Great Religions of The World 1

MRS.
ULFAT AZIZ - US - SAMAD
THE
GREAT
RELIGIONS
OF
THE
WORLD
www.aaiil.org
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED WITH PUBLISHERS
First Published in 1976

Second revised edition 1991
Printed at :
JAYYED PRESS, BALLIMARAN, DELHI.

Published by :
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CONTENTS
Page
P R E F A C E T O T H E S E C O N D E D IT IO N
P R E F A C E T O T H E F IR S T E D T I O N
IN T R O D U C T IO N
IV
V
1
H IN D U IS M
11
B U D D H IS M
31
S IK H I S M
49
Z O R O A S T R IA N IS M
68
C O N F U C IA N IS M
83
T A O IS M
97
J U D A IS M
113
C H R IS T IA N IT Y
141
IS L A M
173
B IB L IO G R A P H Y
217
IN D E X
229
About the Author

Mrs. Ulfat Aziz-us-Samad was born on November 2, 1932, in the
well-known Qazi family of Peshawar. She was educated at St. Xaviers college
(Peshawar), and then at the University of Peshawar, from where she obtained
her Masters degree in English Literature. During her stay in England in the
fifties she took keen interest in the activities of the Woking Muslim Mission.
Mrs. Ulfat Samad is fond of reading books on a variety of subjects and
collecting works of art. Her modest collection of antiques includes some rare
pieces of original Gandhara Buddhist sculpture of the first and second
centuries C.E. and Aryan pottery of about 1400 B.C.
She is the author of several books. Her Islam and Christianity was first
published from Lahore in 1958 and several times reprinted. A revised and
somewhat abridged edition of Islam and Christianity was brought out from
Karachi (1970 and 1974) and Kuwait (1987). In 1975 she rewrote the book,
and a considerably enlarged edition, entitled A Comparative study of
Christianity and Islam, was published by Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, Lahore, in

1976 (second edition 1980). In 1976 Ahmadiyya Anjuman Ishaat-i-Islam,
Lahore, brought out the first edition of her book Tne Great Religions o f the
World. Mrs. Ulfat Samad says that it was the unfair (often offensive) criticism
of the Prophet and Islam by the teachers o f the Presentation Convent School,
where she received her early education, that aroused her to take interest in
Comparative Religion and study the different religions of the world.
Mrs. Ulfat Aziz-us-Samad is a member of the University womens
Federation and takes active part in the social welfare activities of the
Federation.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
The first edition of the Great Religions of the World was

published from Lahore (Pakistan) in 1976. Since then many new
books on the living religions have been published throwing new
light on them. I have had the good fortune of reading some of
these books and also re-reading and pondering deeply over the
Sacred Books of the world. I think I have gained deeper insight
into the faiths that men live by and come closer to seeing them
from inside, as the believers see them. In the light of this deepei
sympathy and better understanding better than what 1 hac
before I have thought it necessary to make some additions and
alterations in the book. It is still not as satisfactory as I would
have liked it to be. The fact is that the book needs to be thor
oughly revised, even rewritten, and for that unfortunately I did
not have the time.
I
am grateful to Mr. Abdul Razak of Bombay for his decisio
to bring out this new edition of The Great Religions of the Wbrld
from India, thus providing me with the opportunity to make some
necessary changes in the book.
Peshawar
June 15, 1990
ULFAT AZIZ-US-SAMAD
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
There are several histories of religion. Most of them have been written
by Christian authors, who invariably tend to present the non-Christian
faiths in an unfavourable light, so that they might prove Christianity to be
the only true religion. The one or two Muslim authors who have made the
effort to write about the great religions of the world have generally followed
in the footsteps of, and even depended for their material on, the Christian
authors, except in their chapters on Islam. Whereas the Christian authors
treat Islam as they treat the other non-Christian religions---------that is,
without any earnest attempt to understand and appreciate it--------- the
Muslim authors naturally present Islam as a true revealed religion. But
their treatment of religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism,
Confucianism etc., is not very different from that of the Christian writers.
My attitude and aim is different from that of my distinguished predecesf ors in this field. I am more interested in discovering the revelation of truth
in the various living religions and to appreciate their beauties. My study
of the Scriptures and authentic works about the great religions of the world
has led me to the conclusion that they all have truth in them; that, in fact,
the original gospels in these faiths had so much in common that they
might almost be considered identical. In writing about the various relig
ions, therefore, I have been led to make a distinction between the original
messages as they were conveyed to the world by their respective founders
and the theological formulations and systems that developed later on, very
often by importing alien elements into them and distorting the original
messages. For my information I have depended on
Firstly, the Scriptures of the various religions. Fortunately, very good
translations in English of most of the sacred books, prepared by scholars
who actually believe in them, are available. To them I have turned more
than to any other books to gain understanding of the different faiths. The
study of the Scriptures, held in great reverence by millions of people all
over the world, has been a source of great happiness and inspiration to me.
They have helped to broaden my outlook and deepen my sympathies. It
was impossible for me not to rise above all that was petty and mean while
reading them, be they the Bible or the Qur'an, the Bhagvad Gita or the
Dhammapada, the Gathas of Zarathushtra or the Analects of Confucius.
Secondly, the books written in exposition of the various religions by
scholars who acknowledge them and have faith in them. Whenever 1have
depended upon any book by an author who does not believe in the religion
concerned, I have made sure that the views expressed by him are fully
supported by the letter and spirit of the scriptures of that faith. In all cases
I have maintained an independent and critical attitude. My aim has been
to find the truth, and not to support any preconceived thesis.
I hope and pray that this little book will lead to a better understand
ing of the great religions of the modern m an and bring their followers closer
together. For, while religion has often been used by interested persons to
divide and create hatred among hum an beings, I know of no other force
which can bring human beings together and unite them in bonds of
sympathy and love as religion, when rightly understood, can do. Religion
alone can make man sacrifice his own interests for those of others and
create in him the conviction that the eternally true and right are realities
which m ust take precedence of everything in our allegiance. Thus it can
lead to, what Confucius described as, "the evolution of True Manhood" and
make man "the Vicegerent of God on earth", as conceived by Islam; apart
from bringing to the hum an soul and the world the peace that the modem
age so desperately needs.
No one can be more conscious than 1 am m yself of my limitations for
the task that I have undertaken in this book and of its many imperfections.
Not the least serious of these is my inability to read the Scriptures in the
original languages and exclusive dependence on their English transla
tions, which, even when excellently done, cannot take the place of the
originals. For reasons of space I have been compelled to leave out of
discussion several aspects of the religions I have described in this book
and to deal with som e other aspects very briefly, thus introducing a certain
am ount of vagueness at places and making the presentation as a whole
not so satisfactoiy as I would have wished it to be.
1 am grateful to my husband for his loving co-operation. Without his
help this book (particularly the chapters on the Indian religions) could
never have been written. My thanks are also due to Mr. Nasir Ahmad, of
the Ahmadiyya Anjuman Isha'at-i-Islam (Lahore), for giving the suggession to write such a book in the first place, and his continuing interest
despite the inordinate delay on my part. Finally, 1 m ust acknowledge my
indebtedness to many distinguished scholars who have written about the
different religions; some of them I have mentioned in the bibliography at
the end of this book. There are, however, many more whose works I have
read and from whom I have learnt a great deal, even though I did not
always agree with them.
Peshawar
March 9, 1975
ULFAT AZIZ-US-SAMAD
INTRODUCTION
Religious consciousness seems to be ingrained in hum an

nature. If we go down into the depths of man, despite the variety
of religious expressions and structures, we reach the humus from
which the religious question proceeds. Psychological, ethnological
and sociological researches are coming ever more to recognise the
presence of this original space in man. Beyond the systems, and
together with the differences between religion and religion, there
is a historically constant disposition which orientates man in a
specific way and tends to express itself in religious forms.
A description of this religious dimension of man can be at
tempted by following various routes and with the help of various
ways of speaking. On one hand can be seen the movement of the
hum an mind which does not cease from questioning itself about
its source and beginning, the radical need of the spirit to discover
the ultimate meaning of his existence and of his action in the
world, and to understand his relationship with everything. On the
other hand the will discovers itself directed closely towards a
good, which attracts it under the form of absolute and which
transcends every time 'the goods' which are offered it, and to
wards which it feels able to organise relationship.
Whatever way one looks at man in the sources of his interior
dynamism, one arrives always at a problem and at a tendency to
integration: with himself, with the world and society, with the
Absolute. All this denotes an opening of the finite hum an being
towards the infinite and absolute, a gap in the hum an psyche
which no partial reality can fill.
It is true that thjs search often remains in the confused state,
like a question hidden in the mind. For many it is no more than
an indistinct feeling of uncertainty, anxiety, instability, an ob
scure desire for fullness, which is sometimes aroused under the
impact of certain events or impressions, while for the most part
it lies inert, overwhelmed by the problems of daily living. It is also
true that it emerges only in privileged circumstances, under the
stimulus of particular conditions, but we cannot deny to human
beings the opening on to these horizons which represent an ul
timate and necessary point of reference to his existence. It is this
autonomous region of human consciousness and this specific
inclination that has made religion possible.
Religion as it exists in history is, however, a very complex
phenomenon. It includes a vast number of beliefs and practices
ol extremely diverse nature. Belief in and propitiation of the
THE GREAT RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD
so-called spirits of trees and rivers, worship of the tombs of the

dead, ceremonial feeding of the ghosts of ancestors, totem and
taboo, ritual eating of some kinds of food and abstaining from
other kinds, self-flaggelation and starving of the body in the hope
of purifying and strengthening the soul as well as ceremonial
feasts, belief in many gods as well as belief in the one and only
God, worshipping gods of stones having the shapes of animals
and freaks as well as the worship of God as an unseen and om
nipresent spirit, life-long chastity and nunnery as well as templeprostitution all these and many more are termed religious
beliefs and practices.
The mistake of the anthropologists lies in attempting to trace
the origin of all the religious beliefs and practices to a single
factor. For instance. Grant Allen, following Herbert Spencer,
thinks that religion sprang from the worship of a Deified m an.' In
his book The Evolution o f the Idea o f God he traces three stages
of man's conception of the dead. In the first stage the difference
between life and death is but ill or inadequately perceived; the
dead are thought of as yet bodily living. Hence the corpses are
preserved and eventually mummified. During this stage gods as
such are for the most part unknown; it is the corpses of friends
and ancestors that are worshipped and reverenced. In the second
stage death is recognised as a physical fact, but is regarded as
only temporary. In this stage, men begin to bury the corpses, look
forward to the resurrection of the body and expect the life of the
world to come. In the third stage the soul is regarded as a distinct
entity from the body; it survives it in a separate and somewhat
shadowy form; so that the opinion as to the future, proper to this
stage, is not belief in the Resurrection of the Body, but a belief
in the Immortality of the Soul. And ju st as the idea of Resurrec
tion arose from and is closely bound up with the practice of
burial, the idea of Immortality arose from and is closely bound up
with the practice of burning the dead. The idea of God. says
Grant Allen, took birth during the second and third stages, when
the ghosts or spirits of the dead ancestors began to be wor
shipped as household-gods and the ghosts of the dead chiefs or
rulers of the tribe as tribal gods. Later on with the rise of kingship
came the conception of the Supreme God and polytheism gradu
ally gave way to monotheism. "In almost every case where we can
definitely track him to his rise", writes the author of the Evolution
of the Idea of God, "the deity thus begins with a Deified Man,1
1.
Grant Allen, Evolution of the Idea of God. (The Thinker's Library. London,
1931.)
INTRODUCTION
elevated by his worshippers to divine rank (after his death) and

provided with a history of miraculous incident."
Sir Jam es Frazer, on the other hand, believes that religion
developed out of magic, or rather as a result of the realization of
the inelficacy of magic.2 Everywhere, he argues, the Age of Magic
comes before the Age of Religion. In the Age of Magic man be
lieved that merely by performing certain ceremonies, accompa
nied by certain spells, he could control nature and the course of
events and produce the desired results. In this age there were no
gods. It was only when man discovered that very often the
magical ceremony though properly and exactly performed, did not
produce the result that it was designed to produce, that he began
to think that there must be "other beings, like himself, but far
stronger, who, unseen themselves, directed its course and
brought about all the varied series of events which he had hith
erto believed to be dependent on his own magic." Thus arose the
belief in gods, and the primitive man instead of or in addition to,
his magic ceremonies began appealing to these superior beings to
intervene and grant him the favours that he wanted. Frazer
defines religion as "a propitiation or conciliation of powers supe
rior to man which are believed to direct and control the course of
nature and of human life." Thus defined, he continues, "a religion
consists of two elements, a theoretical and a practical, namely, a
belief in powers higher than man and an attempt to propitiate or
please them. Of the two, belief clearly comes first, since we m ust
believe in the existence of a divine being before we can attempt
to please him."
Another great anthropologist was Sir E. B. Tylor. In Primitive
Culture he expounds a theory of the origin of religion which is
different from both the theories mentioned above. He thinks that
the earliest religion was Animism, that is, the belief that every
thing, in the animate as well as the inanimate world, has an
indwelling soul.3 The primitive man was led to adopt this view
first of all on the basis of his experience of dreams. He was, of
course, totally incapable of making any sharp distinction between
the real things of his waking moments and the things which he
saw in his dreams. So when the primitive man awoke from his
sleep, he thought he had really somehow been away, doing the
things which he saw himself doing in the dream. But as he well
2.
3.
Sir J. G. Frazer, The Golden Rough (abridged edition), Macmillan, New York,
1959.
Sir E.D. Tylor, Primitive Culture. (Harper Torch books). New York, 1929.
knew by experience that his body did not go on these excursions,

the natural explanation that came to his mind was that every
man m ust be having within him a spirit or a phantom-likeness of
his outer self, which could go out of his body and see and be seen
itself in dreams. While his body was lying in the cave where he
had fallen asleep, his inner self or spirit had gone to other places,
met the spirits of other men and engaged in diverse activities.
Even waking men in broad daylight sometimes saw these human
phantoms, in what are called visions or hallucinations. The primi
tive man was further led to believe that the soul did not die with
the body but lived on after quitting it, for although a man was
dead and buried, his phantom-figure continued to appear to his
friends in dreams and visions. On precisely the same grounds,
the primitive m an concluded that his horse and dog, his spear
and shield, the sun and the moon, the rivers and mountains also
had phantom-likenesses of their bodies or outer forms. Now,
some of thse spirits for instance, the spirits of storms and
rivers were far stronger than man and could, when angry,
destroy his dwellings and cause immense harm to him, and also,
when pleased, confer great benefits on him. To these, therefore,
and to the spirits of powerful chiefs, the primitive m an began
addressing his prayers and making offerings and sacrifices to
propitiate them and get them onto his side. These became his
gods. So, says Sir E.B. Tylor, "Animism, in its full development,
includes the belief in souls and in a future state, in controlling
deities and subordinate spirits, these doctrines practically result
ing in some kind of active worship". Thus according to him all
religious beliefs and practices, from the primitive to the most
exalted, developed out of Animism.
Other anthropologists and social psychologists have thought
of religion as a normal psychological adjustment by which socie
ties build a protective barrier of fantasy against fear. Emile
Durkheim, the French sociologist, regards religion as the most
primitive of all social phenomena. It is out of religion, he writes,
"that there have come, by successive transformations, all the
other manifestations of collective activity, law, morality, art, sci
ence, political forms etc. In the Beginning all is religious".4 Ac
cording to Durkheim, the origin of all religious experience was to
be sought in the collective elevation of feeling (euphoria) that oc
curred when individuals came together in the larger gatherings of
the tribe, which was a reaction to the comparative flatness of
secular life.________
4.
Emile Durkheim, The Elementary Form of the Religious Lije. Chicago, 1947.
INTRODUCTION
Sigmund Freud, the famous founder of Psycho-analysis, also

regards the world of religion as a world of fantasy or illusion.5
According to him, the need for a faith in God and religion arises
from m an's feeling of helplessness in relation to the external
world. For the individual, as for mankind in general, life is hard
to endure. The culture in which he shares imposes on him some
measure of privation, and other men occasion him a certain
degree of suffering, either in spite of the laws of this culture or
because of its imperfections. Added to these are the evils that
unvanquished nature inflicts on him. "One would expect," says
Freud, "a permanent condition of anxious suspense and severe
injury to his innate narcissism to be the result of this state of
affairs". Man seeks consolation against this feeling of helpless
ness, and even to some extent masters it, by the humanization of
nature. It is by so doing that he can feel at home in the face of
the supernatural, and deal psychically with that frantic anxiety.
He can also exorcise, appeal to and bribe humanized Nature,
which is his god, and thus rob him of part of his power. Freud
says that there is nothing new in this situation, for it has an
infantile prototype and is really only the continuation of this. Once
before m an h as been in such a state of helplessness : as a little
child in relation to his parents. When he was a child, his father
commanded admiration and fear and, at the same time, gave him
protection. The child as he grows up soon realises that his father
is a being with strictly limited power and by no means endowed
with every desirable attribute. He, therefore, looks back to the
memory-image of the over-rated father of his childhood, exalts it
into a Deity, and brings it into the present and into reality. "When
the child grows up and finds that he is destined to remain a child
for ever, and that he can never do without protection against un
known and mighty powers, he invests these with the traits of the
father-figure; he creates for himself the gods". Thus according to
Freud, "Religion is an attempt to get control over the sensoiy
world in which we are placed, by means of the wish-world, which
we have developed inside us as a result of biological necessities."
The theories referred to so far regard religion as a natural
growth. They maintain that man is naturally and instinctively
religious. Now we come to an anthropologist who considers re
ligion to be a historical phenomenon, and declares that the primi
tive m an had no religion. Professor A.C. Hocart links the origin of
religion with kingship. He writes :
5.
Sigm und Freud, The Future o f an Illusion. fThe H egarth P ress and th e In sti
tu te of Psycho-analysis), London, 1902.
"The earliest known religion is a belief in the divinity of kings.

I do not say that it is necessarily the most primitive; but in the
earliest records known, man appears to us worshipping gods and
their earthly representatives, namely kings.
'We have no right, in the present state of our knowledge, to
assert that the worship of gods preceded that of kings; we do not
know. Perhaps there never were any gods without kings, or kings
without gods".6
Lord Raglan also considers religion to be something which
men acquire and adopt because of certain historical factors, and
not as something inborn or natural.7 He is of the view that re
ligion is originally and primarily a rite. Beliefs, mythology and
theology are invented later on to 'explain' the rite. Men first do
something, hoping thereby to obtain favourable results for them
selves and the world, and afterwards invent 'explanations' for
what they do. The first religion of man that is, the earliest rite
had a symbolical significance and presupposed a certain level
of sophistication and civilization. It could not have originated in
the primitive or pre-civilized societies. The primitive people bor
rowed their rights from the civilized people, ju st as they borrowed
some other features of civilization. They, however, mechanically
imitated the different movements of the rite without having any
idea of their symbolical significance.
The first religious rite, from which the other features of reli
gion evolved in the course of years, was a sort of restoration rite.
In very ancient times there was the custom in several communi
ties to choose a young man as the destined sacrificial victim and
to keep him with divine honours for a year. He was treated as a
privileged guest of the whole community and all his wishes were
satisfied. At the end of the year, however he was ritually slaugh
tered and portions of his flesh and blood were scattered over the
fields to give them fertility and to revive the world. The remaining
portions of the flesh were eaten and blood drunk to give new life
to the participants. It was believed by them that if this ceremony
was not performed, the world would grow old and die.
In the course of time the chosen sacrificial victim, who even
in the midst of pleasures was haunted by the thought of his
destined gruesome end, con.spLd with the priests to have a
substitute slaughtered in his plait-. The man originally chosen
would abdicate for a short while, the substitute would be
b.
7.
A.C. Hocart,Kingship. (The Thinker's Library, London 1941).

Lord Raglan, The O-Tp&is o f Religion. (The Thinker's Library, I-ondo,
19).
INTRODUCTION
compelled to take his place, and be sacrificed. He would then

resume his place of honour, thus becoming a sort of permanent
ruler. Lord Raglan traces the origins of the idea of God as well as
of kingship to the sacrificial victim. The m an who had been origi
nally chosen to be the sacrificial victim, but had thus managed
to become the permanent guest of the community, while his sub
stitutes were slaughtered year after year, was the first king as
well as the first living God. When later on his divinity came to be
regarded as something separate and distinct from him, though
residing in him, the idea of the invisible God took birth, and the
man who was king and living God began to be regarded as the
incarnation of the invisible God or as his son. In the course of
years several myths of saviour-god were invented on the basis of
this rite. It was believed that by his death and resurrection in
some, remote time, God had given new life and salvation to man.
The most important ceremony connected with the cult of the
saviour-god was the symbolical eating of his flesh and drinking of
his blood, which was supposed to bring the partaker into com
munion with him.
It m ust be admitted that each one of the theories mentioned
above contains some element of truth. These theories do give sat
isfactory explanations of the origins of many religious beliefs and
customs even now found among different communities. But none
of them can be said to have explained away the whole of religion.
There are many religious beliefs and practices, on the origins of
which these theories, taken individually or collectively, can throw
no light. Each one of these theories takes it for granted that
religion has evolved from the crude to the refined, from primitive
polytheism to moral monotheism. This, however, is not supported
by many facts placed before us by several other anthropologists.
For instance, Andrew Lang, on the basis of some indisputable
facts about pre-historic and primitive societies, puts forward the
"hypothesis of an early Supreme Being among savages, obscured
later by ancestor-worship and ghost-gods".8
Pater W. Schmidt adopted Lang's thesis and has written
largely about the conception of a transcendent, all-good God
among prehistoric people. Schmidt claims that definite evidence
is now available to prove that "these High Gods, in their oldest
form, come before all other elements of religion, be they naturism,
fetishism, ghost-worship, animism, totemism, or magism, from
one or other of which the earlier evolutionistic theories had
8.
Andrew Lang, The Making of Religion. London, 1998
derived the origin of religion".9

From this it is clear that the more exalted religious ideas,
such as belief in a transcendent, all-good God and the obligation
to shun all forms of evil and to do good in obedience to Him, have
existed side by side with primitive and crude customs, like ances
tor-worship, fetishism, totemism, etc., from the very beginning
and in all ages. It would not be right to say that the former have
evolved from the latter. This can lead to only one conclusion that
there have been two entirely different sources of religious beliefs
and practices; that, in fact, there have always been two kinds of
religion the Man-made and the Revealed.
Man-made religion includes animism, corpse-worship, ances
tor-worship, king-worship and magical and unedifying rites and
sacrifices. The innate and natural religious urge in man has led
him to attribute sacredness to several things, to invent and adopt
many objects of worship and to find religious expression in per
forming all sorts of rites. But as m an's mental faculties were not
adequate to the task, the religions that he invented lacked truth
and were not very ennobling. At best they were only vague
guesses at truth. It is only this part of the complex whole called
religion which the anthropologists have succeeded in accounting
for.
The more sublime and exalted religious ideas and practices
are beyond the scope of anthropological study. They were revealed
to m an by God. The one and only God not only creates and
sustains the world, but also reveals Himself to m an and guides
him to the right path. He has not left the people of any country
or of any age without true guidance, for He is the Lord and
Cherisher of all mankind. All revealed religions in their original
forms preached faith in the one and only God, Who is All-good,
All-loving, All-knowing, Almighty; and exhorted men to submit
themselves to His will and to do good. For, what pleases God is
not rituals and sacrifices, but truth, sincerity and kindness. The
proof that He wants from them of their love for Him is that they
should love and serve His creatures.
These two types of religion the Man-made and the Revealed
are, therefore, very diiferent from each other. God has been
sending His prophets and messengers to make the people give up
man-made religions and adopt the revealed religion. But old
habits die slowly. Some elements of the man-made religions
9.
Pater W. Schmidt, High Gods ir, North America, p.3; Oxford, 1933.
INTRODUCTION
survive and are absorbed into the revealed religion. The priests of
the old religion and the half-hearted believers of the new find it
convenient and perhaps profitable to carry on with the old prac
tices. They revive them after the passing away of the prophets and
mix them up with the beliefs and practices of the revealed reli
gion. With the passage of time the spirit departs from the revealed
religion, it becomes corrupt, and novel interpretations begin to be
given to it. Thus, we find that most of the existing religions are
mixtures of elements taken from man-made and revealed relig
ions.
Chapter I
HINDUISM
Hinduism is the oldest among the great religions of the world.
Unlike other world religions, such as Buddhism, Christianity or
Islam, Hinduism did not have any one founder. It grew gradually
over a period of five thousand years absorbing and assimilating
all the religious and cultural movements of India. The two main
religious streams that originally met and mingled in Hinduism are
those of the Dravidians and Indo-Aryans.
THE RELIGION OF THE DRAVIDIANS
The Dravidians had reached a very high level of civilization

long before the appearance of the Aryans in the Indo-Pakistan
subcontinent. There is evidence that by 2,500 B.C. the Indus
Valley civilization, established by the Dravidians in what is now
Pakistan, was already quite advanced. It was an urban and liter
ate culture, using copper and bronze, but not iron, for making
tools and weapons, and having regular trade contacts with Sumer
and Akkad. The ruins of its twin capitals, Harappa in the North
and Mohenjo-daro in the South, laid out to a common ground
plan, provide evidence of a highly organized and developed
community under some strong system of centralized government.
Some very beautiful works.of sculpture, engraved seals, painted
pottery, toys, ornaments, and objects used in outdoor and indoor
games have been found at the Dravidian archaeological sites.
We do not know as much as we would like to about the re
ligion of the Dravidians. Their inscriptions in a kind of pictographic script have not been deciphered. However, several relics
found in Harappa and Mohenjo-daro give us some clue to the
nature of their religion. The numerous clay figurines of women
suggest that there was some form of worship of a mother-goddess
among them. There is also a seal which bears a representation of
a female form, from whose womb a plant is shown coming out,
which suggests the idea of an earth-goddess concerned with
vegetation. Such goddesses are common in present-day Hindu
ism. There are several representations on seals of the Indus
Valle}/ of a male god, homed and three-faced, sitting in the
posture of a yogi his legs crossed, flanked by antelopes and
surrounded on one seal by four beasts elephant, tiger, rhinocerous and buffalo. This is the prototype of the great Hindu god
Shiva as Lord of Beasts and Prince of Yogis.
12
There is also evidence among the Indus Valley people of phallic

worship, with representations of the male and female generative
organs; of tree worship, particularly the pipal tree; of the worship
of the so-called sacred animals, such as the humped bull, cow and
serpent. All these features passed into Hinduism; as did also
image-worship, asceticism, the practice of yoga and meditation,
religious gatherings on banks of rivers and tanks, and m ass ritual
bathing. It is also likely that the doctrines of the incarnation (avtar)
and transmigration are Dravidian contributions to Hinduism.
The Indus Valley Civilization came to a sudden end sometime
between 2000 and 1500 B.C. The last phase of this civilization was
a time of insecurity and trouble. There is unmistakable evidence of
violence, plunder and destruction by foreign invaders. The culture
of these new people, the destroyers of the Indus Valley civilization,
who came in large groups and successive waves, was much more
primitive, and their way of life, religious beliefs and practices,
entirely different from those of the Dravidians of the Indus Valley.
THE VEDIC RELIGION
The historians speak of these new-comers as a people belong
ing to the IndoEuropean family, who called themselves Aryans.
For our information about the culture and religion of the IndoAryans we depend almost entirely on the Vedas, four very remark
able collections of hymns. These are the Rig Veda, the Yajur Veda,
the Sama Veda and the Atharva Veda. Of these, the Rig Veda,
which is a collection of 1028 hymns, is the earliest and by far the
most important.
The religion of the Indo-Aiyans, as found in the Rig Veda, may
be described as Nature-worship. The Vedic gods are personifica
tions, more or less anthropomorphic, of the various powers of
Nature. Agni is the god of fire, Vayu the god of wind, Surya the god
of the sun, and so on. They are looked upon as higher beings and
it is man's duty to worship, obey and propitiate them. Thus, there
were many gods that the Aryans worshipped. K. M. Sen writes :
"Now the religion of the Aryans as it appears from the Vedas, was
on the whole, polytheistic, and the Vedic mythology seems to reveal
some similarities with its European counterpart.1
Although the Vedic pantheon is quite large, there are scone
deities who are more important than the others. The most impor
tant is Indra, and about one-quarter of the hymns in the Rig Veda
are addressed to him. He is the god of the blue sky, the gatherer
I.
K.M. Sen, Hinduism, Penguin Books, p. 18.
HINDUISM
13
of the clouds, the giver of rain and the wielder of the thunderbolt.
He helps his Aryan devotees in vanquishing their foes in battle. He
is uncommonly fond of an intoxicating drink extracted from a
creeper called som a Morally far above the other gods stands the
awe-compelling deity Varuna, another representative of the high
est heaven. 'This god", writes Max Muller, "is one of the most inter
esting creations of the Hindu mind, because though we can still
perceive the physical background from which he rises, the vast,
starry, brilliant expanse above, his features, more than those of
any of the Vedic gods, have become completely transfigured, and he
stands before us as a god who watches over the world, punishes the
evil-doer, and even forgives the sins of those who implore his
pardon".2
There is one aspect of the idea of divinity to which we should
call particular attention, viz., its intimate association with what is
described as rta. Rta means "cosmic order", the maintenance of
which is the purpose of all the gods; and later it also came to mean
"right", so that the gods were conceived as preserving the world not
merely from physical disorder but also from moral chaos. The one
idea is, in fact, implicit in the other; and there is order in the
universe because its control is in righteous hands. Of this principle
of righteousness, Varuna is the chief support. But the other gods
also, not excluding Indra, show it in some degree or other.
The chief form of worship enjoined in the Vedas is Yajna -- i.e.,
sacrifice to the gods. The performance centred around a sacrificial
fire and offerings were thrown into it. The offerings consisted of
butter, milk, meat, grain cooked in milk, intoxicating drinks, and
other such items. The animals chiefly sacrif iced were goats, sheep,
cows, buffalos and, occasionally, horses. The sacrifice was primar
ily looked upon as a method of pleasing the gods and obtaining
favours from them.
In the later hymns of the Rig Veda we notice a development
towards monotheism. It grows around the god Prajapati, the Lord
of Creation. "But", in the words of Dr. Radhakrishnan, "this mono
theism is not as yet the trenchant clear-cut monotheism of the
modem world".3 While a few hymns recognise Prajapati as the
Supreme God and Lord of all creatures, the reality of the other gods
is not denied. As Max Muller says. With this conception of Praja
pati as the Lord of created things and the supreme deity, the
2. Max Muller. India, what It Can Teach Us? pp. 169-170 (longtnan , Green and
Co., C alcutta, 1934).
3. S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol I, p. 26 (George Allen and Unwin,

London. 1923).
14
J'lIE GREAT RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD
monotheistic yearning was satisfied, even though the existence of

other gods was not denied."
Nevertheless, in the following verse of the Rig Veda we do find
the germ of a true monotheistic religion and a monistic philosophy:
That which is ONE, sages name it in various ways they call
it Agni, Yama, Matarisvan" (The Rig Veda, I. 164 : 46).
There is no mention in the Vedas of many typical Hindu doc
trines and practices. There is no idolatry, nothing about ritual
bathing in sacred rivers, no reference to forest-dwelling hermits, no
asceticism or yoga exercises. There is no authority for the Hindu
doctrines of Avlars and metempsychosis. The Indo-Aryan society
was divided into three classes -- the warriors, priests and artisans
-- but, as Max Muller points out, there was no system of caste.
Women enjoyed a much higher status than in later Hinduism.
When we pass from the Rig Veda to the Atharva Veda, we notice
a great deeline in religion, which now becomes another name for
dark superstitions and magical practices. Dr. Radhakrishnan
writes :
The religion of the Atharva Veda is that of the primitive man,
to whom the world is full of shapeless ghosts of dead. When he
realises his helplessness against the natural forces, the precarious
ness of his own existence so constantly subject to death, he makes
death and disease, failure of monsoon and earthquake, the play
ground of his fancy. The world becomes crowded with goblins and
gods, and the catastrophes of the world are traced to dissatisfied
spirits. When a man falls ill, the magician and not the physician is
sent for, and he employs spells to entice the spirit away from the
patient. The terrific powers could only be appeased by bloody
sacrifices, human and animal. The fear of death gave a loose rein
to superstition".4
BRAHMINISM
With the passage of time the Indian Aryans advanced beyond

the Punjab and entered the valley of the Ganges and the Jam una.
They succeeded in subduing the local inhabitants, whom they
reduced to the position of Sudra slaves. During this period a
struggle was also going on within the Aryan society itself
between the warriors (Kshatriyas) and the priests (Brahmins). So
far the warriors were on top, but now the priests emerged as the
highest and most powerful class. They came to enjoy in course of
4. The1 Indian Philosophy, Vol.I, p. 119-120.
15
HINDUISM
time an almost divine status and honour and gave rise to an

invidious caste system. This coincided with the emergence of a new
kind of religion among them. This new religious phase has been
aptly designated 'Brahminism'.
The books in which this religion is enshrined are the Brahamanas. They were composed by the Brahmin priests about 8th
century B.C. to explain the supernatural origin and power of the
sacrifices. They give long and minute details of how the sacrificial
ritual was to be performed and abound with curious legends,
hum an and divine, in illustration of the sacrificial rites.
The sacrifice, to quote Professor Hopkins, "became a mere mill
mechanically worked to ground out future rewards as well as
present blessings." It came to be regarded as a magical ceremony
and its efficacy depended on its exact performance. "More notewor
thy than this elaboration," writes Professor Hiriyanna, "was the
change that came over the spirit with which the offerings were
made to the gods in this period. What prompted the performance
of sacrifices was no longer the thought of prevailing upon the gods
to bestow some favour or to ward off some danger; it was rather to
compel or coerce them to do what the sacriflcer wanted to be done.
This change of spirit is explained by many among modem scholars
as the importing of magical elements into the Vedic religion, and is
taken by them as a sign of the transfer of power from the gods to
the priests".5
In Brahminism we find for the first time the exaltation of the
Vedas as divine books. The Vedas themselves had made no such
claim.
THE RELIGION OF THE UPANISHADS
The next phase in the development of religious thought in India

brings us to the first great revolt against Brahminism. The teach
ings of the Rishis, or Divinely-inspired sages, who were responsible
for this amazing development, are preserved in the Upanishads.
Professor Hiriyanna writes :
"Broadly speaking, the teaching of the Upanishads marks a
reaction against that of the Brahmanas which, as already pointed
out, inculcate an elaborate system of ritual. In more than one
place, they decry the value of sacrifices".6
5. M, Hiriyanna, The Essentials of Indian Philosophy, p. 17. (George Allen and
Unwin Ltd., London 1948.)
6. The Essentials o f Indian Philosophy, P. 18.
16
The inspired sages of the Upanishads condemned the Brahmin

priests and their rituals in no uncertain terms :
"Finite and transient are the fruits of sacrificial rites. The de
luded, who regard them as the highest goal, remain subject to birth
and death. Living in the abyss of ignorance, yet wise in their own
conceits, the deluded go round and round, like the blind led by the
blind. Living in the abyss of ignorance, the deluded think them
selves blest. Attached to works (of sacrifice), they know not God"
(Mundaka Upanishad, I. 2 : 7-8)7
An important dogma of Brahminism was the belief in the eter
nity and Divine origin of the Vedas. The sage Angiras has no
hesitation in rejecting this dogma :
Those who know Brahman (God)," replied Angiras, "say that
there are two kinds of knowledge : the higher and the, lower. The
lower is the knowledge of the Vedas the Rig, the Sama, the Yajur,
and the Atharva and also of phonetics, ceremonials, grammar,
etymology, metre, and astronomy. The higher is the knowledge of
that by which one knows the changeless reality". (Mundaka Upani
shad. I. 1 : 3-4).
The main theme of the Upanishads is the Unity of God. The
Upanishadic name for the One true God is Brahman. It is written:
"He is the eternal among things that pass away, pure con
sciousness of conscious beings, the ONE who fulfils the prayers of
many ... He is the never-created creator of all : He knows all. He
is pure consciousness, the creator of time : all-powerful,
all-knowing. He is the Lord of the soul and of nature... He is the
God of light, immortal in His glory, pure consciousness. Omnipres
ent, the loving protector of all. He is the everlasting ruler of the
world : could there be any ruler but he ? ..." I go for refuge to Gpd
who is ONE in the silence of Eternity, pure radiance of beauty and
perfection, in whom we find our peace." (Svetasvatara Upanishad.
VI : 13:19).
"Unmanifest to the senses, beyond all thought, infinite in form,

is God. He is the doer of all good; He is for ever tranquil : He is
immortal. He is One, without beginning, middle or end; He is allpervading. He is infinite wisdom, and He is bliss" (Kaivalya Upani
shad, verse 5).7
7. live Upanishads, translated by Swami Prabhavananda and Frederick Man
chester (Mentor Books). Other translations of the Upanishads consulted and
quoted in this chapter are by (i) F. Max Muller (Sacred Books of the East);
(ii) Juan Mascaro (Penguin classics).
HINDUISM
17
He is both transcendent and immanent; not only in the uni

verse and souls of men, but also beyond the universe :
"Self-luminous is that Being, and formless. He dwells within all
and without all. He is unborn, pure, greater than the greatest,
without breath, without mind". (Mundaka Upanishad, II. 1 :2 ).
Another term which frequently occurs in the Upanishads is
Atman. It means the "individual self', as distinct from Brahman, the
"Universal Self'. Atman, however, is not the body, nor the senses,
nor life, nor yet the mind. It is the soul, the inmost essence of one's
own self. The Upanishads at several places make the somewhat
startling statement that "Atman is Brahman" (or, in the words of
the Chandogya Upanishad, 'That art Thou"), but this is no more
startling than the statement of Jesus, "I and the Father are one",
or of the Muslim mystic Mansur al-Hallaj, "Ana'l Haqq" (I am the
Truth). These statem ents mean that God is manifest in each indi
vidual soul, or as the Qur'an puts it, th at God has breathed His
spirit into every man. They imply the possibility of soul's union with
God, and are, in fact, expressions of that oneness. It is God Himself
who speaks through the mouth of the mystic when, in his ecstasy
of God-consciousness and self-forgetfulness, he cries : "I am the
Truth.
The Upanishads tell us that the goal of a spiritually-awakened
person is to find God, to know Him by becoming one with Him ;
"Brahman is the end of the journey. Brahman is the supreme
goal. This Brahman, the Self, deep hidden in all beings, is not
revealed to all, but to seers, pure in heart, concentrated in mind -------to them is He revealed". (Katha Upanishad 3 : 11-12).
And this is what the Katha Upanishad says about the way
leading to the goal of union with God :
"By learning a man cannot know Him, if he desist not from evil,
if he control not his senses, if he quiet not his mind, and practice
not meditation" (Katha Upanishad 2 : 24).
The Way may be divided into four stages : (1) the stage of moral
endeavour and purity of heart, (2) the stage of discipleship and
study with an enlightened guru (sravana), (3) the stage of reflection
(manana), and (4) the stage of meditation (dhyana).
The Isha Upanishad (verses 12-14) makes it quite clear that the
true way is not the way of self-mortification or renunciation and
withdrawal from the world. It is the Middle Path.
18
THE RELIGION OF SRI KRISHNA
We now come to the second great religious movement that

rejected the Vedas and developed independently of and in opposi
tion to Brahminism. It was called the Bhagvata Religion, and its
prophet was Krishna. Professor Garbe traces five different stages in
the history of the growth of the Bhagvata Religion.8 In the first stage
it flourished outside Brahminism. It was a monotheistic religion
which emphasized righteousness and disinterested performance of
one's duty. Krishna was regarded at this stage as a prophet, a man
who was inspired by God to preach the true religion. In the second
stage Sri Krishna was deified after his death by his credulous and
ignorant followers. In the third stage, which commenced about 500
B.C., the Brahminising of the Bhagvata Religion look place and Sri
Krishna was identified with the Hindu god Vishnu. Professor Hiriyanna writes :
The monotheistic creed came, in the course of time, to be
combined with the Vedic cult of Vishnu-Narayana; and it was this
combination that chiefly contributed to make the God of Vaisnav
ism even more personal than that of Saivisin. Somewhat later Sri
Krishna, the prophet of the Bhagvata religion, was deified and iden
tified with Vishnu-Narayana, as an incarnation of him".9
The fourth stage in the transformation of the Bhagvata Religion
was that of Vaisnavism, the chief characteristic of which was the
intense devotion to the personal god Vishnu, who was accepted not
only as the preserver, but also as the creator and destroyer of the
universe. Thus, Vaishnavism set aside the original triune equality
of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva in favour of the god Vishnu. His two
manifestations in hum an form were said to be Krishna and Rama.
Last of all came the philosophical systemization of Vaisnavism at
tempted by the great theologian Ramanuja, the exponent of Modi
fied Monism (Visistadvaita).
The Bhagvad Gita, the scripture of the Bhagvata Religion, in its
present form belongs to the fourth stage. As such, Sri Krishna
appears in it as the Supreme God, the incarnation of Vishnu. The
Bhagvad Gita underwent a great deal of alteration, revision adap
tation and interpolation before it reached its present form and was
incorporated in the Hindu epic, the Mahabharata.
8.
9.
Richard Garbe, Philosophy o f ancient India (Open Court, Chicago, 1899).

M. Hiriyanna, The Essentials of Indian Philosophy, p. 35
HINDUISM
19
Like the inspired Rishis of the Upanishads. Sri Krishna also

rejected the Brahminical sacrificial system and belief in the Divine
origin of the Vedas. He said that the Vedas were of as little use as
was a small tank in a place covered all over with water.10
The religion of Sri Krishna was clearly monotheistic :
Those whose minds are ever serene win the victory of life on
this earth. God is pure and ever one, and ever one they are in God"
(Bhagvad Gita 5 .19).
The Bhagvata Religion was the religion of self-surrender to God:
"When a man surrenders all desires that come to the heart and
by the grace of God finds the joy of God, then his soul has indeed
found peace (The Bhagvad Gita 2 : 55).
Sri Krishna, the Prophet of the Bhagvata Religion, taught his
follower's to perform all actions sacramentally or as worship of God.
The Bhagvad Gita calls this Bhakti-Yoga :
'The world is in the bonds of action, unless the action is con
secration. Let thy action then be pure, free from the bonds of
desire" (The Bhagvad Gita 3 :9 ) .
"Offer all thy works to God, throw off selfish bonds and do thy
work. No sin can then stain thee, even as waters do not stain the
leaf of the lotus" (Bhagvad Gita, 5 : 10).
He also called upon his followers to go on doing their duty,
irrespective of its consequences. Their concern should be with
doing what they believed to be right, not with its rewards or fruits:
"Set thy heart upon thy work, but never on its reward. Work not for
a reward: but never cease to do thy work (Bhagvad Gita. 2 : 47.) The
Bhagvad Gita describes this disinterested performance of one's
duty as Karma-Yoga. There is, however, no real difference between
Bhakti-Yoga and Karma-Yoga.
The Bhagvad Gita stands for the Middle Path (6 : 16). It exhorts
men to have goodwill for all, to love all human beings, to control
desires and passions, to root out egoism, to be devoted to truth, to
cultivate purity of heart and serenity, to be gentle, modest, and
forgiving (16 : 1-4). The ultimate goal of a man's life, it says, is to
"find peace in the peace of his God" (2 : 71-72).
10. The Bhagvad Gita, 2: 42 46, traslatcd by Ju an Mascaro (Penguin classics).
Other translations of the Bhagvad Gita consulted and quoted in this chapter
arc by (i) K.T. Telang (Sacred Books of the East) ; (ii) Mrs. Annie Bcsant
(Theosophical society) ; (iii) Swami Irabhavananda and Christopher Ishcrwood (Mentor Books).
20
THE EMERGENCE OF HINDUISM
India is a land of many races, cultures and religions. We have

described some of these religious movements in the foregoing
pages. Now we have reached that stage when we witness an
amazing attempt to include all these diverse religious beliefs, phi
losophies and practices into one system, which we call Hinduism.
We see the manifestation of the peculiar Hindu spirit -- spirit of
synthesis and compromise. Hinduism absorbs into itself the reli
gious ideas, images and practices of the Dravidians, the Vedic
Aryans, the Brahmanas, the Upanishads, the Bhagvata Religion of
Sri Krishna, and also the animistic and primitive practices and
fancies of the aborigines of India. It organizes this heterogeneous
and apparently incongruous material into one system, but it does
not kill variety or demand rigid adherence to any creed or to any
one religious conception or any particular mode of worship.
The Dravidians have given to Hinduism many of their deities
(including Siva and the mother-goddesses), their religious customs
of image-worship, asceticism and ritual bathing in sacred rivers,
and their doctrines of transmigration and avtars. Siva was first
identified with the Vedic storm-god Rudra, and later on rose to be
one of the three chief gods. The Vedic religion has contributed its
sacrificial system and nature-gods. From the Brahmanas have
come the belief in the eternity of the Vedas, the caste system and
a number of elaborate rituals and ceremonies. The Upanishads,
which were originally composed to decry and condemn Brahminism, were made to compromise with it, and their sublime concep
tion of the Ultimate Reality and path of union with God were
included in Hinduism. Sri Krishna, who had founded a separate
religion, was also taken into Hinduism and made an autar, or
incarnation, of the Hindu god Vishnu; his Scripture, the Bhagvad
Gila, was incorporated after appropriate revision into the Hindu
epic Mahabharala, and his monotheism and exalted moral teach
ing became a part of Hinduism.
Apart from the Dravidians and Aryans, there were in India a
large number of aborigines. They had a very low level of culture.
They worshipped demons and ghosts, and also rivers, mountains,
trees and animals. Their modes and objects of worship have also
entered Hinduism. Among the deities that appear to have come
from the cults of the aborigines are the terrible goddess Kali, (who
is described in the Hindu mythology as the wife of Siva), and the
god Ganesh, half elephant half man, who is said to be one of the
sons of Siva and Parvati.
21
HINDUISM
It is sometimes said that Hinduism is a store-house of all kinds

of religious experiments, and not a single religion. In the words of
Jawaharlal Nehru :
"Hinduism, as a faith, is vague, amorphous, many-sided, all
things to all men. It is hardly possible to define it, or indeed to say
definitely whether it is a religion or not, in the usual sense of the
word. In its present form, and even in the past, it embraces many
beliefs and practices, from the highest to the lowest, often opposed
to or contradicting each other".11
While his religion allows a Hindu freedom to believe in any
conception of the Divine (polytheism, pantheism, or monotheism)
and to adopt any object and manner of worship (with or without
images), it demands strict conformity in the observance of certain
rules of conduct as they affect the Hindu social fabric and caste
system. Mrs. Anjiie Besant writes :
"Freedom of opinion, but orthodoxy in life, these have been
characteristic of Hinduism through its long evolution....A Hindu
may think as he will about God as one with the universe, sepa
rate. from the universe, or may even exclude Him entirely and yet
be orthodox; but he m ust not intermarry with another caste, nor
eat polluted food".*12
We have so far studied the evolution of the Hindu religion and
the origin and growth of the different faiths that were finally ab
sorbed into Hinduism. We shall now examine the different aspects
of this religion its theology, its philosophy, its social institutions,
its moral values.
THE ONE AND THE MANY
In Hinduism, as stated earlier, there is absolute freedom in

matters of belief. There are many different interpretations of the
Scriptures, all of which are regarded as equally orthodox. A Hindu
may believe in any conception of God that he finds convincing or
comforting. A large number of philosophically-minded Hindus
believe that the Ultimate Reality or God is an absolute unity "One
only, without a second." It is infinite, eternal, changeless, abso
lute.13 It contains all, therefore, no particular thing can be said of
It, It is all, therefore no one thing can be ascribed to it. Hindus of
11 Jawaharlal Nehru, The Discovery o f India, p. 52 (Signet Press, Calcutta 1947.)
12. Annie B esant Hinduism, p.5 (Theosophical Publishing House, Adyar, Madras
1935.)
13. Hinduism uses the pronoun IT or THAT, and n< lc, for the impersonal
Absolute Being or God.
22
this school of thought do not define the one Ultimate Reality, or

