and if these
lines are not properly isolated, they provide a path for the voltage impulse coming up from the grounding
system, whether from lightning or a power fault as discussedearlier. Nonnally, communications
engineers look upward for threats in the electrical environment; but this one comes from below, from the
very grounding system that is part of the electrical protection scheme. This threat is real and can
compromise personnel safety and damageequipment.

Figure 2. Communicationslocationwithout isolationprotection.

TheseGPRsurgecurrentsdevelopon the groundingsystemand are sentout onto your conductive

coppercommunicationslines backto a remoteground,which in this caseis the servingcentraloffice
(CO). This is why ordinary surgeprotectiondevicessuchas gastubesare ineffective in protecting
againstGPR.
However,specialhigh-voltageprotection (HVP) isolationdevices-including isolation
transfonners,opticalcouplers,and fiber optics-interrupt the conductivepathsthat carrythe GPR
currents(Figure3). Thesedevicesprovidean isolationgaprated at 50kV fillS and 90 kv for surges.The;
highestservicereliability mayactuallybe from wire-line facilities usingpassiveisolationequipment,i.e.,
isolationtransfonners.Active isolationequipmentusing opticalisolatorsrequiringpowerwill lowerthe
reliability of a TI carrier or HDSL serviceand needlesslyexposemaintenancepersonnelmore frequently
to possiblehanD.

Figure 3. Communicationslocationwith isolationprotection.

IV. GET TO KNOW THE STANDARDS

Follow existing nationalcodesandIEEE standardinstallationprocedureswhile usingHVP devices.
The most importantstandardsinclude:
.ANSI/IEEE Standard487-1992-Guide for the protectionof wire-line communicationfacilities
servingelectric powerstations.
.ANSI/IEEE Standard367-1996-Recommendedpracticefor detenniningthe electric power station
groundpotential andinducedvoltagefrom a powerfault.
.ANSI/IEEE Standard80-1997-Guide for safetyin AC substationgrounding.
.NFP A 70-1999 -National Electrical Code.

Communicationsprotectionengineersshouldnot turn a blind eyeto GPRdamagebecausethey

believespecialHVP devicesaremoreexpensivethan gastubes. Considerongoingcostsfor continually
replacingdamagedequipmentyear afteryear. Also considerthat the costsof labor for repairsandthe
lostrevenuefrom downedcommunicationslines can easilysurpassthe costof GPRprotection. And
don'tforget personnelsafetyand liability issues:employeesworking in, on, or aroundequipment
connectedto a remotegroundpotentialare at a safetyrisk if standardsand codesare not followed.
ProperlyprotectedGPRlocations,designedandmaintainedby trainedemployees,will reduceoverall
costs,improveproductivity, andincreasecircuit reliability over anytime period.

V. MODERN GROUNDING TECHNOLOGIES

As canbe seenin Figure 2 above,the GPRvoltagecanbe reducedby bringingthe resistanceat the
communicationslocation(cell site)to a low level with respectto the remotegroundlocation, effectively
shortingout the GPR. The trend amongwirelessserviceprovidersis to specifya resistanceto remote
earthof 5 ohms or less. A low groundresistanceproducesthe following benefits:
.Reduces touchand steppotentials,which aredangerousto personnel
.Reduces voltagesacrossinsulatorsthatcancausecurrentflashoveracrossthe insulators
.Reduces the likelihood of sideflashing,or arcing throughair, betweenexposedand grounded
structuresand components
.Diverts lightning currentaroundconcretetowerfoundations,which canbe explodedby the current
.Facilitates the dischargeto groundof currentsinterceptedby protectorsandarresters
.Keeps GPRwithin the specificationsof HVP isolators.
Modem lightning researchhas led to improved understanding of the lightning threat. It has shown the
waveshapeand magnitude of lightning strokes. This has shown the importance of low-impedance as well
as low-resistance grounds, since the destructive voltages developed by fast transients such as lightning
depend more on the inductive-reactance component of the impedance than on the resistance. However, it
is usually easier to calculate, predict, and measurethe resistance of an electrode than the inductive and
capacitive reactances. Fortunately, if we design and install an electrode for a low resistance such as 5
ohms, it also tends to have low reactances.

VI. THINK LATERAL

Whena really low resistanceis required,the bestadvicefor the groundingdesigneris to "think
lateral," especiallywhenthe soil is highly resistiveor too thin to allow driving rods. A flat electrodeof
significantlateralextent,at a shallowdepthof only 30 in., maybe the bestor only option. It resembles
a buriedplate, which providesa highly capacitiveelectrode.The resistanceof an electrodeis inversely
proportionalto the capacitance.In fact, the fonnula for resistanceof anyearthelectrodeis basedon the
capacitancebetweenthe buriedelectrodeand its hypotheticalimageabovethe earth.
Conductivecementsuchas EarthLink from GroundingSystemsprovidesan easy,economicalway to
designand install extensiveelectrodes.The cementis employedas a backfill materialaroundcommonly
usedmetallic electrodessuchas drivenrods and buriedwires (counterpoise)andrings, increasingtheir
cross-sectional
areaby a factor of 100or 200 (for a 4/0 wire) or evenmore. In manyadversegrounding
situations,the conductiveelectrodemaybe the only economicand practicalmethodof obtaining5 ohms.
Cementcan be usedto augmentalmostanykind of electrode,andthe resultsare easyto calculateand
predictand are permanent. Cementis well knownto contractorsto protectburied metal from corrosion.
Not just anykind will do for grounding,however. Conductivecementshave over200 times lower
resistivitythan ordinarycement-low enoughthat standardformulascanbe usedfor calculatingthe
resistanceof electrodesmadewith them,just as if the electrodeswere madeof metal.