World Soul, in terms of a personal God. It is impersonal and attrib
uteless (nir-guna). However, not all Hindus believe in this concept
of God; as the one impersonal, attributeless Absolute (nirguna
Brahman). There are several schools or sects of Hinduism which
believe in God as the Supreme Person, having attributes {sa-guna),
with whom man can enter into a meaningful relationship. The one
true personal God is called Ishvara or Bhagavan. He is declared to
be in His nature Sat (Infinite Being), Chit (Infinite Consciousness),
and Anand (Infinite Bliss). Ishvara (God) manifests Himself in three
personal forms (the Trimurti) : Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. These
three forms, though separated by their functions, are one in es
sence. They are, in fact, personifications or mythological represen
tations of the three primary aspects or attributes of God
Brahma is the Creator. In Hindu mythology, Brahma is said to
be bom of the Golden Egg, which appeared in the beginning in
infinite space. After lying in it for a year he divided it into two parts,
one half of the shell became the heavens and the other half the
earth. Between them was the sky. During his life Brahma sleeps
and wakes periodically. When he wakes the world flourishes; when
he sleeps all beings cease to exist. His wife is Sarasvati, the goddess
of wisdom. All creation comes from the union of these two. He rides
on Hansa, the swan, and his heaven, Brahma-loka, is on Mount
Meru, surrounded by the waters of the sacred river Ganges.
Vishnu is the Preserver. He is a dark god, with four hands, one
holding a club, another a shell or conch, the third a discuss, and
the fourth a lotus. His wife is Lakshmi, the goddess of happiness
and prosperity. He rides on the divine bird Garuda. There are ten
incarnations (avtars) of Vishnu; the two most important being
Rama, the hero of the epic Ramayana, and Krishna, the God-man
of the other great epic, the Mahabharata. Not only was Krishna, the
prophet of the monotheistic Bhagavata religion, made the incarna
tion of the Hindu god Vishnu, but what is even more surprising, he
was also identified with the boy-god of a nomadic tribe of cowherds,
whose name perhaps was also Krishna, and many tales were told
of his pranks and love affairs with gopis (milkmaids); his favourite
mistress of his youthful years was Radha. He is said to have had
16,108 wives.
Shiva, the third god of the Hindu Trinity, is the Destroyer. He
is pictured as an ascetic. He rides on the sacred bull and his
dwelling is at Kailasa. He has four hands and is always dressed in
tiger skin, with braided hair and a serpent around his neck. His
HINDUISM
23
symbol is Linga or Phallus. His wife is Parvati; Durga and the

terTible goddess Kali are both manifestations of Parvati. Ganesha,
the elephant-headed god of success, is the best-known of the many
sons of Shiva.
Apart from the Trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, the
Hindus also believe in and worship many devas or nature-gods.
They are supposed to guide the whole course of Nature and direct
all its activities. The favour of the devas may be obtained by what
is literally exchange : men supplying them through sacrifice the
objects that they enjoy, and they, in return, "ranting men that
which they desire. Thus we read in the Bhagavad Gita:
"With this (i.e., sacrificial offering) nourish you the gods, and
may the gods nourish you. For nourished by sacrifice, the gods
shall bestow on you the enjoyments you desire" (3 : 11-12).
Educated Hindus maintain that this large number of gods and
goddesses the trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, their wives
and children (whose idols are worshipped in Hindu homes and
temples), the incarnations of Vishnu and the pantheon of devagods does not amount to a denial of the unity of God. They are
only different manifestations or symbolic forms in which the same
one and only God is worshipped. Thus, Swami Vivekananda writes:
"At the very outset, I may tell you that there is no polytheism
in India. In every temple, if one stands by and listens, one will find
the worshippers applying all the attributes of God, including
omnipresence, to the images. It is not polytheism, nor would the
name henotheism explain the situation".14
Louis Renou, however, takes a different view, According to him:
"Hinduism is fundamentally polytheistic, not only at the exot
eric level but also in the speculative order where the role of the
concrete and the figurative god is never abolished. Undoubtedly
there axe variations in this feeling for a plurality of gods. The
philosophers combine it (on another plane) with a belief in one
supreme principle, sometimes personified as Lord (Ishvara), some
times conceived as a neuter deity or an impersonal Absolute
(Brahman). This absolute principle may itself be composed of a
qualified form' (saguna) which is at times considered to be of prime
importance while at others is reduced to the level of 'inferior
knowledge'. The common believer is not conversant with the notion
of divine unity, which belongs rather to the sphere of the
14. Swami Vivekananda, Essentials o f Hinduism, p. 40 (Advaita Ashrama, Cal
cutta 1966.)
24
philosophers and is not represented in any direct cult. For the non
philosophers. diversity appears normal. From this diversity the
believer selects his chosen god (istadevata); his choice implies that
he recognizes the importance of other divine forms such as the
divine couple or paredres. Such a choice is concomitant with the
hierarchization which can be observed in the dharma on the social,
moral or ritualistic planes".15
KARMA AND TRANSMIGRATION
Hindus are not agreed on the question of the origin of the world.
Some believe that the world was created by God out of nothing, but
those who hold this view are not many. A much larger number
believes that the world is the manifestation of God. that which was
inward has become outward. There are also many who think that
the material world is an illusion (maya) and exists only because of
cosmic ignorance (avidya), that in reality nothing exists but the
ONE (Brahman). The followers of the Samkhya and Yoga schools of
Hindu philosophy, and also the Arya Samajis. are of the view that
both matter (prakril) and spirit (pu.ru.sh) are uncreated and eternal.
The world is the result of the interplay (with or without God's
intervention) of matter and spirit.
Individual spirits or souls (jiva) appear in this world to work out
their salvation by slow course of evolution, through countless
births and deaths. This present life of each individual is not his first
in this world. He has had countless lives in the past, his soul
having inhabited many different bodies, and he will probably have
many more lives in the future. With each bodily death, the immor
tal soul' receives a new body in which to start a new life in this
world. This is what we read in the Bhagavad Gita :
"As a m an leaves an old garment and puts on one that is new,
the spirit leaves his mortal body and wanders on to one that is new"
(2
22 ).
All that a m an is in this life, the kind of body that he has, his
position in society, his caste, his intelligence, his happiness or sor
row, is the result of his actions in his past life. This is the doctrine
of Karma. As a man soweth so shall the reap :
"According as a man acts and walks in the path of life, so he
becomes. He that does good becomes good; he that does evil
becomes evil. By pure actions he becomes pure (and happy); by evil
actions he becomes evil (and unhappy)" (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad IV, 4 ; 4).
15. U>uis Renou, Hinduism, p. 19.(Washington Square Press Hook, N
1963)
-York,
25
HINDUISM
If he faithfully performs his duty, his dharma, in this life, he will

be bom in a better body and a higher caste and lead a prosperous
life in the next birth. But if he neglects his dharma and does evil,
he will be reborn in worse condition, may be even in the body of one
of the lower animals.
But on the death of one mortal body the soul does not imme
diately reappear in a new body in this world. It first goes to heaven
(svargaj or hell (naraka), depending on the deeds of the man. There
he will suffer pain or enjoy pleasures till he has earned the full
fruits of his deeds. Having exhausted the fruits of his good or evil
deeds, he will be reborn in a new body :
"Reaching the end of the journey (in heaven or hell) begun by
his works on earth, from that world a man returns to this world of
hum an action. Thus far for the man who lives under desire"
(Brihadaranyaka Upanishad IV. 4: 6).
To the wheel of births and deaths is a man bound by desire and
ignorance. But when he conquers his desires and destroys igno
rance. he gains his salvation, Mukti or Moksha; for him there is no
rebirth in this world. He becomes one with God; some believe that
the individual soul is absorbed in the World Soul, but others are
of the view that even in union with God, each soul retains its
separate identity and seif-conciousness.
THE THREE PATHS
Hinduism believes that there are different paths to God for

different types of men. Generally speaking there are three types of
men. Some are basically reflective and philosophical. Some others
are primarily emotional. The third type are essentially active. For
each of these personality types Hinduism proposes a different path
or marga to salvation. All paths begin with certain moral prelimi
naries, such as cultivating the habits of and practising non-injuiy,
truthfulness, non-stealing, self-control, contentment, and a com
pelling desire to reach the goal.
The Jnana-Marga (the path of union with God through knowl
edge) is intended for a spiritual aspirant who has a strong intel
lectual bent. For him Hinduism proposes a series of meditations
and logical demonstrations to develop in him the power of dis
crimination between the real and the unreal. With true knowledge
he destroys illusion (maya or avidya) and realizes his oneness with
God.
The Bhakti-Marga (the path of union through love and devotion)
is for him in whom emotions predominate. While the man of
intellect conceives Goa primarily in impersonal terms, the man of
26
emotions is drawn towards one or more of the personal gods. He

adores and worships either Siva, or one of the incarnations of
Vishnu (Rama or Krishna), or their consorts, Lakshmi, Sarasvati,
Durga, Kali and Radha. He expresses his love for them by perform
ing devotional rites, or by making offerings of food and flowers to
their idols, or through dance and song, Gradually the soul of the
devotee takes on the qualities of the god he worships, becoming
that which he adores. Finally the love that worshipped finds the
object of its worship embracing it, and feels itself merging into
complete unity with its Beloved.
The Karma-Marga (the path of union through work) is for him
who is primarily active. The m an of action leam s to perform action
as duty without desire for the m iits of work. He performs his duty
as a soldier or as a practical man of the world with scrupulous
fidelity. This path also leads to the same goal as the first two paths,
that is the goal of salvation or union with God.
THE FOUR ASHRAMAS
According to Hinduism, the ideal life for the twice-born (that is,
men of the three higher castes) is divided into four stages for
Ashramas.
The first stage is that of the student, bound to celibacy (Brahmachari); it begins after the rite of initiation, between the ages of
eight and twelve, and lasts for twelve years. During this period the
student usually lives in the house of his teacher and serves him in
return for the instruction he receives. His duty is to acquire the
knowledge of the Dharma and the Scriptures.
The second stage is that of the householder (Grahastha); it
begins with marriage. The householder's duty is to beget children,
strive after wealth and succeed in his chosen career. He must also
discharge his duty to the community to which he belongs. He is
expected to perform a large number of daily and seasonal religious
ceremonies and rites and to make offerings to the gods and the
spirits of his ancestors.
The third stage is that of the forest-dweller (Vanaprastha); it
begins when a m an is growing old and has grandchildren. He m ust
retreat to the forest to loosen the bonds of the world and devote
himself completely to religious exercises.
Hie fourth and last stage is that of the hermit (Sannyasin). In
it a m an lives alone, renounces everything, even his family, gradu
ally reduces his food to a morsel a day, and waits and prepares for
death.
HINDUISM
27
THE CASTE SYSTEM
The Hindu Scriptures (Shruti) and law books (Dharma Shastra)

divided the entire body of Hindus into four separate and socially
unequal castes the Brahmins (priests), the Kshatriya (nobles and
warriors), the Vaishya (traders and artisans), and Sudras (serfs).
Today, however, this fourfold classification has been blurred and
complicated by the development of more than three thousand
separate caste groups. Caste is a system by which the accident of
birth determines once for all the whole course of a man's social and
domestic relations. According to Sir Edward Blunt:
'The basic principles of caste are endogamy and heredity. A
man m ust marry a woman of the same caste as himself: their son
is bom of the same caste as his parents, and all his life m ust
remain a member of it. Every caste, moreover, lays down from what
castes a man may select companions to share his meal, a cook to
prepare his food, and an abdar (butler) to bring him water. Very
often a caste is composed of subcastes which are themselves
endogamous, in which case what has been said of the caste applies
to the smaller sections."16
The caste system presupposes a belief in the fundamental ine
quality of men because of their actions in the previous birth; people
of different castes are by birth unequal and m ust throughout their
lives retain their higher or lower social and religious status.
The Indo-Aryan society, as already pointed out, was divided
into three classes, but there was no caste system in the Vedic age.
The system of castes appeared for the first time in the Brahminical
age, which also saw the rise of the Brahmin priests to the position
of highest power and honour in India. Ever since then it has
become a peculiar feature of the Indian society. In no other coun
try does anything of the kind exist.
The basis and nature of this system and the rules governing the
various castes are described in detail in the Dharma Shastra (books
dealing with dharma or religious laws), particularly In the Manu
Smrttt According to Manu, there are three sacred or "twice-bom"
castes. Of these the Brahmins are the highest and most respect
able, then come the Kshatriya, and then the Vaishya. Below these
come the Sudras. They are not admitted to the sacrifices or to the
reading of the Vedas, and their sole function is to humbly serve the
twice-bom. At the very bottom are the Untouchables, men of no
16. Sir Edward Blunt Social Service in India, p. 44 (His Majestv s Stearin;-;-/
OSlice, London 1939)
28
caste, some 100 million people, described as "the largest subordi

nate racial group in the world". They are the menials of India, doing
the dirty and degrading tasks, being the scavengers, the tanners,
washers of dirty clothes, and handlers of dead carcasses. Untouchability has been defined as "Jimcrowism on a fantastic scale".
Untouchables m ust live apart, segregated from the rest of their
fellow villagers. Their touch, contiguity, and sometimes even their
shadows are considered to be polluting to the higher-caste Hindus.
They are denied access to Hindu temples, they cannot draw water
directly from the village wells, and their children cannot attend
school along with the other Hindu students.
The Hindu conception of dharma, or duty, in its one aspect is
intimately bound up with that of caste. If karma (or a man's deeds
in the previous birth) determines his position in the caste network,
dharma tells him what to do in that position. Vamashroma Dharma
does not coincide with the Christian or Muslim idea of duty, since
it is not related to any fixed principle. A Hindu's dharma is the oc
cupation and behaviour appropriate to his caste and it is his moral
duty to follow the rules of that caste and no others through life. So
the moneylender is expected to be a keen businessman and the
warrior a brave soldier. However, there is also a general Dharma
(Sadharana Dharma), rightiousness or moral code incumbent on
all. This includes injunctions to perform meritorious acts such as
going on pilgrimages, honouring Brahmins, and making charitable
endowments, as well as prohibitions against causing injury, lying,
dishonesty, etc.
HINDU SECTS
The various Hindu sects are the products of the Bhakti move
ment. The orthodox Hindus (Sanatan Dharmis) are divided into
three sects, depending on which god or gods they regard as
Supreme.
(1) The Vaishnav sect the worshippers of Vishnu, his incar
nations and their wives and mistresses. This sect includes the
followers of Ramanuja, Ramananda, Kabir, Chaitanya and
Vallabhachaiya.
(2) The Shaiva sect the worshippers of Shiva and his con
sorts. Perhaps the greatest thinker and preacher of this sect was
the philosopher Shankara (9th century C. E.), the famous exponent
of Absolute Monism (Advaita Vedantism). The Hindu religious men
dicants, ascetics and yogis belong to this sect.
(3) The Shakta sect those devoted to the worship of female
deities only, such as Sarasvati, Lakshmi, Radha, Sit a. Parvati.
HINDUISM
29
Durga and Kali. This sect appears to have been based on the
persistent worship of the mother goddess, which has remained n
enduring feature of religion in India. The worship of female deities
became the nucleus of a number of magical rites which in a later
form are called Tantricism. This sect rejects the scriptures of the
other sects (including the Vedas) and has its own sacred books, the
Tantras.
In comparatively recent years three new (unorthodox) sects
have come into existence, as a result of the influence of Islam and
Christianity.
(1) The first among them is the Brahmo Samaj, which was
founded in Bengal by Raja Ram Mohun Roy (1774-1833), who was
a distinguished scholar of Arabic and Persian. His first book,
TuhJat-u.l-Muwah.iddm ("A Gift to the Monotheists"), was written in
Arabic. The Brahmo Samajis believe in the unity of God and respect
the prophets of all religions, but they do not believe in Divine
revelation. They take a rational and progressive attitude towards
social questions and are pioneers among Hindus of modem educa
tion and rights of women. The world-famous Bengali poet Rabin
dranath Tagore belonged to this sect.
(2) Another modem sect which believes in the unity of God and
condemns idolatry is the Arya Samaj, which was founded by Swami
Dayanand Sarasvati (1824-1883). This sect, however differs from
the Brahmo Samaj in its extremely hostile attitude towards the
other religions. Not only does it consider religions like Buddhism,
Sikhism, Christianity, Islam to be false, but it also takes great
pleasure in making scurrilous attacks upon their founders.17 The
Aiya Samajis believe the Vedas to be divine, uncreated and eternal,
and base their faith exclusively on them, though they interpret
them in a manner which the orthodox Hindus (the Sana tan
Dharmis) find most peculiar and unwarranted. They do not believe
in caste system. Their aim is to purify (Shuddhi), or reconvert to
Hinduism, by persuasion, temptation or force, those Hindus, and
their descendants, who had embraced Islam or Christianity. They
are in the forefront of all militant Hindu movements.
(3) The third Hindu sect of recent growth is a modem version
of Sankara's Advaita Vedantism, which believes in absolute mo
nism and regards the world as an illusion (maya). The founder of
this sect was Ramkrishna Paramhansa, but the m an who popu
larised and spread it all over India, and even in some foreign
17. Swami Dayanand's S a tya ra th Prakash, translated by Chiranjiva Bhardwaja
(The Aiya Samaj, Madras).
30
countries, was his highly talented and dynamic disciple Swami

Vivekananda. The followers of this sect believe Brahman alone to
be real. He is Absolute Being, an impersonal God, and the various
gods of the Scriptures and mythology are His manifestations or
forms. In and through all forms it is He alone who is worshipped.
This sect also considers the Vedas to be divine and eternal but
when they speak of the Vedas they mean not only the hymns
(Samhita), but also and primarily the Upanishads. They consider
all religions to be true as different paths to the same God but
Hinduism is for them the most perfect path.
C hapter n
BUDDHISM
THE BACKGROUND
In the chapter on Hinduism we attempted to describe two veryremarkable movements -- those of the Upanishadic Rishis and Sri
Krishna that arose in India in opposition to Brahminical poly
theism and ritualism. They were, however, ultimately absorbed
into Hinduism and their distinctive character was lost through
compromise with the system which they had set out to oppose.
Buddhism was yet another revolt against Brahminism, but this
great movement could not be absorbed into Hinduism. It emerged
as a distinct religion, a positive system, and after a period of wide
success and popularity, it declined and was exiled from the land
of its birth by revivalistic Hinduism. But before that happened it
had already spread to many countries beyond the borders of India
and become one of the great universal faiths.
India in the sixth century B.C. was not one vast kingdom or
empire. It had a number of princes of particualr tribes and clans,
who ruled over small states. Several dialects were in use, though
Sanskrit was the sacred language. The Vedas had already gained
mysterious sanctity as divine books. The Brahminical sacrifices
and rituals were widely performed with full faith that through
them the man, on whose behalf they were performed, would gain
all that he desired in this world as well as in the next. The
Brahmin priests were revered and feared as demigods. The soci
ety was divided into four rigid castes, with the Brahmins enjoy
ing a position of privilege, at one end, the Sudras and untouch
ables, at the other, leading a life in conditions far worse than
those of domestic animals. The Hindu law books declared: The
ears of a Sudra who listens intentionally when the Veda is being
recited should be filled with molten lead: his tongue should be cut
out if he recites it; his body should be split in twain if he pos
sesses it in memory".1 Should a Sudra do even so much as offer
a piece of advice to a Brahmin, burning oil should be poured into
his ears.
The Hindus had developed great fondness for philosophical
hair-splitting which had nothing to do either with search for truth
or edification of man. It was an age of speculative chaos, full of
1.
T Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p. 3 (Putnam's New York, 8th edition, 1959).
32
inconsistent theologies and vague wranglings. Moral life suffered,

since metaphysical subtleties and theological disputes absorbed
the energies of the people. In forests and caves there lived many
ascetics and hermits, who practised self-mortification and denied
themselves nourishment for incredibly long periods, believing this
to be the way to spiritual emancipation.
The people worshipped anything from the sun to a common
stone, from high gods to frightful ogres and ghosts. "In the vast
continent of India," writes Dr. Radhakrishnan, "man's marvellous
capacity for creating gods, the stubborn impulse of polytheism
had free scope. Gods and ghosts, with powers to injure and
annoy, as well as to bless and glorify, governed the lives of the
peoples. The multitude esteemed highly the Vedic religion with its
creeds and rituals, rites and ceremonies".2
It was in this world that Siddhartha, whose family name was
Gautama and who was later to become the Buddha, took his
birth.
THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA
No biography of the founder of Buddhism was written for

several hundred years after his passing away, and the available
source for such information are such a mixture of history and
legend as to prove the despair of all historians. Of all that has
been written about him there is so little which can be shown to
be historically true that even a sympathetic scholar like Ananda
Coomaraswamy is inclined to believe that the Buddha was not
a man, but a Solar Myth:
'These considerations," he writes, "raise the question whether
the 'life' of the 'Conquerer of Death' and Teacher of Gods and
men', who says that he was bom and bred in the Brahma-world
and who descended from heaven to take birth in Maha Maya's
womb, can be regarded as historical or simply as a myth in which
the nature and acts of the Vedic deities Agni and Indra have been
more or less plausibly euhemerised".3
Similar doubts have been expressed about the historicity of
Jesu s Christ and Lao Tzu. While they underline the difficulty of
the task of the scholar who seeks to recover the historical facts
about the Buddha, Lao Tzu and Jesu s from the m ass of legends
2.
S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol. I, p. 354 (George Allen and

Unwin, London 1923.)
3.
Ananda Coomaraswamy and LB. Homer, The Living Thoughts of Gautama

the Buddha, p 1-2 (The Living Thoughts Library, Cassell and Co. London
1948)
BUDDHISM
33
that have gathered around them, to completely dismiss them as

myths is an extreme attitude to which not many scholars would
subscribe.
Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha-to-be, was bom in the year
563 B.C. in the Lumbini grove, near Kapilavastu. His father,
Suddhodana, was Raja of the Sakya clan, whose country lay
along the south edge of Nepal, with Kapilavastu as its capital.
His mother Maya died when he was only seven days old, and
the child was brought up by his mother's sister Prajapati. In Sutta
Nipata we have the story of the seer Asita, who came to the palace
of Suddhodana, thirsting for the true Dharma. We read of how he
recognised on his person the signs of the Buddha and, more or
less in the m anner of Simeon, prophesied the future greatness of
the child. He wept at the thought that he himself would not live
to see the day and hear the new gospel.
The father was anxious that his son should know nothing of
the woes of the world. He surrounded turn with beauty and pleas
ures of every kind. Siddhartha, however, was not like other young
men. He was not free and gay and enamoured of sports, battles
and women. His father had him married Jo his beautiful cousin
Yasodhara. Siddhartha loved his wife, but even she could not
cure the inner restlessness of his heart.
He felt like a captive in the palace and gardens of pie a cur.
that his father had built for him. He set his heart on making a
journey outside to see the real world. We read in the sacred
records of how he went out with Channa, his charioteer, and saw
one after another a decrepit old man, a sick man and a dead
man. Siddhartha felt extremely disturbed at the sight of human
suffering and death. He then saw a recluse with shaven head and
a tattered yellow robe, and the sight of this man inspired him
with the desire to seek in the religious life peace and serenity and
the cure for hum an suffering. That very night he bade farewell to
his sleeping wife and babe and left his home. At the edge of the
forest he put on the ascetic's garb and started his career as a
wandering seeker of truth. This was the Great Renunciation.
He wandered in the forest from one teacher to another, learn
ing all that they had to teach him, but finding no satisfaction. He
next started a series of severe fasts, practised exercises of medi
tation and inflicted on himself terrible austerities, hoping in this
way to find the truth, This was the Great Effort Though often
luring this period he found himself at death's door, he got no
glimpse of the riddle of life. He therefore concluded that
34
asceticism was not the way to enlightenment. He decided to eat

again, and the five ascetics, who had attached themselves to him,
intending to follow him if he found the Way, left him in disgust.
He finally sat down cross-legged in what is called the lotus
posture under the sacred fig tree, fully determined to gain enlight
enment. Legends tell us that, at this crisis, Siddhartha was as
sailed by Mara, the tempter, who sought in vain, by all manner
of terrors and temptations, to shake him from his purpose. He
persisted in his meditations and at last the veil was lifted from his
eyes and the blessed assurance overwhelmed him. This was the
Great Enlightenment. Siddhartha Gautama had attained bodhi,
or illumination, and become the Buddha, the Enlightened One.
For seven days more he stayed there. Mara, the evil one, as
sailed him again. The temptation to accept at once the fulfilment
of his own emancipation and to pass immediately through death
to Nirvana was the most subtle of his temptations. The idea that
if he proclaimed his doctrine men would not accept it and he
would only lose his own quietude, this too threatened to turn him
aside. But the Buddha-heart of compassion wakened to man's
eternal need, and he felt that his own deep sense of blessing
called him to the service of his fellow-men. The Buddha decided,
therefore, to go out to proclaim to the world the path of peace and
immortality.
The first persons to whom he decided to proclaim his Message
were the five ascetics who had deserted him when he had given
up austerities. He found them near Varanasi, and there, in the
Deer Park, he preached to them his first sermon of 'Setting in
Motion the Wheel of Righteousness.' He taught them the Middle
Way, the Four Noble Truths, and the Eight-fold Path to salvation.
They became his first disciples and Arahants (perfect saints.) The
Buddha gave mankind the message of love, non-violence, peace,
tolerance, kindness and selfless service to fellow-human beings,
and himself practised these virtues in all his actions and dealings
with people of all classes and creeds.
The number of converts rapidly increased and he sent them
forth into the world with a heart full of compassion for mankind
to proclaim the Dharma (Pali, Dhamma), the True Faith or Law,
for the salvation of many.
The Buddha himself went to Uruvella. On the way he met a
band of young m en who were picknicking with their wives. One
of them had brought a concubine with him and she had ru n away
with his belongings. The young m an asked the Buddha whether
BUDDHISM
35
he had seen such a woman. 'What do you think, young man",

asked the Buddha, "which were better for you, to seek for the
woman or to seek for the Self'? In this way he won over the young
men from their sensual pleasures to the path of religion and
virtue. At Uruvella, the Buddha met a group of ^ire-worshippers,
and he preached to them his famous Fire Sermon. They too were
converted and became his disciples.
At Rajagraha the Buddha converted King Bhimsara and re
ceived from him the Park known as the Bamboo Grove for the use
of the Order as a permanent retreat. He then went to Kapilavastu
and met his father, wife and son. His son Rahula and fostermother Prajapati joined the Order. The Buddha was reluctant to
receive women into the Order, but was persuaded to do so by his
cousin-disciple Ananda.The Buddhacarita, an early biography of
the Buddha, written by Asvaghosa, contains an account of many
miracles which the Buddha is said to have performed and also of
his journey to heaven to preach the Dharma to the souls of the
departed.
So the Buddha continued for forty years to move from place
to place, preaching the Dharma and the Way to eternal peace and
immortality. At last the time came for him to lay aside his mortal
body. An account of the last days of the Buddha is given in the
Mahaparinibhana Sutta of Digha Nikaya. He told his followers to
make "the Self their refuge, the Eternal Law their refuge". His last
words were, "Corruptible are all things composite; in sobriety
work out your goal." The sublime figure of the Buddha has cast
a spell over millions of people for nearly twenty-six centuries and
won the respect and admiration of, not only believing Buddhists,
but also many who have not seen their way to join the Faith.
Even M. Barthelemy St. Hilaire, by no means a friendly critic of
Buddhism, writes the following about the Buddha :
"His life is flawless. His constant heroism is equal to his con
viction.... He is the living model of all the virtues he preaches; his
abnegation, his charity, his unchanging gentleness never fail for
even a moment. Silently he prepares his doctrine, in six years of
retreat and meditation; he propagates it solely by the power of the
word and of persuasion for more than half a century, and when
he dies in the arms of his disciples it is with the serenity of a sage
who has practised goodness all his life and is assured of having
found the truth." (Quoted by Sir Edwin Arnold in the preface to
his famous book the Light of Asia.)
36
THE TEACHING OF THE BUDDHA
The Buddha himself wrote nothing. None of his teaching was

written down for at least four hundred years after his death. To
make things worse, it was the practice of his followers, when
expounding Buddhism, to put their own words and commentar
ies into the mouth of the Great Teacher. It is, therefore, impos
sible to separate the genuine sayings of the Buddha from the
large number of spurious sayings and discourses that have been
attributed to him in the Buddhist Scriptures. The distinguished
Buddhist scholar Christmas Humphreys writes:
"We therefore do not know what the Buddha taught, any more
than we know what Jesu s taught; and today at least four schools,
with subdivisions in each, proclaim their own view as to what is
Buddhism".4
The late Mrs. Rhys Davids submitted the earliest Buddhist
scriptures to something like "higher criticism", and on the basis
of her findings an attempt will be made here to present the origi
nal message of the Buddha.
'The Buddha was the Buddha because he was Buddha,
Awakened, Enlightened, made Aware". The highest truth was re
vealed to him. Siddhartha Gautama was not the first Buddha. He
himself says th at there were many Buddhas, or fully enlightened
teachers of truth, before him, and that many more would come
after him.
The essence of the teaching of the Compassionate Buddha is
contained in the Sermon of "Setting in Motion the Wheel of Right
eousness." He exhorts those who wish to lead a religious life to
avoid the two extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification
and to follow the Middle Way. He enunciates the Four Noble
Truths: (1) the first truth is about the existence of suffering and
unhappiness in the world; (2) the second truth declares that the
cause of suffering and unhappiness is selfish craving; (3) the
third truth gives the assurance that selfish craving and unhap
piness can be destroyed; (4) the fourth truth shows the way
leading to the removal of sorrow and unhappiness and the reali
zation of peace and happiness. The Buddha gives a wonderful
exposition of the Eightfold Path leading to the end of suffering
and unhappiness. These are: Right view, right purpose or aspira
tion, right speech, right action, right living, right effort, right
mindfulness, and right contemplation. Right View means the
-1.
Christmas Humphreys, Buddhism Pelican Book, p. 11 {Harmondsworth 1959)
BUDDHISM
37
knowledge of the Four Noble Truths. But so far as the truths are
known only by the intellect they have no life. They must be
discovered and proved by every m an in the depths of his own
being. The first step, therefore, is an awakening, a summons to
abandon a way by which we miss our truth and destiny. The
Right Aspiration is to renounce sensual pleasures, to bear no
malice, and to do no harm. Right Speech requires us to abstain
from lying, slander, abuse, harsh words and idle talk. Right
Action is to abstain from taking life, or taking what is not given,
or from carnal excesses. Right Living is to abstain from any of the
forbidden modes of living, which are those of a trader in weapons,
slave dealer, butcher, publican, or poison-dealer. Right Effort
consists in suppressing the rising of evil states, in eradicating
those which -have arisen, in stimulating good states and perfect
ing those which have come into being. Right Mindfulness is to
achieve self-mastery by m eans of self-knowledge. Right Contem
plation takes the form of the four meditations. It is the end and
the crown of the eightfold path. It is the substance of the highest
life when ignorance and selfish craving become extinct and in
sight and holiness take their place. It is peaceful contemplation
and ecstatic rapture which accompanies the union of the individ
ual self with the Universal Self.5
Buddha's method of teaching is well illustrated by the Parable
of the Mustard Seed. Kisa Gotami, a poor woman, had lost her
only son. Full of inconsolable grief she came to the Buddha and
begged him to restore her son to life. The Buddha agreed to do
so if she would fetch a few tiny grains of m ustard seed from a
house in which no one had ever died. She went from house to
house, but wherever she went she was told that there was no
house where no one had died. In this way she gained understand
ing and sympathy. She came back to the Buddha, not to ask him
to bring her son back to life, but to give her peace and refuge.
This touching story teaches two of the Buddha's most important
doctrines. The first is that everything in the realm of phenomenal
existence is in change and is transitory. Whatever becomes
passes away, whatever is bom m ust die. Every living creature is
a compound of elements, sooner or later they m ust dissolve.
Hence a realistic acceptance of death is an essential part of true
adjustment to reality. The second is the essential connection, in
the Buddha's experience and teaching, between a realistic accep
tance of death and the realization of an outgoing compassion
5.
F.L. Woodward (Translator), Some Sayings of the Buddha, pp. 7-13 (The
World's Classics, Oxford University Press, London, 1939)
38
towards all living beings, who, like ourselves, are subject to such
ills and suffering.6
The Buddha preached universal love and sympathy:
"Never in this world can hatred be conquered by hatred,: it
can be conquered only by love this is the Law Eternal (The
Dhammapada 1:5).
"Let a m an overcome anger by love, let him overcome evil by
good, let him overcome the greedy by liberality, the liar by truth".7
There is little of what we call dogma in the Buddha's teach
ing. With a breadth of view rare in that age and not common in
ours he refuses to stifle criticism. Intolerance seemed to him the
greatest enemy of religion. Once he entered a public hall at Ambalatthika and found some of his disciples talking angrily of a
Brahmin who had ju st been accusing the Buddha of impiety and
finding fault with the Order he had founded. "Brethren,"-said the
Buddha, "if others speak against me, or against my religion, or
against the Order, there is no reason why you should be angry,
discontented, or displeased with them. If you are so, you will not
only bring yourself into danger of spiritual loss, but you will not
be able to judge whether what they say is correct or not correct."
He denounced unfair criticism of other creeds. There was never
an occasion when the Buddha flamed forth into anger, never an
incident when an unkind word escaped his lips. He had vast tol
erance for mankind. According to Rabindranath Tagore, the way
of the Buddha is the "elimination of all limits of love," it is "the
sublimation of self in a truth which is love itself."
The Buddha was undoubtedly the greatest social reformer of
India. His most noteworthy achievement was the abolition of
caste system. He declared that a m an is a Brahmin, not because
he is bom of Brahmin parents, as taught by Hinduism, nor be
cause he performs * the rituals and observes the outer forms of
the Brahminical caste, but he is a Brahmin by virtue of his de
votion to truth and his righteous life:
"A man is not a Brahmin by reason of his matted hair or his
lineage or his caste: in whom are to be found Truth and Law, he
is pure, he is a Brahmin." (The Dhammapada, 26:393).
6.
7.
E. A. Burtt (Editor), The Teachings o f the Compassionate Buddha, pp. 43-46,

Mentor Book, New York, 1955. )
The Dhammapada (17:223), translated by N.K. Bhagwat (The Buddha Soci
ety, Bombay) Other translations of The Dhammapada consulted and quoted
in this chapter are by (i) S Radhakrishnan (Oxford University Press) ; (ii)
Narada Thera (Wisdom of the East series) : (iii) F. Max Muller (.Sacred Books
of the East). (iv) Juan Mascaro (Penguin Classics).
BUDDHISM
39
The Buddha had no faith in the so-called saviours and vicari

ous atonement. He taught that a man is personally responsible
for his own actions. His happiness or unhappiness, his sinfulness
or sinlessness, is the result of his own thoughts and deeds. No
other person can save him from sin:
"Evil is done by self alone, by self alone is one stained: by self
alone is evil left undone, by self alone one is purified. Purity and
impurity depend on one's own self. No m an can purify another.
(The Dhammapada, 12:165).
In short, we reap as we sow, both in this world as well as in
the next. The good shall go to heaven and the wicked to hell:
"Those sages who are without violence, and who are ever
controlled in body, attain to the eternal Abode, where having gone
a man is freed from sorrow." (The Dhammapada, 17:225).
"Like a fortified city situated on the borderland, and wellguurded both within and without, let a man guard his own self;
let irdeed not a moment pass unguarded, for those who let a
moment slip come to grief as they are consigned to hell." (Ibid.,
22:315),
The Buddha refused to get involved in futile and unedifying
metaphysical disputations. Many doctrines that are now consid
ered essential parts of Buddhism did not form part of the original
teaching of the Buddha. Mrs. Rhys Davids, H.J. Jennings and
Ananda Coomaraswamy are agreed in declaring that the doctrines
of transmigration, as enunciated by Hinduism, the "no-self
(AnattaJ, and monasticism were not included in the original
gospel of Buddhism. There can be no doubt about the Buddha's
belief in the immortal soul. When he talked of destroying the "self
he meant the lower self. It was the lower self that the Buddha
declared to be impermanent and unreal. He had no doubt about
the reality and immortality of the higher self:
"If a man knows the self as precious, he should ever guard it
and watch it well". (The Dhammapada, 12:157).
"Through Self one should urge on the self, one should restrain
the self by Self; the Bhikkhu thus guarded by Self and unmind
ful, will fare along to happiness." (Ibid., 25:379).
In nothing has the Buddha been more misunderstood than in
his attitude towards God. It is often said that the Buddha re
mained silent whenever he was asked about God, and his sup
posed silence is interpreted as a denial of the existence of God.
However, Mrs. Rhys Davids and Sir Francis Younghusband, have
both pointed out that the Buddha was brought up on die
40
doctrines of the Upanishads. He was familiar with their religious

thought and terminology. When the Upanishads use the word
"Self it is often in the sense of the Universal Self or God, the
metaphysical principle of existence "this Brahman, the Self,
deep hidden in all beings." The Buddha was obviously using the
word "Self in the same sense when he said: "I have taken refuge
in the Self. (Digha Nikaya 2:120), and in the following sayings:
"Self is the Lord of self; what higher Lord could there be?
When a man subdues well his self, he will have found a Lord very
difficult to find." (The Dhaminapada, 12:159).
"Self is the Lord of self. Self is the goal of self; therefore
control thv self as a merchant controls a horse of noble breed"
(Ibid.. 25:380).
The Buddha often referred to the Dharma (Pali, Dhamma), the
True Faith, as Brahmacariyam, or the Way of Brahman, the
immutable will of God. And on one occasion he remarked that
when a man led a noble and pure life, "with heart of love, l'arreaching, grown great and beyond measure," such a man was
approaching union with Brahman, and that "he will after death,
when the body is dissolved, become united with Brahman, who is
eternally the same" (Teui/'/a Sutla). Brahman is of course the name
given in the Upanishads to the one true God. Ananda Coomaraswamy writes:
The Law, Dhamma, had always been a nomen Dei, and is
still in Buddhism synonymous with Brahman."89
And this is what Sir Francis Younghusband writes on this
subject :
"It is. however, in his attitude towards the idea of God that
Buddha is most misrepresented. Because he refrained from m ak
ing any sharp definition of God . . . . he is put down as an atheist
and Buddhism is contemptuously tossed aside as unimportant.
But it may have been because Buddha had too great, not too
small, an idea of God that he refused to restrict himself to a sharp
definition of the Deity. There are certain things which are too
great to be put into words. Who, for instance, would care to define
love? Buddha did not presume to define God, but both he and his
disciples were saturated with the conception of a Power behind
the eye that sees and the ear that hears, and behind all the phe
nomena of Nature."1'
8.
9.
Anand.i Coomaraswamy and I.B. Horner, The Living Thoughts of Gautama

the Buddha, p. 25 (The Living Thoughts Library, Cassel, and Co., Ltd.,
London 1948)
F.L. Woodward (translator), Some Sayings o f the Buddha ; Introdue'ion by
Sir Francis Y onnchusband. pace xv (Oxford University Press, 191
41
BUDDHISM
Thus the goal of Buddhism, as of all religions, is Nirvana (Pali.

Nibbhana), which in the original message of the Buddha, means
the soul's return to God, the union of the finite with the infinite.
THE HISTORY OF BUDDHISM
It is unfortunate that the leadership and popular exposition of

Buddhism fell to the lot of a man named Sariputra. He was, as
Edward Conze has pointed out, inclined to be a sceptic. He may
truly be called the St. Paul of Buddhism. He put his own stamp
on the message of the Buddha and interpreted it in his own way.
He suppressed many things and over-emphasized other things in
the teaching of the Buddha. To quote Edward Conze:
'The influence Sariputra exerted was due to the shape which
he gave to the teaching, and which determined not only the train
ing of the monks for a long time, but also decided which aspects
of the Buddha's doctrine should be emphasized, and which
should be relegated into the background."101
The Old Wisdom or Hinayana school of Buddhism adopted
Saripulra's interpretation, and hence its scepticism.
It is commonly believed that soon after the death of the Bud
dha, a Buddhist Council was held at Rajagraha to settle the con
tents of the three Pitakas or Baskets of Canon. A second council
is said to have been held at Vaishali about a hundred years later
to settle certain differences that had arisen in the Order.
About two hundred years after the passing away of the Bud
dha tjie first major split occurred among the Buddhists. The fol
lowers of what is called the Old Wisdom School split into two
sects: the Theravadins and the Sarvastivadins. The Theravadins
gained support in the Eastern regions of India and today they
dominate Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Burma and Thailand. Their scrip
tures, the TripiLxka, are in Pali.11 The Sarvastivadins flourished in
the West, with Mathura, Gandhara (Peshawar Valley) and Ka
shmir as their centres. This sect became extinct about 1100 C.E.
However, its scriptures are still available in Sanskrit.12
By about 240 B.C. we witness the rise of Mahayana Bud
dhism, as a reaction against the Theravada school, which the
Mahayanists nicknamed Hinayana.
10. Edward Conze, Buddhism : Its Essence and Development, p. 91 (Harper
Torch Books, New York. 1959)
11. The Road to Nirvana - A Selection o f the Buddhist Scriptures in Pali, translated
by E. J. Thomas, (Wisdom of the East series. London, 1950.)
12. The Quest of Enlightenment - a Selection of the Buddhist Scriptures in Sanskrit
translated by E. J. Thomas, (wisdom of the East series. London 1950.)
42
The third council of Buddhism was held at Pataliputra in the

third century B.C. It was a sectional conference of the Hinayana
sect and its purpose was to condemn the 'heretical' tendencies of
the Mahayana sect. It is claimed that this Council was called by
Ashoka, one of the noblest kings of the world, who renounced vio
lence, pursued the policy of peace and rendered invaluable serv
ice to Buddhism and to humanity.
The next important event in the Buddhist history is the con
version to Buddhism of Menander (Milinda), a king of a Bactfian
dynasty of Greek origin. An important .post-canonical book of
Hinayana Buddhism, entitled Milinda-Panha (Questions of King
Milinda), is said to have been written by the distinguished
Buddhist philosopher Nagasena in response to certain inquiries
made by King Menander. It is an apologetic for the Hinayana
school, designed, it has been suggested, to win the wavering
minds of the day from the new corrupt elements that had entered
Buddhism.
With the rise of the Sakas to power in India a gap appears in
our knowledge of the Buddhist history. But in the first centuiy
the Sakas were defeated by another race of people from Central
Asia, the Yueh-chi or Kushans. The greatest king of this line,
Kanishka (reigned 120-162 C.E.) became a Buddhist, and, like
Ashoka and Menander before him, rendered great service to his
new religion. It was about this time that Buddhism went through
a series of changes that made it very different from the Buddhas
original doctrine. It came under the various influences of
Hellenism, Central Asian paganism and Brahminism. The Bud
dha was deified and his image became the object of religious
veneration. Sometime before this the first statues of the Buddha
had been made, and, as a resu|t of the patronage of Kanishka,
the great Gandhara school of art flourished. Among the great
writers of this period a mention may be made of the poet
Asvaghosa, the author of Buddljacarita. and Mahayana Sraddhopada (The Awakening of Faith). This period also saw the rise to
great heights of two famous Buddhist Universities, the University
of Taxila and the Nalanda University in Magadha (Bihar). The
great philosopher Nagaijuna, the founder of the Madhyamika
srhool of Buddhism and author of Mahaprajna-Paramita Shastra,
was associated with the Nalanda University. The famous Chinese
pilgrims, Hiuen-Tsian and I-Tsing, spent many years in this
University and expressed unbounded admiration for it in their
writings.
BUDDHISM
43
Kanishka imitated the example of Ashoka bv calling another

Buddhist Council the fourth. This council, it appears, was only
attended by. the Sarvastivadins and its purpose was to attempt to
harmonise the growing divergence of teaching in the two main
schools.
Buddhism continued to flourish and display a great deal of
intellectual and moral vigour in the glorious Gupta period. The
famous caves of Ajanta and Ell ora were sculptured and painted
during this age. With the coming of the Huns and the Gujars in
India in the sixth century the Buddhist monasteries and seats of
learning suffered grievous destruction. But Buddhism again rose
to glory during the reign of King Harsha and the age of the Palas.
But soon after this Buddhism began to show signs of exhaustion
and decadence. The decline of Buddhism in India corresponded
with the rise of militant Hinduism, an early manifestation of
which was the cutting down of the sacred Buddh tree at Gaya
and the burning down of Buddhist monasteries by some mis
guided Hindu rajas of Bengal and Bihar. Tire preaching of Hindu
ism by the great Vedanta philosopher Shankara also had a great
deal to do with the fall of Buddhism. By about the eleventh
century Buddhism was all but dead in the land of its birth.
Long before its decline in India, Buddhism had spread to and
taken deep roots in many lands outside India. It had spread to
Ceylon during the reign of Ashoka. In the course of years Ceylon
(Sri Lanka) became a great centre of Theravada B u d d h ism . Bud
dhism reached Burma in the fifth century and Thailand in the
eighth century, and both these countries have ever since then
remained loyal to this faith. Buddhism reached China from
Central Asia (about 50 C.E.), and from China it spread to Korea
(372 C.E.) and Japan (552 C.E.). The Buddhism that was intro
duced in China was the Mahayana Buddhism, which was already
saturated with many pagan and Brahminical ideas and practices,
and in China it became fu r th e r corrupted by admixture with
elements taken from the nativ e Taoism. Two new sch o o ls of
Mahayana Buddhism developed in China. The first w as th e Pure
Land School (Japanese, Jodo), It is also caled Amitabha School
(Japanese, Amida) and was founded about 350 C.E, by Hui-yuan
on the basis of the Sukhavati Sutra. T h e sec o n d w a s the Chan
School (Japanese, Zen), which developed in C h in a in the six th
century as a result of the teaching of Bodhidharma (Chinese,
Tamo; Japanese, Darama), an Indian B u d d h ist from M adras,
Another im p o rta n t B u d d h ist country is Tibet. B u d d h ism w as
In tro d u ced in T ibet by King S tre n g th e n G arnpo in tin a a J t of
44
the seventh century. Tibetan Buddhism, sometimes called

Lamaism. is a mixture of Tantric Buddhism and the local Bon
religion. An attempt was made in the eleventh century to reform
the Tibetan Buddhism by removing from it the Bon elements, and
the result was the birth of the Gelugpa sect, to which both the
Dalai Lama and the Tashi (Panchen) Lama belong.
BUDDHIST SECTS
Buddhism is divided into two major sects : the Hinayana (or

Theravada) and the Mahayana. The terms Hinayana (the lesser
vehicle) and Mahayana (the greater vehicle) were coined by the
followers of the Mahayana, who claimed that theirs was a "career
or course of life large enough to bear all mankind to salvation."
Thus, while the Hinayana regards Mahayana as a corruption of
the original Buddhism, or at the best a false and decadent
branch, Mahayana regards Hinayana not as false or contrary to
true Buddhism, but simply as an incomplete or superficial form
of the teaching of the Buddha.
The Buddhist beliefs and practices are centred in, and tradi
tionally guided by, three components, called Tri-ratna (three jew
els). They are : (1) the Buddha. (2) the Dhamia (Pali, DhammaJ,
and (3) the Sangha.
When the Theravadins speak of the Buddha, they mean the
hum an Siddhartha Gautama, who first achieved enlightenment
and has shown the way to Nirvana. Quite early in history of Bud
dhism, a sort of Buddha-cult grew up, and the Buddha's symbols
and relics began to be religiously venerated, but the Theravadins
never made the Buddha into a God. For them he is a Sattha (a
teacher), a Bhagava (a blessed one), a Tathagata (one who has
experienced and transcended the imperfections of life) and a Bud
dha (the fully enlightened one). In short, he is a Great Man (Mahapurusa), and nothing more.
By the Dhamma, the second of the "three jewels", the Thera
vadins mean the essential doctrines about suffering, its cause
and cure. The Theravada Buddhists believe that the universe
generally, and all forms of life in particular, have three character
istics in common (The Three Signs of Being) : impermanence
(anicca), suffering (dukkhaj and an absence of personal soul
which separates each from the other forms of life (anattaj. They
are of the mew that there is no principle of permanence or unity
in or behind the universe. All is flux. There is nothing but a
ceaseless becoming and a never-ending change. There is no
Being. The Theravadins deny the existence of God, and also of a
permanent personal self, or soul, in man. Man is made up of
BUDDHISM
45
impermanent and ever-changing qualities, which are illusory,

being bom of desire. As long as a m, n has selfish desires, these
illusory, ever-changing qualities, of which he is made, will re
main, and as long as these remain man will be bom again and
again in this world of sorrow (samsara). Man can free himself
from the wheel of births and deaths by destroying desire. Nirvana,
the goal of Buddhism, means " the extinction of desire, the extinc
tion of hatred and the extinction of illusion." In the words of
Christmas Humphreys, "Nirvana is the extinction of the not-self
in the completion of the Self." This can be achieved even after the
present life. The person who has done this is called an Arahant.
When he dies he will be bom no more.
The ideal moral life, according to the Theravadins, is that of
a Buddhist monk, and hence the importance of the Sangha, or
the monastic order, the third of the "three jewels". The life of a
householder is almost incompatible with higher levels of the
spiritual life. Only a monk can attain Arahantship and win Nir
vana.
The Mahayana Buddhists differ with the Theravadins in de
claring that Becoming is illusory and Being is real. The Ultimate
Reality is one and changeless. It is altogether beyond the concep
tion of human intellect. For want of another name it is called
Such-ness (Tathata). The Mahayana Buddhism is a form of abso
lute idealism. The Mahayanists regard the Buddha as an incar
nation of the One Absolute Reality, which may also be called the
eternal Buddha-principle or Godhead.
The Mahayana doctrine of the unity of ail beings implies that
the fate of each individual is linked with the fate of all. Individu
als may purify themselves and thereby escape the miseries of
sinful existence, but the salvation of a man Is imperfect so long
as and so far as there remain any who are not saved. In the
words of Masaharu Anesaki. "To save oneself by saving others is
the gospel of universal salvation laught by (Mahayana) Bud
dhism.13
The Theravada ideal of Arhanlship is replaced in Mahayana
Buddhism by that of the BodhisatLva. A Bodhisattva is one who
having attained the state of purification and emancipation, re
fuses to enter Nirvana and gain salvation for himself, out of
devoted love for those who still remain behind and a consuming
zeal to help them. He postpones his own entrance into perfect
i3.
Masaharu Anesaki, History of Japanese Religion, p. 54 (kegan Paul, Trench.

Trubncr and Co. London; reprinted 1963.)
-H i
bliss because his sense of spiritual oneness with others leads him
to prefer to wait with them and lovingly serve them until all are
ready to enter together. In Anesaki's words, he feels that his own
salvation would be imperfect, and even impossible, so long as any
living being remains unsaved.
Nirvana, according to Mahayana Buddhism, is the true state
of spiritual perfection. It is a state in which compassionate one
ness with others has transcended all thought of oneself as a
separately distinguishable entity. Paradoxically put. it means that
by renouncing Nirvana for oneself, in love for others, one is al
ready in Nirvana as it is truly understood. For Nirvana and
Samsara are not two different realms. Nothing is outside Nirvana.
There is one more sect of Buddhism which deserves to be
briefly considered here. It is Zen Buddhism. Zen views the tradi
tional aspects of Buddhism with hostility. It holds up images and
scriptures to contempt and flouts convention. It is also hostile to
metaphysical speculation, averse to theory and intent on abolish
ing reasoning. Direct insight is prized more highly than the elabo
rate webs of subtle thought. The truth is not stated in abstract
and general terms, but as concretely as possible. It believes that
enlightenment and the state of oneness with the One cannot be
achieved unless the mind of logic is destroyed. It has developed
a very peculiar technique of meditation (zazen) to destroy the nor
mal habits of thinking and reasoning and to achieve sudden
enlightenment (satori).
BUDDHIST SCRIPTURES
The scriptures of the Theravada sect are the Tripitaka (The

Three Baskets) in Pali. They are Vinaija Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, and
Abidhamma Pitaka.
1. The Vinaya Pitaka deals with the ecclesiastical discipline
and prescribes rules and regulations to govern the lives of the
monks. It has three main divisions : (a) the Patimokha, (b) the
Khandhakas and (c) the Parivara.
2. The Suita Pitaka is the "Basket" of discourse and doctrine.
It is divided into five parts, called Nika.yas : (a) Digha-nikaya,
division of long discourses containing 34 Suttas. Some of these
Sultas are : the Samannaphala Sutta (dealing with the rewards of
asceticism), the Ambattha Sutta (dealing with the Buddha's atti
tude to caste), Kutadanta Sutta (dealing with the relations of
Brahminism and Buddhism), Teuijja Sutta (contrasting the Brahminical culture with Buddhist ideals) Mahaparinibbhana Sutta
BUDDHISM
47
(which gives an account of the last days of the Buddha);

(b) Majjhima-nikaya, division of medium-long discourses,.contain
ing 152 Suttas, dealing with all points of Buddhist religion;
(c) Samyutta-nikaya, division of connected discourses. It contains
a version of the famous sermon of Setting in Motion the Wheel of
Righteousness; (d) Anguttra-nikaya, which has over 2300 suttas
in eleven groups; (e) Khuddaka-nikaya, division of minor dis
courses. It contains much of the finest material in the Scriptures.
It begins with the Khuddaka patha, which might be described as
a Manual of Buddhist life. Next comes the Dhammapada, the
most famous of all Theravada Scriptures and one of the most
perfect ethical manuals of the world. Other famous works in
cluded in this Nikaya are the Udana, the Itivuttaka and the justly
famous Suita Nipata. Then there are the Jataka tales, a collection
of stories dealing with the previous lives of the Buddha.
3.
Abidhamma Pitaka, which is the "basket" of further
Dhamma, dealing with psychology and ethics and only incidently
with metaphysics.
The Mahayana sect, as stated earlier, is not a rejection, but
a further extension of the Hinayana or Theravada school. The Mahayanists, therefore, accept the Tripilaka, but to them they add
some additional scriptures of their own. The Tripitaka of Mahay
ana are not in Pali, but mostly in Chinese. They were .translated
from the Sanskrit version of the Sarvastivada sect. The special
Mahayana Sutras of course have no parallel in the Pali Tripitaka.
These are arranged into groups, such as prajnaparamita group
(which contains such famous Sutras as the Vqjracchedika or
Diamond Sutra) and the Avatamsaka group. The most famous
Mahayana Sutras are the Lankavatra Sutra, the Lotus o f the
Perfect Law, the Surangama Sutra and the Sukhauati-Vyuha Su
tra. There are also a large number of Shastras among the Mahay
ana scriptures. These were composed by the great doctors of the
Mahayana sect, like Nagaijuna, Vasubandhu and Asvaghosa.
Among the better known Shastras, the Mahaprajnaparamita
Shastra of Nagaijuna and the Mahayana Sraddhopada (the
Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana) of Asvaghosa deserve to be
specially mentioned.
The material contained in the Buddhist Scriptures belongs to
widely different dates. The Pali Canon was settled in the third
Council (third century B.C.) and for the first time committed to
writing in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) in the first century B.C., that is
more than four hundred years after the passing away of the
Buddha. The scholars are unanimous in dismissing the claim
48
that all the sayings put in the mouth of the Buddha in these
scriptures were actually uttered by him. This is what the great
scholar Dr. E.J. Thomas writes about the Tripitaka :
"It contains much which does not claim to be in any sense
Buddha's utterance. This is recognized by the Buddhist commen
tators themselves as when they explain that certain sentences or
whole verses had been added by the revisers at one of the
Councils."1,114
14. Dr. E.J. Thomas, The Life o f Buddha as legend and History, pp. 24 9 -2 5 0 (A.A.
Knopf, New York, reprinted 1952.)
Chapter III
SIKHISM
THE BACKGROUND
The Indo-Pakistan subcontinent is the home of many relig

ions. In the earlier chapters we have described two of the faiths
that took birth and developed in this subcontinent. The next
religion to rise in the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent was Sikhism,
but between it and Buddhism there is a gap of many centuries.
In the meantime Islam had taken birth in Arabia and spread to
many parts of the world, including the Indo-Pakistan subconti
nent. Nearly the whole of this subcontinent was under Muslim
rule. The Muslim rulers, however, showed very little zeal for
spreading their religion. Islam was spread in India, as Sir Thomas
Arnold has shown in his admirable book The Preaching of Islam,
by Muslim saints and Sufis. These godly men settled away from
the capitals and in areas which had no Muslim population. By
their preaching, example and saintly life they attracted attention
and people flocked to hear them. Their teaching was simple and
easy to understand; they told the people of the love of God, of the
supreme importance of loving and serving God's creatures and of
the beauty of a pure heart. The Islamic doctrines of the unity of
God and equality and brotherhood of all men appealed to a large
number of people who were dissatisfied with the Hindu polythe
ism and idolatiy or had been the victims of the Hindu caste
discrimination and untouchability. Speaking of the conversion of
the common people of Bengal by the Sufis, Sir W.W. Hunter
writes, 'To these poor people, fishermen, hunters, pirates, and
low-caste tillers of the soil, Islam came as a revelation from on
High. It was the creed of the ruling race, its missionaries were
men of zeal who brought the Gospel of the unity of God and the
equality of men in its sight to a despised and neglected popula
tion. The initiatory rite rendered relapse impossible, and made the
proselyte and his posterity true believers for ever...It was not to
force that Islam owed its permanent success in Lower Bengal. It
appealed to the people, and it derived the great mass of its
converts from the poor. It brought in a higher conception of God,
and a nobler idea of the brotherhood of men. It offered to the
teeming low castes of Bengal, who had sat for ages abject on the
outermost pale of the Hindu community, a free entrance into a
new social organization."1
1.
Quoted by Sir T.W. Arnold in The Preaching o f Islam, pp. 282-283 (Reprinted
by Shaikh Muhammad Ashraf, Lahore, 1961.).
50
.T llE GREAT RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD
The most notable product of the influence of Islam on India

was the strangely attractive. North Indian mysticism. Sir T.W.
Arnold writes :
"As the Mohammadan power became consolidated, and par
ticularly under the Mughal dynasty, the religious influences of
Islam naturally became more permanent and persistent. These
influences are certainly apparent in the Hindu theistic movements
that arose in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and Bishop
Lefroy has conjectured that the positive character of the Muslim
teaching attracted minds that were dissatisfied with the vagueness
and subjectivity of a Pantheistic system of thought."2
One of the greatest of these mystics was Ramananda, about
whom Evelyn Underhill writes, "Living at the moment in which the
impassioned poetry and deep philosophy of the great Persian
mystics. Attar, Sadi. Jalal-ud-Din Rumi, and Hafiz, were exercising
a powerful influence on the religious thought of India, he dreamed
of reconciling this intense and personal Mohammaden mysticism
with the traditional theology of Brahminism.3
Another great mystic was Kabir, who may be regarded as the
direct forerunner of Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism. Kabir
had experienced the ecstasy of union with God, his heart was full
of love, and he sang of that love out of a full heart in the language
of the common people.
"How could the love between Thee and me sever?
As the leaf of the lotus abides on the water : so Thou art
my Lord, and I am Thy servant.
As the night-bird Chakor gazes all night at the moon:
so Thou art my Lord and I am Thy servant.
From the beginning until the ending of time, there is
love between Thee and me; and how shall such love be
extinguished?
Kabir says As the river enters into the ocean, so my
heart touches Thee.4
He gave expression in his songs to the oneness of God. He
achieved what Evelyn Underhill has called the "synthetic vision."
He had resolved the perpetual opposition between the personal and
2.
3.
4.
Sir T. W. Arnold. The Preaching of Islam, pp. 261-262.