Figure 4. Conductivecementeffectivelyenlargesthe wire, creatinga conductiveplate.

Figure 4 shows a horizontal-strip configuration, or groundbed, and the formula for calculating its
resistance. The most common installation procedure follows:
1. Dig a trench, 30 in. deep, 20 in. wide, and as long as required to obtain the desired resistance. (The
length is a design calculation, discussed later.) Center a 4/0 stranded wire in the bottom of the trench.
2. Pour in the cement as a dry powder (it will later absorbmoisture and harden) by dragging an open bag
of it down the trench. Use one 50-lb bag every 10ft. Heap the cement up as shown.

3.'Lift the wire slightly so it is completelycoveredby the cementfor corrosionprotection. Tampthe

cementwith feet or a shoveltowardthe taperededges.
4. Carefully shovelin a 4-in. layerof soil and tamp it down.
5. Pushin the restof the removedsoil usingconstructionequipment.
VB. DESIGNING A HORIZONTAL ELECTRODE
The designprocedureis asfollows:
1. Decideuponthe desiredresistanceof the electrode.
2. Measurethe soil resistivity with an earthtester.
3. Detenninethe requiredlength from the table,basedon the desiredresistance(5 or 10 ohms)andthe
soil resistivity.

Length for
Soil

Resistivity
5000
7000
10,000
15,000
20,000
30,000
50,000
100,000

Q-cm
Q-cm
Q-cm
Q-cm
Q-cm
Q-cm
Q-cm
Q-cm

Length for

5-0hm

10-0hm

Ground

Ground

10m (33 ft)

16 m (52.5 ft)
26 m (85 ft)
44 m (144 ft)
63 m (207 ft)
105 m (344 ft)
194 m (636 ft)
440 m (1444 ft)

3 m (9.8 ft)
6 m (20 ft)
10 m (33 ft)
18 m (59 ft
26 m (85 ft)
44 m (144 ft)
84 m (276 ft)
194 m (636 ft)

Table1. Table of lengthsfor 5- and IO-ohmgrounds. Use the formula for intermediatevalues.

vIn. GROUNDRING
A typical pad-mountedwirelesssitehasa buried groundring aroundthe pad, about2 ft out from the
pad,and anotherring aroundthe antenna. The formula given in Figure 4 applies;however,the
resistancethus obtainedmustbemultiplied by 1.12to accountfor the reducedgroundingefficiency of a
squarering comparedto a straightstrip. For example,if the two rings require 145runningfeet (44 m)
just to surroundthe padandantenna,thetable showsthis would give about5 ohmsin 15,000ohm-cm
soil (about1.5timesthe averageU.S. soil resistivity). Multiplying by 1.12,the resistancewould be
about5.6 ohms. A still lowerresistancecould be achievedby extendingradialsfrom the four outer
cornersof the configuration.
IX. GIRD THE GRID
Meanwhile, back at the substation, the source of the GPR from power faults, the GPR can be reduced by
lowering the resistance of the grounding grid. If conductive cement is used to surround grid wires on a
10-by-10-ft spacing, the grid area can be reduced by 10 or 20 percent, with a concomitant money saving
and reduction in the extent of the critical 300-V GPR contour. Use IEEE Std. 80-1997 data or EPRI
Substation Grounding Workstation software and assume strip conductors of2-in.-by-18-in. cross section.
For further information, refer to manufacturers' application notes.
Existing ground grids also can be improved by extending the grid area by 10 or 15 percent and using
conductive cement. In one application in high-resistivity soil, grid resistance was reduced from 10 ohms
to 2 ohms. In another, resistancewas reduced from 0.96 to 0.2 ohm. Consolidated Edison and Boston
Edison have used conductive cementto ground transmission towers and substations.

X. EMBEDDED GROUND ROD

About 50% of the resistance between a ground rod and remote earth is in a shell within the first 6 in.
from the rod. If this shell is shorted out by encasingthe rod in 6 in. of conductive cement, as shown in
Figure 5, the resistance is halved. This is a good example of how the resistance of any electrode can be
decreased without making the electrode longer. This is important wherever bedrock limits the length of
ground rods or when property lines limit the length of a horizontal electrode.

CONNECTING
WIRE

R=.E!-[
2nL

In ',-In

'.] +..!.. [ In 4L -1 -In r.

2nL

7 FT, IN 12-IN. DIA

AUGERED HOLE
(6 -IN. RADIUS)

POURED CYLINDER OF
CONDUCTIVE CEMENT
NOTE:
Po (CEMENT)=20

C1-cm

p,=SOIL RESISTIVITY IN
r.= RADIUS OF ROD = O.79cm
r,= RADIUS OF CEMENT = 15.23cm
L = LENGTH = 244cm

ONE FOOT OF
8-FT. ROD
DRIVEN INTO SOil

NOT DRAWN TO SCALE

d = 1.6 cm for 5/8 in. rod

Figure 5. This embeddedgroundrod takesadvantageof the fact that 50 percentof the earthresistanceis
within 6 inchesof the rod.

REFERENCES
PositronIndustries,Inc., TelelineIsolator Product Guide,Montreal,Quebec,Canada,1999.
GroundingSystemsCo., Application Note TD-l, GroundGrid ImprovementsandExtensions,Chagrin
Falls, OR, 1999.
C. L. Hallmark, Horizontal StripElectrodesfor LoweringImpedanceto Ground,INTELEC 97
Proceedings,Sec.17-2,pages368-375.
Gilbert Sharick,Groundingand Bonding,Vol. 13 of abc TeleTrainingBasic Series,abcTeleTraining,
Geneva,IL, 1999.