Introduction to Tagores translation of the Poems o f Kabir, p. vii. (Macmillan,
London, 1915)
loems of Kabir (No. XXXTV), translated by Rabindranath Tagore (Macmillan,
London, 1915)
SIKHISM
51
impersonal, the transcendent and immanent, static and dynamic

aspects of the Divine Nature between the Absolute of philosophy
and the 'sure tfue Friend' of devotional religion. He sings:
"O how may I ever express that secret word?
O how can I say He is not like this, and He is like
that?
If I say that He is within me, the universe is
ashamed :
If I say that He is without me, it is falsehood.
He makes the inner and the outer worlds to be
indivisibly one;
The conscious and the unconscious, both are His
footstools.
He is neither manifest nor hidden.
He is neither revealed nor unrevealed :
There are no words to tell that which He is."5
Kabir believed in the oneness of humanity and strongly con
demned the Hindu caste system. He also rejected the Hindu doc
trine of the incarnation (Avatar) and would have nothing to do with
idolatry and ritual bathing in sacred rivers ;
There is nothing but water at the holy bathing
places; and I know that they are useless, for I have
bathed in them.
The images are lifeless, they cannot speak; I know,
for I have cried aloud to them."6
He was against the Hindu practices of self-mortification and
monasticism. He himself was married, had a son and a daughter,
and continued his life $is an humble weaver. He says :
"It is not the austerities that mortify the flesh which
are pleasing to the Lord.
When you leave off your clothes and kill your
senses, you do not please the Lord :
The man who is kind and who practises righteous
ness, who remains passive amidst the affairs of the
world, who considers all creatures on earth as his
own self.
5.
6.
Ibid., No. IX.

Ibid., No. XLII.
52
He attains the Immortal Being, the true God is ever

with him.
Kabir says : He attains the true Name whose words
are pure, and who is free from pride and conceit."7
Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, was a product of the same
spirit and imbibed the same influences and gave the same teach
ing, very often using the same words and expressions. He was, like
Kabir, a Sufi.
THE LIFE OF GURU NANAK
Nanak was bom on April 15, 1469 at Talwandi Rai Bhoe, now
known as Nankana Sahib, about forty miles to the south-west of
Lahore, in Pakistan. His father Mehta Kalu was a village account
ant (palwari) in the service of Rai Bular, the Muslim landlord of the
village. His mother's name was Tripta. In the Janam Sakhis we
come across many miraculous stories about his birth and child
hood.
At the age of seven Nanak was sent to a village teacher to leam
the alphabet and elementary arithmetic. His intelligence and keen
interest enabled him to finish his education in a very short time.
He was then sent to a village Maulvi to leam Persian and Arabic.
It is also written that Nanak studied the Qur'an and Islamic litera
ture with Syed Hasan, a devout Sufi. A few more years passed and
Nanak reached the age when, according to Hindu custom, he must
be invested with the sacred thread. But to the consternation of all
he flatly refused to go through the Hindu initiation ceremony and
wear the sacred thread.
From the very beginning Nanak was of a deeply religious bent
of mind. His father was keen to put him to some profession or
trade, but all his attempts failed to turn the mind of Nanak away
from religion and spiritual matters. At last his sister brought him
over to her home in Sultanpur, and through her husband's influ
ence got him a job as a storekeeper with Nawab Daulat Khan Lodhi,
a distant kinsman of the reigning Sultan of Delhi. Although Nanak
took over the post with some reluctance, he discharged his duties
diligently and won the affection of his employer. Shortly after his
appointment as storekeeper, Nanak got married to Sulakhani, the
daughter of Mul Chand of Batala. Very little is known of his married
life except that two sons were bom of this union.
Nanak had been in the service of Nawab Daulat Khan Lodhi for
about twelve years when he had his first mystic experience. He was
7. Poems of Kabir. No. LXV.
SIKHISM
53
at that time in the midst of his early morning ablution by a river,

the Janam Sakhis say that he disappeared and could not be traced
for three days. When he did come home he was a changed man. He
was heard saying again and again, "There is no Hindu, there is no
Muslim," meaning thereby that the two major communities of the
Indo-Pakistan subcontinent had departed from the true spirit of
religion and stopped practising righteousness. The Nawab was very
much surprised at this change in his storekeeper and asked him
why he thought there was no Muslim. Nanak replied. "Nawab
Sahib, it is very difficult indeed to be a Muslim," and added in ex
planation :
"He who is firm in his faith
Has a right to be called a Muslim.
His acts must accord with his faith in the Prophet
He m ust clean his heart of pride and greed.
No more troubled by the two impostors -- life and
death.
Resigned to the will of God,
Knowing Him as the Doer,
Freed from the domination of the self,
Compassionate to all things.
Such a one may call himself a Muslim."
(Var Majh, 8. se l)8
He left the service of the Nawab and decided to devote himself
completely to the reformation of the people. He made no attempt to
proselytise; he only exhorted the people to fill their hearts with the
love of God and to be kind, honest and upright in their dealings
with their fellowmen. The Janam Sakhis report that he undertook
five extensive missionary tours (Udasis). Although there is some
uncertainty about the exact itinerary, the Janam Sakhis are more
or less agreed about the incidents that took place during the trav
els.
His first tour took him eastward, as far as Assam. At Hardwar
he saw a large number of Hindus who were bathing in the sacred
waters of the Ganges, believing that this would wash away their
8.
The Adi Granth. translated by Dr. Gopal Singh Dardi (Gur Das Kapur. Delhi,
1962.) Other translations of the Adi Granth consulted and quoted in this
chapter are by W Trilochan Singh. (George Allan and Unwin, London, 1960.)
and (ii) Manmohan Singh (Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee,

Amritsar, 1969.)
54
sins. While standing in the river they also threw handfuls of water
towards the east as an offering to the Sun and to their departed
ancestors. Nanak also entered the river and began to throw water
towards the west. The Hindus gathered around him and asked
what he was doing. He replied that he was throwing water in the
direction of his newlv-sown fields in the Punjab. The people
laughed at him and one of them said, "How could anyone send
water so many miles away?" Guru Nanak replied with a smile, "If
this water cannot reach my farm which is only a few hundred miles
away on this very planet, how can the handfuls of water that you
are throwing reach the Sun, thousands of miles away, and your
ancestors in the world beyond?" He then delivered a sermon on the
utter futility of their superstitious practices.
On his arrival at Gorakhmatta, a temple of Gorakh, some
twenty miles north of Pilibhit, he had long disputations with the as
cetics and yogis of that place. He told them:
"Religion consisteth not in a patched coat, or in a
Yogi's staff, or in ashes smeared over the body;
Religion consisteth not in ear-rings, or shaven head,
or in the blowing of horns and conches.
Abide pure amid the impurities of the world: thus
shall thou find the way of religion." (Rag Snhi, 8:1).
Passing through Varanasi, Gaya and many other places. Guru
Nanak arrived at Kamrup (Assam), where, according to the Janam,
Sakhis, some witches tried to enchant and tempt him with magic,
wealth and beauty. But he defeated their designs and convinced
them that true beauty and real wealth lay in achieving excellence
in one's character.
On the way back he stopped at Jagannath Puri. There at the
famous temple of Jagannath, he saw the priests performing the Artt
ceremony before the image of the god by waving with their hands
salvers containing flowers, incense and lighted lamps. Guru Nanak
delivered an enlightening sermon to the priests and worshippers on
the utter folly of idolatrous practices,
He spent some years travelling in the Punjab, paying more than
one visit to the Sufi establishment at Pak Pattan. He also visited the
Sufis of Pasrur, Panipat and Multan. Guru Nanak recognised them
as his spiritual brothers and felt very happy in their company.
Guru Nanaks second tour was Southwards through Tamilnad
down to Ceylon (Sri Lanka). He is said to have come back along the
Western coast through Malabar, Konkan, Bombay and Rajasthan,
preaching and performing miracles wherever he went. The third
SIKHISM
55
tour was in the Himalayan regions as far as Laddakh.

Guru Nanak's last long journey was the Hajj Pilgrimage to
Mecca. From there he went to Medina, the City of the Prophet, and
further westwards to Baghdad, where he spent some time with the
local Sufis and saints.
He returned to the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent at the time of
Emperor Babar's invasion. According to the Janarn Sakhis. he was
taken prisoner by the Emperor's troops at Syedpur (now called
Eminabad, in the Gujranwala district) but was later released. The
Emperor is said to have been very much impressed by him and
asked him for his blessings. Nanak advised him to rule with justice
and mercy and promised Babar: "Your empire shall remain for a
long time."
Guru Nanak spent his last years at Kartarpur, where large
crowds flocked to hear.him preach. Everyone who saw him or heard
him preaching was impressed by his outstanding piety and saintly
character. He was indeed a devoted servant of God and mankind.
On his demise, which occurred on September 22, 1539, a dispute
is said to have arisen between Hindus and Muslims, each party,
desiring to dispose of his earthly remains according to its own
religious rites the Hindus saying that Nanak was a Hindu
because he was bom in a Hindu home; the Muslims claiming that
he was a Muslim because he believed in the Islamic Creed. When,
however, the covering was removed from the body, they only found
a heap of flowers, which was divided between the parties.9
THE TEACHINGS OF GURU NANAK
G um Nanak was a strict monotheist. He believed in the one and

only God, who is eternal, self-existent, formless and the Creator of
all. The God that Nanak believed in was not an abstract idea or an
impersonal moral force; He was a personal Being, capable of being
loved and honoured. He denied the reality of all other gods, saying
that the one true God alone should be worshipped. Gum Nanak's
conception of God is well brought out in the Mul-Mantra of the
Japji the opening lines of the Adi Granth:
"There is but one God, Whose name is True, the Creator,
devoid of fear and enmity, Immortal, Unborn, Self-exis
tent, Great and Bountiful :
The True One was in the beginning; the True One was
____ in the primal age,
9.
Raja Sir Daijit Singh, Guru Nanak, pp. 155-156 (Lion Publication, Lahore,
19431
56
The True One is now also, O Nanak; the True One also
shall be."!0
Nanak refused to accept any compromise on the concept of the
unity of God. He is indivisibly one, far above every other being,
however highly conceived,
Nanak rejected the doctrine of the
Trinity or I runurti, declaring that the division of the Godhead into
three persons was contrary to the oneness of God :
a is genual!) supposed tuai me Divine Mother by a
mysterious scheme conceived and gave birth to three

deities :
One that creates the second that supports, and the
third that adjudges destruction.
But in reality it is God, Who directs the world accord
ing to His will, and no other.
The thing that astonishes the people most is that, while
He sees them, they cannot see Him. .
All hail to Him! All hail!
The Primal Being, Who is pure. Who never began,
Who never dies, and through the ages remains the
same. (The Japji, XXX).
He would have nothing to do with the doctrine of the incarna
tion. Since God was infinite, argued Nanak, He could not take birth
in the worrib of a woman and die, nor could He assume hum an form
which was subject to imperfections, decay and death:
"He has no father or mother. He is bom of none. He has no form
or features, nor does He belong to any of the castes. He feels no
hunger or thirst. He is ever-satisfied." (Var Malar, p. 22).
"Nanak! he who meditates on the everlasting Reality become
everlasting, but he who worships those who died after being bom
is pursuing the false path." (Var Asa 5. 1. p. 2).
Guru Nanak rejected the Hindu monism (Advaita Vedantism),
which declared that the world was an illusion, as well as the Hindu
dualism [Sankhya-Yoga) which taught that the world and God were
both uncreated and eternal. Like the followers of Islam, he believed
that though the world was real, it was created and is not eternal.
It is real because it is the expression of God's will and command
and because of Gods presence in it :*10
"By His will and command (hukurri) all forms come into being
10. The Japji, translated by Teja Singh (The Sikh Tract Society, Amritsar
1924.)Another translation of Japji consulted and quoted in this eh" iter is by
Puran Singh. (Taran Taran, Third edition, 1938.)
SIKHISM
57
the working of that Will cannot be desfcribed -- It is by His Will

that the forms develop life in them, and then they grow exalted"
(The Japji Hymn No. II).
Guru Nanak exhorted the people to follow the way of obedience
and submission to God. Salvation, he said, is for him who has
attuned his will to God's supreme will; who thinks and acts ju st as
God wishes him to think and act. To give the G uru's own words :
"The way of obedience brings him at last to the door of
salvation.
First he becomes the spiritual support of his family;
Then as a teacher, who has saved himself, he also saves
his followers.
Nanak, the m an who obeys the Word shall not wander
begging from door to door.
Such is the Word immaculate!
O, if one knew how to obey it with all the heart and soul.
(The Japji, XV).
Guru Nanak laid great stress on the love of God. The grace of
God, he said, comes to the soul which loves Him for-Himself alone,
and finds all joy in Him alone. Such a devotee indeed lives in God,
starves without Him, bathes in Him as the fish in the mighty sea:
"O heart, let your love for God be such as the fish has
for water; the more it has, the more intense its happi
ness and greater the peace in its mind and body; with
out water it does not live for more than a few minutes."
(Granth: Shri Ashtapadi 11.2)
Like Kabir before him. Guru Nanak disapproved of the Hindu
practices of idolatry and bathing in sacred rivers. Here are two
quotations from the Japji, in the first of which we have his rejection
of idolatry, and in the second his criticism of ritual bathing :
(1) "He cannot be created and set up as an image;
For, He is all in all Himself, devoid of material
conditions. Whoever serves Him is honourable.
Nanak, let us, therefore, sing of Him, for He is full
of all excellences"
(The Japji, V).
(2) "I would bathe at sacred places, if by so doing I could
please Him; otherwise, what is the use of bathing?
58
TOE GREAT RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD
How can I please Him by merely bathing, when in the

whole wide world that I see created nothing can be got
without exertion?" (The Japji Hymn VI).
Guru Nanak declared the whole humanity to be one. He said
that a man was to be honoured, not because he belonged to this
or that caste or creed, but because he was a man. He strongly
opposed the practise of caste and untouchability. Not only did he
stablish the equality and brotherhood of man, he also raised the
hiatus of women. "How can they be callled inferior," said Guru
Nanak, "When they give birth to kings and prophets." He laid the
foundation of m an's uplift not on such short-cuts as mantras, mir
acles, or mysteries, but on man's own humanity, his character and
conduct :
"Of no avail is caste and birth: go and ask those who
know the truth.
A man's caste or descent is determined by the works he
performs" (Parbhoti 4, 10).
The way of worshipping God, according to Guru Nanak, was to
sing His praises and meditate on His name :
"We have heard that the Master is true and is manifest
in Truth: that infinite are the ways in which He is
described:
And that when creatures pray to Him for gifts, He the
Giver gives.
Well, then, what shall we offer to Him in return that we
may behold His council-chamber?
What shall we utter with our lips, which may move Him
to give us His love?
In the ambrosial hours of the m om meditate on the
grace of the true Name" (The Japji, IV).
"He who enshrines the Name in his heart and has the
nectar of the Name in his mouth, him the Name of God
makes desireless as God Himself is"
(Gauri 1. 6).
GURU NANAK AND ISLAM
It is often claimed that the aim of Guru Nanak was to brin|

about a reconciliation between Islam and Hinduism by combining
dem ents taken from these two faiths into his own religion. Thus
Sardar Khushwant Singh, the distinguished Sikh scholar and
novelist, writes in his History of the Sikhs : "Sikhism was bom out
of a wedlock between Hinduism and Islam after they had known
SIKHISM
59
each other for a period of nearly nine hundred years ." 11 This,
however, is not quite correct. There is almost nothing that is
common between the teaching of Guru Nanak and Hinduism. He
had a different conception of God, a different theory of creation, a
different view of the universe and of Gods relation to the universe,
a different attitude towards man. a different idea of salvation.
Moreover, he strongly condemned the Hindu caste system and the
Hindu practices of image-worship and ritual bathing in sacred
rivers in the hope of washing away the sins. In all that he accepted,
as well as in all that he rejected, he showed himself to be the
follower of Islam. Guru Nanak differed with the Hindus over the
fundamentals of their faith; but he differed with the Muslims, not
over Islam, but rather over the neglect of the true spirit of Islam by
the Muslims. This comes out very clearly in a large number of
anecdotes about him. For instance, once he was invited by Nawab
Daulat Khan Lodhi to join the Muslims in their Friday congrega
tional prayers. Nanak readily agreed. He went to the mosque and
joined the service, but when the faithful knelt. Guru Nanak did not
kneel with them. When the service was over, the Nawab asked him
why he had not knelt with them. Nanak replied : "I had agreed to
join you in prayers, but since you were not praying there was no
purpose in my kneeling."
"What do you mean?" enquired the Nawab.
Guru Nanak said ; "Now tell me, does Namaz (prayers) merely
consist in kneeling and bowing?"
"No," said the Nawab, "it is only the outward expression of
humility."
Guru Nanak asked : "Then tell me what is the inner expres
sion?"
'The worship the spirit offers in terms of the words of the
prayers," replied the Nawab.
'That is why I said, neither you nor the Qazi leading the prayer
service was praying, for while your body was bowing your spirit was
occupied with other things."
The Guru told them exactly what they were thinking. The Qazi
was worried about the new-born filly at his house, and the Nawab
in his imagination had gone to Kabul to purchase some horses , 112
11. Khushwant Singh, A History o f the Sikhs, Volume I, p. 17 (Princeton Univer
sity Press 1963.)
12. Kaja Sir Diljit Singh, Guru Nanak, pp. 25-26 (The Lion Press, i-ahorr 1943 .'
60
THE GREAT RELIGIONS OF TIIE WORLD
The Guru then turned to the congregation and said : I will tell
you how to offer prayers and follow the Holy Script of the Qur'an:
"In the Mosque of love
Spread the carpet of faith,
Enjoy only your rightful earnings.
Follow the Holy Script.
Make restraint and modesty your circumcision.
Moderation your fast.
Right action your pilgrimage to Kaba.
Make truth your spiritual guide.
Good works your creed.
Thus become a Muslim.
Repeat His name on your rosary.
He will exalt you" (Vor Majh, p. 140).
He exhort ed them to purify their minds, so that the words of the
prayer may become meaningful, and make them godly and virtu
ous :
'The five periods of the day
Are associated with five prayers
And they have five separate names.
Their first requirement is truthfulness.
The second is to live on lawful earning.
The third is to give in God's name.
The fourth is to discipline the mind
With right resolution.
And the fifth is to praise God.
He whose deeds precede the words of prayer
Has the right to call himself a Muslim.
They wander in the wilderness of untruth
Who follow the word and ignore the spirit"
[Var Majh, p. 142).
Guru Nanak often used to read the Qur'an and to guide the
people in the light of what he had read in the Holy Book. He is
reported in the Adi Granth to have s a id : 'The age of the Vedas and
the Puranas is gone : now the Quran is the only book to guide the
61
SIKHISM
world." The copy of the Quran from which he used to read out the
Divine Message is still preserved at Guru Har Sahai in Ferozepur
District.
The gown (Chola Sahib) which Guru Nanak used to wear on
solemn occasions can be seen at Dera Baba Nanak in the Indian
Province of Punjab. It is profusely illustrated with verses from the
Quran, and on top, ju st below the collar, is embroidered the Islamic
Kalima (or declaration of faith) : "There is but one God, and
Muhammad is His Messenger." On the right sleeve, among other
verses from the Qur'an, is the following verse : 'The religion with
God is Islam."
Nanak journeyed all the way to Mecca to perform the Hajj
pilgrimage. The Adi Granth contains the following saying of the
Guru : 'The saints, reformers, martyrs, pirs, shaikhs and qutubs
will reap untold benefits if they invoke darnels (God's blessings) on
the Holy Prophet."
HISTORY OF SIKHISM
Guru Nanak, as we have seen, preached a religion which was

very different from Hinduism. His religious ideas were almost the
same as those of Islam. He was a Sufi. But, due to an irony of
history, as time passed the Sikhs, who claimed to be the followers
of Guru Nanak, began coming closer to Hinduism and became
more and more estranged from Islam. Three factors appear to have
been responsible for this.
First, though Guru Nanak had not come with a new religion
and had no intention of forming a separate religious community,
sometime after his death those who claimed to follow him organi
sed themselves into a distinct sect.
Secondly, nearly all the converts to this new sect of Sikhism
came from Hinduism, and they continued to follow some of their
old ideas and practices, which, in the course of time became part
of Sikhism. The converts were also more friendly towards their
former co-religionists than towards the Muslims.
Thirdly, the political conflicts of the Sikhs (who by the time of
the fifth Guru had organised themselves into a political faction)
with the Mughal rulers made them hostile to Islam and Muslims
generally. In their hatred of the Mughal rulers they came so close
to the Hindus that for all practical purposes they became a sect of
Hinduism.
T! IE GREAT RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD
The first successor of Guru Nanak and the second Guru was
Bliai Lehna, later called Guru Angad (1539-1552). He was a de
voted follower of Guru Nanak and led a simple life, like his great
master. By his tact he was able to prevent a schism between his
followers and those of Guru Nanak's son, Sri Chand, who thought
he had a belter claim to his father's gaddi. Guru Angad's greatest
contribution to the Sikh history and religion was the devising of the
Punjabi script, Gurmukhi, and the recording in it of the hymns and
sayings of Guru Nanak. This formed the nucleus of the Sikh scrip
tures, which later on developed into the Adi Granth
The third Guru was Amar Das (1552-1574). He organised Sikhs
into 22 Alary'is, or parishes, and established the institution of free
community kitchen, called Guru-ka-Langar, where people of all
casu s took their meals together. It is claimed that Guru Amar Das
was a great social reformer and that he forbade the Hindu practice
of Sail the burning alive of widows on the funeral pyres of their
dead husbands, and advocated the remarriage of Hindu widows.
The fourth Guru was Ram Das (1574-1581). He began the
excavation of a great lake, called Amritsar (the Lake of Nectar) and
also planned the construction of the Golden Temple in the midst of
the lake. The site of the lake was granted by Emperor Akbar and
the foundation stone of the temple was laid by a Muslim Sufi saint,
Hazrat Mian Meer of Lahore. Ram Das began collecting regular
offerings or tithes for the management o*f the Sikh community and
appointed special officials, called Masands, to organise worship
and collect tithes. Ram Das was the first Guru to appoint his own
son as his successor, and thus he made the office of the Guru
hereditory.
The fifth Guru, Arjun (1581-1606) played a decisive role in the
history of the Sikhs. First of all, he completed the construction of
the Golden Temple, and thus provided the Sikhs with a centre and
rallying place. Secondly, he compiled the Sikh Sacred Book, the Adi
Granth, in which he included his own compositions, together with
those of his four predecessors. He was a gifted writer and poet.
His themes are ever love, devotion and union with the Beloved after
the long agony of separation. Thirdly, he organised the Sikhs into
a separate community, with their own scriptures, written in their
own special script, their own holy lake and their own sacred
temple. This was the beginning of the Sikh state and Guru Aijun
began to be addressed by his followers as Sachcha Padshah (the
true Emperor). He was a great statesman, peaceful organizer and
distinguished philosopher. He found the Sikhs a mere religious
SIKHISM
63
sect; he left them a nation. Aijun was the first Guru to take active
part in politics and to become involved in a conflict with the ruler
of the land. Emperor Jehangir. The cause of the quarrel was the
refuge and aid which Guru Aijun gave to Emperor Jehangirs rebel
son Khusru. On the failure of Khusrus rebellion, Aijun was heav
ily fined by Jehangir and when he refused to pay the fine, he was
arrested, tortured and imprisoned for high treason. The historians
have written that Guru Aijun became the victim of a personal
vendetta of Jehangirs Hindu Finance Minister, Seth Chandu Shah,
who played the malicious role of inciting the Emperor against Guru
Aijun. One day, when Aijun had been allowed by the jailor to go out
for a swim in the Ravi, which ran alongside the prison, he was ac
cidently drowned. His death, while still a prisoner, infuriated the
Sikhs and provided Sikhism with its first martyr.
The sixth Guru, Har Gobind (1606-1645), surrounded himself
with a bodyguard and ordered his followers to take up arms. He
lived and ruled as a temporal as well as spiritual leader, keeping
court and enjoying hunting. In the Sikh temples, to quote Khushwant Singh, "instead of chanting hymns of peace, the congregation
heard ballads extolling feats of heroism, and instead of listening to
religious discourses, discussed plans of military conquests." He
raised a large, well-equipped standing army, consisting of infantry,
cavalry and artillery units. Under the leadership of Har Gobind,
they engaged the imperial troops of the Emperor Shah Jehan in
several fierce battles.
The seventh Guru, Har Rai (1645-1661) was the grandson of
Har Gobind. He kept up the military spirit of the Sikhs. He be
friended Emperor Shah Jehan's liberal-minded son Dara Shikoh
and helped him in the war of succession against Aurangzeb.
Har Rai ignored his eldest son Ram Rai, because the latter had
friendly relations with the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, and ap
pointed his second son Hari Krishen (1661-1664) to succeed him.
Hari Krishen was but a child when he became the Guru. His elder
brother Ram Rai broke away from him and formed a separate sect.
Hari Krishen died when he was only nine.
On the death of Guru Hari Krishen several persons put forward
their claims to the gaddi of the Guru. The person who was finally
made the ninth Guru was Tegh Bahadur (1664-1675). Ram Rai, his
closest rival, became his mortal foe. The people of India were
dissatisfied with emperor Aurangzeb's religious policy. Guru Tegh
Bahadur was among those who opposed the Emperor for his reli
gious discrimination and intolerance. Cunningham writes that
64
Guru Tegh Bahadur had taken to organising plundering expedi

tions and levelling forcible exactions on the villagers.13Accordingly,
he was arrested and executed in Delhi. He is revered by Sikhs as
a m artyr who died not only for the Sikh faith but also for the
principal of religious liberty.
Guru Tegh Bahadur ^ son Goblnd Singh became the next Guru.
For twenty years he remained in retirement, nourishing the feeling
of revenge against those whom he held responsible for his father's
death. He began building his image as the champion of the Hindus
against the Moghul rulers and wrote several stories of the Hindu
gods and goddesses. The recitation of the Hindu religious epics, the
Ramcu/ana and the Mahabharata, together with the Granth, was
introduced in the Sikh temples . 14 In his autobiographical work, the
Blchitra Natak, he wrote: "God commanded me to go to the earth.
My mind at that time was fixed on the lotus feet of the Lord. I did
not wish to go. God, however, sent me to the world with a mandate,
saying : I cherish thee as My son and send thee to establish virtue
and save the people.
Guru Gobind Singh held a ceremony called Khanrtu di-Pah u!
(the Baptism of the Sword) in which he baptised live chosen dis
ciples, called Piyaras. He sent for an iron bowl and put some sugar
and water in it. He then stirred it with a two-edged dagger and
called the solution Amrita (nectar). The five Piyaras drank the
Amrita and then ate a kind of porridge called Karah ParshacL Guru
Gobind Singh told them that they had become members of a new
church and that they were to regard him as their father and the
youngest of his several wives. Sahib Devan, as their mother. They
were told to assum e the name of 'Singh' (lion)'15 and carry arm s on
their person, and also to wear garments suited to the life of a
soldier. They were to wear five articles, the name of which all began
in Punjabi with a K. These were Kes (unshorn hair and beard),
Kangha (a comb), Ktrpan (a sword), Koch (a knee-length pair of
breeches), and Kara (a steel bracelet). Guru Gobind Singh told
them that wherever and whenever in the future five Sikhs gathered,
his spirit would be with them. "If we read the Sikh history aright,"
writes Teja Singh, "the Sikh community would appear as an organ
ized unit to have undergone a course of discipline in the hands of
the ten Gurus, until its character was fully developed and the Guru
13. <J.D. Cunningham, History o f the Sikhs, London, 1849.
14. Bhagat Lakshman Singh, The Life and Work of Guru Gobind Singh, p. 23 (The
Tribune Press, Lahore, 1909.)
15. The Sikh women were told to adopt the surname Kaur (Princess).
SIKHISM
65
merged his personality in the body of the nation th u s reared ." 10

Following the five Piyaras, many disciples of Guru Gobind
Singh were baptised in the same fashion. The new church was
called "Khalsa Panth" (the Pure Way) and the persons thus baptized
were called "Khalsas" (the pure ones). The aim of Guru Gobind
Singh in introducing this new form of baptism was clearly to give
the Sikhs a separate indentity and to make them into a nation of
soldiers. He completely changed the character of Sikhism and the
Sikh community. Some Sikhs, however, refused this baptism and
were known as "Sahajdharis or livers at ease. They formed a
separate sect.
The Khalsa Sikhs gradually became a powerful military force.
The people who joined them, particularly the Jats, wgre inspired by
an intense hatred of the Muslims. Bhagat Lakshman Singh, an
ardent admirer of Guru Gobind Singh, writes: "To them to be a Sikh
was to avow open hatred of Brahmins and Mussalmans. Men with
a strong arm, ready to strike a blow on the Mussalmans and fit to
suffer great physical hardships, were principally in demand and
when these people succeeded in crushing the Muslim power they
only demanded adherence to the outward symbols of Sikhism ."1617
The Guru first attacked the semi-independent Hindu Rajas of
the Shivalik hills (now Himachal Pradesh), who were feudattiries of
the Mughal Emperor. Later on. at the suggestion of the hill-Rajas,
he joined hands with them to resist the Mughal tax-collector. The
Hindu Rajas, however, double-crossed him. On the one hand, they
fought against the Mughal officer under the Guru's leadership and,
on the other, made terms with the officer behind the Guru's back.
Guru Gobind Singh and his allies were badly defeated, but Em
peror Aurangzeb showed great magnanimity and pardoned the
Guru and his Sikhs, leaving them unmolested for tweleve years.
This gave Guru Gobind Singh the time to carry out his programme
of reorganising the Sikhs and to give them a sense of nationhood
and military power. When the Emperor was away on a long cam
paign in the Deccan, the hill-Rajas attacked the Sikhs at Anandpur
and also applied, as feudatories, to the Imperial troops for help. It
was during this war that the Guru suffered a terrible defeat and
lost everything. Two of his sons died fighting, while the younger two
are arrested and brutally executed under the orders of the gover
nor of Sirhind. He himself managed to escape alone and took ref
16. Teja Singh, The Sikh lleligion , p. 24. (Jabalpur, 1948)
17. Bhagat Lakshman Singh, The life and Work o f Gobind Singh, p. 163. (Trib
une Press Lahore, 1909)
66
uge among the Malwa Jats. From there, says Khushwant Singh, he
wrote a letter to the Emperor Aurangzeb, describing the calamity
that he and his followers had suffered at the hands of the Imperial
troops at the instigation of the "idolatrous hill-men and appealing
to the Emperor, as a "Godfearing man", to intervene on his behalf.
(The Zafar Nama, included in the Dasam Granth, is a mutilated
Gurmukhi version of the original letter in Persian.) Aurangzeb im
mediately sent orders to the Governor of the Punjab to stop troub
ling the Guru and also invited the latter to a personal talk. The
Guru immediately set out to visit the Emperor, but before they
could meet Emperor Aurangzeb died. The Guru was received with
much kindness by the new Emperor, Bahadur Shah. But this did
not prevent Guru Gobind Singh from taking advantage of the
weakness of the Mughals and ordering one of his most fanatical
disciples, Banda, to raise an army and massacre the Muslims in
the Punjab to avenge the defeat of the Sikhs at Anandpur. The
atrocities and barbarities committed by Banda have few parallels
in history. Meanwhile Guru Gobind Singhs end also drew nigh. He
was assassinated by a Pathan, whose father he had earlier slain
over a m atter of trade, a mere trifle. 18
All the sons of Guru Gobind Singh having died in the wars, he
announced that he would appoint no successor, bu t the Khalsa
and the Granth between them would carry on the work.
After Guru Gobind Singh's death, the Sikhs withdrew into the
fastnesses of the Punjab, where they lived in separate bodies,
under local chieftains. But in the early years of the nineteenth
century, after the decline of the Mughal power, Maharaja Ranjit
Singh again united the Sikhs into a great nation and established
his own authority over the Punjab. He was determined to extend
his kingdom south of the Sutlej, where a couple of small Sikh states
had sprung up. The latter applied to the British for help, and Lord
Minto, the British Governor General, sent Lord Metcalfe to the
court of Maharaja Ranjit Singh to persuade the latter to give up his
plan. Ranjit Singh agreed and signed a treaty of friendship with the
British. As long as Ranjit Singh ruled over the Sikhs they remained
a strong and powerful nation. After his death in 1839 the Sikhs
came into conflict with the British and there were two deadly wars.
At last the Sikhs were defeated and their territory became part of
the British Indian Empire.
18. Annie Besant, Sikhism, p.76 (Theosophical Publishing House, Adyar,

Madras).
67
SIKHISM
THE SIKH SCRIPTURES
The Sikh Scriptures include (1) the Adi Granth and (2) the
Dasani Granth. The Adi Granth, or the Guru Granth Sahib, was
compiled by the fifth Guru, Aijun, at Amritsar. There are three
versions of this Granth : Kartar Vali Bir, Bhai Banno Vali Bir, and
Dam Dama Vali Bir. The last mentioned is a revised version by Guru
Gobind Singh, who inserted the compositions of his father. Guru
Tegh Bahadur, among the hymns of the first five Gurus included
in the original version. There are three categories of writings in the
Adi Granth. Firstly, the hymns of the Sikh Gurus. Of these the
largest number 2218, are by Aijun, followed by Guru Nanak 974,
(including his famous Japji), Amar Das 907, Ram Das 679, Tegh
Bahadur 115, and Angad 62. Secondly, hymns by Hindu and
Muslim mystics. Of these the largest number is by the Muslim
Sufis Kabir and Farid. Thirdly, panegyrics in praise of the Sikh
Gurus by official bards. The hymns of the Adi Granth are not
arranged by authors or subject matter, but are divided into 31
ragas or musical modes in which they are meant to be sung.
The Dasam Granth, or Dasvin Padshah ka Granth, is a collec
tion of the writings of Guru Gobind Singh. The compilation can be
conveniently divided into four parts : the mythological, the philo
sophical, the autobiographical, and the (narrative). The largest por
tion is the mythological and contains Guru Gobind Singh's retell
ing of the tales of the Hindu gods and goddesses. The philosophi
cal section includes such well-known works as the Jap Sahib
(distinct from Guru Nanak's Japji), the Akal Ustat, Gyan Probodh
and Sabad Hazare. The autobiographical portion includes Bichitra
Natak and Zafar Nama. The narrative section, which comprises
Pakhyan Charitr and the Hikayats, includes among others the tales
told by Guru Gobind Singh of the wiles of women.
In addition to the Granths, there are also the Janam Sakhis or
traditional biographies of Guru Nanak. They contain much legen
dary m atter and abound with stories of miracles and wonders. Of
these the best known are (i) the Janam Sakhi of Bhai Bala (li) the
Vilayat Vali Janam Sakhi, said to have been written in 1588 by one
Sewa Das, and (ili) Hafizabad Vali Janam Sakhi.
C hapter IV
ZOROASTRIANISM
THE BACKGROUND
The Iranians are very closely allied to the Indo-Aryans, who

invaded the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent about 1500 B.C. and wrote
the Vedas. They had lived together for centuries in Afghanistan,
Bactria and North Iran. The language which these people originally
spoke was the ancient Aryan language of which the language of the
Vedic hymns and of the Gathas of Zarathushtra are both branches.
The exceedingly close resemblance between the two has been noted
by every student of Aryan philology.
These two branches of the Aryans (the Iranians and the IndoAryans) had a common religious tradition. Religion for both meant
the performance of sacrifices to win the favour of the gods. Fire was
lighted on a specially constructed altar and into it were thrown flesh
of animals, grain and milk products, while the priests chanted the
sacred hymns to the gods. What specially delighted the gods was the
offering of the intoxicating juice of a plant, called soma in the Vedic
hymns and homa in the Avesta.
The worship of ancestors was another prominent feature of the
ancient Aryan faith, which both the branches inherited in common.
The ritual pertaining to this worship took the form of offering to the
spirits of ancestors a cake called dam n among the Iranians and
purodnsha among the Indo-Aryans.
The Iranians, like the Vedic Aryans, were polytheists. They
worshipped a large number of nature-gods - the gods of the
elements, fire, water, air and earth, and of the lights of heaven: the
Sun, the Moon and the stars. Among the gods that figure promi
nently in the religious traditions of both these peoples, we may
particularly mention Mithra, the god of the Sun; Vayu, the god of
wind; and Aramaiti, the goddess of the earth. There are other names,
however, which stand for diametrically opposed powers among the
two communities. The most important of these is Ahura, which is the
name of the Supreme Lord in the Avesta, but which in the Sanskrit
form Asura signifies a demon. On the other hand, Deva. which in the
Avesta denotes the demon, in Sanskrit means god. Indra is one of the
greatest deities in the Vedic pantheon; in the Avesta he is the chief
helpmate of the EMI One. Apparently there was a religious conflict
between these two branches of Aryans, which resulted in the
inversion of some of the ancient deities into demons among the
Iranians, and the Indo-Aryans appear to have repaid the e o m p n -
70
ment. It also led to the Indo-Aryans being forced to leave the land
which they had shared in common with the Iranians and to their
migration to the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent. Max Muller is of the
view th at this schism started with Zarathushtra, who sought to
dislodge the so-called nature-gods from their divine pedestal and to
introduce the worship of the One True God, who was primarily
conceived as righteous.
THE LIFE OF ZARATHUSHTRA
The personal name of the great Prophet of Iran was Spitama.

Zarathushtra (of which Zoroaster is the Greek form) was the title by
which he was known after he had proclaimed his Message, ju st as the
Prince Siddhartha Gautama, after his enlightenment came to be
known as the Buddha, and Jesus as the Christ or the Messiah. Dr.
Taraporewala explains the significance of the name Zarathushtra as
"He of the Golden Light", which is quite an appropriate name to be
given to one of the greatest light-bringers of the world.
There is a wide difference of opinion among the scholars regard
ing the date and place of Zaralhushtra's birth. Professor Jackson
and Dr. West are of the view that Zarathushtra was bom sometimes
between 600 and 583 B.C. The tradition among the Parsis, however,
takes him at least a couple of millenia earlier. This may seem
fantastic, but it is interesting to note that even among the ancient
Greeks it was believed that Zoroaster had lived several thousand
years earlier. Thus, Xanthus of Lydia, who lived in the fifth century
B.C., wrote that Zoroaster lived 6000 years before Xerxes. This was
accepted by the subsequent Greek and Roman writers. But if what
Max Muller says is correct -- that the split between the Iranians and
the Indo-Aryans occurred because of Zarathushtra's insistence on
the Unity of God and condemnation of the Aryan polytheism and
sacrificial system --- then Zarathushtra's date would be ju st before
the first wave of Aryan migration to the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent,
that is, about 1700 B.C.
As with several other religious teachers, many legends have
gathered around the birth and life of Zarathushtra. It is said that his
mother felt impregnated by some divine glory. His birth was accom
panied by the joy of Nature and the tremor of the terror-stricken
demons. The little child's entrance into the world was marked by a
laugh instead of the usual wailing of the new-born. The wicked tried
to destroy him while he was yet an infant, but time and again he was
saved as if by supernatural intervention. In the midst of these weeds
of legends, however, we have a goodly crop of sober history.
He belonged lo a respectable and illustrious family. His father
was the venerable Porushaspo. and his mother was the pious and
virtuous Dughodhova. At the time of his birth the eastern Aryan
ZOROASTRIANISM
71
world was plunged in chaos; wickedness went unchecked, truth

seemed to have left the world, selfishness and oppression of the weak
was the order of the day. The priests ruled over the lives and minds
of the people, spreading dark superstitions to serve their own
purpose. The opening verses of the first Gatha (the GathaAhunavaitO
describe the general prevalence of wickedness and superstition in
the world in a poetic manner. The Spirit of the Mother-Earth appears
before the throne of the Almighty and appeals to Him to send a
saviour to the world. Thus the cry of the oppressed reached the
throne of God and He in His mercy raised Zarathushtra to set things
right and bring relief to the soul of the Mother-Earth : .
"One such, here present, is well-known to Me,
The only one who kept all My commands
The Holy Zarathushtra Spitama;
Eager is he and willing to proclaim
Through songs and hymns Mazda's Eternal Law;
Sweetness of speech, therefore, to him I grant."
(The Gathas, Yasna 29 : 9) 1
At the age of fifteen (when the youth of ancient Iran used to enter
upon their worldly life) young Spitama went into absolute seclusion
to commune with his Maker and to prepare for his great task. In one
section of the Avesta (Vendidad, 19) we have an account of his
temptation by Angro-Mainyu (the Evil One) --ju st as the Buddha was
tempted by Mara and Jesu s was tempted by Satan. The Evil One
offered the sovereignty of the world to Spitama for one blessing from
his lips upon the "creation of evil"; but Spitama stood firm against the
Evil One.
When he was thirty years of age he emerged as the Prophet of
God, and from that time onwards, according to the Zoroastrian
traditions, he received several revelations from Ahura-Mazda and
his great mission began. After the first revelation he started preach
ing the true religion. During ten weary years he toiled on and
succeeded in having but one convert, his own cousin Maidhyoimaonha. He faced persecution and what looked like certain failure.
The anguish of his heart comes out unmistakably in the Gathas. At
last in the twelfth year of his ministry he left his native province and
travelled eastwards, first to Seistan, and then to Bactria, where ruled
the wise Vishtaspa. Zarathushtra's desire had always been to
convert some wise and powerful ruler to his cause. Commenting on
this. Professor Jaques Duchesne-Guillemin writes :
1. The Gathas of Zarathushtra, Translated by I.J.S. Taraporewala (published by
the author from 7, Vatchagandhi Road, Gamdevi Bombay, 1947.)
72
"Instead of a Buddha who breaks with the world a Socrates who

shocks those in office, a Jesus who renders unto Cac -,,1 :the things
which are Caesar's and unto God the things that are God's, one
would compare him with Confucius travelling from one Chinese
province to the other in search of the prince who wili apply his
maxims of wisdom ."2
King Vishtaspa received Zarathushtra kindly and showed him
self inclined to his message. Zarathushtra is said t>have performed
several miracles in the presence of the king and his court and held
long discussions with the learned men there. Slowly and surely the
truth he proclaimed, won the hearts of the king and his nobles. The
masses followed in the wake of their leaders and Zoroastrianism was
soon est ablished as the religion of Iran.
The very success of the new religion paved the way for bitter wars
between Iran and Turan. Zarathushtra did not believe in the use of
force to convert men to his religion. He only allowed defensive wars
to protect his religion and followers from the violence of others.
Professor Wadia writes :
"Zoroaster himself was not for force in m atters religious. He left
it to the good sense of the people. If they were converted, he naturally
rejoiced, but if they did not, he only pointed out the evil consequences
that would accrue ."3
After forty-seven years of very strenuous effort for the establish
ment of the truth, the great Prophet of Iran passed away at the age
of seventy-seven. He led a life of undivided loyalty and devotion to the
God of righteousness and to truth. He was a man of singular piety,
and his religion breathes nothing but pity for the suffering and love
for the righteous.
THE TEACHINGS OF ZARATHUSHTRA
The religion preached by Zarathushtra has come to be known as

Zoroastrianism, but the name which he himself gave to it was
Mazdayasna - - the worship of Mazda, the one true All-knowing God.
Zarathushtra did not claim to be the first prophet of
Mazdayasnism Among the earlier prophets mentioned in the
Zoroastrian scriptures we come across the names of Yima (later
called Jamshed). Tharaelaona (Faridun) and Kavaushan. One may
read the stories and legends about these ancient Iranian prophets in
the Persian poet Firdawsi's famous epic poem, the Shahnama.
2.
3
Jaques Duchesne Guillemin, The Hymns o f Zarathushtra, Introduction, p. 5

(The Wisdom of the East series, London 1952.)
A. R. Wadia, The l.ifs end Tcnrhing of Zoroaster, p 15 (G. A. Natesan and
Co Madras
ZOROASTRIANISM
At the time of Zarathushtra's birth (he pure religion o f these

prophets had been all but forgotten and its place had been taken by
polytheism and unedifying ritualism. It was the mission o f Z a r a thushtra to revive the true religion and affirm the high values o f l i f e
as represented by the triad of hoomth, hookhta, and huvercshta. that
is, pure thoughts, pure words and pure deeds. And how was (his t o
be achieved? Only through belief in Ahura-Mazda (later O r m u /d ) ,
the God of Righteousness. The name Ahura-Mazda. g i v e n i o the O n e
True God in the Avesta, is made up of two words, Mazda m e a n i n g
Wise, All-knowing, and Ahura meaning the Supreme L o r d .
In a series of questions, which are quite rhetorical as he w h o puts
them knows the answer beforehand, Zarathushlra expounds t h e
oneness and universal providence of God, Ahura-Mazda is the
Creator and Lord of all that exists :
'This do I ask, Ahura, tell me true :
What Great Creator the place of Righteousness as
signed?
Who was First Father of Eternal Law?
What Being laid down paths for sun and stars?
Who caused the moon to wax and wane betimes?
All this and more, I fain would ask, O Lord.
"This do I ask, Ahura, tell me true :
Whose might doth hold the earth and sky apart?
Who keeps the waters and plants in place?
Who guides the winds in their unchartered course?
Who wafts from far the dark clouds charged with
rain?
And who inspires the love of Good Mind?
What Architect did fashion realms of light.
As aI>o realms of dark? Who wisely planned
For 115 both sleep and waking rest and work?
Who hath created dawn and day and night.
To teach the wise the purpose of all life?"
(The Gathas, Yasna 44 : 3-5)
And here in his own words is the essence of his religion the
submission of one's whole self to the One True God and the doing of
good :
How dedicate my whole self unto Thee
In holy service done with ail rnv s t r e n g t h ?
74
This the religion wisdom taught to me.

Thy devotee belovd shall dwell with Thee,
Strong in his service, love of m an and truth."
(The Gathas, Yasna 44 : 9)
The six chief attributes of Ahura-Mazda, according to Zarathushtra are Asha (the righteous and true), Vohu-mano (the Good
Mind), Kshatra (the Almighty), Armaiti (the Faithful, the All-loving),
Haurvatat (the Perfect or the Holy) and Ameretatat (the Immortal).
Zoroastrianism is said to be a dualistic faith; but this was not
true of the original doctrine of Zarathushtra. It is true that Zarathushtra speaks of two spirits - Spento-Mainyu (the Good Spirit) and
Angro-Mainyu (also called Ahriman, the Evil Spirit) bu t they were
created by Ahura-Mazda, who is beyond and above these two spirits.
T o quote from the Gathas :
'The first-created were the spirits twain.
As twin co-workers they reveal themselves;
Yet in each thought and deed these two
Are never agreed; one is good, the other bad;
And of these two the wise do choose aright,
The unwise choose not thus, and go astray."
(The Gathas, Yasna 30 ; 3)
While commenting on these verses. Dr. Taraporewala writes the
following in his book The Religion o f Zarathushtra :
"Zoroaster preached about the two Spirits, but his philosophy is
by no means dualistic. This idea of dualism did, indeed, creep into
the religion during the later stages of its development; but in the
Teacher's own days and in his own words, the idea developed is most
emphatically not dualistic. It is not dualistic in the sense usually
understood, viz., of conceiving two co-eternal co-equal powers, one
good and one evil, who are for ever at war with each other. The
concept of Zarathushtra is something essentially different. He tells
us that there are the two spirits the good and the evil - at war with
each other. They form the antithesis of each other in every respect.
But in two most important respects his teaching differs from the
popularly conceived idea of dualism. In the first place the conflict is
bound to have an end. The books, even the later books which were
responsible for all this later confusion of thought, speak of the
ciiimate triumph of the good spirit and of the hiding of the evil one
underground. And the Prophet himself categorically declares.... that
Evil shall ultimately perish. If, therefore, one of the two powers in the
socalled 'dualistic' system is ultimately to perish, we cannot in
reason say that the system teaches that these two powers are either
ZOROASTRIANISM
75
co-equal or co-etemal And yet In another aspect and perhaps in a

more fundamental respect is the system of Zoroaster not dualistic.
The two spirits are not self-created as may be expected in a truly
dualistic system. For both these emanate from and are the creations
o f Ahura-Mazda."4
The religion of Zarathushtra has been defined as the Path of
Asha. The Avestan word Asha seems to have the same signification
as the Vedic word Rta and the Chinese word Tao (as used by Lao Tzu
in Tao Te Ching). Dr. Taraporewala defines it thus :
'What then is this Ashcf? Scholars translate it variously as
'purity', or 'righteousness' or 'truth', but it is far more than any of
these words in their ordinary sense. It is the Eternal Truth, the one
Reality, which is the mainspring of all manifestation and of all
evolution. It is very hard to express the concept in mere words; it has
to be meditated upon and realised within ourselves. It is the Truth
which upholds the Throne of God Himself. It is the Great Law. the
Plan of God, according to which He fashioned the universe."45
To follow the path of Asha is thus to be in harmony with the
decrees of the Creator. Ahura-Mazda is th e d o d of Righteousness
and Zoroastrianism is primarily a moral religion. Zarathushtra,
therefore, abolished the old religion of unedifying rituals and sacri
fices and introduced the new religion of righteousness the Path of
Asha. Professor Jaques Duchesne-Guillemin writes :
"Zoroaster rejects the blood sacrifice and the offering of the
sacred liquor. The gods who have been taking part in these sacrifices
are now starved. He eliminates them, together with the myths
concerning them ."6
And this is what Professor Wadia writes on the same subject:
The greatest reform achieved by Zoroaster was in the realm of
morality. By identifying it with the will of Ahura-Mazda, he put it on
a religious basis and freed it from idol-worship as well as from
ritualism .7
According to Professor Wadia, the Zoroastrian ethics is (I) non
ascetic and (2) heroic. By the first he means that th e re is no room in
Zoroastrianism for monasticism, celibacy a n d self-mortification.
About the second characteristic of Zoroastrian ethics, he writes;
Dr. I.J.S. Taraporewala, The Religion o f Zarathushtra, pp. 49-50 fTheosophlcal Publishing House, Adyar, Madias 1926)
5. IbfcL, pp. 42-43.
6. Jaques Duchesne-Guillemin, The Hymns o f Zarathushtra, Introduction, p. 14.
fThe wisdom of the East series. London, 1952.)
7. A. R. Wadia, The Life and Teachings g f Zoroaster, p. 21. (G. A. Natssan and
Co., Madras, 1938)
4.
76
"As for the other characteristic, the heroic, what is implied is that
man is not bom sinful nor is he so weak by himself that he cannot
expect to attain salvation except through the grace of God or of Christ
as in Christianity. Zoroast or himself does not claim any power to save
men, his mission is to show the right path and it is for each man and
woman to follow that path and carve out his or her own destiny ."8
God has endowed hum an beings with urwan that faculty
within them that enables them to choose for themselves. Every man
is personaIl> accountable for his own actions and none can atone for
another's sins. Zoroast rianism is the religion of action. It stands for
a straight fight against evil. The true follower of Zarathushtra is he
who is always ranged on the side of truth and justice and who is
always rdady to help in the hour of another's need. The virtues most
highly ext oiled in the Gathas are pure thoughts, pure words and pure
deeds and the serv ice of humanity. Then come kindness to animals
and cultivation of land. It is written in the Gathas :
"Keep hatred far from you; let nothing tempt your minds to
violence; - hold on to love: the holy teachers (i.e., the prophets) build
the bridge to Truth,and they shall lead our band to Thine Abode, O
Lord, where righteousness ever dwells.
(The Gathas, Yasna 48 : 7).
'Thou art Divine, I know, O Lord Supreme; Thou wast the first,
I know, when life began; all thoughts and words and deeds of men
shall bear fruit, as laid down in Thy eternal law evil to evil,
blessings good to good -- Thy wisdom thus ordains till end of time.
(The Gathas, Yasna 43 : 5).
The reward of the good and the punishment of the evil is not
confined to this world. There is a life after death. In the Gathas
Zarathushtra holds out the promise of heaven to the good, and of hell
to the wicked. He also speaks of the judgment at the Chinvat Bridge
which the soul of the dead has to cross. For the righteous the Bridge
offers an easy passage, but for the wicked it narrows to the edge of
a sword and they fall into hell.
LATER ZOROASTRIANISM
The devotion .and enthusiasm of Vishtaspa, the King of Bactria,

led to the acceptance of the Religion of Zarathushtra by the whole
of Iran in a very short time. In the course of years it produced one of
the greatest civilizations of the world, the Achaemenid civilization.
Both Cyrus the Great (558-529 B.C.) and Darius the Great (521-485
B.C.) were devoted Zoroastrians. It is said that Darius had all the
sacred scriptures of Zoroastrianism collected and inscribed on
parchments in letters of gold. The whole collection was divided
8.
Ibid.,p. 45.
ZOROASTRIANISM
77
according to the subject, matter into 21 books, called Nasks. and

deposited in the Imperial Library at Persepolis.
It is not possible to say for how long the Religion of Zarathushtra retained its original purity. But even at the time of the composi
tion of the later Yasna, Zoroastrianism had departed considerably
from the Divinely-inspired teaching of Zoroaster. From the Gathas to
the later portions of the Yasna, from the Yasna to the Vispered, from
the Vispered to the Yashts, from the Yashts to the Vendidad, from the
Avestan sacred books as a whole to the Pahlavi religious books, there
is unmistakable evidence of continuous degeneration of the Zoroastrian religion. Professor Wadia writes :
"It is one of the tragedies of religion that the purity of the founders
is not kept up by the followers and the freshness of the faith is lost
through endless excrescences. Zoroastrianism is no exception to the
rule. In the course of the centuries the prophet's teaching was
considerably modified in various ways. "9
Sometime after the passing away of Zarathushtra we see the
emergence of the doctrine of the two creators, or dualism Not only
was Ahura-Mazda identified with Spento-Mainyu, but SpentoMainyu and Angro-Mainyu began to be regarded as co-elemal and
co-equal. They were believed to be the joint creators of the universe.
Some things n the world were the creation of Spento-Mainyu and
were inherently good, others were the creation of Angro-Mainyu and
were inherently bad. Zarathushtra's doctrine of monotheism was
corrupted by the adoption of belief in a large number of imaginary
deities. The six chief attributes ofAhura-Mazda were personified and
made into separate gods. They were called Amesha Spenias, the Holy
Immortals. The old Nature-gods, whom Zarathushtra had rejected
as mere figments of the superstitious mind, were revived and began
to be worshipped as Yazatas or minor gods (or angels). There was
also the revival of ancestor-worship. The anniversaries of the dead
began to be observed more or less elaborately and the last ten da.es
of the Zoroastrian year were dedicated to the worship of the F>avashis, i.e., the souls or guardian-angels of the dead relatives and
friends.
With the passage of time the religion of Zarathushtra became
more qpd more formal and ritualistic. There arose a widely-spread
priesthood (alharavano), who systemised its doctrines and organi
sed and carried on its worship, and laid down the minutely elaborate
laws of the Vendidad regarding ritual purity. The whole life was
dominated by the idea of purity and defilement; the great business
of life was to avoid impurity and when it was involuntarily contacted
to remove it in the correct manner as quickly as possible. Worship
9.
The Life and Teachings of Zoroaster, p. 67,
78
in later Zoroastrianism was centred round the holy fire. While it

would not be quite correct to describe the Zoroastrians as fireworshippers, there is no doubt that the Zoroastrians came to look
upon it with excessive veneration and a galaxy of sins came to be
formulated round the purity of fire. In the Vendidad and in Jamyad
Yasht, Fire is spoken of as the Son of God. It was made the symbol
of God and used in worship as the representative of God. Professor
Wadia writes :
"As we have already seen before, Zoroaster emerged as a great
religious reformer by dethroning these spurious nature-gods and
establishing the worship of one God, the God of righteousness. With
the conversion of King Vishtaspa, this new faith took root in the
Iranian soil, but the spirit of his teaching was not kept up in purity,
and the priestly class accustomed to worship the elements of nature
reintroduced all the old gods in a new garb by making them the arch
angels or angels of Ahura-Mazda. It was a masterly stroke of
eclecticism so that the new was grafted on the old, or if one so prefers
to put it, the old was grafted on the new. In this scheme fire came to
have a central place and the worship of fire as a symbol of God was
given a fresh lease of life, which has continued right down till our own
times so far as the Parsis are concerned ." 10
In the sanctuaries of the Zoroastrian temples the various sacri
fices and the high and low masses began to be celebrated. As
offerings, meat, milk, show-bread, fruits, flowers and consecrated
water were used. In the worship the drink prepared from the homa
plant again began to have a prominent place.
Thus, at the time of the conquest of Iran by Alexander the Great
( 3 3 0 B.C.), Zoroastrianism had already lost its original vitality and
purity. In a drunken fit the great Macedonian conqueror set fire to
the palace of Persepolis and the whole of the library, including the
Holy Scriptures of Zoroastrianism, perished in the conflagration. It
was a severe blow and for nearly two centuries after Alexander's
conquest we have no record of the Zoroastrian religion. Doubtless
the learned and devoted priests, who had survived the invasion, kept
t h e faith alive in the hearts of the people and they m ust have also
p r e s e r v e d in their memory the greater part of the Scriptures.
The rise of the Parthians or Arsacids (249 B.C.) marks a fresh era
in the history of Persia. The Parthians were not Zoroastrians in the
beginning, but later on t hey appear to have adopted the Zoroastrian
faith. The later Parthian ru lers did much to bring together the sacred
remnants of the old scriptures. The Parthians were overthrown by
the Sassanians in 226 C.E. The new rulers played a vital role in
10. H ie IJf.* a n d T c a c h in y s o f zoroaster, p, 34.
ZOROASTRIANISM
79
reviving the Zoroastrian religion, but of the vast library of Zoroastrian sacred books only a small portion could be recovered. They
were translated into Pahlavi. the language of the Sassanians, and
long commentaries were writ ten on them. But in spite of the pieiy and
zeal of the early Sassanian rulers and clergy, the Zoroastrianism (hat
was revived was not the religion of Zaralhushtra, but the decadent
Zoroastrianism of later times. Dr. IlilTe writes :
"A second notable achievement of the Sassanian Empire was (he
creation of a powerful Slate Church. This was Mazdaeism, a revival
of old Zoroastrian religion of the Achaemenids, which had always
remained the traditional religion of Iran, although thrust into the
background during the agnostic Parthian period. In its new fonn it
was no longer a monotheism, with Ahura-Mazda as sole God: several
other deities, of whom traces appeared at an earlier date, including
Mithras and Anahita, now take a far more prominent place in the
Mazdaean pantheon. As a State Church Mazdaeism possessed a
supreme head and a powerful hierarchy of clergy, the Magi, whose
word was law. The central feature of the religion was the Sacred Fire,
which was maintained in every community and household, and also
in three pah icularly venerated shrines in widely scattered parts of
the empire ." 11
Tire last period of the Sassanian rule was an age of religious
dissatisfaction and political and social confusion. The Zoroastrian
faith had lost its purity and nobility. To quote from Dr.
Taraporewalas book The Religion of Zaralhushtra :
"No nation can maintain its spiritual life upon such washings
and mortifications and upon such an obsession of the demon of the
corpse, such as we read of in the Vendidad. The human heart needs
the bread of divine love and grace, and the Vendidad offers merely a
stone instead. It is not denied that the older Yashts and the Ynsna
and the Galhas with their far more satisfying ideals did also exist at
that period, but even with these their Pahlavi interpretations seem
to have been largely tinged by the spirit of the Vendidad."'2
There was ju s t one exception to the general rule of corrupt and
self-seeing rulers during the last period of Sassanian rule in Iran.
This was Khusrav I, better known as Noshirvan the Ju st, who ruled
from 531 to 578 C.E. He was a great, ju st and benevolent ruler. It was
in his time that the Prophet Muhammad was born in Arabia. Indeed,
the great Prophet of Islam is reported to have referred with pride to
the fact that he was bom in the age of this distinguished monarch.
\ \ . Dr. J. VI. llitfe in the chapter on "Persia and the Ancient World" in The legacy
of Persia, p. 31 (The Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1953.)

12. Dr. I.J.S. Taraporewala, The Religion o f Zarathushtra, p. 144 (Theosophical
Publishing House, Adyar, Madras, 1926.)
80
After the death of Noshirvan there was rapid decline and com
plete chaos in Iran, which facilitated the conquest of this ancient
land by the Arabs and the conversion to Islam of its people. Dr. I.J.S.
Taraporewala, a great and distinguished Zoroastrian scholar, is of
the view that it was the simplicity and nobility of the Islamic doctrine
and the practice of real brotherhood by the Muslims that won over
the people of Iran to the Islamic fold. He is certain that there was no
use of force by the Muslims :
"In the early days of Islamic rule in Persia the Zoroastrians were
not persecuted on account of their faith nor were they forcibly
converted. Though zealous and eager to spread their own faith the
Arab leaders did possess a great deal of tolerance and their inborn
spirit of democracy undoubtedly helped them to accord to others the
same religious liberty they themselves wished to enjoy.;'1.3
However, after the withdrawl of the
Arabs
about the
end of the ninth century, the Persian Muslims began to harass and
persecute the "Persian Zoroastrians and a large number of them
migrated from Iran to India, and so we witness the rise of the Parsi
community of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent. They settled down,
first in the island of Div, and later on in South Gujarat on the West
coast of India. Here they built their great fire temple for the IranShah. Though few in number the Zoroastrian Parsis have played and
are still playing a very admirable role in the cultural and economic
life of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent. They are distinguished by
their gentle, civilized ways and great public charities. Zoroastrians
number about a hundred thousand in India and Pakistan and fifteen
thousand in Iran.
ZOROASTRIAN CEREMONIES
The three most important Zoroastrian ceremonies are connected

with initiation, marriage and death.
The initiation ceremony or Navjot (literally, the New Birth) is the
occasion when the child is admitted into the Zoroastrian fold, and is
then invested with the outward symbols of the faith the shirt
(sudreh) and the girdle (kusti). This ceremony takes place between
the age of seven and fifteen. After the investiture every Zoroastrian,
male and female, has to wear this special shirt and girdle day and
night, and these constitute the dress of the body when it is carried
to the last resting place.
The second ceremony is connected with marriage. It is the
bounden duty of the Zoroastrian to marry and bring up children. The
essential part of the marriage ceremony consists of the recital three
13.
Ibid., p. 147.
81
Z O R O A ST R IA N IS M
times of the marriage contract by the officiating priest, followed by

the invocation of the blessings of God, the Amesha Spentas and the
Yazatas upon the newly-joined couple.
The most distinctive Zoroasfrian ceremony is connected with
death. As soon as the breath has left it, the body is regarded as
impure. It m ust be destroyed as quickly as possible. It m ust not
touch any of the pure elements -- fire, earth and water. Hence it is
neither burnt, nor buried in the earth nor thrown into water. It is left
to be devoured by vultures. It is kept in a structure, called the Tower
of Silence, exposed to the sun. The Tower being open at the top, gives
free access to the birds of prey. They finish off the flesh within half
an hour, and the bones are completely bleached by the sun and air
within a few days. These are then collected and deposited in the
central pit in the Tower, where they crumble to dust. This custom of
disposing of the dead did not exist in the time of Zarathushtra or even
in the early Achaemenid period. Herodotus refers to the custom of
burial among Persians, and the tomb of Cyrus exists even today. The
Towers of Silence (Dokhmas) came into existence as a result of the
influence of the Magi, the priests of the Medes. It is defended by the
Zoroastrians on both religious and sanitary grounds.
ZOROASTRIAN SCRIPTURES
The Sacred Books of Zoroastrianism are called the Avesta. Some

scholars refer to them as Zend-Avesta, where Avesta stands for the
original scriptures in the Avestan language and Zend for the trans
lation and exposition of a great part of them in Pahlavi.
The various books of the Avesta belong to widely different times.
They are arranged in four groups.
The first and most important part is called the Yasna. It is made
up of 72 chapters and contains the texts read by the priests at the
solemn yasna ceremony, the general sacrifice in honour of all the
deities. The arrangement of the chapters is purely liturgical, al
though their m atter in part has nothing to do with the liturgical
action. The Yasna is subdivided into four sections, the most impor
tant of which are the five Gathas : the Gatha Ahunavaiti the Gatha
Ustavaili, the Gatha Spenta Mainyu, the Gatha Vohu-Kshathra, and
the Gatha Vahtsta Isti They are the oldest part of the Avesta, and it
can be said with some certainty that, except for a few changes and
interpolations here and there, they come from the mouth of Zara
thushtra himself. They contain the discourses, exhortations, hymns
and revelations of the illustrious Prophet of Iran. Sandwiched in
between the Gathas is the Yasna HaptanHaiti, which is, next to the
Gathas, the most ancient section of the Yasna.
82
The second part of the Avesta is called the Vispered. It is a

collection of preparatory invocations to be used before prayers and
sacrifices.
The third part is the Vendidad. which is the priestly code of the
Zoroastrians and was written in the early Sassanian age. It contains
a kind of dualistic account of creation (Chapter 1), the legend of Yinia
and the Golden Age (Chapter 2), and in the remaining chapters the
precepts of religion regarding the cultivation of the earth, the care of
useful animals, the protection of the sacred elements (i.e., earth, fire
and water), the keeping of man's body from defilement, elaborate
ceremonies of purification, atonement and ecclesiastical expiation.
The three concluding chapters are devoted to sacerdotal medicine.
The fourth part of the Avesta is called the Yashts or Songs of
Praise." They contain invocations of separate Yazatas. They re
semble the hymns of the Rig Veda and are a rich source of mythol
ogy and legendary history. In the Jamy&dYaSht andParvardinYasht
we have the prophecy of the coming of a great prophet, called
Saoshyant, who will eradicate all idolatrous and unedifying prac
tices, raise mankind to the greatest heights, and be a mercy to all the
nations.
The last part of the Avesta is called the Khordah Avesta, i.e.. the
Little Avesta. It comprises a collection of shorter prayers designed for
all believers and not only for the priests -- and adapted for the
various occurences of ordinary life.
In the Sassanian age a new series of Zoroastrian sacred books
were written in the Pahlavi language. Among these are the Bundahish, which is an attempt at cosmology, the Ard Viraf, which is
eschatological, and is perhaps one of the earliest attempts at a
description of Heaven and Hell; the Dlna-i-Mainog Khirad, a sort of
apocalypse; and Shayast al-Shayast, which concerns ritual. Others
worthy of mention are the Bahman Yasht and the Dasatir.
The Zoroastrian creative activity continued unabated during the
Muslim rule over Iran. A further series of Zoroastrian sacred books
in Pahlavi were produced during the seventh and eighth centuries.
These show the influence of Islamic religious thought. Among these
are the Diiikard, the Dadistan-i-Dinak and the Zandparam.
Chapter V
CONFUCIANISM
China has an incomparably long and glorious history. Legend
goes back to a very remote antiquity and tells in a shadowy way of
the arrival of the Chinese from the West, and of early potentates,
patterns to all their successors, who treated the people as their
children, and invented for them the arts on which life in China
most depended. When history proper begins about 2700 B.C., the
character, manners and institutions of the Chinese are already
fixed. They are already civilized and have an organized religion;
though how all this came about we cannot tell. Ancient fragments
subsisting in Shih Clung (The Book of Odes) and Shu Ching (The
Book of History) give the impression that the early Chinese were
monotheists. The names they gave to the one true God were Shangti (the Supreme Ruler) and Tien (Heaven). He had no idols.
With the passage of lime the Chinese religion degenerated and
the worship of ghosts and spirits of Nature was added to the belief
in Shang-ti. In every house there was a hall of ancestors, where
worship and sacrifice was offered to the ghosts. But it was not only
in the family that the ancestors were adored. The Emperor sacri
ficed in a public capacity to all the ancestors of his own line, and
to all his predecessors on the throne; a magistrate to all vvno had
occupied his office before him. Ancient China possessed an elabo
rate ritual, and occasions for sacrifice were frequent. Religion,
however, was not separated from life. There was no special class of
priests to take care of it; everyone had to attend himself to those
sacrifices which were incumbent on him. The ritual was fixed by
tradition in eveiy detail, and if a man attended to it he did his duty.
Religion was a set of acts properly and exactly done, the proper
person sacrificing always i the proper object in the proper way.
By about the sixth century B.C. there was virtual lawlessness
in China. Both political life and religion had become corrupt and
declined from former excellence. The great civilization established
in China by the rulers of the Chou dynasty was now but a shadow
of itself. It was in these circumstances that two of the greatest
Chinese religions, Confucianism and Taoism, took birth. Of all the
religions of China, Confucianism has left the greatest impress on
Chinese life and culture. For nearly twentyfivc centuries Cofueius
tias been regarded by the Chinese as the First Teacher - not that
.here was no teacher before him, but because he stands above
hem all in rank.
84
THE LIFE OF CONFUCIUS
Confucius is the Latinized name of K'ung Fu-Tzu or Master

K'uhg. He was bom in 551 B.C. in the principality of Lu in what is
now Shantung province. Several supernatural events, dreams and
portents have become associated with his birth, as with many other
religious teachers. He came of a respectable but impoverished
family, and owed all his success to his own merit. It was to public
employment that he aspired from an early period of life; but he did
not readily find it in the unquiet times in which his lot was cast.
He began his career as a granary overseer in his native district, and
eventually was placed in charge of the public fields.
In 528 B.C. Confucius gave up his public employment to mourn
the death of his mother. During the three years mourning, he
devoted himself to study and meditation. He eventually emerged
from his seclusion as a public teacher and soon drew towards
himself a large number of devoted disciples. His fame increased,
but it was not until he was fifty that Confucius entered public life.
He was appointed Chief Magistrate of the town of Chung-tu and
was soon promoted to the position of Minister of Works and J u s
tice. He thus got a chance to put into practice his teachings and set
up a model administration. He brought peace to the land, put down
oppression and gave justice without bribery. Crime and immorality
almost disappeared. In all his personal life he most punctiliously
observed the rules that he taught.
That such a policy of absolute justice would make enemies was
inevitable, and the enemies of Confucius worked craftily for his
overthrow. The legend is that they presented to the Duke a num
ber of beautiful dancing girls who turned the young m an's mind
from the affairs of the state to a life of selfish pleasure, which
eventually brought forth the rebuke of Confucius and led to a
rupture between the Duke and his minister. Confucius was over
thrown and banished.
Confucius declared "At fifty I perceived the divine mission." So
in the year 497 B.C. prompted by the Divine call, he set forth on
his wanderings and for fourteen years with his little band of
devoted disciples he went from place to place often in peril of his
life, always in neglect and poverty. When at last he was allowed t(
return to his native state of Lu, he.was already an old man of sixty
eight. He spent the remaining years of his life in propagating hir
inspired message and editing the Chinese Classics. He realised tha*
his ideas were more important than any immediate experiment ifl
application. He died in the year 479 B.C.. A vivid picture of his
CONFUCIANISM
85
personality and way of life emerges from the reports of his disciples
included in the Lan Yu (The Analects of Confucius). It is written :
"In his leisure hours the Master was easy in his manner and
cheerful in his looks (7:4). The Master was gentle yet strict, digni
fied yet not awesome, respectful yet at ease (7:37). When the Master
was among his village folks, he looked simple and sincere, as if he
were inept at speaking. But when in the ancestral temple or at
court, he spoke cautiously (9:1). At court, when conversing with the
lower minister, the Master spoke gently and kindly-. When convers
ing with the higher minister, he spoke affably and precisely. When
in the presence of the Prince, he was reverent in his movement and
solemn in his demeanour (10:2). When a friend died, leaving no
relations, he would say : 'Let me take care of the funeral'. For a
friend's gift, even though it might be a carriage and horses, he
would not bow unless it was meant for sacrifice (10:15)."'
THE TEACHING OF CONFUCIUS
Confucius avoided discussion on metaphysical and abstract

issues. Chung Yu, a disciple, once asked the Master about the
spirits and Confucius replied," If you cannot even know men, how
can you know spirits?" When he enquired about death, the reply
came: "When you do not yet know about life how can you know
about death?" It is also said about him: "The Master never spoke
of anomalies, feats of strength, rebellion, or divinities." But there is
no doubt about the fact that Confucius believed in God and was
an ethical monotheist. He claimed that the Will of God had been re
pealed to him and that it was his mission to make it prevail in the
vorld. Here are a few of his sayings :
"He who offends God has none to whom he can pray." (The
Analects, 3:13)
"There are three things of which Great Man stands in awe : the
commands of God, important people, the words of the sages. Petty
Man, not knowing the Commands of God, does not stand in awe of
them; he is disrespectful to the important people: he mocks the
words of the sages." (The Analects, 16:8).
"God has entrusted me with a divine mission. What can Huan
Tuei (a military officer who was driving him away) do to me?" (The
Analects, 7:23).
"If it be the Will of God that this divine system come to nought,
posterity shall never again share in the knowledge of this Faith. But1
1.
James R. Ware (translator). The Sayings of Confucius, (Mentor Religious

Classic. New York. 1955.)
86
if it be the Will of God that this system shall not come to nought,
what can the people of Kuang do to me?" (The Analects, 9:5).
Confucius believed that the world was built on mo'ral founda
tions. When men and states become morally corrupt, natures
order is disrupted. There are wars, floods, earthquakes, long
droughts and epidemics. "Thus", writes Alfred Doeblin, "in contrast
to our materialistic line of thought, which makes man the helpless
object of a stupid, meaningless course of events, our actions are
capable of influencing and do influence world happenings, for we
have here spiritual power influencing spiritual power, and a chance
hum an destiny independent of Heaven is about as impossible as a
world-course independent of man. Trouble, misfortune, terrible
events are the warning cries of a suffering world, cries urging man
to restore order and return to the 'right path'. Thus Confucius and
the orthodox teaching elevate us. We gain a profound obligation to
act which is natural and not directed by fear of punishment.
Confucius makes us the guarantors of a regular world order and
we m ust not forget our responsibility for a moment, because one
move follows directly on the other, and only a cash trade is carried
on."2
Confucius had the highest respect for man, believing him to be
endowed with a divine light. He said : "It is man that makes
systems great, and not systems that make man great" (Analects,
15:29). He believed that man was naturally good and would return
to virtue once a good example was set by the upper and ruling
classes. He would have nothing to do with the metaphysical charge
of original sin, inherited guilt. He was the friend of life and of man,
who was, as he well knew, even without the burden of this guilt
already sufficiently plagued and continually threatened by two
dangers; damaging destructive elements and wicked sovereigns.
Confucius stood for man, neither an animal nor a bad being,
considered him good natured and was anxious that he should not
be ruined. He believed that m an did not stand in need pf saviours
who claimed miraculously to take away his sins. What man needed
was a teacher of righteousness, who by fully practising his own
precepts, could become a model for other men. Confucius himself
was one such teacher, raised by God.
The Analects tell us of his faith in the evolution of True Man
hood. Here is his description of the true or superior man:
2,
Alfred Doeblin, The Living Thoughts of Confucius, p. 14 fThe Living Thoughts

Library, Cassell and Company, London. 1942.)
CONFUCIANISM
87
"He first practises what he preaches, and then preaches what

he practises" (The Analects, 2:13). "The superior m an understands
what is right; the inferior m an understands what will sell" (4:16).
"The superior man loves his soul; the inferior m an loves his prop
erty. The superior man always remembers how he was punished for
his mistakes; the inferior man always remembers what presents he
got" (4:11). "The superior man blames himself; the inferior man
blames others" (15:20). "The superior man is dignified and at ease,
but not proud; the inferior man is proud but not dignified" (13:26).
'The superior m an is liberal towards others' opinion, but does not
completely agree with them; the inferior man completely agrees
with others' opinion but is not liberal towards them" (13:23). "Great
man, being universal in his outlook, is impartial; Petty Man, being
partial, is not universal in outlook" (2:14).
On the ethical side, Confucius emphasized fellow feeling or
reciprocity, cultivation of sympathy and cooperation, which m ust
begin in the family and then extend by degrees into the larger areas
of association. He stressed the importance of the five cardinal
hum an relationships which were already traditional among the
Chinese; (1) ruler and subject, (2) father and son, (3) elder brother
and younger brother, (4) husband and wife, and (5) friend and
friend. Confucius had seen chaos arise in China when the prince
did not act as prince; subjects did not act as subjects; the father
did not act as father, and so on. Thus he felt that the first step
towards the transformation of a disordered world was to have
everyone recognise and fulfil his own proper place.
Confucius was once asked, "Is there one single word that can
serve as a principle of conduct for life?" He replied : "Perhaps the
word reciprocity' will do. Do not do unto others what you do not
want others to do unto you." (The Analects, 15 : 24).
The virtue which, according to Confucius, m ust be cultivated
above all is human-heartedness (Jen). His ethics, his politics, his
life ideal, all flow from this supreme virtue. It stands for Confucius'
ideal of cultivating hum an relations, developing hum an faculties,
sublimating one's own personality, and upholding hum an rights.
Tzu Chang asked him about Jen, and he replied, 'To be able to
practise five virtues in the world constitutes Jen." On being asked
what they were, he said : "They are respect, magnanimity, sincer
ity, earnestness and kindness." (The Analects, 17 : 6). He also said
that Jen consists in "loving others."
Confucius wanted the peoples progress along "Civilization's
right path" to be assured by a good sovereign to take the lead and
88
IIIK GREAT RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD
.set an example and good officials to enforce the law within the
prescribed religious frame. He wanted the whole state arranged as
an educational institution: the work should begin at top, with the
sovereign: for, if the sovereign would set a bad example, he would
plunge the people into misfortune. All through Confucius' doctrine
there is never the slightest doubt that the sole purpose of the state
is to promote the welfare of the people according to the rules of God.
"Government is merely setting things right. When you yourself
lead them bv the right example, who dares to go astray" (The
Analects, 12:17).
"When the ruler himself does what is right, he will have influ
ence over the people without giving commands, and when the ruler
himself does not do what is right, all his commands will be of no
avail" (13:6).
"If the ruler rectifies his own conduct, government is an easy
matter, and if he does not rectify his own conduct, how can he
rectify others?" (13:13).
"Guide the people with governmental measures and control or
regulate them by the threat of punishment, and the people will try
to keep out of jail, but will have no sense of honour or shame. Guide
the people by virtue and control or regulate them by rules of
propriety, and the people will have a sense of honour and respect"
(2:3).
CONFUCIANISM AFTER CONFUCIUS
The spread of the doctrine of Confucius began not long after his
death. After having mourned together their Master's death, the
disciples separated and went each his own way to carry on his work
and spread his message. Although the disciples all revered their
Masters words, it was but natural that they should each lay
particular emphasis on certain aspects of the teaching of Confu
cius. With the passage of time these differences grew greater as
they developed their respective systems of thought in accordance
with their own interests and convictions. In consequence, accord
ing to one source, no less than eight different schools of Confucian
ism emerged.
The most important of these schools owed its origin to the
exposition of Confucianism by Tseng Ts'an, the arch filial pietist,
who stressed moral cultivation, rather than the observance of rit
ual, as the basis of human endeavour. He is the reputed author of
several books, including the Classic o f Filial Piety and the Great
Learning. Another great scholar of this school was Cr
cius'
CONFUCIANISM
89
grandson Tzu-ssn (Rung Chieh). He is the author of one of the great

scriptures of Confucianism, the Doctrine oj theMefm. It is a collec
tion of the sayings of Confucius, together with Tzu-ssu's explana
tion of the same. The comments become eloquent towards the end
of the work when he discourses about the reality (cheng) of God and
realness in man : It is the way of God to be the real. It is the way
of man to attain the real. To be real is to hit the mean without effort,
to possess it without the exercise of thought, and to be centred in
the way with a natural ease this is to be a sage. To attain the real
is to choose the good and hold fast to it. This involves a thorough
study of what is good, inquiring extensively about it, cogitating over
it carefully, making it clear through contrast, and earnestly putting
it into practice.'1 In particular the book stresses 'human realness
and sincerity in action, with its capacity to transform and to give
full development to mans nature.
The last two hundred years or so of the Chou dynasty have been
aptly designated the period of Warring States. It was an age of
political chaos, lawlessness and bloodshed. The authority of the
Chou sovereign was challenged by several feudal lords, who even
assumed the title of King. Thus seven big states emerged, which
were continually at war with one another. On the debris of fallen
cities and mounds of the dead, there rose to eminence and power
intriguing politicians, ruthless generals, and autocratic rulers, who
all wallowed in wealth at the expense of the common people. While
the kings and nobles of the warring States indulged to the utmost
their appetites and lusts, the peasants were completely crushed
under the triple weight of war, taxation and conscription.
The period of the Warring States is, however, remarkable for its
freedom of thought. It saw the rise of the so-called 'Hundred
Schools of philosophy and religion which struggled with Confu
cianism for the allegiance of the people. Had it not been for the
appearance of Mencius, Confucianism might well have been over
whelmed by its rivals. Posterity has rightly honoured Mencius as
the Second Sage, next only to the great Master himself.
THE TEACHINGS OF MENCIUS
Mencius (Meng Ko) is the Latinized form of the Chinese name

of Meng Tzu, or Master Meng. He lived in the fourth century B.C.
With his eloquence, moral courage and deep conviction, he widely
popularised Confucianism. He commanded great respect among
kings and princes. He visited several states, and wherever he went
3.
C hu C hai and W inberg C hai (translators). E ssential Works o f Confucianism,

Part VI. p. 315. (B antam Book. N w York, 1965.)
90
he was received wifh honour and respect. His advice was eagerly
sought, and once or twice even followed.
The contribution of Mencius to Confucianism lies in his empha
sis on the innate goodness of hum an nature. According to him,
m an possesses four inborn virtues : human-heartedness (Jen),
righteousness (Yfl, propriety (Li) and wisdom (Child. He said :
"It is by virtue of its innate quality that hum an nature can be
considered good. That is why I say it is good. If it becomes evil, it
is not the fault of its innate quality. The sense of compassion is
common to all men; the sense of shame is common to all men; the
sense of respect is common to all men; the sense of right and wrong
is common to all men. The sense of compassion constitutes
humanity; the sense of shame constitutes righteousness; the sense
of respect constitutes propriety; the sense of right and wrong
constitutes wisdom. Humanity, righteousness, propriety and wis
dom are not taught; they are inherent in our nature."4
Human nature can, however, become depraved, as a result of
the rough contacts of life. "A gentleman,." said Mencius, "is one
who has not lost the heart of a naked child." The infant heart, so
to speak, is a symbol as well as the source of all that is good in our
nature, to which we should holdfast. Nevertheless, the irony of life
is that "when our dogs and chicken go astray we make every effort
to find them; but very few of us are interested in recovering our
natural goodness."
The next problem to which Mencius paid special attention was
that of good government. True to the tradition of Confucian school,
he maintained that good government depends not upon brute force
but on the example set by the ruler ;
"All men have a heart which cannot bear to see the suffering of
others. The ancient kings had this compassionate heart, and they
therefore, had likewise a compassionate government. Then the rule
of the world was as easy as turning things around in the palm of
one's hand."
Growing out of this concept of "humane government" was
Mencius' recognition of the importance of the role of the people in
government :
"The people rank highest, in a state, the spirits of the Land and
. rain come next, and the sovereign is of the least account."
4.
C hu C hai an d W inberg C hai (translators), E ssential W orks o f Confucianism,

Part II: Merig Tzu, p. 9 6 (B antam Book, New York, 1965.)
CONFUCIANISM
91
Good government should work upwards from the people in

stead of downwards from the ruling class. The people are not only
the root but also the final judges of the government. The aim of the
government should be to educate and enrich the people and to
improve their overall welfare.
THE TEACHINGS OF HSUN TZU
Soon after Mencius there appeared another great champion of

Confucianism. His name was Hsun Tzu; he was at one and the
same time a professed exponent of the principles of Confucius and
a critic of Mencius. If Mencius be taken as representing the ideal
istic wing of Confucianism, Hsun Tzu may be said to represent the
realistic wing.
Unlike Confucius, Mencius and many others, Hsun was an
agnostic. He did not believe in Tien (Heaven) as a personal Divine
Being. Tien was no more than the unvarying law of Nature, and all
changes in the universe, such as the movement of the stars, altera
tion of the sun and moon, the succession of the seasons, etc., were
the operations of that great law. Hsun Tzu said that it was man
himself, and not Heaven, who was responsible for his own life as
well as for the prosperity and calamity that come to him.
'When food and clothes are sufficiently stored and used eco
nomically Heaven cannot impoverish the country. When the people
are adequately sustained and their energies are employed in keep
ing with the seasons. Heaven cannot afflict the people. When the
Tao is followed and there are no deviations from it. Heaven cannot
send misfortunes."5
Hsun Tzu rejected all such superstitions as divination, fortune
telling and physiognomy. He also questioned the efficacy of prayers
: "If man prays for rain and then it rains, how is that? I would say
: Not strange. It would rain all the same even if no man prayed for
rain."6
Another peculiar idea of Hsun Tzu was that the hum an nature
was evil and that m an's goodness was acquired. In this connec
tion he made a direct attack on Mencius, accusing him of failing to
distinguish between what is congenital and what is acquired. While
the virtues which Mencius considered to be the most important for
the proper development of man were human-heartedness (Jen) and
righteousness (Yij. the way on which Hsun TZu laid the greatest
5.
6.
Chu Chai and Wlnberg Chat (translators) Essential Works of Confucianism,

part III: Hsun Tzu. p. 226 (Bantam Book, New York, 1965.)
Ibid, p. 230.
92
stress was that of ritual (Li) and music (Yeo). He considered ritual
and music as the most effective means of counteracting what he
alleged to be the inherent baseness of hum an nature.
LATER HISTORY OF CONFUCIANISM
During the Chin period (221-207 B.C.) there was an inevitable

reaction against the freedom of thought of the late Chou years, as
characterized by the "Hundred Schools". It was in the spirit of this
reaction that the Emperor Shih Huang Ti sought to control thought
by his notorious decree for burning all writings of the Hundred
Schools, with the exception of works on medicine, divination and
agriculture. As a result of this decree a large number of Confucian
books were burnt and no less than 460 scholars put to death.
However, with the rise of the Han dynasty (206 B.C.r220 C.E.)
freedom of thought returned to China. Tung Chung-shu, who was
the greatest of the early Han reformers, proposed to the Emperor
that unity be sought in the Empire bv elevating Confucianism at
the expense of the other schools of thought. The first Chinese
university was founded in the Han capital of Chang-an for the
purpose of "transmitting the sacred ways of the ancient rulers and
achieving the moral and intellectual advancement of the empire."
Another important measure to promote the Confucian doctrine was
the introduction of an examination system based upon the Five
Classics. The purpose of these examinations was to produce gov
ernment officials of education and moral integrity and devoted to
the Confucian doctrine.
Tung Chung-shu tried to revive the original Confucianism, not
merely as a philosophy, which it had become in later years, but as
a full-fledged religion, with its spiritual, moral and cultural aspects
- concerned as much with the soul's eternal quest for salvation
and with God's ways in dealing with man and the universe, as with
the principles of right conduct and social justice. He believed that
man's superiority to the other creatures lay in his capacity to
receive revelation from God and mould his own conduct and char
acter according to it. He said :
"Man receives the Decree of God, and therefore is superior to
other creatures. Other creatures suffer troubles and distress, and
are unable to practise Jen (human-heartedness) and Yi (righteous
ness); m an alone is capable of practising them."7
7.
C hu C hai an d W inberg C hai (translators). Essential Works o f Confucianism,

Part VIII; C hun Chiu Fan-lu. p. 366
CONFUCIANISM
93
Tung's view of human nature was something like a compromise

between the views of Mencius and Hsun Tzu. He agreed with
Mencius that m ans "innate quality" contains the beginnings of
goodness, but he thought that these beginnings were not, in them
selves, sufficient evidence that m an's nature itself is good, for
mans innate quality contains not merely his nature, but also his
feelings. Man must subject his urges and feelings to the commands
of God to become good.
He also emphasized the connection between man s actions and
the universal course of Nature. Man's wicked deeds, he pointed
out. would culminate in catastrophes and anomalies :
"God first sends warnings, and if man, being thus warned, fails
to understand, then he is made to feel awe through such
anomalies....The genesis of all such catastrophes and anomalies is
the direct result of the errors that exist within the nation."
While the victory of Confucianism was almost assured in the
early Han period, there raged at the same time within the rank of
Confucian scholars a bitter controversy over the interpretation of
the Classics and the status of Confucius. The New Script School
raised Confucius to the status of a Divine Saviour. In opposition to
this view the Old Script School continued to believe that Confucius
was a prophet and sage. It was. however, the New Script School
which gained ascendency during this period. As early as 59 C.E. a
beginning was* made with the cult of Confucius when Emperor
Ming of the later Han dynasty ordered sacrifice to Confucius, hith erto confined to the temple in Lu, to be made in all government
schools in the cities. This clearly established Confucius as the
patron deity of education.
After the collapse of Han there followed a long period of moral
and political chaos in China, in which the teaching of Confucius
somewhat lost its hold on the intellectuals, many of whom turned
to Taoism and Buddhism for inspiration. But the effort to acceler
ate the deification of Confucius was redoubled on the part of his
followers, perhaps as a result of the keen competition of the rival
religions. In 178 C.E. a likeness of Confucius was used for the first
time in his shrine in place of the simple tablets. This led further to
the addition of wooden images in 505 C.E. In the same year the first
temple in Confucius' honour was built at Nanking. Half a century
later, temples of Confucius rose in almost every major city through
out the Empire. At the same time a complete code of sacrificial
8. Ibid., p. 365.
94
ritual had been drawn up for the worship of Confucius. When

China was reunited by the Tang rulers in the seventh century, the
cult of Confucius was already well established.
The period of the Sung (960-1280 C.E.) and Ming (1368-1644
C.E.) dynasties is noted for the rise and development of Li Hsueh
Chia or the school of study of Li, usually known in the West as NeoConfucianism. However the term "Neo-Confucianism" is a misno
mer since it does not stand here for a genuine revival of Confucian
ism. The Neo-Confucianists were doubtless Confucian scholars,
but their intellectual activity was stimulated and determined by the
speculations of Ch'an (Zen) masters. Thus; Neo-Confucianism was
a kind of summing up or revision of the ethics, morals and beliefs
of the past, its principles of Confucianism being thoroughly tinged
with Buddhism and Taoism. It is nevertheless one of the most
important systems that China has developed. The intellectual in
fluences that had acted upon China in the past, the culture and
thought that had been brought from foreign lands, all permeate
this body of thought and crystallize within it.9
THE SACRED BOOKS OF CONFUCIANISM
The book which is of supreme importance for the understand

ing of Confucius the man and his teaching is Lun Yu (The Analects
of Confucius). It is a collection of the sayings of Confucius made by
his disciples sometime after the passing away of the Master. There
are three versions of this book : the Lu version, the Sh'i version and
the Ancient Script version. These three versions do not wholly agree
in scope, contents and arrangement of the text. The version current
today is the Lu version, which is divided into twenty chapters.
Next to the Analects, we have the Six Confucian Classics, said
to have been either written or edited by Confucius. These are :
1.
Shu Ching (The Book of History). It originally contained 10
historical ddcuments of the ancient dynasties of China and covered
a period extending from twenty-fourth to eighth centuries B.C.
Confucius is said to have arranged these documents chronologi
cally and written prefaces to them. All these documents were
permeated with religious and moral teachings. Confucius edited
the documents in order to make the students conversant with the
facts-concerning the causes of the rise and fall of dynasties. Of the
100 documents that he had compiled only 28 are extant in the
current Book of History.
9.
For details see Lin Wu-chi, A short History of Confucian Philosophy, (Pelican
Book), chapters 10 and 11. (Penguin Books, 1955.)
CONFUCIANISM
95
2. Shih Ching (The Book of Poetry). It is a collection of popular

poems written during the first five hundred years of the Chou
dynasty. Confucius purpose in editing this book was to make his
followers cultured and skilful in the use of words and to stress the
moral value of the poems. He selected 305 poems out of more than
3000 pieces that he had collected.
3. Yi Ching (The Book of Changes). This book propounds a
highly fanciful system of philosophy. It throws light on what it calls
the Yin (female) and Yang (male) principles of nature.
4. Li Chi (The Book of Rites). Confucius approved of some of the
traditional rites for disciplining the people and bringing refinement,
grace and propriety into their social behaviour. He threw light on
the origin and significance of the ancient ceremonies and recalled
that li was an expression of sentiment. Criticising the debased
practice of later times, he said that li without sentiment was
nothing but a mock ceremony.
5. Yeo (The Book of Music). In Confucius' time, music was
closely related to poetry. Thus, when he edited the ancient poems,
he also arranged a musical setting for each of the poems he had
selected. He either revised the old tunes or composed new ones.
None of this music has however survived.
6. Chun Chiu (The Spring and Autumn Annals). It is a chrono
logical record of the chief events in the state of Lu from the first year
of Duke Yin's rule (722 B.C.) to the fourteenth year of Duke Ai's rule
(481 B.C.). "The central theme of this book", writes Chu Chai, "is
to set up the norms of good government, to put the usurping
princes back in their proper places and to condemn misbehaving
ministers, so that the cause of world peace and unity might be
upheld."
Also important for the knowledge of Confucianism are three
other books, which contain very early exposition of the Confucian
doctrine. These are :
1.
Ta Hsueh (The Great Learning). This book is traditionally
attributed to Tseng Tsan, one of the chief disciples of Confucius. Its
central theme is self-cultivation; the three guiding principles (or the
three "main cords") being : (a) manifestation of illustrious virtue,
(b) loving the people, and (c) rest in the highest good. The eight
ethico-political items (or the eight "minor wires) leading to selfcultivation are (i) investigation, (ii) extension of knowledge,
(iii) sincerity in one's thoughts, (iv) rectification of one's heart,
(v) the cultivation of ones person, (vi) the regulation of one's family,
(vii) the governing of one's state and (viii) insurance of world peace.
96
THE GREAT RELIGIONS OE THE WORLD
2. Chung Yung (The Doctrine of the Mean). This book was

written by Confucius' grandson Tzu-ssu and is a systematic expo
sition of the doctrine of Mean (Chung) and of Normality (Tung). To
secure the mean and normality is not merely to pursue a middle
course; it means rather to be in harmony with the universe. Thus
the way to mean and normality involves a sense of justice, a spirit
of tolerance, a state of harmony and a doctrine of equality. It is a
way of action, which avoids going to extremes. It is also a state of
mind in which human reasoning and feeling reach a perfect har
mony.
3. Hsiao Ching (The Classic of Filial Piety). This book is in the
form of a colloquy between Tsung Tzu and Confucius. The Master
is made to expound the view that "filial piety is the basis of virtue
and the source of culture." According to him, filial piety is not
merely a domestic virtue; it diffuses its influence through all ac
tions of life, whether moral, political of social. It originates with the
bonds of a common parentage and extends to other relationships,
until it reaches the stage of jen, human-heartedness and love due
to all men.
For later expositions of Confucianism we turn to three other
books :
1. The Book of Mencius. This consists of a series of discourses
which Mencius had with the feudal lords, ministers, friends and
disciples. It ranks as one of the Four Scriptures of Confucianism;
the other three being the Analects of Confucius, the Great Learn
ing and the Doctrine o f the Mean.
2. The Book of Hsun Tzu. It originally consisted of three
hundred and twenty-two articles, but after being edited and con
densed the articles in the standard edition now available are thirtytwo.
3. Ch'un Ch'iu Fan-lu (The Copious Dew in Spring and Autumn).
This book was written in the early Han period by Tung Chung-shu,
who revived and established Confucianism as a full-fledged relig
ion. It contains some realty thoughtful discourses o n the Nature of
Man, the Philosophy of History and the Science of Catastrophes
and Anomalies.
C hapter VI
TAOISM
Confucianism and Taoism complement each other. They em
phasize two different aspects of religion both equally important.
Confucius emphasizes the social aspect, and is primarily interested
in building a ju st social order in which there would be no evil and
exploitation and every m an would perform his duty in harmony
with the plan of God. Lao Tzu, on the other hand, emphasizes the
individual aspect and is concerned with the discovery and exposi
tion of the Way of God and of the soul's lone way which leads it to
find eternal peace in union with God. While Confucius was a man
of action, Lao Tzu was a mystic.
THE FOUNDER OF TAOISM
Lao Tzu, the founder of Taoism, was bom about 570 B.C. in the
Li village of the state of Chu. He was thus an elder contemporary
of Confucius. Lao Tzu means the "Grand Old Master, and is a title
lather than a name. The old master's name was Lai Tan.
Apart from the thick crop of legend and myth which soon
gathered around his name, very little is known about the life and
personality of Lao Tzu. It came to be believed by his followers that
the Master was bom of a virgin mother, who conceived him at the
sight of a falling star. According to another legend, he remained in
his mother's womb for eighty-one years and was already wise and
white-bearded when he was bom.
The lack of authentic information about him has led some
scholars to regard Lao Tzu as merely a mythical figure. Similar
doubts have also been expressed regarding the historicity of
Krishna, Buddha and Jesus. However, on the basis of the short
biography in Shih Chi (The Historical Records) of Ssu-ma Chien,
the Herodotus of China, who lived in the second century B.C., most
scholars now accept Lao Tzu's historical existence.
Lao Tzu worked as the keeper of the imperial archives in the
royal capital of Lo, where Confucius is said to have visited him.
Unlike Confucius, who travelled from state to state campaigning for
political reform, Lao Tzu preferred to dp his work in anonymity.
Apparently he remained in this position at Lo for a considerable
period until the time when he recognised the signs of decay in the
Chou house. At first, he merely resigned, but dismayed by the
increasing,disintegration and chaos, he shortly went into exile. It
98
is said that before he entered what is now Tibet, he was stopped at

the Hankao Pass by a guard, who requested him to commit his
teachings to writing. He is supposed to have remained there long
enough to write his small book Tao Te Ching. After that he disap
peared, and nothing further is known of him although he is sup
posed to have lived in seclusion to a great age.
There is very little that Lao Tzu says about himself in Tao Te
Ching. However in a tone of irony he does point out how he was
different from other men:
"Other men have plenty, while I alone seem to have lost all, I am
a man foolish in heart, dull and confused. Other men are full of
light, I alone seem to be in darkness. Other men are alert, I alone
am listless. I am unsettled as the ocean, drifting as though I had
no stopping-place. All men have their usefulness; I alone am stupid
and clownish. Lonely though I am and unlike other men, yet I value
drawing sustenance from Mother Nature."1
Towards the end of the book, in a somewhat different mood, he
observes:
"My words are very easy to understand, very easy to put into
practice; yet the world can neither understand nor practise them.
My words have a clue, my actions have an underlying principle. It
is because men do not know the clue that they understand me not.
Those who know me are but few, and on that account my honour
is greater. Thus the sage wears coarse garments, but carries a jewel
in his bosom" (Tao Te Ching, LXX).
THE TEACHINGS OF LAO TZU
The very title of the book that Lao Tzu wrote, Tao Te Ching,
suggests the nature and scope of his teaching. There are two
important words in the title. The first is Tap, which means the Way;
it has been used by Lao Tzu to mean the Way of God, the Ultimate
Reality. Tao Te Ching gives a unique insight into the Way of God
(Tao), firstly in its transcendental aspect, and then in its imminent
aspect as revealed in Nature and in the innermost essence of man's
self. It also tells us about the way that man should follow. The other
important word in Tao Te Ching is Te, which means virtue. Thus
the sole concern of Lao Tzu in this book is to enlighten men regard
ing the Way of God and to teach them the virtue which comes from
1.
Too Te Ching, XX, Translations from which quotations have been given in
this chapter are by (i) R.B. Blackncy (Mentor Books, New York), (ii) Lionel
Giles (Wisdom of the East Series, London), (iii) Arthur Waley (Alien and
Unwin, London), (iv) Witter Bynner (John Day, New York).
TAOISM
99
faithfully and sincerely working in harmony with it. Lao Tzu be

lieved in the Oneness of God and said that every thing owed its
existence to Him :
"Of old these received the living touch of the One : Heaven in
virtue of the One is limpid; earth in virtue of the One is settled; the
spirits in virtue of the One are energised; the valley in virtue of the
One is full; the myriad creatures in virtue of the One are alive; the
dukes and princes in virtue of the One become leaders in the
empire. It. is the One that makes these what they are" (Tao Te Ching,
XXXIX).
He taught that the true religion is to know God and to bring
one's will in complete harmony with the Will and Purpose of God.
Deep in all. he said, is a stillness, where the root of life is, and that
root is God, from whom destiny.proceeds. Without knowledge of
that root, the eternal root, a man is blind and will therefore work
evil:
' .
'Touch ultimate emptiness, hold steady and still. All things
work together. I have watched them reverting, and have seen how
they flourish and return again, each to his roots. This I say is the
stillness: a retreat to one's roots; or better yet, return to the Will of
God, which is I say to constancy. The knowledge of constancy I call
enlightenment and say that not to know it is blindness that works
evil" (Tao Te Ching. XVI).
In its transcendental aspect the Way of God (Tao) is a mystery.
It cannot be described in words. It is in fact beyond all thought. It
can be known only through spiritual insight, unclouded by selfish
desires.
"The Tao which can be expressed in words is not the eternal
Tao; the name which can be uttered is not its eternal name. With
out a name it is the Beginning of Heaven and Earth; with a name,
it is the Mother of all things. Only one who is ever free from desire
can apprehend its spiritual essence, he who is ever a slave to desire
can see no more tha n its outer fringe. These iwo things, the spiri
tual and the material, though we call them by different names, in
their origin are one and the same. This sameness is a mystery, the mystery of mysteries. It is the gate of all wonders" (Tao Te
Ching, I).
Though the Way of God (Tao) ultimately is transcendent, it is
also imminent. It is the driving power in all nature, the ordering
principle behind all life. The Way of God brings everything into
being, nourishes and sustains it and leads it to its preordained goal
of perfection ;
100
'The Way of God (Tao) produces all things; it nourishes them;

each is formed according to its nature; each is perfected according
to its strength. Hence there is not a single thing but pays homage
to the Way of God and extols its virtue. This homage paid to the
Tao, this extolling of its virtue, is due to no command, but is always
spontaneous. Thus it is that Tao, engendering all things, nourishes
them, develops them, and fosters them; perfects them, ripens
them, tends them, protects them. Production without possession,
action without self-assertion, development without domination;
this is its mysterious operation (Tao Te Ching, Ltj.
God gets what He wants in His own way, the Way. He does not
issue words, but His master plan is to be seen unfolding like a great
net which encloses all and from which not one escapes :
"God's Way is bound to conquer all, but not by strife does it
proceed. Not by words does God get answers. He calls them not and
all things come. Master plans unfold but slowly, like God's wide net
enclosing all. Its mesh is coarse but none are lost" (Tao Te Ching,
LXXIII).
The Way of God is no respecter of persons, but when a man is
good, the Way Ls on his side :
'The Way of God is impartial. It sides only with the good man"
(Too Te Ching, LXXIX).
We can know only as much of the Way of God as is revealed to
us and is necessary for us to know God and attain nearness tp Him,
and hence it is called the "preface to God".
The Way is a void (all-pervading), used but never filled : an
abyss it is, like an ancestor from which all things come. It blunts
sharpness, restores tangles; it tampers light, subdues turmoil. A
deep pool it is, never to run dry! Whose offspring it may be I do not
know ; it is like a preface to God" (Tao Te Ching, IV).
It has been repeatedly revealed to mankind through the proph
ets or "the excellent m asters of old" (literally, 'Those of the Way"),
who themselves lived by it and became models for men. They were
mortals like us. They lived in this world, but remained uncontami
nated by the wickedness of the world. They were men of God, true,
sincere, upright.
The excellent masters of old.
Subtle, mysterious, mystic, acute.
Were much too profound for their times.
Since they were not then understood,.

It is better to tell how they looked.
TAOISM
101
Like men crossing streams in the winter,

How cautious!
As if all around there were danger.
How watchful!
As if they were guests on every occasion,
How dignified!
Like ice ju st beginning to melt.
Self-effacing!
Like a wood-block untouched by a tool,
How sincere!
Like a valley awaiting a guest,
How receptive!
Like a torrent that rushes along.
And so turbid!
Who, running dirty, comes clean like still water?
Who, being quiet, moves others to fullness of life?
It is he who, embracing the Way, is not greedy;
Who endures wear and tear without needing
renewal.
(Too Te Ching, XV)
Those who follow the prophets and the Way revealed to them
believe in and love the one true God; they strive to develop spiri
tual insight, so that they might know Him with absolute certainty,
they want to become innocent like the new-born babe; they seek to
become perfect themselves and make others also perfect: they are
always engaged in doing good to God's creatures :
"In cherishing the One with your soul, can you never forsake
the Tao? In controlling your vital force to achieve gentleness, can
you become like a new-born child? In cleansing and purifying your
mystic vision, can you strive after perfection? In loving the people
and governing the kingdom, can you rule without interference?
(Too Te Ching, X).
Those who follow the Way become of the Way and are filled with
its virtue :
"If you work by the Way, you will be of the Way; if you work
through its virtue, you will be given the virtue. Abandon either one
and both abandon you. Gladly the Way receives those who choose
to walk in it: gladly too its power uphold those who choose to use
it well; gladly will abandon greet those who to abandon drift. Little
faith is put in them w h o se faith is small" (Tao Te Ching, XXIII).
102
The Way of God is the restorer and mender of inequalities. Let

man follow the Way, by completely attuning his will to the Will of
God, and then, through him, the Way will take care of the needs
of all.
"He that humbles, himself shall be preserved entire. He that
bends shall be made straight. He that is empty shall be filled. He
that is worn out shall be renewed. He who has little shall succeed.
He who has much shall go astray. Therefore the sage cherishes the
One (believes in and loves the one true God), and is a model for all
under heaven. He is free from self-display, therefore he shines
forth; from self-assertion, therefore he is distinguished; from selfglorification, therefore he has merit; from self-exaltation, therefore
he rises superior to all. Insomuch as he does not strive, there is no
one in the world who can strive with him" (Too Te Ching, XXII).
Lao Tzu taught men the doctrine of Wie-wu-wie (literally, 'To do
without doing"), that is to be still, passive, emotionally calm, so that
the Way of God may act through them without let or hindrance. He
gave the lesson of humility, quietude and non-interference, and
condemned force, pride and selffassertion. He who follows the Way.
the m an of virtue, is like water :
"The best of men is like water; water benefits all things and does
not compete with them. It dwells in the lowly places that others
disdain - wherein it comes near to the Tao. In his dwellings, the
sage loves the lowly earth; in his heart he loves what is profound;
in his relations with others, he loves kindness; in his words he
loves sincerity; in his government he loves peace; in business
affairs, he loves ability; in his actions he loves choosing the right
time. It is because he does not contend that he is without reproach"
(Tao Te Ching, VIII).
Lao Tzu taught men to return good for evil and to love all God's
creatures. He said ;
"Requite injuiy with kindness" (Tao Te Ching, LXIII).
"Alike to the good and bad I m ust be good, for virtue is good
ness. To honest folk and those dishonest ones alike, I proffer faith,
for virtue is faithful" (Ibid., XLIX).
'World sovereignty can be committed to that man who loves all
people as he loves himself (Ibid., XIII).
"For love is victorious in attack, and invulnerable in defence.
God arms with love those He would not see destroyed" (Ibid., LXVII).
The man of the Way. the Taoist, is selfless. He cares more for
others than for himself :
TAOISM
103
"The universe Is enduring. The reason why the universe can

endure is that it does not live for self. Therefore it can and will live
long. Therefore the sage puts himself last and finds himself in the
foremost place; regards his body as accidental, and his body is
thereby preserved. Is it not because he does not live for self that his
self achieves perfection?" (Tao Te Ching, VTI).
The Taoist is, therefore, blessed with self-knowledge, self-mas
tery, quietude and acceptance of one's place in the scheme of
nature :
"One who knows others is clever, but one who knows himself
is enlightened. One who conquers others is powerful, but one who
conquers himself is mighty. One who knows contentment is rich
and one who pushes with vigour has will. One who loses not his
place endures. One who may die but will not perish, has life ever
lasting" (Ibid., XXXIII).
The Taoist teaches the Way to others, not by delivering empty
sermons, but by putting into practice what he preaches and setting
an example for others;
"Indeed the wise man's office is to work by being still; he
teaches not by speech but by accomplishment; he does for every
thing and everyone, neglecting none; their life he gives to all,
possessing none; and what he brings to pass depends on no one
else. As he succeeds he takes no credit, and just because he never
takes it credit never leaves him" (Ibid., II).
Lao Tzu deprecated scholarly hair-splitting and unedifying
forms and ceremonies. These, he said, are not to be compared to
striving after righteousness and moral perfection :
"Be done with rote learning and its attendant vexations; for is
there a distinction of a 'yes from a yea' comparable now to the gulf
between evil and good? W hat all men fear I too m ust fear' - how
barren and pointless a thought. The revelling multitude at the feast
of Great Sacrifice, or up at the terrace at carnival in spring, leave
me, alas, unmoved, alone, like a child that has never smiled (Ibid.,
XX).
He also condemned aggressive wars and the ambition to con
quer and build a large empire.
"If Tao prevails in the world, horses will be used for the purpose
of agriculture. If Tao does not prevail, war horses will be bred on
the common (Tao Te Ching, XLVI).
"Where troops have been quartered, brambles and thorns
spring up. In the track of great armies there m ust follow lean years"
(Tao Te Ching, XXX).
104
THE GREAT RELIGIONS OF 'HIE WORLD
When opposing warriors join in battle, he who has pity con

quers" {Ibid., LXIX).
'The virtuous man is for patching up, the vicious is for fixing
guilt" (Ibid.. XXIX).
"Weapons at best are tools of bad omen, loathsome and avoided
by those of the Way...But when it cannot be avoided they use them
with calm and restraint. Even in victory's hour these tools are
unlovely to see; for, those who admire them truly are men who in
murder delight" (Ibid.. XXXI).
Lao Tzu gave a message of Return to Nature. It was not that he
advocated retirement from the world, but what he did point out was
that in the contemplation of mists and mountains, clouds and
streams, lay true happiness; the mysterious and wonderful ways of
God could best be realised in the acceptance of Nature. Thus
Taoism seeks to be in tune with Nature and condemns unwar
ranted interference and meddling with God's creation;
"As for those who would take the whole world to tinker it as they
see fit, I observe that they never succeed ; for. the world is a sacred
vessel, not made to be altered by men. The linker will spoil it;
usurpers will lose it" (Ibid., XXIX).
When this love for Nat ure was made the basis of Ch inese paint
ing it produced the greatest landscape art that the world has ever
known. Indeed we cannot understand Chinese art without this
background of Tdoist philosophy.
Lao Tzu wanted men to lead a simple, natural way of life and
to preserve and keep pure the original simplicity of hum an nature.
"Reveal thy simple self," he aid, "embrace thy original nature, check
thy selfishness, curtail thy desires" (Ibid., XIX).
He condemned luxury and artificial way of life. These, he said,
were sure to result in injustice, inequality and hum an misery:
"When the palaces are very splendid, the fields will* be very
waste, and the granaries very empty. Hie wearing of gay embroi
dered robes, the carrying of sharp swords, fastidiousness in food
and drink, superabundance of property and wealth this I call
flaunting robbery; most assuredly it is not Tao [Ibid., LIII).
It was in the same spirit that he expressed himself against "too
much government." Politically the small village State was his ideal,
and all centralisd government was undesirable. Indeed the less the
government of any kind the better; men should not even be aware
that they were being ruled. Lao Tzu's advice was: "Re
i big
country as you would fry' a small fish" (TaoTe Ching. LX) -- that is.
105
TAOISM
by letting alone as far as possible. He wanted the people to enjoy

maximum freedom:
"As restrictions and prohibitions are multiplied in the Empire,
the people grow poorer and poorer. When the people are subjected
to overmuch government, the land is thrown into confusion. When
the people are skilled in many cunning arts, strange are the objects
of luxury that appear. The greater the num ber of laws and enact
ments, the more thieves and robbers there will be" (Ibid., LV1I).
The doctrine of Wie-wu-wie ("to do without doing") was for the
rulers as well as ordinary citizens. It was valid both as state policy
and as moral principle.
"The Tao never does, yet through it everything is done. If kings
and barons can keep the Tao, the world will of its own accord be
reformed. When reformed and rising to action, let it be restrained
by the nameless pristine simplicity. The nameless pristine simplic
ity is stripped of desire for contention. By stripping of desire qui
escence is achieved, and the world arrives at peace of its own
accord" (Ibid., XXXVII).
THE TEACHINGS OF CHUANG TZU
The religion of Lao Tzu shared the fate of many great religions.
At first it was neglected, except by a few faithful disciples. Then
came powerful advocates who crystallized and to some extent
popularised it, but in doing so made significant alterations in it.
They made known the letter but at the cost of the spirit. About two
centuries after the founder, when Mencius was giving a new life to
Confucianism, there appeared another great reformer, Chuang
Tzu, to revive Taoism. Chuang Tzu expounded in detail the truths
which Lao Tzu had conveyed in the form of epigrams. His writings
show profound insight combined with great beauty of poetic imagi
nation. They have also at times a quaint humour. He wrote a book,
called after him Chuang Tzu, which in its present form contains
thirty-three chapters, all of them a mixture of philosophic disqui
sition and anecdotes or parables. Chuang Tzu, following Lao Tfcu,
his master, affirmed the supreme reality of Tao (the Way of God).
All else in the universe is impermanent and subject to change. Tao
alone endures and is ever the same.
"For Tao has its inner reality and its evidences. It is devoid of
action and of form. It may be transmitted, but cannot be received.
It may be obtained, but cannot be seen. It is based in itself, rooted
in itself. Before heaven and earth were, T ao existed by itself from
all time. It gave the spirits and rulers th e ir sp iritu a l powers and
gave heaven and earth th e ir birth: To T ao, th e z e n ith is n o t h igh.
106
nor the nadir low; no point in time is long ago, nor by the lapse of
ages has it grown old."2
Hence the height of wisdom is to know God and to live one's life
in accordance with His will and pleasure :
"He who knows what is of God and who knows what is of Man
has reached indeed the height of wisdom. One who knows what is
of God patterns his living after God. One who knows what is of Man
may still use his knowledge of the known to develop his knowledge
of the unknown, living till the end of his days and not perishing
young. This is the fullness of knowledge" (Chuang Tzu, chapter
'The Great Supreme").
According to Chuang Tzu there are two levels of knowledge :
that which is learned through our senses is known as the "lower
knowledge"; that which is revealed directly to our mind and heart
is known as the "higher knowledge. Chuang Tzu bewailed the fact
that man is easily content with the former, thereby neglecting the
latter. He also believed in the relativity of all values in this world
ofmanifestations, and, as the correlate of this principle, the iden
tity of contraries. This polarity sum s up all lifes basic oppositions
: active-passive, positive-negative, light-dark, male-female, lifedeath. This doctrine of relativity is well illustrated in the following
autobiographical statement by Chuang Tzu:
"Once upon a time, I, Chuang, Tzu, dreamt I was a butterfly,
fluttering hither and thither, to all intents and purposes a butter
fly. I was conscious only of my happiness as a butterfly, unaware
that I was Chuang Tzu. Soon I awoke and there I was, veritably
myself again. Now I do not know whether I was then a man dream
ing I was a butterfly, or whether I am now a butterfly, dreaming I
am a man" (Chuang Tzu, the chapter "On Levelling All Things").
In the end all opposites and tensions are resolved in the h ar
mony and unity of the Way of God. hi the words of Chuang Tzu:
"The words of arguments are all maUve; if we wish to reach the
absolute, we m ust harmonize them by means of the unity of God,
and follow their natural evolution, so that we may complete our
allotted span of life. But what is it to harmonize them by means of
mity of od? It is this. The right may not be really right. What
u. j.cars so may not be really so. Even if what is right is really right,
wherein it differs from wrong cannot be made plain by argument.
2.
Chuang Tzu, chapter 'The Great Supreme". The translation of the Book of
Chuang Tzu, from which quotations have been given in this chapter, is by
Lin Yutang (Wisdom o f China, Michael Joseph, London).
TAOISM
107
Even if what appears so Is really so, wherein it differs from what is

not so also cannot be made plain by argument. Take no heed of
time, nor of right and wrong. Passing into the realm of the Infinite,
take your final rest therein" (Chuang Tzu, chapter "On Levelling All
Things").
Like his great master, Chuang Tzu also idealized Nature and
natural way of life. He said that in the original state of nature men
were ideally happy :
"Have you never heard of the Age of Perfect Nature? In the days
of Yung Ch'eng, Tat'ing, Pohuang, Chungyung....the people tied
knots for reckoning. They enjoyed their food, beautified their cloth
ing, were satisfied with their homes, and delighted in their cus
toms. Neighbouring settlements overlooked one another, so that
they could hear the barking of dogs and crowing of cocks of their
neighbours, and the people till the end of their days had never been
outside their country. In those days there was indeed perfect peace
[Chuang Tzu, chapter "Opening Trunks or a Protest Against Civili
zation").
People brought suffering and misery into their lives by med
dling with Nature and adopting an artificial way of life. Ju st as men
became unhappy when they lost the natural, child-like state, so
society went astray when it fettered men with ceremony and arti
ficial restraints. Men should be left free to lead a simple, natural
way of life:
"I think one who knows how to govern the empire should not
do so. For the people have certain natural instincts -- to weave and
clothe themselves, to t ill the field and feed themselves. This is their
common character, in which all share. Such instincts may be
called 'Heaven-bom'. So in the days of perfect nature, men were
quiet in their movements and serene in their looks" [Chuang Tzu,
Chapter "Horses' Hoofs j.
Chuang Tzu went further than his M a ste r in c o n d e m n in g civi
lization and advocated re tire m e n t from th e w orld. He h a d alm o st no
use for government :
'There has been such a thing as letting m an k r,
jne a n d
to leran ce; there has n ev e r been such a th in g a s gov.
man
kind. Letting a lo n e springs from th e fear, lest m e n 's natural dispo
sitions b e perverted a n d tolerance springs from th e fear l e their
c h a ra c te r b e c o rru p te d . B u t if th e ir n a tu r a l d isp o sitio n s b e not
p erv erted , nor th e ir c h a ra c te r c o rru p te d , w h a t n eed is th e re k f t fcr
gov ernm ent?" [ C h u a n g Tzu, c h a p te r "On Tolerance").
108
He gave a charming exposition of the principle of Wie-.wu.-wie,

"letting alone" or inaction, and ended the discourse by calling it the
Way of God :
"He who does not understand God will not be pure in charac
ter. He who has not clear apprehension of Tao will not know where
to begin. And he who is not enlightened by Tao, - alas indeed for
him! What then is Tao? There is the Tao of God, and there is the
Tao of man. Honour through inaction comes from the Tao of God:
entanglement through action comes from the Tao of man. The Tao
of God is fundamental: the Tao of m an is accidental. The distance
which separates them is great. Let us take heed thereto!" (Chuang
Tzu, chapter "On tolerance").
The ideal life, which Chuang Tzu called the "Happy Excursion"
is a state where man "will bury gold in the hillside and cast pearls
in the sea. He will not struggle for wealth, nor for fame. He will not
rejoice at long life, nor will he grieve over early death. He will not
find pleasure in success, nor will he feel pain in failure. He will not
account the throne of a state as his personal gain, nor will he claim
the empire of the world as his personal glory. His glory is to have
the insight that all are one and that life and death are the same.
Chuang Tzu had faith in the Hereafter or the life-after-death.
He regarded the fear of death as one of the principal sources of
human unhappiness.However.through the understanding he
preached, this fear could become meaningless.The story of Chuang
Tzu and the skull is well worth recalling in this connection.
On his way to Ch'u, Chuang Tzu saw a skull by the roadside.
Striking it with his riding whip, he leant over it and asked: "Sir, was
it some insatiable ambition and inordinate desire that brought you
to this? The fall of a kingdom that made you perish by the axe and
halberd? Or had you lived an evil life and left a blot on the family
name, and so were brought to this? Was it hunger and cold th at did
this, or was it that you were brought to this by the natural course
of old age? Then he picked the skull up, iand placing it under his
head as a pillow went to sleep. At midnight, the skull appeared to
him in a drean and told him of the happiness of the dead. Chuang
Tzu, however, did not believe this, so he asked whether the skull
would like to be restored to life and sent back to his home. At this
the skull opened his eyes wide and furrowed his brows, saying:
How can you imagine that I would cast away happiness greater
th an th at of a king only to go back again to the toils and troubles
of the living world?
And h ere is C h u a n g T zu's d escrip tio n o f th e True Man:
TAOISM
109
"The true men offold appeared of towering stature and yet could
not topple down. They behaved as though wanting in themselves,
but without looking up to others. Naturally independent of mind,
they were not severe. Living in unconstrained freedom, yet they did
not try to show off. They appeared to smile as if pleased, and to
move only in natural response to surroundings. Their serenity
flowed from the store of goodness within. In social relationships,
they kept to their inner character. Broad-minded, they appeared
great; towering, they seemed beyond control. Continuously abid
ing, they seemed like doors kept shut; absent-minded, they seemed
to forget speech. They saw in penal laws an outward form; in social
ceremonies, certain means; in knowledge, tools of expediency: in
morality, a guide. It was for this reason th af for them penal laws
m eant a merciful administration, social ceremonies, a means to get
along with the world; knowledge a help for doing what they could
not avoid; and morality, a guide that they might walk along with
others to reach a hill. And all men really thought that they were at
pains to make their lives correct. For what they cared for was One,
and what they did not care for was One also. That which they
regarded as One was One, and that which they did not regard as
One was One likewise. In that which was One, they were of God;
in that which was not One, they were of man. And so between the
hum an and the divine no conflict ensued. This was to be a true
man" [Chuang Tzu, chapter "The Great Supreme").
THE LATER HISTORY
During the Han dynasty, Taoism received so much encourage

ment at the Court that it might be said for a time to have become
the official religion. King Tai, who reigned from 156 B.C., ordered
Lao Tzu's book. Too Te Ching, to be studied at the court, and thus
gave it royal standing. But by this time Taoism had been badly
corrupted; the element of magic had submerged its original truth
and simplicity. The search was not now so much for virtue as for
a formula of immortality, some exlixir of life. One of the Han
Emperors fitted up an expedition to search for the Isles of the Blest,
where men could be found who lived for ever and who were never
ill. Attempts to become genii led men to strange experiments with
drugs, and to a number of physical experiments closely akin to the
Hindu practice of Yoga. Professor Soothill, writing in 1923. says of
the relapse of Taoism into a system of magic:
"A charge cannot be laid at the door of Laocius (a Latinized form
of the name Lao Tzu), and it is a pity that the lofty moral teaching
of Laocius and Chuang Tzu proved to be beyond the capacity of
110
THE GREAT RELIGIONS O F TOE WORLD
their successors. Even in Chuang Tzu we find elements of the

bizzare, men who could walk through solid rock, leap down terri
fying precipices unharmed, walk through fire unsiinged, travel
thousands of miles through the air, absenting themselves for many
days, men who did not die, but were translated and so on...Taoist
devotees today walk up ladders of swords, pass through blazing
fire, push long needles through their cheeks...They are called upon
to clear haunted houses, expel demons, rid a town of cholera
spirits, pour magical curses on the thief, and undertake incanta
tions for rain."3
The m an who was responsible for organising Taoism with all
these elements into a Church was Chang Tao-Ling said to have
been bom in 34 C.E. He made himself a kind of pope, the first of
a long line of celestial preceptors who have continued up to the
present century and who, till the establishment of the People's
Republic of China, had considerable political influence. Chang TaoLing. with a band of followers, set up a miniature State, based on
Taoist principles, in a remote district, and his work was carried on
in different parts of China by other members of his family. He was
supposed to have possessed miraculous powers, and one of his
descendants is credited with having discovered the elixir of life and
become an immortal. The sacred office was handed down from
father to son, and in course of time the Emperor granted a kind of
Papal State in Kiangsi, which was till recently the centre of the
Taoist Church.
The later history of Taoism is thus one of ever-increasing
complexity and accretion. The arrival in China of Buddhism, al
ready corrupted by admixture with Brahminism, Tantrism and
Central Asian paganism, was a further complication, and resulted
in imitation, adaptation, and absorption of many ideas which origi
nally came from India. Temples, convents, and monasteries were
set up; saints and deities, often even national heroes, came to be
worshipped. Finally a Taoist Trinity emerged, which consisted of
Lao Tzu himself, the Jade Emperor (a mythical figure symbolizing
the Supreme Ruler of the Universe), and an ancient primal deity - Chaos or the Demi-urge. Vaguely there was a First Principle
higher than these. Beneath these "Celestial Preceptors" innumer
able genii fairies operated, including the "Eight Immortals" who
figure so often in Chinese art. The Way of God (Tao) and the moral
values of the original Taoism had been completely obscured and
mattered scarcely at all besides the occultism and magic which
3.
W. E. Soothill, The Three Religions o f China, (Oxford University Press).
TAOISM
111
went on at the temples and monasteries. The incredible supersti

tions of simple and illiterate peasants were catered for on a defi
nitely cash basis by monks who had become notorious for t heir
laziness. The principle of inaction advocated by Lao Tzu and
Chuang Tzu for the sake of spiritual growth had become mere
inaction. In a progressive deterioration Taoism became a breeding
ground of superstitions, its chief task the warding off of evil spirits.
Before we leave the history of Taoism we m ust note that the
religions of Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism are not mutually
exclusive in China. It would be unthinkable in Christendom that a
m an should describe himself as a Roman Catholic and also a
Methodist. Yet a Chinese might quite easily say that he is a Confucianist, a Buddhist and a Taoist that, in fact, he belonged to
all the three religions at the same time. Buddhist priests are often
in charge of Taoist temples. Confucius himself is represented in the
writings of Chuang Tzu as expounding the theories of Taoism;
some Taoists even adore Confucius as a god. The Combining of the
three religions is amusingly illustrated by Dr. Carpenter ;
"As early as the sixth century a famous Buddhist scholar was
asked by the Emperor if he was a Buddhist and he pointed to his
Taoist cap. 'Are you a Taoist?' he showed his Confucian shoes. 'Are
you a Confucian?' he wore a Buddhist scarf."4V
.
V.
Dr. Carpenter, The Panorama o f Religions.
C hapter VII
JUDAISM
The history of the Hebrews begins when a Bronze age Semitic
people migrated from the comparative civilization of the Euphrates
valley, following the destruction of the ancient city of Ur, and
settled down in the secluded hill-country of central and southern
Canaan on the Meditteranean coast. The leader of this family was
a m an named Abram (later called Abraham), who had set his face
against the paganism and polytheism of his people and, following
a revelation from God, had begun to believe in ethical monotheism.
Because of his implicit trust in the One and Only God and right
eous way of life, Abraham was given the promise that he and the
righteous from among his descendants would become a perennial
source of blessing to the nations of the earth.
Abrahams work for God was carried on after him by his sons
Ishmael and Isaac, and alter them by Jacob, who after a mysteri
ous experience of wrestling with an angel was renamed Israel, a
term denoting the 'champion of God. Jacob had twelve sons who
became the progenitors of the Twelve Tribes, who fr- some time
constituted the people of Israel. Through a combination of events
and circumstances Joseph, one of Jacob's sons, rose from slavery
to become the governor of Egypt al the time when Egypt was under
the dominion of the Hyksos, a foreign Semitic people, closely akin
to the Hebrews. The Israelites thereupon migrated in large num
bers to Egypt and for some time enjoyed considerable prosperity
and influence there. But following the revival of Egyptian nation
alism under the leadership of the princes of Thebes and the over
throw of the Hyksos by Aahmes about 1580 B.C., the children of
Israel were reduced to slavery. "Now there rose up," says the Bible,
"a new king over Egypt, which knew not Joseph...and the Egyp
tians made the children of Israel serve with rigour. And they made
their lives bitter with bondage, in mortar, and in bricks, and in all
m anner of service in the fields : all their service, wherein they made
them serve, was with rigour."1
When the lot of the Israelites became absolutely unbearable
under Pharaoh Rameses II, God raised a great leader named Moses
to deliver them from their bondage and unite them as a nation.
Moses was adopted and brought up by an Egyptian princess. But
1. Exodus, Chapter 1.
114
when he grew up he was forced to flee the country for the grazing
land of Midian, where he married and worked for several years as
a shepherd. One day as he was feeding his flock in the Sinaitic
wilderness he came to Mount Horeb. and there, from the wondrous
spectacle of a flaming but unconsumed desert bush, he heard the
voice of God bidding him to go back to Egypt in order to deliver his
brethren from their bondage and lead them towards the Land of
Promise.
Accordingly, Moses returned to Egypt and eventually per
suaded the children of Israel to depart with him. They were p ur
sued by Pharaoh and his hosts. The Israelites were helped by what
they regarded as God's miraculous intervention to cross the Re d
Sea somewhere near Suez, while the Egyptians were drowned.
'Thus the Lord saved Israel that day out of the hand of the Egyp
tians; and Israel saw the Egyptians dead upon the sea shore. And
Israel saw that great work which the Lord did upon the Egyptians;
and the people feared the Lord and believed the Lord, and His
servant Moses."2
In the wilderness of Sinai, where the children of Israel had
arrived after escaping from Egypt, Moses received the Ten Com
mandments and the rest of the Torah through a series of revela
tions from God. But while he was away, the children of Israel forgot
Yahweh (Jehovah), the one true God, and began worshipping a
golden calf, which they had themselves fashioned out of their
ornaments. For this transgression they had to suffer and wander
in the wilderness for forty years. Moses, the great prophet, died
before he could lead his people into the Promised Land; for, to
quote a Jewish author, "Neither were the people ready for the land,
nor was the land ready for the people."
At last the children of Israel entered Canaan (Palestine) after
crossing the Jordan near the Dead Sea, under the leadership of
Joshua. But it was only after long and bitter warfare with the local
Arab inhabitants, lasting for many years, that they could bring the
best part of the country under their dominion. Soon after the death
of Joshua, the children of Israel turned their back upon the ethical
monotheism which Moses had preached to them under Divine
inspiration and began worshipping the local Baals and Astartes.
The Israelites were naturally prompted," writes Rev. Allan
Menzies, "to adopt what they could of the religion of the CanaanItes. The old sacred places of the land they could not help adopting;
it would have been strange indeed, if, when they became
2.
Ibid., 14 : 30-31.
JUDAISM
115
agriculturists, they had not adopted the agricultural festivals; and

if, as was natural, they regarded the Baal of th e Canaanites as the
lord of the land and the giver of fertility, their thanks for the harvest
would be addressed to him. Their worship of Jehovah could not be
left poorer and meaner than that which their neighbours addressed
to Baal; for it also they erected asheras and made use of standing
stones, and of Jehovah also they had images. One of these, which
was destroyed by Hezekiah, was in the form of a serp en t: in other
places Jehovah was worshipped in the form of a bull. Where an
image of him was kept, he could be consulted by means of lots or
in other ways. The ark or chest which was kept at one of the more
important shrines, Represented him more fully; it was carried into
battle, and he was thought to go with it."3
These idolatrous practices, however, did not go entirely unchal
lenged. Brave leaders called Judges', some twelve in number, set
their faces against these soul-destroying practices and beliefs; and
appearing on the scene as liberators from enemy pressure, they
tried to recall the people to the pure worship of Yahweh. But these
Judges were not national figures; they were more or less tribal
heroes and their influence did not outlast the crisis which brought
them to the forefront as leaders.
By the time Samuel, the last of the Judges, was bom practically
all the surrounding Canaanites had been subdued; but a new
danger appeared for the Israelites in the shape of attacks by the
Philistines, who destroyed many Israelite towns and captured the
Ark. Thus there arose the clamour among the Israelites for a king,
who would unite them as a nation under a strong central authority
and lead them in their wars against their enemies. The m an to be
chosen as the first king of Israel was Saul. But it was under the
second king, David (1012-972 B.C.) that the Israelites reached the
height of their power and glory. David united all the tribes into a
strong nation and won several brilliant victories on the battlefield,
thus extending the boundaries of the kingdom of Israel. He cap
tured Jerusalem and made it the capital of his empire. He purged
the religion of Israel of the pagan elements and reorganised the
ritual of the sanctuary. His reign was indeed the golden age of
Israel.
Davids policy of political and religious centralization was car
ried on by his son Solomon, who built in Jerusalem a magnificent
Temple, which became the only shrine, superseding all other
shrines in the land. Solomon's reign was a period of unparalleled
3.
Allan Menzies. History o f Religion, p. 180 (John Murray, London, 1895.)
116
peace for Israel. It was also remarkable for great material and
cultural progress. Solomon's merchant fleets ploughed the seas for
distant lands and brought to Israel the wealth of the nations. The
arts and sciences flourished, Solomon himself contributing by his
wisdom, wit, brilliance and consummate literary gifts, to their
growth.
The political and religious Unity of the Israelites did not last
very long. After Solomon they became divided into two kingdoms:
the ten Northern tribes forming the kingdom of Israel with Samaria
as its capital and Jeroboam as its first king; and the two southern
tribes (of Ju d ah and Benjamin) forming the kingdom of Judah,
whose capital remained Jerusalem.
The people of Israel drifted away from the monotheistic moral
religion of Moses and the other prophets. Under Ahab and his
dominating foreign wife Jezebel, the worship of Yahweh the one
true God, was dominated by the worship of Baal, the divinity of
Tyre with its fertility ritual and hum an sacrifices. Prophet Elijah
appeared among them to warn the people of Israel against the
decay of religion and morals. He was followed by the Prophet Amos,
who denounced the luxury and corruption of the age. He declared
that God took no delight in feast days pnd solemn sacrifices, but.
His joy was in right conduct and justice. But the warnings of these
prophets fell on deaf ears, and finally God sent the Prophet Hosea
to deliver to them the message of doom. Return to God and to
righteous life was no longer possible and there was nothing left for
Israel but to suffer the severest retribution defeat and exile for
her sins and follies. In 738 B.C. the armies of the all-conquering
Assyrian king Tiglath-Pilesar III attacked the kingdom of Israel and
reduced it to bondage and misery. In 721 B.C. Sargon II. seeing
signs of insubordination and rebellion among the people of Israel,
punished them by deporting almost the entire population to the
remotest parts of his great empire. Thus did the kingdom of Israel
pass out of history.
In the kingdom of Judah the dynasty founded by David contin
ued undisturbed for some time. The first few kings were faithful to
the religion of Moses. But when Jehoram came to throne corrup
tion set in. Jehoram 's wife was the daughter of Jezebel, and under
her influence he introduced in Ju d ah the same kind of Tyrian
Baalism that had been the ruin of the kingdom of Israel. Religious
and moral corruption became universal.
But not all the kings were equally bad. When, Hezekiel became
the king, he tried his best to abolish idolatrous practices and
JUDAISM
117
reform the religion. In this he was helped by the prophets Isaiah

and Micah. Taking up the same burden as their predecessors,
Amos and Hosea, they attacked the moral corruption and enervat
ing luxuries that were rife in Judah. They both insisted that
sacrifices, however meticulously offered, were no substitute for
justice and righteousness. They threatened Jerusalem with the fate
of Samaria, unless the people repented and amended their way of
living.
Another noble king was Josiah, who succeeded to the throne in
640 B.C. The Book of Kings tells us that in 621 B.C. Hilkiah, the
high priest, sent word to king Josiah that he had discovered the
true book of the Law of Moses in the House of Yahweh. Most critics
consider this book to be substantially the same as the present Book
of Deuteronomy. It was declared to be a transcript of the laws given
to Israel by Moses more than eight hundred years earlier. Armed
with this book Josiah instituted a drastic reformation of religion in
Judah. Polytheistic worship was suppressed, idols were destroyed,
sacred prostitution and hum an sacrifices forbidden, and all local
sanctuaries abolished.
But about this time world-shaking events were taking place
which destroyed the hopes raised by Josiah's reforms. The Assyr
ian Empire soon came to *a sudden end, and Egypt and Babylonia
became engaged in a mighty struggle to fill the place thus left
vacant in West Asia. Judah became a victim of the rivalries of these
mighty powers. The Prophet Jeremiah appeared at this time to
attack the iniquity and folly of the people of Ju d ah and to warn
them against the hopeless ruin they were bringing down upon their
own heads. His fulminations and warnings went unheeded. In 586
B.C. Nebuchadnezzar, the Babylonian king, attacked Jerusalem,
razed it to the ground, and deported to Babylon all the chief
families of Judah. Thus did Ju d ah also suffer the fate of the Ten
Tribes captivity and humiliation. But whilst the other tribes
vanished and became scattered over many lands, Ju d ah alone
survived. Judaism derives its name from the tribe of Judah, and its
followers from this time onwards came to be known as the Jews.
When in 538 B.C. Cyrus, the great Persian king, became the
master of Babylon, the Jews found themselves in contact with a
nation more sympathetic than their former masters. One of the first
acts of Cyrus was to allow the return to Judaea of such as so
desired; and several thousands availed themselves of the permis
sion. Under a prince of royal house. Zerubbabel, accompanied by
Joshua the high priest, the e x i l e s c a m e b a c k , and a f t e r s o m e delay
118
rebuilt the Temple and re-established the service^. Prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and later on, Malachi (with whom the Hebrew
prophecy came to a close) appeared among them to revive and re
establish the true religion.
In 458 B.C. Ezra the Scribe came to Jerusalem, anned with a
royal warrant which he had obtained from the Persian iking Artexerxes I Longimanus to introduce and enforce a new Priestly Code
which had been developing in Babylonia. Ezra waged a relentless
war against mixed marriages and, with the help of priests and
scribes, compiled and gave the final shape to the Pentateuch or the
five books ascribed to Moses in the Bible. This period witnessed the
rule of priests and the rise of the Jewish theocratic state in Judaea
under Persian suzerainty.
Persian rule came to an end in Judaea in 333 B.C. when the
all-conquering Mecedonian, Alexander the Great, burst with ease
into Asia and took possession of Palestine. Alexander's mission was
to propagate the Hellenic ideals and culture, but he did not beleive
in the use of force. He left the Jews free to follow their religion and
way of life. When Alexander died, Palestine came at first into the
hands of the Greek kings of Egypt, the Ptolmies, whose rule also
was for the most part tolerant and mild. Later, however, the
Seleucids of Syria obtained the suzerainty, and under one of these
kings a tyranny at once crafty and violent, attractive and repellent,
came in. Antiochus IV made it his mission in life to Hellenize and
civilize the barbarians, the Jews of Judaea among them. For this
purpose, he suppressed the Jewish religious practices, desecrated
their Temple and burnt their Scriptures, persecuting those who
resisted his efforts. He was not, of course, without allies among the
Jews themselves. A large party favoured what appeared to very
many the side of culture and progress; they already spoke Greek,
and often called themselves by Greek names; some of them, indeed,
occupied high positions in the priesthood. At last the orthodox
Jews rose up in revolt against the tyrant and under the leadership
of Mattathias and his sons, the Maccabees', they won an astonish
ing series of victories. Three years after the desecration, the sanctu a ry was purified and restored. Antiochus died in the Persian city
of Tabae, and his gen eral, Lysias, granted toleration to the Jews.
S om e of the Jews were sa tisfie d with gaining religious freedom,
but others wanted to overthrow the Seleucid rule and achieve
political freedom also, for tw en ty years the struggle for political
freedom went on, claiming in its course one after another of the
M accab ean brothers a s victims F inally, in 143 B.C. Simon, the last
JUDAISM
119
of the surviving brothers, expelled the Syrians from Jerusalem.

Simon was elected as the first High Priest and civil ruler, with the
title of Nasi, of the newly-established Jewish state.
Simon's son Jo h n Hyrcanus, who became the next ruler, was
an ambitious man and he started on a course of warfare with his
neighbours to build an empire for himself. In his aggressive nation
alism, John Hyrcanus was strongly opposed by the Pharisees who,
together with the Sadducees, formed the two principal parties that
made their first appearance during this period. The Sadducees
gave him their full support.
In the course of years the Jewish state was weakened by inter
nal dissensions and civil war. There were two claimants to the
throne and both appealed to Rome for help, Pompey answered the
call; advanced towards the capital, captured it, and conquered the
land (63 B.C.), Judaea was now a Roman province, placed under
the charge of Hyrcanus III, one of the two claimants to the throne,
whom Pompey had recognised as the High Priest, but without the
title of king. When Caesar became the master of Rome, he ap
pointed Antipater, a convert to Judaism, as the Procurator of
Judaea. Antipater, in turn appointed his son Herod as the gover
nor of Galilee. In 39 B.C. Herod was made the King of Judaea by
the Roman Senate. Nominally still independent, Judaea was actu
ally in bondage to Rome. Herod was an able ruler and did a lot for
the land and people over whom he ruled. But the Jews felt that, as
a puppet of Rome, he placed Roman interests above those of his
subjects.
The Jews during this period were divided into many parties and
sects. There were, first of all, the Sadducees a pro-Roman group,
led by the priests of Jerusalem. It was probably not a large party,
and contained in addition to the Jerusalem hierarchy and those
immediately connected with it, only the aristocrats and farmers.
The Sadducees took their religion lightly and their politics seri
ously. They did not believe in the life-after-death and were worldlyminded, desirous of avoiding trouble and extremely eager to be
prosperous.
The Pharisees, on the other hand, were the popular party, more
concerned with religion than with politics. The only political issue
about which they cared deeply was religious freedom; and they
looked forward to national liberation, not through revolt but
through the coming of a "Son of David", a Messiah who would not
be divine but would receive from God authority to rule the nations.
They were scrupulously exact in their interpretations and
120
observance of the Jewish law and were often haughty and unchari
table.
The chief differences between the Sadducees and the Pharisees
were as follows: (1) The Pharisees believed in the life-after-death,
heaven and hell, a general resurrection and a Messianic kingdom;
the Sadducees rejected all these doctrines as innovations. (2) The
Sadducees believed only in the written Torah, but the Pharisees
believed also in the oral traditions and interpretations of the Eld
ers, considering them to be as much divinely-inspired and binding
on the faithful as the written Torah. (3) The Sadducees held the
Hellenic doctrine of free-will, whereas the Pharisees contended that
free-will was limited by the predestinate purposes of God.
With the destruction of the Temple in 70 C.E., the role of the
Sadducees was ended and they disappeared; but the Pharisees who
no longer needed the Temple bui had concentrated on the Syna
gogue, survived and flourished, and provided the basils for the
rabbinical tradition that endures in modem Judaism .
Another sect, the Zealots, had broken away from the Pharisees,
believing that the latter were not sufficiently devoted to the cause
of national independence. The Zealots were deeply ardent patriots
who combined with an intense love of their country a devotion to
Torah, and were ready to fight and die for both. For them God was
the Lord God of Israel, and Israel His Chosen People, and their land
His land, where the presence of the heathen was a defilement. They
thought it a moral sin for a son of Israel to submit to the Romans
and to recognise their lordship. They sought by military action to
liberate Palestine.
There was yet another Jewish religious party, called the Essenes. The recent discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in the Qumran
valley of Jordan has thrown new light on the beliefs and customs
of this sect.4 The Essenes, though comparatively few in num ber,
identified themselves not only with a culminating role in history
but even with a pivotal-position in the entire drama of the cosmos .
The Jews were Gods chosen people with whom He had made an
exclusive covenant. Not all Jews, however, were faithful to this
covenant. Many of them, as the Essenes saw it, did not even
understand rightly the provisions that the covenant enjoined. It
was, therefore, this particular sect of the Chosen People that God
would use "to prepare the way in the wilderness for the new world.
4.
(i) E dm und Wilson, The Scrolls fro m the Dead Sea, (F o n tan a Books, 1957);
(ii) A Powell Davies, The Meaning o f the Dead S e a Scrolls (Mentor Books.
N ew York, 1056.)
JUDAISM
121
order", which He would bring about through the Messiah, the

divinely-appointed ruler of Israel -- and through Israel, of the rest
of mankind. For this purpose the Essenes joined together in a "New
Covenant" (which it may be noted, is synonymous with "New
Testament"), apparently at Damascus. It was a covenant to return
to the true teachings of Moses and the prophets, guided, however,
by a Teacher of Righteousness. Who was this Teacher of Righteous
ness? Unfortunately there is no sure way of identifying him, and
the attempts to do so have led to considerable controversy. Some
scholars have suggested that the Teacher of Righteousness was no
other than Jesus.5 A. Powell Davies in his book The Meaning of the
Dead Sea Scrolls has drawn attention to the many intimate paral
lels between the Essenic and the primitive Christian communities.
The Essenes abstained from the sacrifice of animals, regarding
"the reverent mind as the only true sacrifice", engaged in agricul
ture and other peaceful arts, and were strongly opposed to slavery.
They had no time for discussions of abstract questions of philoso
phy, unless they contributed to ethical teaching. They preached the
love of God, of virtue, and of men. Members of this sect were widely
noted for their kindness, their equality, their indifference to money
and to worldly aims and pleasures. They lived in colonies where
they had a common storehouse, common treasury into which each
placed his earnings and from which expenditures were made on
behalf of all. The full members did not marry, but adopted the
children of others, training them in Essenic doctrine and practice.
The Jews were looking forward to the coming of the Messiah, a
descendant of the great king David, who would deliver them from
Roman bondage and usher in the Golden Age of Israel. But when
the Messiah came they failed to recognise him. Jesus, who claimed
to be the Messiah, declared that he had come to deliver them, not
so much from bondage to Rome as from sin and folly, and that his
mission was to lead them not to any kingdom of this world but to
the Kingdom of Heaven. The Jews rejected him and even went to
the extent of handing him over to the Roman authorities to be
executed for sedition. The cup of their iniquity was full to the brim
and the wrath of God overtook them. Following a rebellion headed
by the Zealots in 70 C.E., the Roman forces led by Titus brutally
crushed the Jews. The Temple was burnt and the Jewish state
ceased to be.
5.
See in this Connection,Dr. J.L. Teicher, The Dead Sea Fragments, the Liter
ary Supplement of The Times, London, March 21, 1S58.
122
T h e J e w s w ere at first stu n n ed ; th e y c o u ld n o t th in k o f an

e x iste n c e w ith o u t th eir sta te a n d T em p le. T he R ab b is, how ever,
m an ,u ied to k eep so m e u n ity a n d s e n s e o f p u r p o se a m o n g th em
th rou gh th e a c a d e m ic S a n h e d r a n . first a t J a b n e h a n d , after th e
H adrian p e r se c u tio n , in G alilee. It w a s in G alilee th a t th e great
R abbi. J u d a h the P rince, n o u rish ed , l i e ed ited a n d co m p iled the
nr?. I o'^cdbnns of th e J e w s in th e from o f tlie Mislmah.
In the course of w a rs the Jews became scattered all over the earth,
but wherever they lived they remained united by their lovalty to the
Torah a n d the trudil io n s of the Eldci s. a n d e sc a p e d a b so rp tio n into
th e n eig h b o u rin g c o m m u n itie s th ro u g h strict o b serv a n ce o f th eir
p ecu lia r la w s a n d ritu als. In C h ristia n c o u n tr ie s th ey w ere forced
to live u n d e r s u b -h u m a n c o n d itio n s in g h e tto s, w h ere th ey w ere
freq u en tly rob b ed o f th eir p o s s e s io n s a n d b ru tally p ersecu ted . It
w a s o n ly in Islam ic c o u n tr ie s, in c lu d in g th e M uslim S p a in , that
th ey c o u ld live in freedom a n d dignity. W h en ever th ey h a d the
o p p o rtu n ity , th e y m a d e im p ortan t c o n tr ib u tio n s to the in tellectu a l
an d c u ltu r a l life o f th e p eop le a m o n g w h o m th ey lived, referring to
th is, L ew is B row n e w rites in h is p reface to The wisdu, a o f Israel:
T h e J e w s , it m u st be realized , h a v e b e e n le a r n e r s a s w ell a s
te a c h e r s th r o u g h o u t th eir w a n d erin g s. T h ey lea rn ed from th e
E g y p tia n s, th e C a n a a n ite s, th e B a b y lo n ia n s, th e G reek s, th e
P a rth ia n s, th e R o m a n s, th e A rabs, a n d every o th er p eop le w ith
w h o m g ood or ill fo rtu n e b ro u g h t th e m in c o n ta c t... T he cu rve of
th at grow th w a s o f c o u r se h ig h ly u n e v e n . It h ad its sh a rp u p s and
d o w n s, a n d a ls o its flat p la c e s, d e p e n d in g o n th e n a tu re o f th e
rela tio n s b e tw e e n th e J e w s a n d th e ir n e ig h b o u rs. W h en th e s e w ere
m ore or le s s cord ial, th e grow th w a s sw ift a n d salu tary; w h en they
w ere h o stile , it w a s slow a n d toxic. C on trast for e x a m p le, how
J e w ish W isdom flow ered d u rin g th e n o o n -tid e o f Islam ic toleran ce,
an d h o w it sh riv elled d u rin g th e n ig h t o f m ed iev a l C h ristia n b ig
otry."6
G reat J e w is h p o e ts, lik e S o lo m a n ibn G abirol, J u d a h Halevi,
an d M o se s ib n Ezra; d istin g u ish e d p h ilo so p h e r s, like S a a d iy a b en
J o s e p h , B a c h y a b e n J o s e p h ib n P a k u d a , A b rah am ib n B a u d , and
th e fa m o u s M u sa ib n M aim u n (M aim onides); e m in en t J e w ish
s ta te s m e n , lik e H a sd a i ib n S h a p ru t. th e prin cip al M in ister an d
co u rt p h y s ic ia n to th e S p a n ish C alip h A bd a l-R a h m a n III, an d
S a m u e l Ibn N agd ela, th e G rand V azier o f G ra n a d a ....... all th e se and
6.
I^fwis B row ne (editor), The Wisdom o f Isreal p.

(I-ondon, 1962]
11. (Pour S q u a re IBooks),
JUDAISM
123
many more were bom and flourished in the free atmosphere of the
Islamic world. In the words of Isidore Epstein:
"Thus did the lot of the Jews begin to improve wherever the
Crescent bore rule. This improvement was very marked in Palestine
and Egypt where the Christian Byzantine rulers had interfered not
only with the economic and social life of the Jews but also with the
internal affairs of the Synagogue and its services. But nowhere did
this phenomenon display itself more brilliantly than in Spain,
where Jews had been settled for centuries. The Christian Visigothic
kings were pitiless, harsh and cruel. But their Muslim successors
not only brought the Spanish Jews relief from their oppressors, but
also encouraged among them a culture which in richness and
depth is comparable to the best produced by any people at any
time."7
With the coming of Enlightenment to Europe, the Jews gained
some measure of freedom and hum an dignity in Western count ries
also. To this period belongs Moses Mendelssohn, one of the great
est Jews of modem times. But after the fall of Napoleon antisemiticism was revived and the Jews were faced with the choice:
back to the ghetto or become Christian. Many chose the latter
alternative; others submitted to the reimposition of rest rictions but
remained loyal to their faith. It was during the period of renewed
persecution that the idea of striving for a Jewish stale, where they
would be sovereign and free to follow their own wav of life, came
into the mind of Theodore Herzel (1860-1901). This idea was at
first received with suspicion, but later spread like wildfire among
the Jews, both orthodox and reformed, and soon crystallised in the
form of the modem political Zionism. The British, who after the
First World War had become the rulers in Palestine under the
League of Nations mandate, favoured the establishment of a n a
tional home for the Jew s of the world in Palestine. Following the
Balfour declaration, thousands of Jews from all over Europe began
pouring into Palestine and, with the British aid and connivance,
deprived the Muslim Arabs of their lands and drove them out as
homeless refugees. Then came the massacre of the Jews in Hitlers
Germany and the Jewish migration to Palestine naturally reached
unprecedented proportion. Finally in 1947 the United Nations
Assembly, dominated by the Big Powers, callously and unjustly
passed a resolution for the establishment of the State of Israel by
partitioning Palestine. Thus the Jews were provided a home by
7
Isidoew E pstein, .Judaism-A Historical Presentation (Pelican B

Penguin Books, 1959)
IR-l.
124
making the Muslim Arabs, who had lived in Palestine since times
immemorial, homeless. Hundreds of thousands of these Muslim
Arabs have been since then living in sub-hum an conditions in
refugee camps in the neighbouring Arab countries of Jordan, Syria,
Lebanon and Iraq. The Jews, not satisfied with this monstrous
injustice, have made no secret of their expansionist designs, and
have act ually enlarged the boundaries of their state to several times
its original size, following a series of wars with the Arabs. It is
amazing how these people, who have themselves been\the victims
of prolonged and repeated oppression, have been displaying unin
hibited and unrestrained tendencies to persecute and massacre
others-not their erstwhile persecutors (the Christians of the West)
but, ironically enough, those who had always helped and be
friended them (the Muslims).
THE SACRED BOOKS OF JUDAISM
The Holy Scriptures of Judaism (Kiswe Ha-Kodesh) comprise all

the books contained in the so-called Old Testament of the Chris
tian Bible. In the Hebrew Canon they are arranged in three sec
tions. as follows:
(1)
The Torah ("Law") - comprising the Pentateuch ("Five Books
attributed to Moses; namely: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers
and Deuteronomy.
(2)
The Nebi im ("Prophets) - comprising (a) the Former Nebi'i
(viz.. Joshua. Judges, Samuel and Kings); (b) the Later Nebiim
consisting of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and "The 'twelve" (viz.,
Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obediah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habbakuk.
Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi).
(3)
The Kethubim ("Holy Writings") - comprising (a) Psalm
Proverbs and Job: (b) the Five Megiloth, i.e., the Song of Solomon,
Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Esther ; and (c) Daniel,
Ezra-Nehemiah and Chronicles.
The Torah is considered by orthodox Jews and Christians to
consist of the books of Moses, revealed to him by God. But even
a casual reading will show that this cannot be so. Mosesto give
ju st one example could not have written the account of his own
death in Deuteronomy chapter 34. In its present form the Torah,
or Pentateuch, dates from the fifth century before Christ. It is
difficult to say which part of it, if any. was revealed by God to Moses
(15lh century B.C.). Modem scholars have been able to distinguish
at least four main elements in the Torah, (i) The Jahvestic (J),
JUDAISM
125
deriving originally from the Hebrew tribes settled in the south of

Palestine about 9th centuiy B.C., and so named because among
them the Deity was known as Jahweh. This element shows the
clearest traces of primeval religion, with an anthropomorphic
conception of God, developed by these tribes while still in the
desert, (ii) The E'lohist (E), deriving from the tribe settled in the
North, where the Deity was known as Elohim ("God" or. more
literally, "gods). Here in a region primarily agricultural rather than
pastoral, the tribes were compelled to abandon their desert way of
life and with it many of their original beliefs and taboos, (iii) The
Deuteronomic (D), a far more advanced code compiled, it is thought,
under the influence of the great prophets, and discovered by
Hilkiah the High Priest in the year 621 B.C., when Josiah was the
king of Judah. Some parts of it may indeed have come down from
Moses, (iv) The Priestly (P), apparently a still later code reflecting
the influence of the priest-ridden Babylonians in whose midst the
Judaeans were held captive for fully a half-century. This m ass of
social and religious legislation, partly of ancient and partly of
recent date, was falsely attributed to Moses by the priests. It
comprised the Book of Leviticus and large parts of Genesis, Exodus
and Numbers and was brought to Jerusalem by Ezra in 458 B. C.
It is this heterogeneity that explains the numerous discrepancies
within the Torah, and the difficulties of those who have sought to
find equal worth in all its commands
The hands of the writers of J , E. D and P are also traceable in
the Book of Joshua. Hence the critics often speak of lhe Hexateuch" ("Six Books"), which implies that Joshua once formed a
single work with the other five.
All the books of history, or the so-called Former Nebi'irn are of
composite authorship. Judges, Samuel and Kings, in their present
forms, belong to the early post-exilic period. The general picture
drawn in them may be regarded as historical, in the Book of
Samuel, however, incongruous stories are told of Samuel, Saul and
David, its principal figures.
Coming now to the Later Nebi'im, the works of the Hebrew
prophets are not wholly the divinely-inspired writings of the men
whose names they bear. In the Book of Isaiah only sixteen out of
the sixty-three chapters are considered by the Biblical scholars to
contain any writing by the Prophet Isaiah. The remaining chapters
were written by at least two other men of much later times, who
inserted their own writings into the Book of Isaiah.
126
TOE GREAT REUGIONS OF THE WORLD
The Book of Jeremiah also is composite. It probably contains

many of the inspired writings of the Prophet Jeremiah, but as these
were not compiled till after his death, they also contain many
interpolations. In the words of Archibald Robertson:
"Unfortunately ihe work of Jeremiah, most hum an of prophets,
has come down to us in fragmentary and confused state, with very
little chronological arrangement and many interpolations."8
U i e book the E zek iel w a s till recently considered to be the work
of the prophet of that name, but some modem critics have detected
in it the hands of at least two men and part of it is attributed by
them to a period earlier than the traditional Ezekiel.
Tire books of the so-called 'Twelve Minor Prophets", which form
a single scroll in the Hebrew Canon, contain the revelations sent
down to them by God and probably written by themselves, with the
exception of Jonah, which was, of course, not written by him.
There is no doubt, however, that these books also contain many
interpolations. Nevertheless, the books of these prophets, together
with those of Jeremiah. Isaiah and Ezekiel, contain some of the
most exalted literature mankind has produced, and many of their
pages are afire with hatred of oppression and injustice. Briefly the
ideas to which they give expression are these: (i) God cares for all
peoples, not just the Israelites: (ii) He will show the latter no special
favour unless they show special deligence in following His ways;
(iii) His ways are the ways of righteousness, and they can be
followed only by doing good, not by performing rites: (iv) Unless tire
Israelites do follow them and at once, God Himself will devour their
lands.
The book of Jonah was written about 350 B.C. The lesson of
mercy and compassion taught in this little book gives it a very high
ethical value.
This brings us to the Kethubim The Book of Psalms consists
of five collections of hymns. Though it is possible that a few of
these psalms may have been written by David (1012-972 B.C),.the
collections as we now have them are almost wholly post-exilian,
i.e., late sixth or early fifth century B.C.
'i he Book of Proverbs is also composite, like the Book of Psalms.
Solomon may have been the author of a few of the maxims in it.
Archibald Robertson writes:
K
A rchibald R o b e rtso n , T he Bible and. its Background, vol,I, p.

T h in k e r's L ibrary, L ondon, 1942.)
35
(The
JUDAISM
127
"Just as all Jewish law was ascribed to Moses and all Jewish
psalmody to David, so it became a convention to ascribe wisdom
books, such as Proverbs, to Solomon. The book, however, is one
ot ate latest in the Old Testament and shows the influence of Greek
thought."9
Two other books are ascribed to Solomon. The first of these.
Ecclesiastes, is. in fact, the book of a cynical pessimist, composed
in the second century B.C. - - i.e., about eight hundred years after
Solomon; and the second, the so-called Song of Solomon, is an
anthology of love-lyrics sung at wedding festivities. According to
A.D. Howell Smith :
'The so-called Song of Solomon is not a religious poem. It is a
collection of bridal songs, probably all late in the present form.
According to Rabbinic tradition, Jews sang these songs in taverns,
and only after much dispute did the book enter the Canon."loThe
Song of Solomon was. however, given an allegorical interpretation,
and the love of Solomon for the Shulammile damsel was said to
symbolize the love of God for His people, Isrea!.
The Book of Lamentations, though ascribed to Jeremiah in the
not his. It is a collection of five poems, the first four of
which are acrostics. Chapters two and four may belong to the
period of the capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar (586. B.C.)
while chapters 1 and 3 are later, and chapter 5 would fit several
periods of natural distress.
The Book of Ruth is a novelette. Primarily historical in aim and
concerned to trace the ancestry of David, this charming tale of
loyally and kindness also seeks to teach the common humanity of
Jew and Gentile.
The Book of Esther, which may be a work of the third century
before Christ, is a fiercely patriotic romance. The unknown am hor
lays the scene of his story in the court of the Persian king Xerxes.
The story," comments Archibald Robertson "unfolds itself in an
Arabian Nights atmosphere and teems with extravagances and
impossibilities."
The Book of Job is the supreme achievement of the Hebrew
literary genius. In form the work is the drama of the tragic struggle
between man and fate. Its central theme is the problem of evil; how
Bible, is
9. A rch ib ald R o b e rtso n , The Bible and its Background, vol. I, p p . 6 9 -7 0 (The
'T hinker's L ib rary , L ondon, 1942)
10. A. D. Howell S m ith , In Seach o f the Heal Bible, p. 7 4 (The T h in k e r s Library'
L ondon, 1943.).
L'H
it can be that the righteous suffer while "the eyes of the wicked
stand out with fatness." Job, the central character of the drama,
was a prophet; he is mentioned by Ezekiel as one of the proverbially
ju st and righteous men of old. He is, nevertheless, overtaken by
one calamity after another. He comes to believe that pain and
suffering are necessary to prove and purify the righteous, and
learns to accept these as of Divine appointment.
The Book of Daniel is a political manifesto, in pseudo-histori
cal and apocalyptic form, directed against Antiochus the Seleucid
ruler of Syria who tried to force Hellenic ideas and customs on the
Jews. It was written about 165 B.-C. in the name of a much earlier
prophet to screen the subversive writer from the attention of the
government.
The Book of Chronicles appears to be the work of a priest, who
takes liberties with his sources and often falsifies history. The
Book of Ezra-Nehemiah (which once formed a part of the Chron
icles) contains genuine memoirs of those reformers, but much of
the m atter comes from the Chronicler who has reshaped everything
to suit his conception of the past.
This is what the Rev. Allan Menzies writes with regard to the
authenticity and historical value of the Scriptures of Judaism:
The Old Testament literature has suffered in a high degree of
what seems to be the predestined fate of every set of sacred books.
Old materials and new are mixed up together in it; many works
have been revised by later editors, and so much changed that
laborious critical processes are necessary before they can be used
by the historian."11
After the Holy Scriptures (Kiswe Ha Kodesh) comes the Apoc
rypha. The Apocryphal books were written after the Jewish Canon
had been closed. Most of them, however, are ascribed to very
ancient and hallowed Hebrew w o rthies-----for instance, Enoch,
Abraham, Solomon, D aniel---- but this, it seems, was done only
in order to make those writings appear venerable and therefore de
serving of devout study. They claim to be apocalypses---- that is,
revelations'---- and tell in burning fervid words about the 'End of
Days', the Final Judgment', the 'Messianic Age', and all the other
spectaculai wonders of eschatology. These books formed part of
the earliest Creek version of the Hebrew Bible, called the Septuaginl. prepared for the Jews of the Dispersion. They are still in
11. Allan M cnzics. History o f Religion , p. 175 (Jo h n M urray. L ondon, 1895.)
JUDAISM
129
eluded in the Roman Catholic Bible, between the Old and the New
Testaments, but have been omitted from the Protestant Bible.
More important, from the Jewish point of view, than the Apoc
rypha is the Talmud. Interpretations of the Torah and expositions
of new laws and precepts had been going on ever since the times
of Ezra. These were at first not written down but were handed
down orally from one generation to another. As a m atter of fact, the
Jewish scholars trace the origin of this oral tradition to much more
remote times and claim the existence of an oral Torah which, like
the written Torah, had come down from Moses. "The Torah of God,"
writes Alan Unterman, "is not merely identical with the text of
Pentateuch, or even with the whole Hebrew Bible (The so-called Old
Testament), which is also considered to be divinely inspired, but
includes the oral teachings of Judaism , which are thought in
essence to go back to the revelation to Moses."12. Pirke Abot (The
Wisdom of the Fathers), an important book of the Talmud, opens
with these words:
"Moses received the (oral) Torah from Sinai and handed it on to
Joshua, arid Joshua to the Elders, and the Elders to the Prophets,
and the Prophets handed it on to the Men of the Great Assembly.
They said three things: be deliberate in judgment, raise many
disciples, and make a hedge about the Torah."13
After the Men of the Great Assembly the oral traditions passed
on to the Fathers, whose sayings are contained in the Pirke Abot,
and from the Fathers to the Rabbis. Then came the crisis of 70
C.E., when their holy city, Jerusalem, was razed by the Romans,
and the Jews were left without a home either for themselves or their
God. It was at this time that the Rabbis decided to commit these
oral traditions to writing. Thus they created the Talmud, and with
it so walled in the Jews that they were able not merely to survive
as a people, but even thrive.
The project began with a number of fragmentary note-books
containing some of the countless new ordinances derived by inter
pretation from the original 613 set down in the ancient Torah.
Being uneven in their scope and authority,and also largely discrep
ant, these note-books were finally supplanted around 200 C.E.
---- by a master digest which came to be known as the Mishnah,
12. J o h n R .llin n c lts (editor). A Handbook o f living Religions; th e c h a p te r on
"Ju d a ism " by Alan U n te rm a n , P.29. (P enguin B ooks, H a rm o n d sw o rth , 1985.)
13. The lJiving Talmud - The Wisdom o f the Fathers, e d ite d a n d tra n s la te d by
J u d a h G oldin (M entor R eligious C la ssic New York, 1957.)
130
THU GREAT RELIGIONS OI; THE WORLD
the 'Repetition'. This consisted of six well-organised vo.umes, giv

ing some 4(XK) legal decisions regulating ev ery phase of Jewish lilo.
Nosoonei,
however, was (he Mi si mah compiled than this
in turn became a subject of interpretation: whereupon further
compilation became imperative, and thus a work called the Gemara
emerged. When the Gem "a was finally reduced to writing - - around 500 C.E. it was combined with Mishnah and called the
Talmud. There are two versions of the Talmud, the Jerusalem
version and the Babylonian version. Thus the Talmud is the source
of the Oral Torah and is considered bv the orthodox Jews to be as
much divinely-inspired as the written Torah itself.
But even this did not exhaust the memorablia of the Rabbis.
The Talmud, despite its diffusiveness, was primarily a legalistic
anthology. Us compilers fried hard to include in it only such
discussions as related more or less directly lo the statutes and
customs which a Jew must observe in daily life . Thai left out an
enormous amount of academic discourse of a broader and often
more diverting nature. For example, the legends and folklore with
which the Rabbis loved to regale themselves, the homilies they
preached, the parables they invented, and the wealth of curious
information and casual wisdom which they kept handing down
from one generation to the next. Once the Talmud was completed,
this other material was gathered together, and a series of works
appeared called the Midrashim. the 'Expositions'. They were u su
ally organised in the form of homilectic commentaries on various
books and passages in the Bible.
THE ESSENCE OF JUDAISM
The essence of Judaism Is contained in the famous Decalogue,
or the Ten Commandments, which were revealed lo Moses by God.
In the second book attributed to Moses, called Exodus, these
commandments are given as follows:
"I ani the Lord thy God. which have brought thee out of the land
of Egypt, out of the house of bondage. Thou shalf have no other
gods before Me.
'Thou shall not make unto thee any graven image, or any
likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth
beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. Thou shall not
bow down thyself to them, nor seme them: for 1 the Lord thy God
am a jealous God. visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the
children unto the third and fourth generation of them that hate Me;
and showing mercy unto thousands of them that love Me. and keep
My commandments.
JUDAISM
131
'Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain; for
the Lord will not hold him guiltless that taketh His name in vain.
"Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy. Six days shalt
thou labour, and do all thy work; but the seventh day is the
Sabbath of the Lord thy God; in it thou shalt not do any work, thou,
nor thy son, nor thy daughter, thy manservant, nor thy maidser
vant, nor thy cattle, nor thy stranger that is within thy gates. For
in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that
in them is, and rested the seventh day: wherefore the Lord blessed
the sabbath day, and hallowed it.
"Honour thy father and thy mother, that thy days may be long
upon the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee.
"Thou shalt not kill.
"Thou shalt not commit adultery,
"Thou shalt not steal.
"Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour.
"Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's house, thou shalt not
covet thy neighbour's wife, nor his manservant, nor his maidser
vant, nor his ox, nor his ass, nor any thing that is thy neighbour's".
(Exodus, 20 : 2-17.)
There is also the further commandment in Leviticus;
"Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. (19:18)
THE CHOSEN PEOPLE
The Jews look upon themselves as the Chosen People of God.

In fact they go to the extent of regarding God as in a special sense
theirs, and refer to Him as the "Lord God of Israel", He has revealed
His true religion to them alone. To quote a modem Jewish author:
'The truest key to understanding Judaism in its own terms is
to be found in its concept of the 'chosen people'. This doctrine of
'chosenness' is a m ystery----- and a scandal. It was already a
mystery in the Bible itself, which ascribed the Divine choice, not to
any inborn merits of the Jews, but to unknowable will of God. It
soon became, and has remained, a scandal to the Gentiles and
even to some Jews"'*
According to the Bible Yahweh, the one true God, entered into
a covenant with the Children of Israel, which made Him the God of14
14. Arthur Hertzberg (editor), Judaism, Introduction p. xv (Washington Square
Press Book, New York, 1963.).
132
THE GREAT REUGIONS OF THE WORLD
Israel, and Israel the people of Yahweh. They are called "the chil
dren of God" and are said to be superior to all other nations:
'Ye are the children of the Lord your G od---- For thou art an
holy people unto the Lord thy God, and the Lord hath chosen thee
to be peculiar people unto Himself, above all the nations th a t are
upon the earth" (The Bible: Deuteronomy, 14:1-2).
"And what one nation in the earth is like Thy people Israel
whom God went to redeem to be His own people, to make Thee a
name of greatness and terribleness, by driving out nations from
before Thy people, whom Thou hast redeemed out of Egypt? For
Thy people Israel didst Thou make Thine own people for ever; and
Thou, Lord, becamest their God" (I Chronicles, 17:21-22).
Even the land given by God to the children of Israel, the land
of Canaan (Palestine) was declared to be like no other land on
earth:
"Defile not therefore the land which ye shall inhabit, wherein I
dwell; for I the Lord dwell among the children of Israel". (Numbers,
35:34).
And in the Talmud it is written:
"Whoever lives in the Land of Israel is considered to be a be
liever in G o d ---- Whoever lives outside of the Land is considered
to be in the category of one who worships id o ls---- Whoever lives
in the Land of Israel lives a sinless life, as it is written (in the Bible),
"The people who dwell there will be forgiven their iniquity" (Isaiah,
3 3 :24)---- "Whoever is buried in the Land of Israel is considered
as though he were buried beneath the A ltar---- Whoever walks a
distance of four cubits in the Land of Israel is assured of a place
in the world to come". (Mishnah, Ketubot 110b-11 la)
Fundamental to God's Covenant with Israel at Sinai was the
divine exhortation, "And ye shall be unto Me a kingdom of priests
and a holy nation" (Exodus, 19:6). However, it cannot tie denied
that the Jews have always considered this Covenant as binding
only upon themselves as a race. Not only do the Jews fail to preach
their faith to others but they do not welcome converts. Whenever
a rare convert does enter the Jewish fold (which is almost always
due to marriage, since the Jewish law does not recognise the
marriage of a Jew to a non-Jew), his motivations are suspect. The
narrowly national and racialistic character of Judaism is apparent
from the fact that the Jews expelled the Samaritans from the
Jewish community, although they professed implicit faith in the
Torah, merely because they had been guilty of intermarriages with
non-Jews,
JUDAISM
133
THE CONCEPTION OF GOD
The Creed of Judaism , known as the Shema, runs as follows:

"Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God is one Lord; and thou shalt
love the Lord thy God with all thine heart, and with all thy soul, and
with all thy might. (Deuteronomy, 6:4-5)
Judaism rests on two broad doctrines: the belief In the unity of
God, and the election of Israel to be the bearers of this belief. Both
these doctrines have received their classic formulation in the
Shema. 'What is here affirmed," writes Isidore Epstein, is (i) that
there is b u t one God, with none other beside Him, and (ii) that the
one and only God is the one whom Israel confesses and worships.
The negations are as emphatic and insistent as the affirmations.
They negate all embodiments and notions of the Deity which,
however refined and sublimated, veil the one and only God of Israel
more than they reveal Him. Thus are excluded, not only all
dualistic no less than polytheistic creeds, but also the Trinity in
Unity of Christianity which, however much it may be explained
away so as to make it compatible with the one God in the meta
physical sense, remains a direct denial of the only God who, from
the beginning, had chosen Israel in His service."15
Next to the doctrine of His unity is that of His omnipotence.
God is, in the Talmudic phrase, "The M ight---- omnipotent and
powerful'-'His power has no other limit than His will. Judaism also
emphasises Gods omnipresence, but this does not mean that He
is identical with the world or limited by it. All pantheistic doctrines,
that would identify or compound God with nature, are ruled out.
Closely connected with the idea of the transcendence of God is that
of divine incorporeality. He is pure spirit, free from all limitations
of m atter and weaknesses of the flesh. Other attributes of God
stressed by Judaism are his omniscience, justice and mercy. He
is, moreover, living and existing to eternity." There is, thus, no
place in Judaism for any notions of the incarnation, and of the
death and resurrection of God.
It must, however, be pointed out that this sublime conception
of God is not found uniformly in all the books of the Bible. In the
earlier books Yahweh is no more than a tribal deity. He is the God
of the Hebrews alone: other nations have their own Gods (Elohim).
The reality of these other gods is not denied, though Yahweh is said
to be the most powerful among them: "Y/ho among the Elohim is
15 Isidore Epstein Judaism - A Historical Presentation, p. 134 (Penguin
Books, 1959)
134
like unto thee, O Yahweh?" (Psalms). Polytheism also peeps out of

such texts of the Bible as "The m an is become as one o f us, to know
good and evil. (Genesis, 3:22).
The conception of God in many texts of the Bible is anthropo
morphic. He is, in the phrase of Matthew Arnold, "a magnified and
non-natural man". He is wifeless and childless, bu t lives up in the
sky with other beings inferior to himself, who are also named gods
or Elohim (Exodus, 15:11; Psalms, 86:8- Psalms, 97:9). Sometimes
he walks about the earth to enjoy the cool evening (Genesis, 3:8),
descends to verify rumours he has heard (Genesis, 11:5; 18:20,
21), eats and drinks with men and argues with their wives (Gene
sis, 18: 1-5,) gets the worst of it in a wrestling match until he
practises a foul trick on his opponent (Genesis, 32:24-30), shows
his back to Moses because his face is death-dealing (Exodus,
33:20-23), is dissuaded from yielding to vengeance by an appeal to
his vanity and pride (Exodus, 32:10-14), enjoys wine-drinking
(Judges, 9:13), is jealous (Exodus, 20:5), revengeful (Deuteronomy,
32:42), and regrets what he has done or intended to do (Genesis,
6:6; Exodus, 32:14).
Other Basic Doctrines
An important aspect of Judaism is the belief that God commu

nicates to m an through the medium of prophecy. He cares about
rman and reveals Himself and His Law to His favourite creation. For
this purpose He has chosen the Children of Israel and raised His
prophets only from and among them. Jews believe that Moses was
the greatest of the prophets to whom God communicated in the
most direct manner; that the whole of the Torah (i.e. the Penta
teuch) was revealed to Moses by God; and that the Torah will not
be changed or supplanted by another revelation from God.
Man is, according to Judaism , created in the image of God. He
can descend to great depths, but he is not by nature irretrievably
sinful. Sin is rebellion against God, but more seriously yet, it is the
debasement of man's proper nature. Repentance is m ans turning
back to his truest nature. God is merciful and forgives the sins of
the repentant man altogether.
Judaism believes that God knows every deed of men and all
their thoughts. He rewards those who keep His Commandments
and punishes those that transgress His commandments. In the
Bible itself tfie arena of mans life is this world. But Judaism came
in the course of time !o believe in the resurrection of the dead, and
in heaven and hdl
JUDAISM
135
Another basic doctrine of Judaism is about the coming of the

Messiah (or the annointed one), a descendant of the line of David,
who will usher in the messianic age when the Jews will be gathered
once again to the Land oflsrael. Some believe that the Messiah will
come as the result of cataclysms and cosmic miracles. But others
take a more realistic view. They believe that the Messiah, when he
comes, will defeat the enemies of God and His people, set up the
Davidic throne and the sc reignly of the children of Isreal, and
establish peace and justice in the world, but there will be no radical
or miraculous change in the order of creation.
THE ETHICS OF JUDAISM
The basis of Judaism as a system of religious and moral laws
is holiness, which has two aspects: negative and positive. The
religious holiness demands, negatively, the abhorrence of idolatry:
and, positively, the adoption of a cult and ritual that the Jews claim
was revealed to them by God. In morals, holiness demands, nega
tively, resistance to every urge of nature which makes self-serving,
at the expense of others, the essence of human life: and, positively,
submission to an ethic which places sendee to others at the centre
of its system. Fundamental to the moral law of holiness are the two
principles of justice and righteousness: justice being the negative
aspect of holiness, and righteousness its positive aspect. Regard
ing justice the Torah says:
Thou shall not wrest judgment: thou shalt not respect per
sons, neither take a gift; for the gift doth blind the eyes of the wise,
and pet vert the words of the righteous. That which is altogether
just shall thou follow, that thou mayest live, and inherit the land
which the Lord thy God giveth thee". (Deuteronomy, 16:19-20).
Justic e means the recognition of six fundamental rights: the
right to live, the right of possession, the right to work, the right to
clothing, the right to shelter, and the right of person.
Righteousness, manifests itself in the acceptance of duties, es
pecially in the concern for the poor, the weak and the helpless. The
golden rule, as formulated by the Rabbi Hillel, is as follows:
"Do not unto others that which is hateful unto thee. And this
is what we read in (he Gemara:
The highest wisdom is kindness". (Berakot, 17a)
"If two men claim thy help, and one is thy enemy, help him
first. (Baba Metzia, 32b)
"Almsgiving and deeds of loving-kindness are equal to ail the
commandments of the Torah, but loving-kindness is greater1'.
(Sukkah, 49b)
136
"Whoever gives a small coin to a poor m an has six blessings

bestowed upon him, but he who speaks a kind word to him obtains
eleven blessings : (Baba Batra, 9b)
Kindness m ust be extended not only to hum an beings, but also
to the animals :
"Rabbi Ju d ah said in the name of Rab : A m an is forbidden to
eat anything until he has fed his beast". (Gittin, 62a)
THE CIVIL AND CRIMINAL LAWS
The Torah is a collection of commandments revealed by God to

the children of Israel. A large number of these commandments are
of the nature of civil and criminal laws. The interest of the Scribes
and Pharisees, who commented on the Torah, was primarily legal
istic and the Talmud which they compiled was in the main a col
lection of legal judgments (Halachoth ). Thus Judaism is pre
eminently a religion of laws and judgments. Some of the laws of
Judaism , compared to the laws of the other ancient civilizations,
are remarkably humane. For instance, the employer w a s. jrbidden
to exploit his workmen or to withhold the payment of their wages
when due (Leviticus, 19:13). The creditor was not allowed to affront
the dignity of the person of the debtor by entering his house to take
a pledge (Deuteronomy, 24:10-11), much less was he permitted to
deal violently with him as was sanctioned by other systems of law.
Even the slave, provided he was a Jew, had the right of the person
and was never recognised as an absolute possession:
"If thou buy an Hebrew slave, six yeans shall he serve, and in
the seventh year he shall go out free for nothing. If he came in by
himself, he shall go out by himself; if he were married, then his wife
shall go out with him. If his master have given him a wife, and she
have borne him sons or daughters, the wife and her children shall
be her master's and he (the slave) shall go out by himself. And if
the slave shall plainly say, I love my master, my wife and my
children, I will not go out free; then his m aster shall bring him unto
the judges; he shall also bring him to the door, or unto the door
post; and his master shall bore his ear through with an aul; and
he shall serve him for ever" (Exodus, 21:2-6).
>
In some cases the benefit of the humane laws is enjoyed by the
Jews alone and does not extend to the non-Jews or Gentiles. There
are unfortunately, double standards in the law code of the Jews
------- a lenient one for dealing with the Jews and a much more
severe one for dealing with the non-Jews. For instance, the law
prescribing kind treatment to the slave is applicable only to the
Jewish slave, the non-Jew slave is treated much more harshly and
J L D A liiV l
137
remains a slave for life (Leviiicus, 25:44-46). Similarly, the law

prohibiting usury is valid only when the borrower is a Jew. The
Jewish law code allows the Jew to lend money on usury to nonJews:
''ruo :i stranger thou mayest lend upon usury, but unto thy
brother t hou shalt not lend upon usury: that the Lord thy God may
bless thee in all thou settest thy hand to in the land whither thou
guest to possess it". (Deuteronomy, 23:20).
Some of the laws of Judaism appear to be unusually severe.
Take, for instance, the following:
"And he that blasphemeth the name of the Lord, he shall surely
be put to death, and all the congregation shall surely stone him: as
well the stranger as he that is bom in the land, when he blasphem
eth the name of the Lord, shall be put to death" (Leviticus. 24:16).
"For every one that curseth his father or his mother shall be
surely put to death: he has cursed his father or his mother: his
blood shall be upon him". (Leviticus, 20:9).
"And the man that committeth adultery with another m ans
wife, even he that committeth adultery with his neighbour's wife,
the adulterer and the adultress shall surely be put to death."
(Leviticus, 20:10)
"If a damsel that is a virgin be betrothed unto a husband, and
a m an find her in the city, and lie with her, then ye shall bring them
both unto the gate of that city, and ye shall stone them with stones
that they die: the damsel, because she cried not, being in the city:
ahd the man, because he hath humbled his neighbour's wife:
so thou shalt put away evil from among you" (Deuteronomy,
22:23-24).
"Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live" (Exodus, 22:18).
"A man also or woman that hath a familiar spirit, or that is a
wizard, shall surely be put to death: they shall stone them with
stones; their blood shall be upon them" (Leviticus, 20:27).
But the most cruel of all the laws of Judaism are those pertain
ing to warfare and treatment of enemy war-prisoners. It is written
in ihe Torah:
"When thou comest nigh unto a city to fight against it, then
proclaim peace unto i t ---- And if it will make no peace with thee,
(hen thou shalt besiege it; and when the Lord thy God hath deliv
ered it unto thine hands, thou shall smite every male thereof with
.be edge.of 'be sword: but the women and the -ii'f ones, and the
138
cattle, and all that is in the city, even all the spoil thereof, shalt
thou take unto thyself; and thou shalt eat the spoil of thine ene
mies, which the Lord thy God hath given thee. Thus thou shalt do
unto all the cities which are very far off from thee, which are not
the cities of these nations. But of the cities of these people, which
the Lord thy God doth give thee for an inheritance, thou shalt save
alive nothing that breatheth, but thou shalt utterly destory them:
Namely, the Hittites, the Amorites; the Canaanites and the Perizzites, the Hivites and the Jebusites; as the Lord thy God hath com
manded thee" (Deuteronomy, 20:10-17).
FORMS AND CEREMONIES
Sacrifice occupies the central place in the Torah and in the

history it records. The temple service is set forth as the great end
and aim for which God created the world, settled the nations in it,
and called Israel to be riis people. The sacrificial ritual as it was
observed down to the destruction of the Temple may be studied in
Exodus and Leviticus. We read of orders and companies of priests
who offered daily and other sacrifices according to a rule in which
the smallest details are carefully arranged. The following is the
descript ion of ju s t a small part of the sacrificial ritual:
"Thou shalt also take one ram, and Aaron and his sons shall
put their hands upon the head of the ram. And thou shalt slay the
ram, and thou shalt take his blood, and sprinkle it round about
upon the altar. And thou shalt cut the ram in pieces, and wash the
inwards of him, and his legs, and put them upon his pieces, and
unto his head. And thou shalt b u m the whole ram upon the altar.
It is a burnt offering unto the Lord ; it is a sweet savour, an offering
made by fire unto the Lord" (Exodus, 29:15-18).
To a n outside observer, the Jewish ritual of sacrifice would not
appear to differ very m uch from th at in use among the Greeks or
Romans; the Jew s certainly conducted it on a larger scale. What
purpose or end precisely was aimed at in it, the Jews would have
found it perhaps hard to say. It was done, he would say, because
the Law so ordered it, and the Law m ust be obeyed even if one did
not quite understand what was enjoined. The daily sacrifice, which
was offered twice every day, was intended to remove the impurity
of the temple staff, and to enable the people to be sure that the
iavour of God continued with them. Many sacrifices aimed at the
removal of particular sins ; thankfulness was also expressed in
them, and other feelings may have also ascended with the smoke
from the altar.
In the Jewish religion the notion of holiness is closely
JUDAISM
1/W
connected with worship. Everything pertaining to the sacrificial

worship, - - - the sanctuary, the priests, the vessels, and the
sacrifice itself - - - is designated as holy. Things and persons are
holy which belong to Yahweh and are withdrawn from common
use. These it is dangerous to touch unwarily. Connected with the
notion of holiness is that of purity. In the later Persian religion, as
was pointed out in the chapter on Zoroastrianism, the distinction
has always to be remembered by the believer between what belongs
to the good spirit and what has fallen under the power of the evil
spirit. The Jew also, who is called to be holy and separate from
other men, lives in constant dread lest he should touch something
unclean, and so forfeit his own purity. There are clean animals,
and unclean ones which he m ust not eat: various washings of the
hand and of domestic utensils are needed in order to keep up the
state of purity ; many trades involve contact with substances which
make purity almost impossible. Above all, it is defiling to eat what
heathen has cooked, or to sit at the same table with the heathens.
Thus the Jew was confinned in the belief of his own superiority to
men of the other races; and was prevented by many barriers from
mingling with them, or even regarding them as brothers.
After the destruction of the Temple the sacrificial ritual had to
be given up and its place was taken by daily prayers. The ceremo
nial law expects each Jew to pray three times every day, if possible
at the synagogue ; to recite a blessing before and after each meal
; to thank God for any special pleasure, such as a curious sight, the
perfumes of a flower, or the receipt of good news; to wear a fringed
garment (tzilzithj about his body : to don amulets (lifillin) during the
morning prayers. Moreover, as a symbol of God's covenant with
Abraham, eveiy male Jew' m ust be circumcised when he is eight
days old. When he attains the age of thirteen the Jew boy reaches
his legal majority (Bar Mitzvah) and is confirmed in his duties and
privileges by putting on the tifillin and being 'called upon' to the
public reading of th e Torah.
An important feature of the religious life of the Jew is the
Appointed Seasons' - - - the Feasts and Fasts. Foremost among
these is the Sabbath, the weekly day of rest. According to a central
Rabbinic image, man is Gods partner in the work of creation. God
laboured to create the world in six days and then He rested ; man
labours to perform his daily tasks and he too must rest. The Torah
ordains absolute abstention from work.
In addition to the weekly Sabbath, the Jews celebrate a n n u a lly
three great holidays which are also days of rest. Assoctatr t! with
the harvest of the Holy Land, these festivals are also behoved to
140
commemorate historical events in the life of Israel. At the head of

these, festivals is the Passover which, falling on the 19th of Nisan
(March-April), lasts seven or eight days. As the spring festival, the
season of Nature's rebirth, Passover celebrates the birthday of
Israel as a nation on the exodus from Egypt.
Seven weeks after Passover the Jews celebrate Shavouth, the
Feast of Weeks, the wheat-harvest festival. It is associated with
Israel's h a rv e s t----- namely, the Revelation of God to Moses at
Sinai, where he received the Ten Commandments. In ancient days
it was marked by bringing the first fruits of the harvest to the
Temple.
The third festival is that of Sukkoth (booths). This festival,
which falls on the 15th of Ttshri (September-October) lasts seven
days and is celebrated at the close of the vintage season. It is
supposed to commemorate the forty years of wandering by the
Jews in the desert.
The Jewish New Year (Rosh Hashanah}, which falls on the first
of Tishri, is considered to be the anniversary of the Creation. The
ten days from Rosh Hashanah through Yom Kippur (the Day of
Atonement) are known as the 'Ten Days of Repentance". These are
the most solemn days of the year, for in this period all the world
is judged before God's heavenly throne. On Yom Kippur the Jew
neither eats nor drinks anything at all, observing the strictest of
fasts, and he spends all his waking hours in prayers.
C hapter VIII
CHRISTIANITY
THE BACKGROUND
At the time of Jesus' birth, Palestine formed part of the Roman

Empire. The Roman senate had appointed Herod as the king of
Palestine under Roman suzerainty. Herod tactfully strove to retain
the favour of Rome, on the one hand, and to gain popularity with
his Jewish subjects, on the other : a task which was not always
very easy. "His reign has been compared", writes Dr. Morton Scott
Enslin, "with that of Solomon. Actually it far surpassed it."'
After the death of Herod in 4 B.C., when Jesus was only two or
three years of age, his kingdom was divided among his sons.
Archelaus became the king of the largest part, including Judaea,
Samaria and Idumea; Antipas became the ruler of Galilee and
Perea; and Philip of the remaining territories. After ruling as a king
for about ten years, Archelaus was removed and banished for gross
mismanagement by Augustus. His dominion was made a province
of Rome and placed under direct Roman rule, with a governor,
called procurator, at its hea 1. Pontius Pilate was the fifth procu
rator of Judaea. Archelaus's brothers, Antipas and Philip, fared
somewhat better. Philip remained in office till his death in 34 C.E.;
Antipas a little longer till 39 C.E. Both of them were thus ruling
throughout Jesus' life and ministry, while it was in Antipas' terri
tory that almost all his life was spent.
Jesus' own people, the Jews, were scattered over many parts of
the world; those who lived in Palestine comprised but a small
fraction of all Jewry. In Alexandria - - which was in those days
the chief centre of the intellectual and religious, as well as of the
economic, w orld---- there were at least a million Jews. The Jews
of the dispersion, particularly those living in Alexandria, had come
under various influences. Though they still retained their religious
loyalty and ceremonial observances, they had readily assimilated
the alien culture and philosophy of the Greeks. They had forgotten
the Hebrew tongue and read the Bible in the Greek translation.
The greatest Jewish philosopher of the Hellenistic world was Philo
of Alexandria (25 B.C. - 40 C.E.). He was the first to set himself the
task of reconciling the Jewish scriptural theology with Greek
1.
Morton Scott E nslin, Christian Beginnings, P art 1, p 4 7 (H arper Torchbooks,

The C loister Library, New York, 1956.)
142
THE GREAT RELIGIONS OF TOE WORLD
philosophy. His most, important contribution to the history of

philosophic-religious thought was his conception of the Logos
(Word). He developed the Greek notion of Logos, which he had
taken over from the Stoics and Plato, and conceived it as a person
ality whom he called the 'second God' and also sometimes 'Son of
God'. The Logos (Word! was the mediator between God and man,
and the instrument of God's creation and revelation. In the phi
losophy of Philo, he was inferior to the Absolute God. It needs no
saying that the doctrine of Logos was totally alien to Judaism or re
vealed religion.
The Jews of Palestine in those days were divided into several
parties or sects. The two most important were the Sadducees and
the Pharisees. They had divided the Sanhedran between them; the
Sadducees controlling the political Sanhedran and the Temple, and
the Pharisees dominating the religious Sanhedran and the syna
gogues. In addition to these there were the Essenes. the Apocalyptists and the Zealots. Unlike the other parties, the Zealots sought
by military action to overthrow the Roman rule and gain independ
ence for the Jews. All but the Sadducees looked forward to the
coming of a Messiah, who would usher in the Golden Age. They,
however, held different views regarding the expected Messiah.
Some were looking forward to a political Messiah, who would free
the Jews from Roman bondage and himself become the king of
Israel. Others took a more spiritual view and believed that the
coming Messiah would usher in a new World O rd er---- the King
dom of H eaven---- after a cataclysmic destruction of the present
world order.
Apart from the Jews and gentiles, there were also a fairly large
number of Samaritans in Palestine. They were the offspring of
mixed marriages between Jews and non-Jews and lived mostly in
Samaria. Although they accepted the Torah (but not the other
books of the Hebrew Bible) and believed in all the fundamental
doctrines of Judaism, yet the Jews regarded them as outside the
pale of Jewry and refused to share with them in worship or in
anything else.
Many of the gentiles and also some Jewish apostates followed
the official Roman religion. There were many among the educated
intellectuals who had become philosophic free-thinkers, rational
ists, Epicureans, Stoics and Gnostics. The common people were
being drawn in ever larger numbers towards the several Mystery
Cults that flourished in the Greco-Roman world. Each one of these
Mystery Cults was centred round a saviour-god----Dionysus of the
Greeks, Hercules of the Romans, Mithras of the Persians, Adonis
CHRISTIANITY
143
and Attis of Syria and Phrygia, Osiris, Isis and Horns of Egypt, Baal
of the Babylonians, etc. About all or nearly all of these saviour-gods
it was believed, as Edward Carpenter has pointed out, that :(i) They were bom on or very near Christmas day (25th
December)
(it) They were bom of a Virgin-Mother,
(iii) And in a cave or underground chamber,
(iv) They led a life of toil for mankind,
(v) They were called by the names of Light-bringer, Healer,
Mediator, Saviour and Deliverer,
(vi) They were, however, vanquished by the Powers of Dark
ness.
(vii) They descended into Hell or the underworld,
(viii) They rose again from the dead and became the pioneers
of mankind (i.e., of those who believed in their atoning
sacrifice and accepted them as the saviours) to the
Heavenly World,
(ix) They founded communion of saints and churches to
which disciples were received by baptism,
(x) They were commemorated by eucharistic meals.2
THE SOURCES OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF JESUS
For the life of Jesus and the stories of the early Christian
Church, we have no testimony from secular history. It is true that
there is a brief passage in Josephus, mentioning and praising J e
sus,3 but reputable scholarship has long since rejected it as
fraudulent. 'The forgery," writes Archibald Robertson, "would not
deceive a school boy,4 Our recourse m ust, therefore, be to the
Christian scriptures themselves.
The part of the Christian Bible described as the New Testament
contains the following scriptures: The Gospel according to
St. Matthew, the Gospel according to St. Mark, the Gospel accord
ing to St. Luke, the Gospel according to St. John; the Acts of
the Apostles; the Epistles of St. Paul to the Romans, the Corinthi
ans (two), the Galatians, the Ephesians, the Philippians, the
2.
3.
4.
Quoted by Khwaja Kamal-ul-Din in The Sources o f Christianity p. 29-30.

(Woking Muslim Mission, England, fourth edition 1934.)
Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, XVIII, 3.
Archibald Robertson, Jesus: Myth or History? p. 21 (Thinker's Library,
London, 1946.)
144
Colossians, the Thessalonians (two), Timothy (two), Titus,

Philemon, and the Hebrews; the Epistle of James; the Epistles of
Peter (two); the Epistles of John (three); the Epistle of Jude; and the
Revelation of St. John the Divine.
The Gospels according to Matthew, Mark, Luke and John give
four different accounts of the life and teaching of Jesus. The
modem scholars are of the view that these Gospels were written in
Greek (It m ust be remembered that the language which Jesu s
spoke was Aramaic) between forty and eighty years after the sup
posed death of Jesus on the cross. It appears that no written record
was made of the inspired sayings of Jesu s in his lifetime. None of
those who had conversed with him wrote any account of what they
had seen and heard. But, as the first generation began to die away,
a few collections of his Logia' or 'sayings' were put together. One
such record is known in critical nomenclature as Q, a lost Aramaic
document, which reached the evangelists in a Greek translation.
Another of these early documents is known to Biblical scholars as
L, a collection of reports about Jesu s used only by Luke. Then
there was Unnarcus, an early draft of Mark's Gospel written, so
Papias informs us, on the basis of Peter's discourses. These
documents were destroyed or disappeared quite early in the history
of Christianity. They were, however, available to the Evangelists,
who evidently made use of them in writing their Gospels. But a
comparison of the Gospels will show that the Evangelists handled
these documents with considerable freedom; they showed no hesi
tation even lo alter their contents to suit their own purpose.
The first Gospel to be written was that of St. Mark (70 C.E.).
The author appears to have been a follower of St. Peter. The Gospel
as it has come down to us is considered by several scholars to be
an expanded version of Urmarcus, and it is difficult to say whether
the revision and elaboration was done by Mark himself or by some
other person. F.C. Conybeare observes: "The greater part of that
Gospel (t.e., St. Mark's Gospel) is the work of someone who is by
instinct and predilection a miracle monger."5
The Gospel according to St. Matthew was written about 90 C.E.
According to the widely-accepted "two-document" hypothesis, this
Gospel is a blend of Urmarcus and Q plus matter derived from oral
tradition. No independent scholar regards this Gospel as the work
of Matthew the Apostle of Jesus. If Matthew wrote anything it m ust
have been only Q. Regarding the liberties which the author of this
Gospel took with his sources. Dr. C.J. Cadoux writes:
5.
F.C. C od y b care, Myth, Magic and Morals, pp. 140-141.
CHRISTIANITY
145
"But a close examination of the treatment he gives to his bor

rowings from St. Mark shows that he allowed himself great freedom
in editing and embroidering his material in the interest of what he
regarded as the rightful honouring of the great Master. The same
tendencies are often visible elsewhere when he is producing Q or
providing m atter peculiar to himself. Anything, therefore, strictly
peculiar to 'Matthew' can be accepted as historical only with great
caution."6
The third Gospel, the Gospel according to St. Luke, was written
somewhere in Greece about 100 C.E. for the benefit of the "most
excellent Theophilus, probably a high official of the Roman
Empire. It is an apologetic addressed to non-Jews and is widely
admitted to have had "Luke the Physician", Paul's travelling com
panion on several of his missionary journeys, for its author. St.
Luke, it appears, had succeeded in amassing a valuable collection
of traditions about Jesus, which the scholars call L. Finding later
on, a copy of Q, he is thought to have compiled a complete Gospelstory by interweaving Q with his L. material. This preliminary
Gospel is called "Proto-Luke". Later still finding a copy of Urmarcus, he inserted nearly the whole of it in large blocks at certain
points in his "Proto-Luke", and, by prefixing his narrative of the
birth and boyhood of Jesus, produced the Gospel of Luke as, we
now have it. Scholars have pointed out that the author, who
wished to bring his Gospel in line with the Pauline point of view,
took even greater liberties with his sources than the writers of the
earlier Gospels had done. "As to the work of Luke", writes Ernest
Renan, "its historical value is sensibly weaker."7 And this is what
a more orthodox writer, E.E. Kellett, writes:
"Luke is a Greek writer, and writes like a Greek historian. In
some cases, it is to be feared, he makes speeches of his own for his
heroes: and a beautiful story seems true to him because it is
beautiful----- The whole story is a popular legend, taken over and
rewritten with deceptive charm by a man of Herodotean gifts."8
The Gospels of Mark, Matthew and Luke are called "the
Synoptic Gospels", because they proceed on the basis of the same
document and have much in common. The Gospel of St. John is
very different from these. The first three, or Synoptic, Gospels",
writes A. Powell Davies, "tell much the same story. There are
6.
C .J . C a d o u x .T h e Life o f Jesus, p. 13 (Pelican B oo k ).P en g u in B ooks, 1948.
7.
Ernest Renan,The Life of Jesus, p.SHThe Modern Library, New York, 1927.)
8.
E.E. K ellett, A Short History o f Religions, p. 173 (Pelican B ooks, H a rm o n d sw o rth , 1962.)
146
discrepancies, but it is possible, to a considerable extent, to recon

cile them. John's Gospel, however, tells quite a different story from
the other three. If John is right, the other three are wrong; if the
Synoptics are right, St. John's Gospel m ust surely be in error."9
The divinity and pre-existence of Jesus are affirmed in this Gospel
alone. It was written at or near Ephesus between the years 110
and 115 of the Christian era by some unknown writer. No inde
pendent scholar regards it as the work of John, the son of Zebedee,
who, according to R.H. Charles, Alfred Loisy, Robert Eisler, and
other scholars, was beheaded by Herod Agrippa I, in the year 44
C.E., long before the fourth Gospel could have been written. The
modem Biblical scholars question the historical value of this
Gospel and reject the genuineness of many of the discourses and
sayings put by its author in the mouth of Jesus. This is what C.J.
Cadoux writes;
'The speeches in the Fourth Gospel (even apart from the early
messianic claim) are so different from those in the Synoptics, and
so like the comments of the Fourth Evangelist himself, that both
cannot be equally reliable as records of what Jesu s said."10
The Gospels were written after the early Christians had become
divided into various factions. They were in fact written to propagate
the views of the different parties and their authors showed no
hesitation in tampering with the earlier documents and other tra
ditional material to bring them in line with the teachings of their
respective sects. The four Gospels now included in the Bible were
not the only Gospels written during the early centuries of Christi
anity. There were many others, including the Gospel to the He
brews, the Gospel of the Nazarenes and the Gospel of St. Barnabas
---- three Aramaic works which were regarded as holy scriptures
by the early disciples of Jesus, who lived in Jerusalem, denied his
divinity and acknowledged him as a great prophet to the Children
of Israel. Towards the end of the second century the Gospels
according to Matthew, Mark. Luke and John were included in the
Canon by the Catholic Church and the rest were declared to be
heretical or apocryphal. It m ust be remembered that the writers of
the four canonical Gospels claimed no special Divine inspiration for
their works. Before they were included in the Canon the Gospels
did not have that sanctity which they now have and no one felt any
compunction in making alterations in them if anything contained
9. A. Powell Davies, The Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls, p. 106 (Mentor Book;
New American library,New York, 1956.)
10. C. J. Cadoux, The life o f Jesus, p. 16 (Pelican Book, 1948.)
CHRISTIANITY'
147
in them did not suit his purpose or the purpose of his sect. In fact;
even after they were canonised changes continued to be made in
them, as is clear from the various manuscripts that have come
down to us. Finally, while the four Gospels were written between
70 and 115 C.E., the earliest available codices belong to the middle
of the fourth century. The modem scholars, therefore, do not con
sider the Gospels to be very reliable sources of our knowledge of the
life and teaching of Jesus. They tell us not about the Jesu s of his
tory, but the Christ of faith. C.J. Cadoux sums up the position as
follows :
"In the four Gospels, therefore, the main documents to which
we m ust go if we are to fill-out at all that bare sketch which we can
put together from other sources, we find material of widely-differ
ing quality as regards credibility. So far-reaching is the element of
uncertainty that it is tempting to 'down-tools at once, and to
declare the task hopeless. The historical inconsistencies and im
probabilities in parts of the Gospels form some of the arguments
advanced in favour of the Christ-myth theory. These are, however,
entirely outweighed as we have shown by other considerations.
Still the discrepancies and uncertainties that remain are serious - and consequently many modems, who have no doubt whatever of
Jesus' real existence, regard as hopeless any attempt to dissolve
out the historically-true from the legendary or mythical matter
which the Gospels contain, and to reconstruct the story of Jesus'
mission out of the more historical residue.""
The remaining books of the Bible add almost nothing to the
little that we can learn about the life and teaching of Jesu s from the
Gospels. They show no interest at all in the historical Jesu s and
seldom, if ever, quote any of his sayings.
Regarding the historical value of the Christian scriptures (the
New Testament), A Powell Davies writes :
"It is a common supposition that we have in the New Testament
a self-consistent story of the life of Jesus, followed by a plain
account of the beginnings of the Church he founded. These as
sumptions are not true. We do not have the story of Jesus; we have
only a fragmentary record. It is not self-consistent; it is contradic
tory. The account of the beginnings of the church is not simple; it
is full of problems. And it is not certain that Jesu s founded or
intended to found the eventual Christian Church."112
11. C.J. Codoux, The Life o f Jesus, pp. 16-17. (Penguin Books, 1948.)
12. A Powell Davies. The Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls. P.85. (Mentor Books,
1956)
148
THE LIFE OF JESUS
From what has been said above regarding the sources of our
knowledge of Jesus, it m ust be obvious that the problem of writ
ing a life of Jesu s is not an easy one. The absence of any reference
to Jesu s in the works of the first-century non-Christian writers and
the unreliability of the Christian sources, have led some distin
guished scholars to deny the historicity of the reputed founder of
Christianity and to regard his story as a myth.13 Similar doubts
have been expressed, as we have pointed out in the earlier chap
ters, with regard to the historical existence of several other reli
gious teachers. An overwhelming majority of the scholars, however,
does not favour this extreme view. After acknowledging th at the
Christian records do contain some historical facts about Jesus,
mixed no doubt with a great deal of pious fiction and myth, the
biographers of Jesu s have been, for the last century or so, busy in
separating the two -- the apparently historical from the legendary
elements -- and writing a life of Jesu s on the basis of the more
historical residue.14 Unfortunately there is no consensus among
them regarding what is historical and what is not historical in the
Christian tradition. Even such an orthodox work as Peake's Com
mentary on the Bible admits :
The results of critical study of the records concerning Jesus
have often been represented as largely negative. The issue is said
to be a fresh sense alike of the fragmentary character of our infor
mation and of the strangeness of the figure of Jesu s Himself. Today
we realize that the life of Jesus can never be written. The material
is wanting."15
Jesus, it appears, was bom sometime between 7 and 5 B.C.
Two of the four canonical Gospels state he was bom of a virgin
mother without the agency of a male parent. Mark and John,
however, advance no such claim on behalf of Jesus. And even
Matthew and Luke, who begin their Gospels by stating that he was
bom of a virgin through the agency of the Holy Ghost, go on to
13. J.M. Robertson, Christianity and Mythology{ 1900); Couchoud, The Creation
o f Chrisl(1939); Ryland, The evolution of Christianity(l927); Dujardin, Ancient
History of the God Jesus (1938).
14. D.F. Strauss, The Life o f Jesus(1835); Ernest Renan, The Life of Jesus(first
published 1863); W. Sandey, The Life o f Christ in Recent Research (1899); A.
Edersheim, Life and Times o f Jesus the Messiah (Longman, Green & Co.,
1907); J. Klausner, Jesus o f Nazareth (MacMillan, 1926); C.J. Cadoux, The
life of Jesus (1948).
15. Peake's Commentary on the Bible, Art "The Life and Teaching of Jesus," (Nel
son).
CHRISTIANITY
149
name Joseph the carpenter as his father. It is significant that both

of them give genealogies of Jesu s in which his descent has been
traced from David the king, not through Mary, but through her
husband Joseph. "There is no evidence in the Gospels," writes Dr.
Harry Emerson Fosdick, "apart from the birth stories themselves,
that any member of Jesus' family or any of his first disciples ever
thought of him as virgin-bom."16 This view, he points out, arose in
the later Hellenistic area of the church. As stated in the earlier
chapters, several other religious, teachers and heroes were also
thought of as virgin-bom.
It is not possible to state the exact date on which Jesu s was
bom. 25th of December as the date of the Nativity was fixed more
than five hundred years after the event on purely hypothetical data.
In the words of Professor Wallace K. Ferguson :
"Christian celebrations were created to replace pagan feasts
and holidays. For example, the date of Christmas was set on the
birthday of Mithras (the unconquered Sun), which had long been
a day of joyous celebration in the pagan world."17
The Gospels mention Bethlehem as the birth-place of Jesus.
But modem scholarship finds itself unable to confirm this or the
legends which form part of the Bethlehem story. To quote Dr.
Morton Enslin :
"Jesus was bom and brought up in the hills of Galilee, in the
quiet town of Nazareth, the veiy name of which is unknown to us
in that period outside the Gospels and Acts. The Bethlehem stories,
regardless of their homiletic beauty, apparently rest upon no his
torical foundation, but must be regarded as pure legend.18
Regarding his childhood, all one can do is to repeat the state
ment of Luke that "Jesus increased in wisdom and stature, and in
favour with God and men" (2 : 52). The Gospels tell us nothing of
Jesus' life before the beginning of his ministiy. This serious lacuna
in the story of Jesus has led to many conjectures. Jawaharlal
Nehru, the late Prime Minister of India, mentions in his Glimpses
of World History a legend, based on the discovery of a manuscript
in Kashmir, regarding J e s u s visit to the Indo-Pakistan
16. Harry Emerson Fosdick, The Man from Nazareth, p. 118, (Pocket Books, Inc.
New-York, 1953.)
17. Wallace K Ferguson, A Survey o f European Civilization, Part II, p. 112,
(Houghton Mifiin Co., Cambridge, Massachusettes, 1947.)
18. Morton Scott Enslin, Christian Beginings, Part II, p. 154, (Harper-Torch
books, New York, 1956 )
*
150
subcontinent and his discussions with the Buddhist monks.19 A.

Powell Davies, the late Pastor of the All Souls Church in Washing
ton. D.C. draws on the more recent discovery of the Dead Sea
Scrolls to suggest that Jesus lived during at least some part of this
unknown period of his life in very close association with the
Essenes, probably as a full-fledged member of the sect.
When Jesu s was between thirty-four and thirty-six years of age,
a great prophet appeared in the wilderness of Judaea proclaiming
a "baptism of the repentant for the forgiveness of sins. The name
of this prophet was John, the son of Zechariah. All ranks and
classes of people from Judaea and Jerusalem went out to him and
were baptised by him in the river Jordan, confessing their sins.
Among them was Jesus. When he came out of the river Jordan,
after receiving the baptism, he was blessed with a wonderful expe
rience. The Holy Spirit descended upon him, declaring that he was
God's prophet, commissioned from on High to sound the clarion
call to repentance in preparation for the new age soon to dawn.20
Immediately after this Jesus withdrew into the desert to pray
and fast and to prepare himself for the prophetic task. There, the
Gospels tell us, he was tempted by Satan, ju st as Buddha had been
tempted by Mara over five centuries earlier, when he too was about
to start on his great mission as the Enlightened One.
From the Synoptic Gospels it appears that the ministry of Jesus
was limited to a few months, scarcely more than a single year. But
St. John's Gospel tells u s that it occupied three years. He began by
preaching in the towns of Galilee on the shore of the lake, where
crowds flocked to hear him. Reputed miraculous cures attracted
attention. The Gospels tell us about several healing miralces (like
curing people of leprosy, restoring the eyesight of the blind, driving
away the demons from the epileptics and the insane, and raising,
the dead) and nature miracles (like stilling the tempest, walking on
the surface of a lake, increasing manifold the quantity of loaves and
fish, and turning water into wine) that Jesu s is supposed to have
performed. Similar miracles are said to have been performed by
other religious teachers as well. In fact there is not a single miracle
attributed to Jesu s for which a parallel cannot be found in the
records concerning the Hebrew prophets in the Bible.
19.
Jd waharial Nehru, G lim pses o f W o rld H isto ry, p. 84 (Lindsay Drummond Ltd., London).
20.
"All Prophets spoke by the Holy spirit. The Holy Spirit is so specifically prophetic inspiration
that when Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, the last prophets, died, the holy spirit departed
from Israel: (G. F. Moore, Ju d a ism , V ol I, 237).
CHRISTIANITY
151
It did not take long for Jesus to come into conflict with the
existing Jewish parties, and the opposition to him became more
and more bitter as time passed. The Zealots turned against him be
cause he refused to become their tool for raising a rebellion against
the Romans. The Pharisees became his enemies because of his dis
regard of their prized interpretations and his cavalier treatment of
them personally. But his most dangerous opponents were the
Sadducees. They controlled the political Sanhedran and the
Temple and had considerable influence with the Roman rulers. It
was to their special advantage that the existing system, which had
brought privileges and prosperity to them, should be maintained
under the Roman overlordsliip. They were afraid that Jesus' claim
to be the Messiah, who, according to many Jews, would become the
king of Israel, would bring the Romans into conflict with their
Jewish subjects and disturb the status quo.
After a period of itinerant preaching in Galilee and Judea,
Jesus turned south to the nation's capital. It appears that in
Galilee he had not met with much success; most of those who
followed him from place to place were interested only in miracles.
He thought that in Jerusalem, at the season of the Passover, Jews
from far and near will gather and thus his message would reach
wherever the Jews lived. Moreover, Jerusalem occupied a special
place in his heart, as in the hearts of all Jews.
Thus he entered the city ol Jerusalem riding on an ass. It
appears that his reputation had preceded him and a large crowd of
pilgrims and others gathered with palm leaves in their hands to
receive him. They shouted, "Hosanna : Blessed is the King oflsrael
that cometh in the name of the Lord" (St. John, 12:13). However,
among the throng there were also many men who had never heard
of him, and they asked : "Who is this?" and the people replied. "This
is Jesu s the Prophet of Nazareth of Galilee" (St. Matthew, 21:11).
On the first day in Jerusalem he went into the Temple and
noted with indignation the traffic that was being carried on in the
outer courts of the House of God in money-changing and in birds
and animals for sacrifice. This was one of the perquisites of the
priestly order and had attained scandulous dimensions. Return
ing to the Temple the next day, he took the drastic action of turn
ing all the dealers and money changers out of the Temple, together
with the objects of their traffic. His enemies realized that if they did
not act immediately against him it might be too late. Pharisees and
Sadducees, though they did not have any great love for each other,
made a common cause against Jesus. One of the inner circle of his
152
THE GREAT RELIGIONS O F THE WORLD
followers, Ju d as Iscariot, was bribed to conduct the Temple police

to his place of retreat. Jesus, it appears, had come to know about
the plot of his foes to kill him. It made him very unhappy. "My soul
is extremely sorrowful even unto death; wait here and watch," he
told his disciples. "And being in an agony," Luke tells us, "he
prayed more earnestly; and his sweat was as it were great drops of
blood falling down to the ground." He spent the whole night in the
Garden of Gethsemane praying to God to save him from death;
"Abba, Father, all things are possible unto thee; take away this
cup from me; nevertheless not what I will, but what Thou wilt"
(Mark. 14:36).
Jesu s was arrested by the soldiers and the Jewish police while
it was still dark; all his disciples forsook him and fled away. He was
taken first before the Jewish high priests, and then before Pontius
Pilate, the Roman procurator. The charge brought against him was
that he had claimed to be the King of the Jews. Pilate, it appears,
was not quite convinced of the truth of the charge, yet under the
pressure of the Jewish chief priests and elders he passed the
sentence of crucifixion on him. The Gospels tell us that Jesu s was
hung on a cross between two notorious criminals. Death on the
cross was a tardy affair; it usually took the condemned m an two or
three days to die of pain and exhaustion. But Jesu s remained on
the cross only for three hours (from the sixth hour, i.e., 12 noon,
to the ninth hour, i.e., 3 p.m.). It was the Preparation Day, and it
being against the Jewish religion that any m an should remain
hanging on the cross on the Sabbath, the Jews requested Pilate to
kill the condemned men and remove their bodies from the cross.
Accordingly, the soldiers broke the legs of the other two men who
had been crucified alpng with Jesus. But when they came to Jesus,
they thought that he was already dead and broke not his legs. One
of the soldiers, however, pierced his side with a spear about three
hours after his supposed death, and blood and water immediately
flowed out from it, showing that he was still alive. It appears that
he had fainted or fallen into a deep swoon.21 His body was taken
away by an influential disciple, named Joseph of Arimathaea, and
kept in a cave with a stone rolled over its mouth. The next day he
was seen alive, disguised as a gardener, first by Mary Magdalene
and then by others of his disciples. The Christian theology states
that Jesu s "was crucified, died, and was buried: He descended into
hell; tfie third day He rose again from the dead. He ascended bodily
21 W. B. Primrose, "A] Surgeon Ijxiks at the Crucijvdon ", (Thinkers' Digest, L ondon W inter IP'49'
CHRISTIANITY
153
into heaven. And sitteth on the right hand of God the Father
Almighty."22 What seems more likely is that Jesu s had not died on
the cross, but was, as we have said, in a deep swoon when he was
taken down; and from this he gradually recovered. Thus what was
thought to be resurrection was actually a recovery from swoon.
Jesus had prayed to be saved, and God heard his prayer. This is
exactly what the author of Epistle to the Hebrews tells us:
"When he (Jesus) had offered up prayers and supplications
with strong crying and tears unto Him that was able to save him
from death, and was heard in that he feared". (The Bible, Epistle
to the Hebrews, 5:7).
The Qur'an, which accepts Jesus as a great prophet of God and
claims to confirm the true Gospel of Jesus, also discloses that he
did not die on the cross:
"And for their saying: We have killed the Messiah, Jesus, son
of Mary, the messenger of God: and they killed him not, nor did
they cause his death on the cross, but he was made to appear to
them as such. And certainly those who differ therein are in doubt
about it. They have no knowledge about it, but only follow a
conjecture, and they killed him not for certain" (4:157).
The Qur'an further declares that God gave Jesus and his
mother Mary "shelter on a l o f t y ground h a v i n g m e a d o w s a n d
springs" (23:50). Recent r e s e a r c h carried on b y Hazrat Mirza
Ghulam Ahmad, founder of the Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam,
and some of his followers has shown that the place referred to here
is Kashmir, where Jesu s went in search of "the lost sheep of the
house of Israel" after having escaped death on the cross. He died
at the ripe old age of 120 years and his tomb i s still in existence at
Mohalla Khanyar in Srinagar, K a s h m i r . 23
THE TEACHING OF JESUS
Dr. Morton Scott Enslin, one of the greatest Christian scholars
of this century, writes:
"All this should make clear that the view, which still persists in
some circles that Jesus' aim was to found a Church, distinct from
the Synagogue, is quite improbable. The Gospels themselves bear
little trace of such a view------- Thus attempts to picture Jesus
as breaking away from Judaism , of conceiving a new religion in
'll. 'The Apostles Creed", Catholicism (edited by George Brand), p. 175 (Washington S quare Press Book, New York. 1962.).
23. Khwaja Nazir Ahmad, J e s u s in H eaven on

a n d Litcrarv T ru st. E ngland; 1952 }.
E a rth
(Woking Muslim Missiov
154
which the Jew and Gentile stood alike, equal in the sight of God,
would appear to be in flagrant contradiction to probability."24
Jesu s himself said: 'Think not that I am come to destroy the
law, or the prophets; I am come not to destroy, bu t to fulfil. For
verily I say unto you, Till heaven and earth pass, one jot or one tittle
shall in no wise pass from the law, till all be fulfilled. Whosoever
therefore shall break one of these least commandments, and shall
teach men so, he shall be called the least in the kingdom of heaven:
but whosoever shall do and teach them, the same shall be called
great in the kingdom of heaven" (St. Matthew, 5:17-19).
He was not the founder of a new religion. He had come to revive
the religion of the earlier prophets, to purge and purify it of all the
later interpolations and misrepresentations of the Pharisees and
Sadducees, and to urge his compatriots to repent and turn to God.
Like all prophets, he
believed in the one and only God. When
a scribe asked him, 'Which is the first commandment of all?"
Jesu s answered:
The first of all the commandments is, Hear, O Israel: The Lord
our God is one Lord; and thou shalt love the Lord thy God with
all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind, and
with all thy strength: this is the first commandment. And the
second is like, namely this, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as
thyself. There is none other commandment greater than these"
(St. Mark, 12:29-31).
Some of the Jews of his time thought of God as remote and
terrible, but Jesu s laid special emphasis on His loving-kindness,
calling Him "our Father which art in heaven". Jesu s was not the
first to call God "Father; that had been done before, and not only
by the prophets of his own race: pagans had done the same. At the
time of Jesu s t{ie term was current in the most earnest religious
circles connected with Judaism . It denoted not only the conception
of God as Creator but also His benevolent, watchful care of His
creatures.
Although Jesus had the most profound respect for the Law of
Moses and never opposed it or hinted that it would ever pass away,
he seems always to have sought to get at the spirit of it, to stress
what true obedience to it entailed. He said:
Ye have heard that it was said by them of old time. Thou shalt
not kill; and whosoever shall kill shall be in danger of judgment.
24. Dr. Morl.cn Scott Ensiin.
books Ncmc Yoik, 1956 !.
C h r is tia n B e g in n in g s ,
part II. p. 166 (Harper Torch-
Cl 1R1STLANITY
B ul I say
155
u n to
y o u , T h a t w h o s o e v e r is a n g r y
w ith
h is b ro th e r
w ith o u t a c a u s e s h a ll b e in d a n g e r o f ju d g m e n t, a n d w h o s o e v e r
s h a ll s a y to h i s b r o t h e r . R a c a , s h a l l b e in d a n g e r o f th e c o u n c il; b u t
w h o s o e v e r s h a l l s a y , T h o u f o o l , s h a l l b e i n d a n g e r o f h e l l f i r e ------Y e h a v e h e a r d t h a t it w a s s a i d b y t h e m o f o ld tim e , T h o u s h a l l n o t
c o m m it a d u lte r y .
B u t 1 s a y u n to y o u , T h a t w h o s o e v e r lo o k e lh o n
a w o m a n to lu s t a f te r h e r , h a th c o m m ite d a d u lte r y w ith h e r a lr e a d y

in h is h e a r t.
A n d i f t h y r i g h t e y e o f f e n d t h e e , p l u c k it o u t . a n d c a s t
i t f r o m t h e e : f o r it i s p r o f i t a b l e f o r t h e e t h a t o n e o f t h y m e m b e r s
s h o u l d p e r i s h , a n d n o t t h a t th y w h o le b o d y s h o u l d b e c a s t in to h e ll.
A n d i f t h y r i g h t h a n d o f f e n d t h e e , c u t i t o lf , a n d c a s t i t f r o m t h e e :
fo r it is p r o f ita b le f o r th e e t h a t o n e o f th y m e m b e r s s h o u l d p e r is h ,
a n d n o t t h a t t h y w h o l e b o d y s h o u l d b e c a s t i n t o h e l l '' ( S t . M a t t h e w ,
5: 21-22, 27-30).
It i s o f t e n s a i d t h a t t h e J e w s o f t h e t i m e o f J e s u s w e r e n o t s o
m uch
th e fo llo w e rs o f th e p r o p h e t s a s o f th e t r a d i t i o n s o f th e i r
e i d e r s , w h i c h t h e y c o n s i d e r e d to b e a s m u c h D iv in e ly i n s p i r e d a s
t h e T o r a h its e lf.
re je c te d
th e
J e s u s a c c e p te d th e T o ra h a n d th e p r o p h e ts b u t
ra b b in ic a l in te rp re ta tio n s a n d
tr a d itio n s w h ic h , h e
c o m p l a i n e d , h a d m a d e v o id t h e w o r d o f G o d . " F u ll w e ll y e r e j e c t t h e
c o m m a n d m e n ts o f G o d ", h e to ld th e m , " th a t y e m a y k e e p y o u r o w n
tr a d itio n " . T h e y h a d a b s u r d r u le s a b o u t th e S a b b a th . F o r in s ta n c e ,
a m a n m i g h t w a l k tw o t h o u s a n d c u b i t s o n t h e S a b b a t h , b u t n o
m o re .
S o m e k n o ts a n d n o t o th e r s c o u ld b e tie d o r u n tie d o n th e
S a b b a t h . V in e g a r if s w a llo w e d , c o u ld
be
u sed
to
re lie v e
a so re
t h r o a t , b u t it c o u ld n o t b e g a r g l e d . N o w o m a n w a s to lo o k in a
m irro r o n
th e
S a b b a th
t e m p t e d t o p u l l it o u t .
case
d e a th
le s t,
se e in g
g re y
h a ir,
sh e
m ig h t b e
N o fire c o u l d b e k i n d l e d o n t h e S a b b a t h .
th r e a te n e d , a p h y s ic ia n c o u ld
In
be su m m o n ed , b u t a
f r a c t u r e m a y n o t b e a t t e n d e d to o n th e S a b b a th , T h e s c h o o ls o f
H ille l a n d
S h a m m a i , t h e tw o m o s t i m p o r t a n t r a b b i s o f t h e ti m e ,
a c tu a lly d is c u s s e d a n d d is a g r e e d a b o u t ttie q u e s t io n w h e th e r a n
egg th a t a h e n
had
la id
o n th e
S a b b a th
c o u ld
b e e a te n . J e s u s
im p a tie n tly b r u s h e d a s id e a il s u c h e la b o r a te a n d a r tif ic ia l r e g u l a

tio n s .
H e to ld th e m th a t th e S a b b a th w a s fo r m a n a n d n o t m a n fo r
th e S a b b a th , a n d h e w a r n e d th e m :
'W o e u n t o y o u , S c r i b e s a n d P h a r i s e e s , h y p o c r i t e s ! f o r y e p a y
th e tith e o f m in t a n d a n is e a n d c u m m in , a n d
h a v e o m itte d th e
w e ig h tie r m a t t e r o f t h e la w , j u d g m e n t , m e r c y a n d f a ith : t h e s e o u g h t
guides,
y e t o h a v e d o n e , a n d n o t t o l e a v e t h e o t h e r u n d o n e . Y e b).fw h ic h s t r a i n a t a g n a t, a n d s w a llo w a
earned.
W oe u n to y
a n d P h a r is e e s , h y p o c rite s ! fo r y e m a k e c le a n th e o u ts id e
a n d o f th e p la t te r , b u t w ith in th e y e r e fo il o f e x to r tio n
., e ;
tue
n .i : e a
156
Thou blind Pharisees, cleanse first that which is within the cup and
platter, that the outside of them may be clean a ls o .----- Ye
serpents, ye generation of vipers, how can ye escape the damnation
of hell" (St. Matthew, 23:23-33).
Through his inspired sermons and beautiful parables, Jesus
tried to make his people God-conscious and to fill their hearts with
the love for men. "Do unto others as you wish them to do unto
you," he said. "Return good for evil; love your enemies. God sends
His rain on the evil and the good alike; be equally impartial. Be
perfect as your heavenly Father is perfect."
However some of his teachings appear to be at once too vague
to be of practical use when put to the test, and too idealistic for
literal acceptance. Take, for instance, the following; "But I say unto
you, that ye resist not evil, but whosoever shall smite thee on thy
right cheek, turn to him the other also. And if any man will sue
thee ; the law, and lake away thy coat, let him have thy cloak also.
And whosoever shall compel thee to go a mile, go with him twain"
(St. Matthew. 5:39-41). And again: "If a m an come to me, and hate
not his father, and mother, and wife, and children, and brethren,
and sisters, yea, and his own. life also, he cannot be my disciple"
(St. Luke, 14:26). "So likewise, whosoever he be of you that forsaketh not all that he hath, he cannot be my disciple" (St. Luke,
14:33). He even told his followers to "make themselves eunuchs for
the kingdom of heaven's sake" (St. Matthew, 19:12).
Jesus claimed that the message he was delivering to the people
was not his own but God's: "I have not spoken of myself, but the
Father which sent me, He gave me a commandment, what I should
say, and what I should speak" (St. John 12:49). He claimed to be
a Prophet of God. Dr. Morton Scott Enslin writes:
"What then was the authority which he claimed for himself?
The most obvious answer is not improbably the correct one,
namely, the one preserved in the gospels themselves, that he was
a prophet of God. This was apparently the impression he made
upon his hearers. It is highly probable that this impression was due
to his own belief. If this is the case, he must have believed himself
to be inspired by the Holy Spirit, for in the thinking of Judaism the
Holy Spirit is specifically the spirit of prophecy."25
He was God's messenger "This is life eternal, that they might
know Thee, the only true God, and Jesus Christ, whom Thou hast
sent (St. John, 17:3).---- a man to whom God had revealed His
message for the guidance of the children of Israel,
25. Morton Scott Enslin, Chrusftan B eginnings, P art II, p. 164.
CHRISTLANITY
157
"Jesus saith unto them. If ye are Abraham's children, ye would

do the works of Abraham. But now ye seek to kill me, a man that
hath told you the truth, which I have heard of God" (St. John, 8:
39-40).
His mission was not for the whole world, but only for the Isra
elites, as he himself clearly stated:
"I am not sent but unto the lost sheep of the house of Israel"
(St. Matthew 15:24).
He chose twelve special disciples to match the number of the
tribes of Israel, and told them:
"Go not into the way of the Gentiles, and into any city of the
Samaritans enter ye not: but go rather to the lost sheep of the
house of Israel" (St. Matthew, 10:5-6)
He was the Messiah of the Jews, and he laid no claim whatever
to divinity. On the other hand, he resisted every attempt to glam
orize his person. He was a human being and nothing more:
"Wliy callest thou me good? There is none good but One, that
is, God" (St. Mark, 10:18).
He may have occasionally referred to himself as the "son of
God", but this did not constitute any claim to divinity. This phrase
had been used about other prophets as well.26 It connoted nothing
more than nearness to God. If God was "our Father which art in
heaven", then all human beings are God's children, particularly
those who have sincere love for God and for His creatures. Thus
Jesus said:
"Love your enemies - - - that ye may be the children of your
Father which is in heaven", (St. Matthew, 5:44-45).
"Blessed are the peacemakers for they shall be called the chil
dren of God" (St. Matthew, 5:9).
Jesus was not the son of God in any exclusive or unique sense.
The phrase which he appears to have used much more frequently
for himself was the "Son of Man". What did this phrase mean? The
Rev. R.J. Campbell answers this question:
"His favourite self-designation was Son of Man. Much has been
said and written about this choice of a title, but it does not seem
to have excited any wonderment in the followers, nor is there any
obscurity in his use of it. It was an Old Testament phrase used of
26. Psalm, 2:7: I Chronicles, 22.10; Exodus, 14:22.
158
a prophet as representative of a particular age and people, and as

the vehicle of God's message thereto."27
Thus Jesu s was a prophet of God and his religion was in no way
different from that of the earlier prophets. He had come to revive
the true religion of God for the Jews of his age and to make them
true believers, sincere in their faith and righteous in their dealings
with other men.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRISTIANITY
The followers of Jesus were at first called Nazarenes. The name

"Christian" was given to them about a hundred years later in the
great gentile capital of Antioch. The Nazarenes formed themselves
into a community at Jerusalem and chose James, the brother of
Jesus, as their head. They were faithful followers of the religion of
Jesus, believing in the one true God and in Jesu s as a great
prophet of God. They were of the view that though Jesu s was the
promised Messiah, he was in no sense divine; he was only a man
to whom God had revealed His message for the guidance of other
men. The Nazarenes strictly observed the Law of Moses, ju st as
Jesus himself had done. Their beliefs found expression in the
document called Q and in the Gospels of the Nazarenes, St. Bar
nabas, etc.,28
With the passage of time, as the first generation began to die
away, and especially after the destruction of the Temple and expul
sion of the Jews from Jerusalem in 70 c . e ., the new generation of
his followers began to idealize the person of Jesus and to add mi
raculous elements to his story. (It appears that the earlier version
of Mark's Gospel, the Urmarcus, represented this phase in the
development of Christianity). Hero-worship seems to be ingrained
in human nature. The hero, especially if he happens to be the
prophet of a religion, has been time and again raised to the divine
pedestal by his credulous followers. The first sign of the transfor
mation that was coming over the religion of Jesus was a shift in em
phasis from the teaching of Jesus to an interest in his person. Dr.
Morton Scott Euslin writes in this connection:
"An interest in the person of Jesus, a desire to explain who he
was and to interpret everything in terms of him, came gradually to
obscure the fact that he had never made such claims for himself,
but had been content to proclaim God's purpose to the nation and
21.
Ihc Rev . R.J. Campbell, D.D. The Life o f Christ, p. 61 (Benn's Library London, 1927.)
28.
The Gospel o f Si. ilarnabas, translated by l^tnsdale and Laura Ragg, and published by the
Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1907.
CHRISTLANITY
159
to call it to repentance. Thus Jesu s became more and more one

whose person was to be understood and explained rather than one
whose teaching was to be believed and obeyed"29
This tendency developed further as Christianity spread among
the Jews of the dispersion and their gentile neighbours. These
people lived in a social and intellectual atmosphere very different
from that of the Jews of Palestine. They had adopted many foreign
ideas and practices; were familier with the mystery cults, each with
its own saviour god; and had come under the influence of Greek
philosophy. So when they accepted Jesu s as the Messiah, they
soon transformed him into a Saviour and Redeemer upon the
pattern of Mithra, Adonis, Tamrnuz, Osiris, etc. They began believ
ing that he had come down from heaven to pay the price of their
sins and redeem them by his blood shed on the cross. In the words
of Morton Scott Enslin.
"But the transfer from Jewish to gentile soil brought even more
radical changes. Not only did the movement speedily become a
separate religion, distinct from Judaism , but, as its message was
translated into terms intelligible and appropriate to gentile hearers,
it became gradually more and more like the other cults with which
if found itself in conflict. By the beginning of the second century
----- and probably much e a rlie r-------it had become one of the
Graeco-oriental cults, and like the others offered salvation to its
converts through its divine Lord."30
The m an who played the leading role in working this transfor
mation of Jesu s from God's prophet to the Jews into a divine
Saviour and Lord with a mission for both Jews and gentiles was
Paul. This is what H.G. Wells writes about him;
"Chief among the makers of Christian doctrine was St. Paul. He
had never seen Jesu s nor heard him preach. Pauls name was
originally Saul, and he was conspicuous at first as an active per
secutor of the little band of disciples after the crucifixion. Then he
was suddenly converted to Christianity, and he changed his name
to Paul. He was a m an of great intellectual vigour and deeply and
passionately interested in the religious movements of the time. He
was well versed in Judaism and in the Mithraism and Alexandrian
religion of the day. He carried over many of their ideas and terms
of expression into Christianity. He did very little to enlarge or
develop the original teaching of Jesus, the teaching of the Kingdom
29. Morton Scott Enslin, Christian Beginnings, Part II, p. 172.
30. Christian Beginnings, Part II, p. 187.
160
of Heaven. But he taught that Jesu s was not only the promised
Christ, the promised leader of the Jews, but also that his death was
a sacrifice, like the death of the ancient sacrificial victims of the
primordial civilizations, for the redemption of mankind."31
Paul bitterly criticised the original disciples of Jesus, was not
interested in the historical Jesu s and his teaching, concentrated
only on his supposed death and resurrection, and declared the Law
of Moses to be a curse. He presented Jesus as the divine Son of God
who had taken birth in a hum an body to die for the sins of men.
Paul believed that every man is bom with a totally depraved and
sinful nature, having inherited the original sin of Adam and Eve. No
man can save himself by his own efforts and good deeds. Salvation
can come only by belief in the atoning sacrifice of the Lord Jesus.
The blood of Jesu s alone can wash away the sins of men. As by the
offence of one (Adam) all men became sinners, so by the death of
one (Christ) all those who believe in him will be saved (Epistle of
paul to the Romans, 5:18-19). Jesu s is thus a sort of scapegoat as
the author of the Epistle of St. Peter says: "Forasmuch as ye know
that ye were not redeemed with corruptible things as silver and
g o ld ----- but with the precious blood of Christ as of a lamb
without blemish and without spot" (I Peter, 1:18-19).
The religion of Paul was, of course, absolutely different from the
religion of Jesus. Let me quote in this connection what Dr. Arnold
Meyer, Professor of theology at Zurich University has to say:
"If by Christianity we understand faith in Christ as the heavenly
Son of God, who did not belong to earthly humanity, but who lived
in the divine likeness and glory, who came down from heaven to
earth, who entered humanity and took upon himself a hum an form
through a virgin, that he might make propitiation for man's sins by
his own blood upon the cross, who was then awakened from death
and raised to the right hand of God, as the Lord of his own people
who believe in him, who hears their prayers, guards and leads
them, who moreover dwells and works personally in each of them,
who will come again with the clouds of heaven to judge the world,
who will cast down all the foes of God, and will bring his own people
with him into the home of heavenly light so that they may become
like His glorified body - - - if this is Christianity, then such
Christianity was founded by St. Paul and not by our Lord."32
31. H. G. Wells. A Short History of the world, pp. 129-130 (Penguin Books
Hannondsworth; 1946.)
32. Arnold Meyer. Jesus or Paul, p. 122 (Harper and Brothers New York.)
CHRISTIANITY
161
There were bittter controversies, and charges and counter

charges between Paul and his associates on one hand, and the
Nazarenes on the other. Faint echoes of these controversies can
still be heard in the New Testament. In the Homilies and Recogni
tions, which bear the name of Clement of Rome. St. Peter is made
to attack Paul, under the name of Simon Magus, for preaching a
religion which was nothing but veiled paganism. He says, "Shun
any apostle who does not first compare his teaching with that of
James, the brother of Jesus, and has not come to thee with wit
nesses."
Nevertheless, it was the Pauline version of Christianity that
proved to be more popular among the Jews of the dispersion and
gentiles, spread rapidly over large parts of the Roman empire, and
eventually became the official Christianity. Those who were loyal to
the original religion of Jesus (the Nazarenes) were reduced to a
minority and ultimately wiped out.
Further development in Christianity took place when the au
thor of St. John's Gospel took over the concept of the Logos (Word)
from Philo and made Jesus into the incarnation of the Logos: "In
the beginning was the Word (Logos), and the Word was with God,
and the Word was God. The same was in the beginning with God.
All things were made by him, and without him was not anything
made that was m a d e ----And the Word was made flesh, and dwelt
among us, (and we beheld his gloiy, the glory as of the only
begotten of the Father,) full of grace and truth" (St, John, 1:1-14).
Controversies about the exact nature of Christ and his relation
to God the Father, however, continued for another two centuries.
One sect (the Arians) considered Jesus to be a creature, and as
such inferior to God. Another sect (the Sabellians) taught that
Jesus was merely an aspect of the Father, and that God was Jesu s
and Father at the same time, just as a man may be a father and
an artificer at the same time. Yet another sect (the Catholics) said
that Jesu s was a distinct person from the Father, but he was of the
same substance as Him and equal to Him. At last in the fourth
centuiy, when Christianity became the official religion of the
Roman Empire, following the conversion of the Emperor Con
stantine, the Catholic version was accepted as the official Christi
anity and all other sects were wiped out by sword and fire. The
doctrine of the Divinity of Jesu s was finally established as a dogma
of Christianity, as expounded in the Nicene Creed (adopted by the
First Council of Nicaea in 325 C.E. revised by the First Council of
Constantinople in 381 C.E.) It stated:
162
"I believe----- in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son
of God. Bom of the Father before all ages, God of God, light of light,
true God of true God. Begotten not made; being of one substance
with the Father; by whom all things were made."33
Once the doctrine of the deity of Jesus Christ was accepted, the
development of the doctrine of the Trinity became inevitable. For,
if Jesu s was God, there m ust be more than one person in Godhead.
There was, to begin with, the Father (Jesus had himself said, The
Father is greater than I" ---- St. John 14:28)----- He was the First
Person of Godhead. Then there was Jesu s himself the incarnation
of the Son of G od---- the Second Person of Godhead. Finally, there
was the Holy Ghost -- Jesus had said, "Whosoever speaketh a word
against the Son of man, it shall be forgiven him. but whosoever
speaketh against the Holy Ghost it shall not be forgiven him, nei
ther in this world, nor in the world to come (St. Mattew, 12 :32).
Hence if Jesu s was God. the Holy Ghost m ust also be G od ---- the
Third Person of Godhead. So the Father is God, the Son is God, and
the Holy Ghost is God. But Jesus had said that God is one. The
Christian theologians, therefore, declared that God is both three
and o n e ---- one in three or three in o n e ------one God but three
persons. But if there are three separate persons and each is by
himself God, how can we say "God is one"? "This", answers the
Christian theologian, "is Divine Mystery which cannot be compre
hended by the hum an mind."
The doctrine of the Trinity emerged in its final form as late as
the last quarter of the fourth century, as the New Catholic Encyclo
paedia admits:
'The formulation 'One God in three persons' was not solidly
established into Christian life and its profession of faith, prior to
the end of the fourth century. But it is precisely this formulation
that has first claim to the title the Trinitarian dogma. Among the
Apostolic Fathers, there had been nothing even remotely approach
ing such a mentality or perspective."34
In the form in which it is believed by the Christians, this doc
trine was defined in the Athanasian Creed (6th century) :
'There is one person of the Father, another of the Son, and
another of the Holy Ghost. But the Godhead of the Father, of the
Son and of the Holy Ghost, is all one; the glory equal, the Majesty
33. .'The Nicene Creed", Catholicism (edited by George Bruntl), p. 175, (Washing
ton Square Press Book, New York, 1962).
34.
The New Catholic Encyclopaedia (1967), art. "The Holy Trinity', Volume XIV,
p.299.
CHRISTIANITY
163
co-eternal-----The Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy

Ghost is God. And yet there are not three Gods but one G od.---For like as we are compelled by the Christian verity to acknowledge
eveiy person to be by himself God and Lord, so we are forbidden
by the Catholic religion to say there be three Gods, or three
Lords."35
Thus over the years Christianity went on changing and invent
ing new dogmas the Divinity of Jesus, the Trinity, the Original Sin,
the Vicarious Sacrifice, the Blood Atonement, together with these
dogmas it also adopted various religious rituals, the most impor
tant being the baptism and the Eucharist. Baptism is a sacramen
tal rite of initiation into the membership of the Christian Church
and consists of pouring by a priest of consecrated water over the
head of a person in "the name of the Father and of the Son and of
the Holy Ghost," It washes away the original sin and transforms the
person receiving the baptism from a "child of wrath" into a "child
of grace." For a person bom in a Christian home this ceremony is
performed as soon as possible after his birth, lest he die and be
deprived forever of God's grace and heaven. The rite of Eucharist
is the most sacred ceremony of the Christian Church and its most
important part consists of the eating of the consecrated bread and
drinking of the consecrated wine by the participant. According to
the Catholic Church the consecrated bread actually becomes the
body of Christ and the consecrated wine actually becomes the
blood of Christ (the doctrine of transubstantiation), so that the
participant literally eats the flesh and drinks the blood of the Godman and enters into an organic relationship with him.
It is now widely recognised that the Christianity which became
the religion of the Roman empire and which since then continues
to be the faith of the various Christian churches, had very little in
common with the original religion of Jesus. It had developed over
the years by absorbing many pagan elements. In the words of the
great historian and philosopher Winwood Reade:
"Christianity had conquered paganism, and paganism had
corrupted Christianity. The legends which belonged to Osiris and
Apollo had been applied to the life of Jesus. The single Deity of the
Jews had been exchanged for the Trinity, which the Egyptians had
invented and which Plato had idealized into a philosophical system.
The man who had said. Why callest thou me good? There is none
35. The Athanasian Creed", Catholicism (edited by George Bruntl). p. 69 (Wash
ington Square Press Book New York, 1962)
164
good but one, that is, God,' had now himself been made a God
- or the third part of one."36
And this is what an eminent contemporary scholar, Thomas
Sheehan, writes :
'Today, at the dawn of her third millenium, the Christian
chruch is undergoing a theological crisis in what she thinks and
believes about Jesu s of Nazareth."
'The crisis grows out of a fact now freely admitted by both
Protestant and Catholic theologians and exegetes: that as far as
can be discerned from the available historical data, Jesus of Naza
reth did not think he was divine, did not assert any of the messi
anic claims that the New Testament attributes to him, and went to
his death without intending to found a new religion called Chris
tianity'. That is, the theological crisis has to do with the prima facie
discrepancy between what Jesu s of Nazareth apparently thought
he was (a special but very hum an prophet) and what mainline
Christian believers now take him to be (the divine Son of God,
cosubstantial with the Father and the Holy Spirit)."37
THE CHRISTIAN SECTS
From the beginning of their history, the Christians were divided

into a various contending factions. One of the more important
Christian sects, which emerged in about the second century, per
haps as a result of a compromise between two or more earlier sects,
was Catholicism. It was this sect which succeeded in winning for
itself the support of Emperor Constantine. The chief rivals of the
Catholics, the Arians, who rejected the doctrine of the deity of
Jesu s as believed by the Catholics, were condemned as heretics
and wiped out by fire and sword.
The Theodosian Code, which was completed in 438, made it
unlawful for any one to differ from the beliefs of the Catholic
Church. Those who dared to disagree even on small points were
called heretics; they were brutally persecuted and their writings
were burnt. If any one was convicted of concealing a heretical book,
he was to suffer capital punishment.
A sharp distinction was made between the officers of the
Church (who were called the clergy) and the common people or
laity. The clergy administered the sacraments, could listen to
36. Winwood Rcade, The Martyrdom o f Man, p. 183-184 (The Thinker's Library,
Ixjndon 1948.)
37. Thomas Sheehan, The First Coming, page 5. Vintage Books, Random House,
New York, 1988;
CHRISTIANITY
165
confession and absolve a m an of his sins and were permitted to

receive bequests, so that the Church became incredibly wealthy
and enjoyed a far greater income than any state of Europe. Each
of the Roman cities had a bishop as the head of the clergy. In 445,
when Leo the Great; was the Bishop of Rome, Valentinian, the
Emperor of the Western Roman Empire, issued a decree declaring
the power of the Bishop (or Pope) of Rome supreme, by reason of
Peters headship and the majesty of the city of Rome. However, the
real founder of the temporal power and the political influence of the
papacy was Pope Gregory the Great (540-604). Soon the popes
became the most powerful of the rulers of Europe, and in due
course the dogma of papal infallibility was invented.
The Roman Catholic Church regards itself as the Mystical Body
of Christ, an organism animated supernaturally by the spirit and
presence of Christ. The pope is the supreme head of the Catholic
Church, but under his jurisdiction there are the bishops, the suc
cessors of the Apostles and teachers of the flock by divine institu.tion. Below these again are priests and laity and monastic and
mendicant orders (e.g., the Benedictine, the Franciscans, the,
Dominicans, the Jesuits, etc.). Roman Catholics believe that God's
revelation to man did not cease with the completion of the Bible;
God continues to speak through the Church. The pronouncements
of the pope and the Catholic Church have the same authority as the
words of the Bible. The Roman Catholic Church claims to be the
sole and exclusive teacher of truth, that is dogma which cannot be
altered; it is authoritative and infallible. To quote Lactantius, 'The
Catholic is, therefore, the only one who retains the true worship;
this is the source of truth; this is the dwelling-place of faith; this
is the temple of God, which whosoever enters not or from which
whosoever departs, he is an alien from the hope of life and eternal
salvation."38 As such the Roman Catholic Church is absolutely
intolerant of differences even on minor points of interpretation,
demands complete surrender to and conformity with the official
pronouncements of the Church and popes, and is ever ready to
excommunicate those who differ on any matter with the Church. In
the Age of Faith the 'heretics' were tried by the Inquisition, tortured
and burnt alive.
Catholicism emphasises the continuity of Christian tradition by
the use of the ancient Creeds (e.g. the Apostle's Creed the Nicene
Creed, the Athanasian Creed), the verdict of the ecumenical coun
cils (the Council of Nicaea, the Council of Constantinople, the
38. Rev. M. C. D'Arcy, S. J . C atholicism , p. 32 (Benn's Library', Ujndon, 1927.)
166
Council of Ephesus, the Council of Trent, etc.) the testimony of the

Fathers (St. Athanasius, St. Basil, St. John Chrysostom, St. Cyril
of Alexandria, St. Ambrose of Milan, St. Jerome, and St. Augustine
of Hippo etc.) and pronouncements of the popes. It demands belief
in the dogmas relating to Christology, the Trinity, the Original sin,
the Atonement, the resurrection of the body and everlasting life in
heaven or hell. The Roman Catholic Church worships Mary as the
Mother of God and believes in her immaculate conception and
bodily assumption into heaven. It sanctions prayers to Mary and
the saints through their images and icons and venerates their
shrines and relics to which it attributes miraculous powers. The
dogma of the infallibility of the Pope was proclaimed in July 1870.
In Catholic worship the central service is the Mass or Holy Eucha
rist, in which it is believed, the bread and wine are actually con
verted into the body and blood of Christ, and the participant is
purified of his sins and filled with Divine Grace by eating the flesh
and drinking the blood of Christ, the God-man. Catholicism re
gards the seven Sacraments namely the baptism, confirmation,
Eucharist, penance, extreme unction, orders and matrimony as
the indispensable means of salvation; these are administered by a
special priesthood.
The unity of the Church could not be long maintained. There
were minor breakaway sects, such as those of the Nestorians, the
Copts, the Jacobites and the Armenians; but the first major schism
came with the separation of the Eastern Orthodox Church from the
Roman Catholic Church. Ever since the division of the Empire into
East and West, following the death of Emperor Theodosius in 395,
the Eastern Church of Byzantium had differed in various ways
from the See of Rome and by 1054, when papal legates excommu
nicated Cerularius. patriarch of Constantinople, the break became
permanent. The Orthodox Eastern Church, which differs with the
Roman Catholic Church on various points of dogma and ritual,
includes the ancient patriarchates of Constantinople. Alexandria,
Antioch, and Jerusalem, and the national churches of Russia,
Greece, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Rumania, etc.
Another, and even a more important, break in the unity of the
Christian Church came in ihe 16th century with the Reformation,
which saw the rise of Protestantism. The Reformation had a long
history before it became, under Luther and Calvin, an accepted
fact. The Church officials, from popes to common village priests,
had become extremely corrupt. 'The Roman Curia." said Luther
- - tnd the staU-meni can be proved up to the hilt "is a place
here vows ere annulled, where a monk obtains leave to quit his
CHRISTIANITY
167
Order, a priest to take a wife, a bastard to become legitimate; where

there is such a buying and selling, cheating and lying, robbing and
stealing, debauchery and villainy, that Antichrist could not reign
worse."39 Indulgences were sold by the Pope's representatives in the
form of documents transferring credits to the purchaser's spiritual
account. The mediaeval Church had held (as the Catholic Church
holds today) that the sacraments were the indispensable means of
salvation. Since these were exclusively administered by the clergy,
any movement which attacked clerical abuses was forced by sheer
necessity to deny the Church's exclusive control of the means of
salvation, before it could become free from dependence on a cor
rupt priesthood. The Protestant Churches differ among themselves
on various points of dogma and ritual, but they are all agreed in re
jecting the authority of the Pope. The essence of Protestantism is
the acceptance bv the individual Christian of his direct responsi
bility to God rather than to the Church.
The leader of the Protestant Reformation in Germany was
Martin Luther (1483-1546). He began his movement primarily in
order to reform the Church from its gross abuses and the famous
ninety-five thesis nailed to the door of the Church at Wit tenberg in
1517 were not primarily theological but moral complaints dealing
with the actual behaviour of the clergy rather than Church beliefs.
But unlike the earlier reformers, Luther had arrived at the right
moment in history when economic individualism and the force of
nationalism were bound, sooner or later, to cause the authorities
in Germany to line up on his side. Thus he began with the support
of the peasants who were genuinely shocked at the abuse of indul
gence and other matters, but ended up by being supported by the
noblemen who wanted to destroy the power of the pope over the
German states and looked forward to confiscating the lands and
property of the Church. When the peasants wanted the reform of
actual economic abuses relating to the feudal system, Luther took
the side of the nobles and, not only denounced the peasants as
rebels against God, but also advocated the use of most brutal
methods to crush their movement for economic and social justice.
Luther's teaching was based on the German translation of the
Bible, but he was by no means a fundamentalist. He regarded St.
Paul's Epistles as more a Gospel than Matthew, Mark, and Luke.
"John's Gospel, St. Paul's Epistles, especially that to the Romans,
and the First Epistle of St. Peter", he said, 'are the true kernel and
marrow of all books'. The Epistle of St. Jam es, he regarded as "a
r.?ndMV,
/h s i o r y
o f the
R e f
rv u ittm .
Vol. i, p. 13
168
THE GREAT RELIGIONS OE THE WORLD
mere Epistle of straw; it has nothing evangelical about it." Thus the
authority of Scripture was subject to purely subjective valuation;
the most precious books were those in which Luther found his own
theology7! He emphasised the deity of Christ, the utter depravity of
hum an nature as a result of the fall of Adam and inherited guilt,
and salvation by faith in the atoning sacrifice of Christ. By exalting
faith and disparaging work, and by using Glaube, with its intellectualist associations, he attached more importance to correct belief
than even the Catholics had done. Like the Catholics he believed
in the theory of transubstantiation, that the consecrated bread and
wine actually become the body and blood of Christ. How absurd his
belief was on this point is shown by his answer to the question
whether, if a mouse swallowed a crumb of the consecrated bread,
the mouse would have partaken of the Body of Christ. Luther
decided in the affirmative. Like Calvin, Luther was a predestinarian
and determinist. The modem Lutheran Church is most active in
Germany. Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and Finland, where
it is the established state church, and in the United States.
A more radical Refomiation came in Switzerland, when Ulrich
Zwingli (1484-1531), a scholar and Humanist, and also a zealous
parish priest at Glams, advocated return to the New Testament as
the basic source of Christian truth and rejected all doctrines and
practices of the Church for which no Scriptural support could be
found. He read Luthers early writings, and was probably moved by
them more than he was willing, after their quarrel, to admit. In
most ways the teaching of the two men, especially in relation to the
great Church against which both rebelled for much the same
reasons, was very similar, whether we call the resemblance paral
lelism or reciprocal influence. But Zwingli is the father of Liberal
Protestantism, as Luther certainly is not. Zwingli was more consis
tent and clear-headed than Luther in his doctrine of the sacra
ments. He taught that the Lord's Supper was primarily a com
memoration of the death of Christ, dnd that the means whereby the
merits of that death were conveyed to the believer were faith, and
not the reception of the material elements. The words of institution.
'This is my body", are not to be taken in a literal materialistic
sense. The Zwinglian Reformation spread in his life-time to Basle,
Berne, Glarus, Mulhausen, and Strassburg. Ultimately it led to a
civil war between Catholic and Reformed forces, and Zwingli fell m
one of the battles.
A much more influential leader of the Reformation was John
Calvin (1509-1564). He was bom in Picardy and attained
great popularity as a preacher in Paris, but was expelled, and
CHRISTIANITY
169
subsequently lived at Geneva, where he continued to preach the

new doctrine. His Institution o f the Christian Religion provided the
first logical definition and justification of Protestantism; he thus
became the intellectual leader of the Reformation as the older
Martin Luther was its emotional instigator. The distinctive doctrine
of Calvinism is its dogma of predestination which states that God
has unalterably destined some souls to salvation, to whom "efficacious grace and the gift of perseverance" is granted, and others to
eternal damnation. He thus believed in the doctrine of the elect
and in salvation by faith only. The God that the Calvinists believe
in is more like the jealous and arbitrary Jehovah of early Judaism
than the Loving Father of Jesu s Christ. Calvin was not a modem
theologian, any more than Luther. It is even possible to represent
him as a reactionary. The doctrine of total depravity of man belongs
to the Middle Ages and is as alien to the t hought of the Renaissance
as to modem ideas. Calvin was a fundamentalist, who believed in
the whole Bible as the literal and infallible Word of God. His doc
trine of the Churclris nearer to Catholicism than that of Luther. He
repeats the favourite Catholic dictum that he who has not the
Church for his mother cannot have God for his father; and, unfor
tunately, his readiness to employ the secular arm to punish eccle
siastical indiscipline was as great as that of the Catholic inquisitor.
Religious toleration owes nothing to Calvin. The martyrdom of
Servetus, the distinguished Unitarian theologian, has always, and
rightly, been considered a blot on the reputation of Calvin. Unhap
pily, this cruel act was far from an isolated instance of the perse
cuting spirit. 'The registers of Geneva show that a hundred and
fifty poor wretches were burnt for witchcraft; that the application
of torture was an incident of almost all criminal trials; that thirtyone persons were burnt at one time for the fantastic offence of
spreading the plague."40 In the close-knit merchant community of
Geneva, Calvin's thesis that all activities of the elect set forth the
glory of God created a link between religion and trade, joining
religious fervour to self-interest and giving new impetus to the rise
of a capitalist, bourgeois society. R.H. Tawney opines that Calvin
ism was a result of developing capitalism, being its ideological ju s
tification.41 Calvinism, as defined in the Westminister Confession,
is established in the Reformed or Presbyterian churches of France,
Holland, Scottland, the United States of America, etc.
The Reformation in England was much more conservative than
Oh the Continent. It Is often said that the English Reformation was
40. Rev. W. R. Inge, Protestantism, p. 33 (!3cnn's Library Umdon. 1927)
R.H. Tawney f t c i U t u v or
:'m . R i s i - n r i < t p i r a l i \ ; n (Pelican Hook).
170
political, not religious. England became Protestant because Henry

VIII was tired of his wife, and fell in love with Anne Boleyn. At first
it merely m eant making the King of England the head of the Church
of England in place of the Pope. Gradually a few other principles of
the Reformation were also adopted. Under Mary there was a brief
and sanguinary reaction, but Queen Elizabeth I, gave complete
ness to the work which her father had initiated. To her the Church
of England was that of the "middle way" in which hum an reason
and commonsense took their place beside Scripture and Church
authority. The extent to which these various factors are stressed
creates the distinction between "high" and "low" church. There was
little visible break with the past; ceremonies were conducted in
English, instead of in Latin, but the outward appearances, vest
ments and rites, were largely retained. The authority of the pope
was abrogated and the marriage of the clergy was allowed. There
was widespread feeling among the common people that the Refor
mation in England had not gone far enough in the way of curtailing
the authority of tire priests, simplifying the Church ritual, and
rejecting the claim of the Church to be the sole depository, guard
ian and liyrng and infallible interpreter of both the written and
unwritten Word of God. It led to the rise, first of the Puritans, and
then of the Non-conformists - that is, those who do not conform
to the doctrines of the established Church of England. The more
important of the Non-conformist sects are the Baptists, the Quak
ers (or the Society of Friends), the Methodists, and the Congregalion.ilists.
The Conflicts between the Roman Catholics and Protestants
resulted in the long and dreadful wars of religion that split Europe.
They provoked, all over the Christian world, atrocities beyond
description, revolting forms of hysteria, and the whole tally of
horrors that accompany religious persecutions. Furthermore, once
Protestantism had given in effect the right to each to interpret the
Script ure in his own way, the tendency 10 fragmentation increased
so that, by 1650, there were no fewer than 180 sects, mostly
dogmatic and intolerant towards each other. Today there are many
more. It will suffice to mention a few of the more peculiar among
them.
Mormons, or the Latter-day Saints, are one of the very numer.<.!.'American sects. It was founded in 1830 by Joseph Smith, who
claimed to have been raised as a prophet. In a series of visions he
was told of a revelation written on golden plates concealed in a
nearby hillside. These he unearthed in 1827 and with the help
of "Urim and Thummim translated the "reformed Egyptian"
CHRISTIANITY
171
characters into English. Described as the Book of Mormon, this was

published in 1830 and at the same time a little church of those few
who accepted his testimony was founded. The Book o f Mormon
purports to be a record of early American history and religion, the
American Indians being identified as the ten Lost Tribes of Israel.
Jesu s Christ is alleged to have appeared in America after his
ascension. Soon the Mormons were in trouble with the other sects
and with the aulhorities. They were turned out from one city after
another until they found themselves a dwelling-place at Nauvoo,
Illinois, on the Mississippi. This would probably have been the end
of the story, had not Smith been murdered in 1844 and thereby
made to appear a martyr, and had not there appeared Brigham
Young, a quite remarkable leader, who announced that it had been
revealed to him that he m ust lead the faithful to Salt Lake, then
outside the area of the United States. There followed the famous
treck of more than a thousand miles across desert country. By
1851, 30,000 Mormons had reached the Promised Land, where
they established their government and held their own in a hostile
environment, until their territory was incorporated in the Union.
Mormons are millenarians, who believe that soon Jesu s Christ will
reappear and rule for a thousand years. They perform ritual cere
monies which take the form of morality plays with such actors as
God and Satan, Adam and Eve. They also claim to perform mir
acles. Perhaps the best known of the Mormon doctrines is polyg
amy, which was made obligatory for all the male members of the
sect until it was revoked in 1890, because it had brought the sect
into serious conflict with the law-enforcing authorities of the land.
Another peculiar American sect is that of Jehovah's Witnesses,
who consider themselves to be the present day representatives of
a religious movement which has existed since Abel "offered unto
God a more excellent sacrifice them Cain, by which he obtained
witness that he was righteous. Abel was the first "witness" and
among others were Enoch. Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jeremiah, and
John the Baptist. Pre-eminent among the witnesses, of course, was
Jesu s Christ. Thus they see themselves as "the L ords organisa
tion", in the long line of those who through the ages have preserved
on earth the true and pure worship of God or, as the Witnesses
prefer to call Him , "Jehovah-God". So far as other people are aware,
the sect was founded by Charles Taze Russell in 1881, u n d e r the
name of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society. Their teaching
centres upon the early establishment of God's new world on earth
preceded b y the second coming of Christ. Witnesses b e l i e v e t h i s
h a s already happened, and that Armageddon "will com e a s soon ;j:>
172
the Witness is completed." The millenial period will give sinners a

second chance of salvation and "millions now living will never die."
The dead will progressively be raised to the new earth until all the
vacant places left after Armageddon are filled. There is, however,
some doubt about the "goatish souls" who have made themselves
unpleasant to the Witnesses, those who have accepted (or permit
ted to be accepted) a blood-transfusion, which is contrary to the
Scriptures, and others who have committed grave sins. Jehovah's
Witnesses regard the doctrine of the Trinity as devised by Satan.
Another American sect which believes in the imminent second
coming of Christ (a doctrine fairly widespread in the U.S.A. during
the early decades of the 19th century) is that of the Seventh-Day
Adventists. William Miller had predicted that the end of the world
and the second coming of Christ would take place in 1843. Modem
Adventists content themselves with the conviction that the "signs"
of the Advent are multiplying, when the believers will be saved. The
different branches of the Adventists differ as to whether the unjust
will be tortured in hell, annihilated, or merely remain asleep eter
nally. The Seventh-Day Adventist Church observes Saturday as the
true Sabbath.
The most radical of all the Christian sects is that of the Unitari
ans, who, as the very name suggests, believe in the single person
ality of God and are anti-trinitarians. This statement of belief is,
however, interpreted with varying degrees of subtlety. Thus Unitar
ian belief may range from a sort of Arianism which accepts that,
although Christ was not of divine nature, divine powers had been
delegated to him by God. to the simple belief that Christ was a man
like anyone else, and his goodness was of the same nature as that
of many other great and good men. The Unitarians emphasise good
deeds, rather than dogmatic belief, and put their faith in the value
of love and the brotherhood of man. The Toleration Act (1689)
excluded Unitarians, who continued to be persecuted and sen
tenced to death for their belief, but from 1813 they were legally
tolerated in England. Nevertheless attempts were made to turn
them out of their chapels on the ground that the preachers did not
hold the views of the original founders of the endowments. But this
ended with the Dissenting Chapels Act of 1845. In America no such
difficulties existed, and in the Boston of the 19th century many of
the great literary figures were openly Unitarian both in belief and
name: e.g., Emerson. Longfellow. Lowell, and Oliver Wendell
H olm es.
C hapter IX
ISLAM
The great religions that we have described in the earlier chap
ters were named either after their reputed founders or after the
nations or countries in which they were bom. Thus, Zoroastrian
ism is named after its founder Zoroaster Confucianism, after its
founder Confucius, Buddhism after Gautama the Buddha, and
Chris: anity after Jesu s Christ. Hinduism is the religion of Hind
(India), the land that lies beyond the Indus and its tributaries: and
Judaism is so called after the tribe of Judah or the country of
Judaea. Islam alone of all the religions is not associated with the
name of any particular man or nation. It is not named after any
nation or country, because it is the religion of humanity. On the
other hand, it does not bear the name of Muhammad, because it
is the eternal religion. Muhammad (peace and blessings of God be
upon him) was neither the first nor the sole Messenger of Islam.
There was, in fact, no period of human history' when there was no
Islam. Truth, God's truth, is not the accidental discovery or
exclusive possession of any people or age; it is universal. Islam is
the religion of all the prophets who were raised by God from time
to time in different parts of the world to lead hum an beings to the
right path. Muhammad was the last Messenger of Islam.
The word Islam means (i) peace, and (ii) submission to the will
of God. It is a very significant name, for it indicates the goal of true
religion, as well as the way to achieve that goal. The goal of true
religion, it says, is peace the ineffable peace of the soul that is
in harmony with the Divine, and peace and goodwill among men,
and the way to attain peace is for men to submit themselves
individually and collectively to the will of Him Who is the Home of
peace and the Source of all virtues.
Thus the name Islam summarises the true religion (taught by
all the prophets and brought to completion by the Prophet Muham
mad) in three ways. First, it refers to the spiritual experience
underlying the faith, for Islam is the Arabic word that describes the
process or way of approach to God taught by it. Secondly, it
describes the way of life, the whole body of truths upon which the
faith and practice are based. Thirdly, in the sense of peace - "the
peace of God which passeth all understanding" - Islam describes
the sense of happiness, security and well-being that is the fruit of
a harmonious relationship with God. One feels confident that one
174
is working with the forces underlying the world and life itself, and
that one is moving with the future as it is being unfolded in the
present. This is more than self-integration: this is the integration
of the individual with the whole stream of life of which he is a part.
Only the word Islam can describe this state: it is the peace of God.
THE BACKGROUND
Ever since man became conscious of the wonder of creation and

leam t to distinguish between good and bad and began inquiring
about the ultimate meaning of his existence and his relationship
with everything-------- that is, ever since man became man ----- God began sending His Messengers to inform hum an beings
about their Creator, to acquaint them with the purpose of their
creation, to rescue them from sin and error, to reveal to them the
right way o! life and to inspire them to find peace and the goal and
meaning of life in communion with God. As m an spread to the
diiicrent parts of the world and became separated by natural and
man-made barriers and developed into distinct communities, God
raised His prophets in each community and in every comer of the
world, wherever human beings lived. All these prophets, as they
were inspired by the same God, taught the same religion (named
Islam in the Qur'an); the essence always remained the same, only
the outer forms and details of the law changed to suit the changing
needs of the different communities and different ages. However, in
those days there were no adequate means of preserving intact the
messages and teachings of the different prophets, anil again and
again it happened that the religion of God was forgotten or became
mixed up with the superstitions of man. Whenever that happened,
God raised another prophet to revive the true religion through a
fresh revelation.
By the sixth century of the Christian era, the true religion had
passed into oblivion or become adulterated everywhere in the
world. Humanity was facing its worst crisis. The civilization asso
ciated with the names of Egypt, Babylonia and Greece were matters
of history. They awaited the researches of archaeologists to be
rescued from oblivion. The divided and decayed Roman Empire
had lapsed into barbarism in the West, and in the East into
childish theological squabbles. The two great empires of Iran and
Byzantium were interlocked in a struggle which ultimately resulted
in death for both. The minds of Persia, India and China were sunk
in a profound sleep and had produced nothing of value for many
cent uries. The waters of life had become stagnant and corrupt in
the East as well as in the West. In the words of the Qur'an, "Both
ISLAM
175
land and water had become corrupt on account of the excesses of

men."
In the ancient land of China the religions of Lao Tzu and
Confucius had lost their purity and moral force and become syn
onymous with nature-worship and ancestor-worship; the former
becoming too mystical and magical, and the latter too worldly and
cons rvative. They had been reduced to bundles of soul-destroy
ing ceremonies and rituals.
The vast subcontinent of South Asia, following the destruction
of the Gupta kingdom, had passed into an age of utter darkness,
from which it emerged for a few years under King Harsha, only to
sink back into deeper gloom and worse chaos after his deal h in 647
C.E. The religion of the noble and compassionate Buddha had long
ago become corrupt as a result of its contacts with Brahrninism
and Central Asian paganism; it had become divided into two main
sects, one of which denied God and soul and the other had made
the Buddha himself into a God. It had degenerated into lifeless
rituals, idolatry, relic-worship and idle monkery.
The Hinduism that was being revived after the fall of Buddhism
in India, had lately absorbed the vulgar and primitive fancies and
practices of the aborigines into Brahrninism, which already had as
its characteristic features gross polytheism, elaborate ceremonies
and sacrifices, caste system, and obscurantist priesthood. In this
concoction the spiritual monotheism of the Upanishads and the
sublime moral teachings of Krishna were all but lost. To make
things worse, the Sakti sect, which was fast gaining popularity
among the Hindus, particularly in South India, had given religious
sanction to many immoral practices, and scenes of the most ob
scene nature were depicted on the temple walls and enacted in
their sacred halls.
In Iran, the Zoroastrain ethical dualism had been converted
into the metaphysical dualism of Ahura-Mazda (Ormuzd) and
Ahriman, and a large host of nature-gods that the Prophet Zoroas
ter had rejected were revived and worshipped as superior manifes
tations of Ahura-Mazda. During the Sassanian period, Zoroastri
anism had given rise to a very powerful hierarchy of priests and
invented a complicated eschatology and many lifeless rituals.
The Jews still retained the belief in the One and Only God. but
looked upon Him as in a special sense theirs and not of the other
races, and regarded themselves as His Chosen People. The spirit
had departed from the religion of the Hebrew prophets and it had
become too formalistic and legalistic in the hands of the rabbis.
. 176
Jesus Christ had come to revive the spirit of the true religion
among the Jews, but after him, as his religion broke off its links
with the parent faith, it adopted many pagan ideas and practices
and developed the dogmas of the Trinity, the deity of Jesus, the
Original Sin and belief in salvation through the vicarious death of
a saviour-god, for none of which was there any sanction in the
teachings of the Founder. With the elevation of Christianity as the
official religion of the Roman Empire, the Christian priests not only
raised themselves to a semi-divine status, but also became corrupt
and worldly; heresy-hunting and intrigues being their favourite
pastimes. In the words of Duncan Greenless;
"Though paganism had officially died out and was rigorously
repressed in fact, most of those who called themselves Christians
had plunged back into idolatry, relic-worship, the adoration of the
Virgin Mary and countless saints and martyrs (many of them old
gods renovated, and some entirely fictitious characters), and end
less word-splitting over incomprehensible and useless dogmas.
This had broken up Christendom into numberless sects and
'heresies', all busy breaking each other's heads for the greater glory
of God, and filling hell in anticipation of each others souls. Mutual
murder was the normal mode of conversion from the 4th to the
14th centuries. Meanwhile, Church and State alike pitilessly ex
ploited the people and ground them down deeper into poverty and
ignorance. Art hardly existed, philosophy was banned as pagan,
the beginnings of science ruthlessly smothered under a weight of
superstition and impossible dogma created out of the unintelligent
reading of metaphor as literal history, and literature prostituted to
the cause of polemic had almost ceased to be. Morals were
everywhere at their lowest, the best men and women being lured
from society into convents; though piety abounded, it was hurried
away safely put of sight, lest it Should lead the people to compare
it with the selfish worldliness of the official Church rulers; each life
was riddled with corruption, violence and insecurity."1
What made the situation really hopeless and the restoration of
these religions to their original fonns an impossible task was the
fact that their Scriptures had been corrupted in the course of years.
There was no sure authority to which one could appeal against
false dogma. The revealed books having been altered, it was not
possible to say what was genuine in those religions and what was
the result of later accretion and interpolation.
1.
Duncan greenlees.
The Gospel of Islam, Introduction., pp. xiii-xiv (Theo-
so p h ic al P u b lish in g H ouse, A dyar, M a d ras, 1948.)
ISLAM
177
There was darkness everywhere, but the darkest spot of the

earth was Arabia. It was a land of brigand raids, of merciless
vendetta, and unending tribal wars, of drunkenness, grossest
idolatry and darkest superstitions, cruel social customs like infan
ticide, incest and wife-desertion, almost total illiteracy and com
plete ignorance of the civic arts and sciences.
Everywhere in the known world, the religious and political life
of the people was in violent flux and ferment, ready and waiting for
some new impulse that might restore the true faith and the hope
of a better future and of an evolving society and human moral
sense. That was the time in the plan of God to send the WorldProphet to revive the true religion of the earlier prophets and to
bring the.entire hum an race into one universal faith and one
brotherhood. The Prophet of this new age is Muhammad (peace and
blessings of God be on him).
PROPHET MUHAMMAD
Muhammad is the only one of the world prophets to be bom

within the full light of history. He was bom in Mecca in the year
571 of the Christian era. A few weeks before his birth his father
Abdullah had died, and he was only six when his mother Amina
also passed away.
In his grandfathers house he grew up, a sensitive, intelligent
child, loving, gentle, beloved of all. After his grandfather Abdul
Muttalib's death, his uncle Abu Talib, noblest and most affection
ate among his kinsmen, took him under his care. Gifted by Nature
with a unique mind and soul, he grew up into a youth of wisdom.
What made him unique among the youth of his country and age
was his pure and spotless character, his love of truth and his
compassion for the poor and the downtrodden. His sense of hon
our, duty and fidelity so impressed his contemporaries that by
common consent they conferred upon him the title of Al-Amin, the
faithful and the trustworthy one.
Muhammad had unbounded love for mankind. Even as a boy
he would do all sorts of odd jobs to help others. As a young man
he joined the League called Hilf al-Fudzul to help the widows and
orphans and to protect the helpless victims of injustice and cruelty.
To give comfort to men without distinction of rank, class or position
was the thought always uppermost in his mind.
In the twenty-fifth year of his life he married Khadija, a widow
of noble birth and nobler character, fifteen years his senior in age.
His marriage with Khadija gave him not only a loving and beloved
wife, but also a devoted friend, who understood him and brought
178
him solace when he needed it most; who gave him comfort when
hunted by his enemies, who ever stood by his side in the darkest
hours of his ministry.
Fond of solitude, Muhammad would spend many h ours in the
desert in communion with his Creator and in meditation on the aim
and object of man's life. The people around him were sunk deep in
evil and superstition. He longed for them to repent and come to the
right path. It was his ambition to "render God unto man and man
unto God ". When he was forty years of age, the Divine light shone
in its full resplendence in his heart, the voice of God spoke to his
soul in unmistakable notes, and he was chosen by Him as His
Messenger to mankind.
He preached to them of the one and only God, the Loving
Creator and Su stainer of all the worlds. His greatest desire was that
people should enter into right relation with God, and, through Him,
to establish right relation with one another. He earnestly exhorted
them to shun all kinds of evil and injustice and to live in peace and
love with one another. He told them that religion in the true sense
was the removal of the want and suffering of others and the selfless
service to fellow-men. He struck at the root of the false sense of
superiority based on colour, race, caste, sex or nationality, and
declared that all human beings are equal and brothers.
The first to believe in him and his message were those who
knew him best -- his beloved wife Khadija, his friend Abu Bakr, his
cousin Ali, his freedman Zaid. "It is strongly corroborative oi
Muhammad's sincerity," writes John Davenport, "that the earliest
converts to Islam were his bosom friends and the people of his
household, who. being intimately acquainted with his private life,
would not fail otherwise to have detected those discrepancies which
more or less invariably exist between the pretensions of a hypocriti
cal deceiver and his action at home."2
Slowly the message spread and the Qureish chiefs of Mecca
became alarmed. They feared that the success of Islam, which
believed in the equality of man and aimed at establishing a broth
erhood embracing people of all races and classes, loyalty to which
was bound to replace the tradit ional Arab loyalty to his tribe, would
result in a change in the order of things in which they were highly
placed and prosperous. The emphasis on the unity of God and the
crusade against idolatiy was unbearable to them as an attack on
their traditional beliefs and customs, and also because they were
2.
John Davenport, Mohammed and Lhe Teachings of the Quran, p.5 (Sh.
Muhammad Ashraf, Lahore, 1945.)
ISLAM
179
the custodians and head priests of all the idols that were enshrined
around the Ka'ba. And so, with the spread of the Movement, their
opposition began to increase in its tempo and ferocity. To quote
Mrs. Annie Besant: "But with the gathering of others around him,
fierce opposition breaks out, and tortures horrible, unbearable
almost by hum an flesh and blood. They tear his followers in pieces;
they th rust them through with stakes; they put them on burning
sand with faces upturned to the Arabian sun, and with heavy rocks
upon their chests; they bid them deny God and His Prophet; and
the disciples die murmuring ; There is but One God and Muham
mad is His Prophet. See! there is one man; they are cutting his
flesh bit by bit from off his body, and as they cut it off, they laugh
and they say ; Would not you rather that Muhammad were in your
place, and you at home?' 'As God is my witness,' answers the dying
man. 1would not be at home with wife and children and substance,
if Muhammad were for that to be pricked by a single thorn.' Such
love he inspired in those who died for him."3
The Prophets heart melted at the sight of this brutal treatment
of innocent men, women and children, and he advised the poorer
and more helpless among his followers to migrate to Abyssinia,
where they would be safe from persecution. Later on, when Islam
gained a foothold in Yathreb (later called Medina), the Prophet told
his followers to take refuge there ; and in ones and twos the
Muslims quietly slipped out of Mecca, till the Prophet remained
alone to face the fuiy of the irate enemy. In the meantime his loving
wife Khadija and his uncle and protector Abu Talib had also died,
leaving him helpless and without companion. The enemy decided
that unless they struck the fatal blow then and there, it would be
too late and they would not be able to check the spread of Islam.
They therefore formed a plot to assassinate him, members of all the
clans striking him at once, so that the blame would be shared by
all equally. The Prophet, however, managed to escape by night,
while his house was surrounded by the enemy waiting to kill him.
He and Abu Bakr reached Medina after a few days hazardous
journey. The Muslim calendar starts from this date.
The people of Medina enthusiastically welcomed the Prophet
and swore allegiance to him. They not only believed in him and his
message but also made him the head of their slate. Thus, a new
phase began in the life of Muhammad. But do we find any change
in him? "On the whole," writes Professor R. Bosworth Smith, "the
wonder to me is not how much but how little, under different
3.
Annie Besant, fstam, pp. 9-10 (Theosophical Publishing House, Madras).
180
THE GREAT RELIGIONS OF TOE WORLD
circumstances, Mohammed differed from himself. In the shepherd

of the desert, in the Syrian trader, in the solitary of Mount Hira, in
the reformer in the minority of one, in the exile of Medina, in the
acknowledged conqueror, in the equal of the Persian Chosroes and
the Greek Heraclius, we can still trace a substantial unity. I doubt
whether any other man, whose external conditions changed so
much, ever himself changed less to meet them : the accidents are
changed, the essence seems to me to be the same in all."4
He continued to wear patched clothes, sweep the floor and milk
the goats with his own hands. His food was of the simplest kind;
and very often he went to bed on an empty stomach. At the height
of his power he used to work as a common labourer together with
the others. Islam does not believe in asceticism or monasticism,
and if the Prophet led the simplest of lives it was because, as the
head of the Islamic state, he did not wish to place himself on a
higher footing than the lowliest of his people and had no desire to
put a single morsel in his own mouth till all were fed. He believed
in high thinking, hard working and plain living, and found pleas
ure in denying himself for the sake of others. Moreover, he sincerely
believed in the dignity of labour. The Prophet was very fond of
children and would often stop in the streets to laugh and play with
them.
His days and nights were devoted to making the will of God
prevail in the world and working for the mental, moral and mate
rial amelioration of the people. In Medina, in addition to his moving
appeals for individual change of heart and transformation of char
acter, the Prophet also worked out the social implications of his
message and established an egalitarian and ju st social order. The
many revolutionary changes that he introduced included the rais
ing of women to a position of equality with men, taking steps to
abolish slavery, total prohibition of all kinds of intoxicating drinks
and of gambling, putting an end to exploitation of man by man,
levying a tax called zakat on the well-to-do for helping and reha
bilitating the poor, doing away with priesthood and granting
complete religious freedom to all individuals and communities, and
the establishment of a welfare state and a form of administration
which was an ideal blend of justice and mercy. His covenant with
the Jews of Medina and charters to the Christians are the noblest
monuments of religious freedom and enlightened tolerance known
to mankind. He proclaimed the principle of compulsoiy education:
4.
R. Bos worth Smith, Mohammed find Mohammedanism, pp. 140-141 (Smith,

Elder and Co, London, 1876.)
ISLAM
181
"Acquisition of knowledge is compulsory on every Muslim, male

and female." He brought into being a universal brotherhood in
which all men were considered equal and there was no discrimina
tion whatsoever on the basis of race, colour, language, wealth,
creed, or sex. The distinguishing feature of those who had joined
his fold was zeal for the service to the one and only God and to
humanity.
The Qureish of Mecca, who had been frustrated in their plot to
assassinate the Prophet, could not passively watch the birth of the
Islamic republic at Medina. They lost no time in raising a large
army to attack the Muslims. It was clearly the Prophet s foremost
duty as the head of the state, to protect the State and save the
innocent and harmless citizens from the genocidal fury of the
Meccans. The Qur'an had allowed the Muslims to fight (i) to defend
their state and freedom against foreign aggressors, (ii) to protect the
lives and honour of innocent persons, and (iii) to pul a stop to
persecution and to establish religious freedom for all.
"Fight in the way of God those who fight against you, but begin
not hostilities. For God loves not the aggressors" (2:190).
"And what reason have you that you should not fight in the way
of God and of the weak among the men and the women and the
children who say : Our Lord! cause us to go forth from this town,
whose people are oppressors, and give us from Thee a guardian and
give us from Thee a helper" (4:75).
"Permission (to fight) is given to those upon whom war is made
because they are oppressed, and God is well able to assist them - those who have been expelled from their houses without a just
cause except that they say : Our Lord is God. And had there not
been God's repelling some people by others, there would have been
pulled down cloisters and churches and synagogues and mosques
in which God's name is much remembered" (22:39-40).
* The last of these verses tells Muslims to fight in the defence of
the houses of worship, not only of Muslims, but also of Jews,
Christians and other communities. It further says : "And fight with
them until there is no more persecution, and all religions should
be for God" (8:39). For, according to the Qur'an, 'There is no
complusion in religion" (2:256).
The series of wars that followed the brutal Meccan attacks on
Medina ended only with the total collapse of the Meccan power. The
Muslim army triumphantly entered Mecca without shedding a
single drop of blood. The Prophet's treatment of the defeated enemy
stands unparalleled in the history of mankind. Before him sto o d
182
men who had shown implacable hatred for him and his followers,
who had left no stone unturned to wipe out Islam, and were guilty
of brutal crimes against innocent men, women and children. The
Prophet not only forgave them but announced : "This day there is
no reproof against you. May God forgive you all. " Here is a practical
example of the precept "Love thine enemy." The gates of love and
mercy were opened wide. Bitter enemies of morning became warm
friends by nightfall. Well does the Qur'an say: "And not alike are
good and evil. Repel evil with what is best, when lo! he between
whom and thee was enmity would be as if he were a warm friend"
(41:34).
In his last year, the Prophet again went to Mecca to perform
Hajj or pilgrimage to the Ka'ba. On the plain of Arafat he delivered
his Farewell Sermon. Soon after his return to Medina, he fell ill and
died.
The Prophet of Islam led a life which may be described as truly
godly. He was the model par excellence for men in various situ
ations and walks of life, as the Qur'an says :
"Certainly you have in the Apostle of God an excellent exemplar
for him who hopes in God and the Latter day and remembers God
much" (33:21).
"O Prophet! We have sent thee as a witness, and as a bearer of
good news and as a wamer, and as one inviting to God by His
permission and as a light-giving sun" (33:45-56).
He lived up to the highest ideals of the Holy Qur'an and exem
plified in his life the virtues commended in the Book of God. When
his wife Aisha was questioned about his morals, her reply was, "His
morals are the Qur'an." Conversely, when she was asked to explain
certain ethical injunctions in the Qur'an, she did so by illustrating
them from the Prophets life and behaviour.
To say that he was sinless would be only a negative description
of the Man of God who had conquered all temptations and passions
and lived only for the sake of God and in complete harmony with
the Will o f God:
"Say : My prayer and my sacrifice and my life and my death are
all for God, th e Lord of th e w orlds" (6:163).
He w as. a s the Q u r a n describes him, "a mercy to all the na
tions." His compassion e x ten d e d to friend and foe alike. "Do you
love y o u r Creator? Love your fellow-creatures first, was his contnii' exhortation to his followers. He felt extremely concerned at
>he c o rru p t a n d d epraved M ale of (he people around him. It grieved
ISLAM
183
his heart very much when, as the head of the state, he had to pass
an order of chastisement on anyone for the sake ofjustice or for the
security of the young republic. But for his own sake, he never even
lifted his finger against anyone. When at a critical moment some
one asked him to curse his persecutors, he replied: "I have not been
sent to curse, but as a mercy to mankind. O Lord, guide my people,
for they know not." He had come to reclaim and reform the fallen
humanity and he won the hearts of the anti-social elements and
the outcastes by love and kindness. His charity and readiness to
help the people in every way were proverbial. He was the greatest
friend of the poor and the downtrodden.
He strove all his life to lead men to the one true God, to make
them godly, to rescue them from error, sin and superstition; but in
inviting them to the truth he faithfully followed the Quranic injunc
tion, "Let there be no compulsion in religion." His life demonstrates
that the greatest things that one can do can be done only in
obedience to the transcendent imperatives and inspired by the
conviction that the eternally true and right are realities which must
take precedence of everything else in one's allegiance. He had
imbued himself with Divine qualities and caused his fellowmen to
take the greatest step towards the divine. Yet he remained humble
and modest, conscious always of his nothingness before, God, and
from the highest peak of moral and spiritual perfection to which he
had attained, he cried out to the people, "I am but a man like you"
(41:6).
"In an age charged with supematuralism," writes Dr. Huston
Smith, "when miracles were accepted as the stock-in-trade of the
most ordinary saint, Muhammad refused to traffic with human
weakness and credulity. To the miracle-hungry idolaters seeking
signs and portents he cut the issue clean: 'God has not sent me to
work wonders; He has sent me to preach to you. My Lord be
praised : Am I more than a man sent as an apostle?* From first to
last he resisted every impulse to glamorize his own person."5
Major A. G. Leonard writes about him : "If ever a man on this
earth found God, if ever a man devoted his life to Gods service with
good and great motive, it is certain that the Prophet of Arabia is
that man."0
Describing Muhammad as the greatest man of history, the
great French poet and historian Alphonse Marie Louis de
V
Huston Smith, T h e R e lig io n s o f M a n , p.. 205. (Mentor Books New York,
A.G. loonard. I s la m : H e r M oral a n d S p iritu a l V alue, p. 10. (L,uzac, Yonder.,
184
Lamartine speaks of him as "Philosopher, orator, apostle, legisla

tor. warrior, conqueror of ideas, restorer of rational dogmas, of a
cult without images; the founder of twenty terrestrial empires and
of one spiritual empire, that is Muhammad. As regards all stan
dards by which human greatness may be measured, we may well
ask: is there any man greater than he?"7
Writing about Prophet Muhammad, John William Draper ob
serves in his classic The Intellectual Development o f Europe : "Four
years after the death of Justinian was bom the m an who, of all
men, has exercised the greatest influence upon the hum an race."
And Arthur N. Wollaston writes in his book Half Hours with Moham
mad : "The Prophet of Islam has had a more potent influence on
destinies of mankind than has been vouchsafed to any son of Adam
who has left footprints on the sands of time."
THE HOLY QUR'AN
The revelations vouchsafed to the Prophet from the first call to

Prophethood, when he was forty, to a few days before his demise
twenty three years later, were collected in the Qur'an, which claims
to be the Word of God ; "And this is truly a revelation from the Lord
of the worlds. The Faithful Spirit has descended with it upon
thy heart (O Muhammad) that thou mayest be of the wamers"
( 26 : 192-
194)
The Prophet was aware of the fact that false dogmas and
practices had taken birth and differences arisen among the relig
ions because the earlier revealed books had not been preserved in
their original forms. And so he took good care to safeguard the
purity of the text of the Qur'an. As soon as he received a revelation,
he used to communicate it to his disciples and ask them, not only
to write it down, but also to commit it to memory. On each such
occasion he indicated in a precise m anner the place to which the
revelation belonged. Thus the complete Qur'an was preserved in
the memories of hundreds of persons and also written down in the
lifetime of the Prophet.
After the passing away of the Prophet, Abu Bakr, the first
Caliph, charged Zaid ibn Thabit with the task of collecting and
compiling the written leaves in the form of a book. As long as the
Prophet was alive and the possibility existed of a fresh revelation
coming to him, this could not be done. But immediately after the
demise of the Prophet, Zaid ibn Thabit prepared the first complete
7.
Lamartine, Ilistorie de la Turqui, Vol. II, p. 277; quoted by D:r. 7

Islam in the Ub ?,: (Sh Muhammad Ashraf, Lahore, 2nd Edition,
'
Alt in
,7.)
185
ISLAM
written copy by collecting and arranging the manuscripts, which

the Prophet had dictated to his disciples, in the exact order in
which they were recited in the Prophet's lifetime.
At the order of Uthman, the third Caliph, seven copies of the
Qur'an were made and sent to the different centres of learning of
the then vast Islamic world. One of those copies is still in existence
at Tashkent. The Czarist government of Russia had published it
with facsimile reproduction, and we see that there is complete
identity between this copy and the text otherwise in use all over the
world.
From the time of the Prophet to our own time the practice of
learning the Q uran by heart has continued upbroken, and the
number of HuJJaz (those who have committed the whole of the
Qur'an to memory) can now be counted in the world by hundreds
of thousands. The result is that no scholar, Eastern or Western,
Muslim or non-Muslim, has ever cast any doubt on the purity of the
text of the Holy Qur'an. Even such an hostile critic as William Muir
wrote about the Qur'an, There is probably in the world no other
book which has remained twelve centuries with so pure a text."8
The Qur'an is not the word of Muhammad, it is the Book of God
revealed to Muhammad. The Prophet's own sayings, as distinct
from that which was revealed to him, were collected later on in
several Hadith-books.-These two -- first and foremost the Qur'an
(the Word of God), and then the Hadith (Sayings of the Prophet) are
the universally recognised sources and basis of all Islamic beliefs
and practices.
The first chapter of the Qur'an, which is in the form of a prayer,
also contains the essence of the whole teachings of Islam:
"All praise is due to God, the Lord of the worlds, the Beneficent,
the Merciful, Master of the day of requital. Thee alone do we serve,
and Thee alone do we beseech for help. Guide us on the right path,
the path of those upon whom Thou hast bestowed grace, not of
those upon whom wrath is brought down, nor of those who go
astray." (The Holy Qur'an, chapter l).9
THE CONCEPTION OF GOD
The message of Islam may be summed up in one sentence:

"Having devoted the aim to God, do good." The Qur'an says:
ft.
9.
S\T William Muir, The Life of Mohamet Introduction, p. xviii. (Edinburgh new
edition 1923.)
Quotations from the Holy Qur'an have been taken from the English trans
lation by Maulana Muhammad Ali (Ahmudiyya Anjuntun isha'at-i-lslam,
nihore 4th edition 1951.)
186
"Yea, whoever submits himself to God and he is the doer of good

to others, he has his reward from his Lord, and there is no fear for
him nor shall he grieve" (2:112).
Faith in God bears fruits in the form of good deeds, and good
deeds in their turn strengthen the faith in God and bring man
nearer to Him. The Qur'an talks of three degrees of certainty about
God -- viz., 'Ilm-ul yaqeen, or certainty by inference : Ain-ul-yaqeen,
or certainty by sight or perception; and Haqq ul-yaqeen or certainty
of truth or experience or certainty by realization.
A homely illustration will perhaps make this clear. If a man
standing on one side of a hill sees a column of smoke rising from
the other side, he may fiom this reasonably infer the existence of
fire. But if he climbs up the hill and from the top sees the bright
flames of fire, he reaches the second degree of certainty -- the
certainty by sight. To attain the third degree and to realise the
certainty of truth, he m ust thrust his hands into the fire and feel
it by burning in it. These are also the three stages of human
knowledge with regard to God.10
* The first degree of certainty about God comes when man ob
serves and ponders over the universe. The Quran speaks of Nature
as the "signs of God." It says:
"And your God is one God: there is no God but He, the Allloving, the All-merciful. In the creation of the heavens and the
earth, and the alternation of the night and the day, and the ships
that run in the sea with that which profits men, and the water that
God sends down from the cloud, then gives life with it to the earth
after its death and spreads in it all kinds of animals, and the
changing of the winds and the clouds made subservient between
the heaven and the earth, there are signs for people who under
stand" ( 2:163-164).
The study of the "signs of God" leads man to infer that there
must be God but at this stage he does not have the assurance to
say, God is. This degree of certainty {'Ain-ul-yaqeen) can come only
when he, so to say, sees God with his spiritual eye and hears the
voice of God within him saying, "I AM". Man can attain this degree
of certainty by love for God and a burning desire to meet Him,
together with complete submission to His will and good deeds.
But the highest degree of certainty (Haqq-ul-yaqeen, or cer
tainty by realization) can come only when he becomes one with God
, ' i Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, The Teachings of Islam (Ahmadiyya Anjuman Isha ati-Isldin, Lahore. 6th revised edilion, 1968.S
ISLAM
187
and knows Him directly and intimately as he knows his own self.
As a man who thrusts his hand into the fire has direct experience
of fire, so the man who has the third degree ol certainty about God
realises God by burning in the fire of the love of G od----- all evils
and impurities are burnt away and his nature becomes pure like
burnished gold. As a piece of metal when it is in fire displays the
qualities of fire, so the man burning in the fire of the love of God
displays the qualities of God; he is, in the words of the Prophet,
"imbued with Divine qualities". Some religions have mistakenly
called such men Gods or His incarnations or His Sons. Islam says
that the man burning in the fire of the love of God and manifesting
the attributes of God is still man, albeit a perfect and godly man.
The Qur'an guides man through these three degrees of certainty
about God. Islam wants every man to attain to the certainty by
realization and thus to become a new man.
The main theme of the Qur'an is the unity and goodness of God.
It says; "Say; He, God, is One. God is He on Whom all depend. He
begets not, nor is He begotten; and none is like Him (Chapter 112).
The Qur'an declares that every prophet taught the unity of God
and that this doctrine was the original basis of all religions.
However, with the passage of time the different religions deviated
from true monotheism (Tauhcecl) and adopted various forms of
polytheism (Shirk). Some deified their prophets and heroes and
began worshipping them as incarnations or aviars of God (e.g.,
Jesus Christ in Christianity, Rama and Krishna in Hinduism,
Buddha in Mahayana Buddhism). Some associated other persons
with the one and only God and thus came to believe either in
plurality of gods or in plurality of persons in Godhead (e.g. the
plurality of gods in Hinduism; and the plurality of persons in
Godhead in Christianity, created by associating two creatures
viz. Jesu s and the Holy Spirit -- with God in His Godhead), Some
personified the different attributes of God into separate Divine
Persons (e.g. the Christian Trinity of the Father, the Son and the
Holy Ghost; the Hindu TrimurU of Brahma, V ish n u and Shiva; and
the Zoroastrian Amesha Speaias}, Som e deified the an g e ls and
began sacrificing and praying to th e m for special favours (e.g., the
Devas in Hinduism, the Yazatas in Zoroastrianism, and the Holy
Spirit in Christianity). Some thought of God as remote'and far off
an d hence created m e d ia to rs and intercessors, whom they re
garded either as divine b ein g s or as semi-divine beeings (e.g.. V irgin
Mary and the saints in Catholicism). Some thought that God is
bom and gives birth and has wives and children g
,, esus as the
only b eg o tten Son of God, and Man/ us G/.-. Mother ,.f C ;o in
188
Christianity). Some even thought of God as having some kind of

human form and hum an passions and desires (e.g., the countless
idols of Hinduism and the mythologies of different religions).
The verses of chapter 112,quoted above,and many other verses
of the Qur'an completely reject these various forms of polytheism
and restore the doctrine of Divine Unity to its original purity.
The God of Islam - the One and Only God - is the Creator and
Sustainer of all the worlds, the Almighty, the All-good, the All-holy,
the All-knowing, the All-loving, the All-forgiving, the All-compas
sionate, the Ever-living, the Self-subsisting, the Author of peace,
the Grantor of security, the Restorer of every loss, the Friend of the
bereaved, the Guide of the erring, the Guardian over all. He is the
God of Muslims and non-Muslims alike: "God is our Lord and your
Lord; we shall have our deeds and you shall have your deeds".
(42:15)
Among the numerous sublime attributes of the Divine Being to
which the Holy Qur an gives expression, the attributes of love and
mercy occupy the highest place. It is with the names al-Rahman
and al-Rahim that every chapter of the Holy Book opens. "The
words Beneficent and Merciful convey to the English reader of the
Holy Qur'an only a very imperfect idea of the deep and all-encom
passing love and mercy of God as indicated by the words alRahman and al-Rahim." The Prophet Muhammad said: "God's
kindness towards His creatures is more than a mother's towards
her babe". And in the Qur'an God says: "My Mercy encompasses all
things."
He is the Absolute, the Eternal, the Infinite, 'Vision compre
hends Him not and He comprehends all vision." "Nothing is like the
likeness of Him. God. the Cosmic Soul of all existence, is imma
nent in it but transcends it at the same time. He is immanent in
a more intimate and ineffable manner <han the artist is immanent
in his creation. He is, as the Qur'an says, "the Light of the heavens
and the earth" and "closer to man than his own self." He listens to
the prayer of every man:
"And when My servants ask thee concerning Me, surely I am
very near; I answer the prayer of the suppliant when he calls on Me,
so they should answer My call and believe in Me that they may walk
in the right way" (2:186).
MAN AND THE WORLD
T h e d o c trin e
w h ic h a il t h e
of
th e
unity of
God
te a c h in g s of Isla m
(Tauheed)
ro ta te .
The
is t h e
axis
round
w h o le s t r u c tu r e of
ISLAM
189
Islam rests on this rock. As taught in the Qur'an, monotheism is

not a mere religious dogma; it is a principle of action to be carried
into practice. It is the basis of the advancement of humanity to a
higher goal.
The Islamic doctrine of the unity of God implies that nothing is
worthy of worship, by m an except God. The first message of every
prophet, according to the Qur'an, was: "Serve God, you have no
God other than Him (7:59,64,73,85) and "You shall not serve any
but God" (11:25,50,61,84). Before Islam people used to worship
the heavenly bodies and other natural phenomena, but the Qur'an
said: "Do not make obeisance to the sun nor to the moon; but make
obeisance to God who created them"(41:37).
Man is the noblest of Gods creation. Everything created by
God, including the angels, are subservient to Him. Man degrades
and demeans himself by worshipping things to which he is really
superior. We read in the Quran: "Shall I seek for you a god other
than God while He has made you excel all created things" (7:140).
Islam th us restores the dignity of man. It says that the so-called
gods that m an fears and worships are really his servants. It is the
destiny of man, says the Qur'an, to conquer the whole universe and
rule in the world as the Vicegerent (Khalifa) of God:
"God is He who made subservient to you the sea that ships may
run therein by His command, and that you may seek of His grace,
and that you may give thanks. And He has made subservient to
you whatever is in the heavens and whatever is in the earth, all,
from Himself: indeed there are signs in this for a people who reflect"
(45:12-13).
"And He has made subservient to you the night and the day and
the sun and the moon; and the stars are made subservient by His
command. Surely there are signs in this for a people who under
stand" (16:12).
Islam does not allow even great men to be taken for lords. For,
that too, says the Qur'an, would lower the dignity of man. It is
degrading for man to fall prostrate before and worship men like
himself, be they kings or priests} prophets, or the so-called
saviours. Says the Qur'an:
'They have taken their doctors of law and their monks for Lords
besides God, and also the Messiah, son of Mary: and they were
enjoined that they should serve one God only - there is no God but
He" (9:31).
Indeed the greatest man of all times (uiz.. Prophet Muhammad)
himself said: "I am only a mortal like you: it is revealed to me that
I&O
vour God is one God, therefore follow the right way to Him and ask
His forgivenss" (41:6).
Islam emphatically repudiates the doctrine of the Original Sin,
transmitted bv inheritance. There can be nothing more demeaning
and degrading to man than to believe that he is bom sinful, with
a depraved nature. According to the Qur'an, sin is not something
which man inherits from the primeval progenitor; it is that which
each man acquires for himself when he does what he should not
do and does not do that which he should do. Sin is the wilful
transgression of the law of God or the law of right and wrong. Man
is bom with a free will, with the inclination and capacity both to do
evil and also to fight against it and do good. It is only when, as a
grown-up man, capable of distinguishing between right and wrong,
he makes a wrong use of his freedom and falls a prey to temptation
that he becomes sinful. In the moral realm no one carries the
burden of another: "Whoever goes aright, for his own soul does he
go aright; and whoever goes astray, to its detriment only does he
go astray. And no bearer of burden can bear the burden of another"
(17:15). "And man can have nothing but what he strives for"
(53:39)
Islam says that at birth every child is sinless and pure. Man
does not start life vvith perverted instincts. All his instincts, like the
instincts of the animal, are the instruments of the preservation of
life: it is only with false knowledge and perverted free will that
disorder sets in. The Holy Prophet said, "Every child is bom with
divinely gifted nature, it is his parents who make him a Jew or a
Christian or a Magian." It is not any inheritance of perverted in
stincts, but the social environment which presses him to follow
artificial man-made creeds. Islam is not a creed in this sense; it is
the religion of nature:
So set thy face for religion, being upright, the nature made by
God in which He has created men. There is no altering of God's
creation. That is the right religion" (30:30).
Human spirit is the partiallised expression of the Divine spirit.
God (says the Qur'an) has breathed His own spirit into man. Man
h a s been created with infinite potentialities to assimilate divine
attributes in order to fit himself to be the vicegerent (Khalifa) of God
o n eart h. God being Light and Love, the increase of knowledge and
increase of love along with it can make man more and more god
like. Islam stands for the intellectual, moral and spiritual progress
of man.
ISLAM
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And ju s t as, according to, Islam, man is not bom sinful, so the
world is not evil. There is nothing wrong with the material goods of
life as such; but when they are sought for their own sake and are
regarded not as instrumental but intrinsic values, as if they were
the be-all and end-all of existence, they become hindrances for the
life of the spirit. Those who consider these goods only as life, lose
real and abiding life in seeking them. Islam stands, not for lifedenial but for life-fulfilment. It repudiates asceticism and monasticism. It holds that spiritual elevation is to be achieved by living
one's full life in this mundane existence with a spiritual
attitude,and not by renouncing the world. Islam keeps a healthy
balance between this world and the next world; it does away with
the dichotomy of the spirit and the flesh It says that the spirit
cannot grow by crushing the body. Human instincts are not intrin
sically bad. They m ust not be killed, but wisely controlled, chan
nelised and used purposefully to make the life of man on this
planet richer and better. This world created by the All-wise and All
good God, has meaning and purpose, and it is only by leading a
normal and fruitful life in the world and appreciating and enjoying
the beautiful gifts of God that man can come closer to God, be of
service to others and prepare himself for the next world Wlam, like
the original doctrines of Confucius, Krishna and Buddha, favours
the middle path.
THE BROTHERHOOD OF MAN
The Islamic belief in the oneness of humanity also follows as a
corollary to the belief in the unity of God (Tauheed). All men are
the creatures of One God---- they are all equal and together form
a single brotherhood. "Mankind is a single nation", declares the
Qur'an (2:213). The difference of race, language, culture, creed,
wealth and sex are all superficial: they do not affect the fundamen
tal unity of hum an nature. All human beings are equal. Islam
severely condemns the sense of superiority based on ones tribe or
race or nationality and strikes at the roots of the caste system.
Says the Holy Quran:
"O Mankind, surely We have created you from a male and a
female and made you tribes and nations that you may know each
other. Surely the noblest of you with God is the most dutiful of you"
(49:13).
And in his famous Farewell Sermon, the Holy Prophet declared:
"No Arab as such is superior to a non-Arab, nor is a non-Arab
as such superior to an Arab; no dark m an as such is superior to
a white man, nor a white man as such superior to a dark man. In
192
the sight of God the superior is only the one possessing a superior
character."
Hence, in Islam there is no place for snobbery, parochialism,

chauvinism, or aggressive nationalism. Never in their long history
have the Muslims in any part of the world been guilty of racial
discrimination, colour bar or apartheid. According to the famous
historian Arnold Toynbee:
'The extinction of race consciousness as between Muslims is
one of the outstanding achievements of Islam, and in the contem
porary world there is, as it happens, a crying need for the propa
gation of this Islamic virtue."11
Nor does Islam recognise the distinction between the so-called
clergy and the laity, which is a prominent feature of the other
religions. There is no priesthood in Islam. The absence of a spe
cially interested and consecrated class to act as intermediaries
between God and man differentiates Islam from all other creeds.
The Islam of Muhammad," writes Syed Ameer Ali, "recognises no
caste of priesthood, allows no monopoly of spiritual knowledge or
special holiness to intervene between m an and his God. Each soul
rises to its Creator without the intervention of priest or hierophant.
No sacrifice, no ceremonial, invented by vested interests, is needed
to bring the anxious heart nearer to its Comforter. Each hum an
being is his own priest; in the Islam of Muhammad no one man is
higher than the other."112
Islam unites all human beings in love and sympathy as broth
ers. The brotherhood of Islam transcends all geographical and
political barriers and unites as equals and brothers men of many
races, colours and nationalities. The Holy Qur'an says:
"And hold fast to the covenant of God all together and be not
disunited. And remember God's favour to you when you were
enemies, then He united your hearts so by His favour you became
brethren. And you were on the brink of a pit of fire, then He saved
you from it. Thus God makes clear to you His messages that you
may be guided" (3:102).
"All God's creatures," said the Holy Prophet, "are His family,
and he is the most beloved of God who tries to do the greatest good
to Gods creatures."
11. Arnold Toynbee, Civilization on Trial, p. 205. (London, 1948.)
12. Syed Ameer All, The Spirit of Islam, p. 165 (Christophers, London, new
edition, 1935).
ISLAM
193
THE FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM
There are, according to Islamic theology, five pillars on which

the structure of Islam has been built. These are: (1) The Kalima
(declaration of faith): 'There is but one God and Muhammad is the
Messenger of God"; (2) Prayer; (3) Fasting; (4) Zakat (poor-tax and
charity); and (5) Ha[] (pilgrimage).
The threefold aim of these devotions is (i) to strengthen the faith
in God, (ii) to inspire men to conquer evil desires and practise
righteousness, and (iii) to bring all men on a plane of equality and
promote the feelings of love and brotherhood among them.
The first part of the Kalima ("There is but One God") declares
faith in the unity of God CTauheed) which, as we have already
pointed out, is the basis of all the teachings of Islam and the spring
of all virtues. The second part of the Kalima ("Muhammad is the
Messenger of God") signifies that God is not only the Creator and
Nourisher of the universe but, having made men with conscience
and free will. He also guides them to the Straight Path leading to
Him. Belief in Prophet Muhammad includes belief in all the
prophets raised by God to guide mankind, for the Qur'an expressly
requires faith in all the prophets who appeared in different parts
of the world before Muhammad (peace and blessings of God be
on them all). Prophet Muhammad is the last Messenger of God,
who revived the genuine religion of all the Messengers and com
pleted and perfected it for all nations and all ages. He is the
Prophet of the final phase of Islam. Faith in the Kalima implies the
acceptance of the message and code of life that Muhammad (may
peace and blessings of God be on him) brought from God for ail
mankind.
The second pillar of Islam is the prayer-service, which a Mus
lim m ust perform at least five times a day, either alone or in con
gregation. Prayer is communion between man and God; it is the
outpouring of the heart to One Who has created us and listens to
us and loves us. It deepens the roots of God-consciousness in man
and strengthens the resolve to fdllow in the Way shown by Him
through His prophets. It purifies the soul and gives peace and
contentment of mind to man. According to the Qur'an, "Now surely
in the remembrance of God do hearts find rest" (.13:28). And again:
"Recite that which has been revealed to thee of the Book and keep
up prayer; surely prayer keeps one away from indecency and evil"
(29:45). The Prophet said: "He whom prayer prevents not from
wrdng-doing and evil, increases in naught save in remoteness from
194
the Lord". Moreover, congregational prayer in which people of all

classes and colours stand shoulder to shoulder, equal before God,
promotes the feeling of unity and brotherhood.
The third pillar of Islam is fasting, which has been made obliga
tory for a whole month each year (i.e., during the month of
Ramazan). The man who fasts m ust l Tally abstain during the
daylight hours from all kinds of food and drink and from sexual
relations with his spouse. Thus the believer voluntarily abstains
from things which are otherwise lawful, only for the sake of God,
and so he cannot even think of doing anything which is unlawful
or unrighteous. The aim of fasting is to develop self-control and
spirit of sacrifice. The Qur'an says, "O you who believe, fasting is
prescribed for you, as it was prescribed for those before you, so that
you may guard against evil" (2:183). And the Prophet said: "A
keeper of fast, who does not abandon lying and detraction, God
cares not about his leaving off eating and drinking (that is, God
does not accept his fasting)". The fast places everyone, rich and
poor alike on the .same level. It makes the rich realise what it means
to go without food, and thus brings home to them the plight of the
hungry and the starving.
The fourth pillar is Zakat. Islam imposes a compulsory tax of
2.5% per annum on the capital and yearly saving of every Muslim.
The amount thus collected is to be spent on the poor, the widows,
the orphans, insolvent debtors, and for the general welfare of the
community. Through it Islam seeks to build a welfare State. In
addition to this compulsory tax, Islam urges the Muslims to spend
as much as they can for the good of others. "By no means shall you
attain to righteousness until you spend generously out of what you
love", says the Qur'an (3:91). The exercise of charity m ust be free
from show and from all sordid motives, such as placing the object
of charity under an obligation: "Kind speech and forgiveness is
better than charity followed by injury; and God is Self-sufficient,
Forbearing. "O you who believe, do not make your charity worthless
by reproach and injury, like him who spends his property to make
a show of it and does not believe in God and the Last Day" (2:263264). The Prophet's conception of charity was the broadest pos
sible. He said: "Every good act is charity; and verily it is of the
number of good acts to meet your brother with open countenance,
and to pour water from your water bag into his vessel. Your
exhorting mankind to virtuous deeds is charity; and your prohib
iting the forbidden is charity; and your showing men the road, in
the land in which they lose it, is charity for you; and your assisting
ISLAM
195
the blind is charity for you. Doing justice between two people is
charity; and assisting a man upon his beast, and lifting his
baggage, is charity; and answering a questioner with mildness, is
charity; and removing that which is an inconvenience to man, such
as thorns and stones, is charity.
The fifth pillar of Islam is Hajj (pilgrimage), which a person who
can afford it m ust perform at least once in his life. At the Ka'ba in
Mecca, Muslims from all parts of the world, belonging to different
races and speaking different languages, gather as equals before
God. All distinctions of high and low, rich and poor, disappear as
all pilgrims dressed alike in similar clothes (two white pieces of
cloth wrapped round the body) together perform the prescribed
rites and answer the call of God, declaring their determination lo
devote themselves completely and wholeheartedly to His c ause and
to make any sacrifice in His way. The inspiring atmosphere of the
place, where the first house for-the worship of the One true God
was built; where Abraham (the father of the Semitic people among
whom Judaism , Christianity and Islam took birth) again laid the
foundation of a moral monotheistic religion; and where last o? all
the Prophet Muhammad appeared to complete the edifice of the
true religion, fills the hearts of the pilgrims with the love of God.
'The pilgrim shows by the external act of making circuits round the
Ka'ba that the fire of Divine love has been kindled within his heart,
and like the true lover he makes circuits round the House of his
Beloved One. He shows, in fact that he has given up his own will
and completely surrendered it to that of his Master, and that he has
sacrificed all his interests for His sake." To quote Sir Thomas
Arnold. "But above all-and herein lies its supreme importance in
the missionary history of Islam-it ordains a yearly gathering of
believers, of all nations and languages, brought together from all
parts of the world, to pray in the sacred plac e towards which their
faces are set in every hour of private worship in the ir distant
homes. No stretch of religious genius could have conceived a better
expedient for impressing on the minds of the faithful a sense of
their common life and of their brotherhood in the bonds of faith.
Here, in a supreme act of common worship, the Negro of the West
coast of Africa meets the Chinaman from the distant East; the
courtly and polished Ottomon recognises his brother Muslim in the
wild islander from the farthest end of the Malayan Sea. At the same
time throughout the whole Mohammedan world the hearts of
believers are lifted up in sympathy with their more fortunate
brethren gathered together in the sacred city, as in their own
196
homes they celebrate the festival of 'Id al-Adha or {as it is called ii

Turkey and Egypt) the feast of Bayram."13
THE ETHICS OF ISLAM
The moral ideal and goal which Islam places before every mar
is described in the Qur'an as "the baptism of God" (2:138). Th(
Prophet explained this by saying, "Imbue yourself with Divint
morals." Every man has within him the seed of divinity which he
must, so to say, water and develop into a full-grown fruit-bearing
tree. This is Falah or true success in Islam.
The moral progress of man has been divided by the Qur'an inte
three stages: Nafs al-ammara (the uncontrollable spirit), Nafs al
lawwama (the self-accusing spirit), and nafs al-mutmainna (the
soul at rest).14
Islam finds m an at the stages of savagery or moral irresponsi
bility, where he makes no distinction between mine and thine, gooc
and bad, and does whatever he feels like doing. This is the stage
of Nafs al ammara (the uncontrollable spirit). For a man at this
stage Islam gives elementary or basic moral teaching, which comes
under the heading of manners, rather than of morals strictly sc
called. It teaches him to fear God and restrain his desires. It pro
hibits everything which enllames the passions and weakens the
moral sense, such as wine and gambling. The Qur'an says:
"O you who believe, intoxicants and games of chance and
sacrificing to stones set up and the divining arrows are only an
uncleanness, the devil's work; shun it therefore that you may be
successful. The devil only desires to cause enmity and hatred to
spring in your midst by means of intoxicants and games of chance,
and to keep you off from the remembrance of God and from prayer;
will you then desist?" (5: 90-91).
And again:
"O you who believe! Be careful of your duty to God and speak
the right word: He will put your deeds into the right state for you;
and forgive you your sins; and whoever obeys God and His Messen
ger, he indeed achieves a mighty success" (33:70-71)
"Come, I will recite to you what your Lord has forbidden to you
remember that you do not associate anything with Him and show
13. T.W. Arnold, The Preachings o f Islam, p. 415 (Sh. Muhammad Ashral
Lahore, reprinted, 1961.)
14. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, The Teachings of Islam, (Ahmadiyya Anjumahhaat
l-lslam, Lahore, 1968.)
ISLAM
197
kindness to your parents, and do not slay your children for fear of
poverty - We provide for you and for them and do not draw nigh
to indecencies, those of them which are apparent and those which
are concealed, and do not kill the soul which God has forbidden
except for the requirement of justice; this He has enjoined you with
that you may understand. And do not approach the property of the
orphan except in the best manner until he attains his maturity;
and give full measure and weigh with justice. We do not impose on
any soul a duty except to the extent of its ability; and when you
speak, be ju st, though it be against a relative, and fulfil God's
covenant; this he has enjoined you with that you may be mindful"
(6: 152-153).
"Whoever slays anyone,... it is as though he slew all men: and
whoever saves a life, it is as though he saved the lives of all men"
(5 : 32).
'This day all the good things are allowed to you, and the food
of those who have been given the Scripture is lawful for you and
your food is lawful for them; and the chaste from among the believ
ing women and the chaste from among those who have been given
the Scripture before you are lawful for you, when you have given
them their dowries, taking them in marriage, not fornicating nor
taking them for paramours in secret" (5:5).
"So eat and drink but be not extravagant, for God loves not the
extravagants" (7:31).
"And do not tu rn your face away from people in contempt or
anger, nor go about in the land exultingly; for God does not love any
self-conceited boaster: and pursue the right course in your going
about and lower your voice, for the most hateful of voices is braying
of asses" (31:18-19).
"And when you are greeted wit h a greeting, greet with a better
greeting or return it; for God takes account of all things" (4:86).
When a man develops in him the urge to restrain himself and
follows these teachings, he enters into the second stage - - - nafs
al-lawwama (the self-accusing spirit). At this stage a struggle is
constantly going on within man between good and evil. He is still
weak and many a time he gives in to the evil inclinations: but every
time he falls his conscience pricks him and he feels unhappy, and
so he renews his effort to fight against evil and resist
temptation.The high moral teachings that Islam gives for a man at
this stage may be divided into t w o categories: those that prevent
a m a n f r o m injuring the life, property, h o n o u r and freedom of
o i tiers (such as chastity, honesty, politeness, peace, and f r e e d o m
198
of thought and expression), and those that prompt a man to d'

good to others (such as mercy, forgiveness, truth, courage, pa
tience, kindness, sympathy and love).
Chastity: "And go not nigh to fornication (totally abstain fron
its preliminaries and eveiything that is likely to lead to it) for it is
an indecency and evil is the way" (17:32). "And do not draw nigh
to indecencies those of them which are apparent and those which
are concealed" (6:152). The adultery of the eye is to look with an
eye of desire on the wife of another; and the adultery of the tongue
is to utter what is forbidden" (A Saying of Muhammad).
Honesty: "God commands you to make over the tru sts to those
worthy of them" (4:58). "And do not covet that by which God has
made some of you excel others; men shall have the benefit of what
they earn and women shall have the benefit of what they earn; and
ask God of His grace, for God knows all things" (4:32). "And do not
swallow up your property among yourselves by false means, nei
ther seek to gain access thereby to the judges, so that you may
swallow up a part of the property of men wrongfully while you
know" (2: 188). "Give full measure and be not of those who dimin
ish: and weigh things with a right balance, and do not wrong men
of their things, and do not act corruptly in the earth, making
m ischief (26:181-183). "On the day of resurrection I shall be the
adversary in dispute of a p e rso n ---- who employs a servant and
receives fully the labour due from him, and does not pay his full
remuneration". (A Saying of Muhammad).
Politeness: "No father has given his child anything better than
good manners". "Whoever has been given gentleness has been
given a good portion in this world and the next." "Verily the most
beloved of you by me, and the nearest to me in the next world, are
those of good disposition", 'The proud will not enter paradise, nor
a violent speaker" (Sayings of Muhammad). "O you who believe! Let
not one people laugh at another people, perchance they may be
better than they; nor let women laugh at other women, perchance
they may be better than they; and do not find fault with your people
nor call one another by nicknames; evil is a bad name after faith,
a n d whoever does not tuns, these it is that are the unjust. O you
who believe! Avoid m o st of suspicion, for suspicion in some cases
is a sin, a n d do not spy n o r let som e of you backbite others" (49:1112). "A man c a n n o t be a M uslim till his heart and tongue are so
(A S aying of Muhammad),
P aata: "And not alike m e good and evil. Repel evil with w h a t is
rv ', v-hen lof h e between w :e>m a n d th ee w as enmity w ould be a s
ISLAM
190
if he were a warm friend"(41:34). "And the servants of the benefi

cent God are they who walk on the earth in humility and when the
ignorant address them, they say, Peace" (25:63).'A Muslim is he
from whose tongue and hands people are safe, and a Muhajir is he
who forsakes what God has forbidden." "Shall I inform you of a
better act than fasting, alms and prayers? Making peace between
one another: enmity and malice tear up heavenly rewards by the
roots" (Sayings of Muhammad).
freedom o f Thought and Expression: There is no compulsion in
religion" (2:256). "Unto you your religion, and unto me my religion"
(109:6). "Lo! those who believe (in that which is revealed unto thee,
Muhammad), an those who are Jews, and Christians, and Sabeans
-- whoever believes in God and the Last day and does good
surely their reward is with their Lord, and there shalll no fear come
upon them neither shall they grieve" (2:62). "difference of opinion
among my followers is a blessing of God." The most excellent jihad
is the uttering of truth in the presence of an unjust ruler" (Sayings
of Muhammad)
T r u t h inM J u s t i c e : "No man is true in the true sense of the word
but he who is true in word, in deed and in thought" (A Saying of
Muhammad). () you who believe! 13c maintainors of justice, bear
ers of witness for God s sake, though: it be against your own selves
or your parents or near relatives; if he be poor or rich, God is most
Competent to deal with both; therefore do not follow your desires,
lest you deviate: and if you swerve or turn aside, God is surely
aware of what you do (4: 135). "O you who believe! Be upright for
God, bearers of witness with truth and justice, and let not the
hatred of a people for you incite you not to act equitably, act
equitably, that is nearer to piety; and be careful of your duty to
God; for God is aware of what you do" (5:8).
Courage and Patience: "O you who believe! Seek assistance

th ro u g h patience and prayer; for God is with the patient" (2:153).
A n d We will certainly try you with somewhat of fear and hunger
a n d loss of property and lives and fruits; and give good news to the
patient, who, when a m isfo rtu n e befalls them, say: We are God's
a n d to Him we shall return. T hose are th e y on whom a re b lessin g s
a n d mercy from their Lord, a n d th o se are the follow ers of the right
co u rse" (2:155-157). "Those to w hom [he people said: M en h av e
g a th e re d against you, th erefo re fear them ; but this in c re a se d th e ir
laith . and they said: G od is sufficient for u s and m o st excellent is
the protector" (3:172).
200
Forgiveness: "And hasten to forgiveness from your Lord and a

garden, the extensiveness of which is as the heavens and the earth;
it is prepared for the righteous: those who spend for the well-being
of others in ease as well as in straitness, and those who restrain
their anger and pardon all men; and God loves l he doers of good
to others" (3:132-133). "Many of the followers of the Scripture (i.e.,
followers of the other revealed religions) wish that they could turn
you back into unbelievers after your faith, out of envy on their part,
after the truth has become manifest to them; but pardon and
forgive, so that God should bring about His command; for God has
power over all things" (2:109). "Pardon them therefore and ask
God's forgiveness for them and take counsel \ 4th them in the
conduct of affairs" (3:158).
Doing Good to Others : "All Gods creatures are His family and
he is the most beloved of God who tries to do the greatest good to
His creatures." "What actions are the most excellent? To gladden
the heart of a human being, to feed the hungry, to help the afflicted,
to lighten the sorrow of the sorrowful, and to remove the wrongs of
the injured" (Sayings of Muhammad). "And what will make thee
comprehend what the uphill road is? It is the setting free of slaves,
or the giving of food in the day of hunger to an orphan, having
relationship, or to the poor man lying in the dust. Moreover he is
of those vflho believe and exhort one another to show patience, and
exhort one another to show compassion" (90:12-17).
Love and Sympathy: "Do you love your Creator? Love your
fellow-creatures first". "No man is a true believer unless he desires
for his brother that which he desires for himself. Thou wilt see the
faithful in their having mercy for one another and their kindness
towards one another like the body; when one member of it ails, the
entire body ails, one part calling out the other with sleeplessness
and fever" (Sayings of Prophet Muhammad).
When a man tries his best to follow these teachings and fights
against evil within him with determination and fortitude, the help
of God comes to him and his evil desires and inclinations at last
become extinct: "If you shun the great things which you are forbid
den, We shall do away with your evil inclinations" (4:31). Thus he
reaches the third stage of moral development -- i.e., Nafs al-mutmainna (the soul at rest). The Qur'an says :
"O soul at rest, return to thy Lord, well-pleased with him, well
pleasing Him, so enter among My servants, and enter My e^rden"
(89:27-30).
201
ISLAM
The m an who has reached this stage lives a heavenly life of

perfect peace, contentment and purity in this very life. He is filled
with the love of God and finds pleasure in doing His will :
"Say : My prayer and my sacrifice and my life and my death are
all for God, the Lord of the worlds" (6:163).
About such a m an God says : "The person I hold as a beloved,
I am his hearing by which he hears, and I am his sight by which
he sees, and I am his hands by which he holds, and I am his feet
by which he walks".
THE SOCIAL LAWS OF ISLAM
True religion cannot confine itself to the private life of individu

als and shirk its responsibility of guiding people in their public life
and reorganising it according to the will and purpose of God. Islam
is not merely a faith but also a social system, an all-embracing way
oflife. "While Christianity," writes Dr. Wilfred Cantwell Smith, "in
recent years has moved towards a social gospel, Islam has been a
social gospel from the start."1516
The Political System of Islam
Islam ensures social justice and peace by bringing political,

economic and international affairs under the control of religion and
morality and by defining the basic duties of the individual towards
the state and of the stale towards the individual and of one state
towards another state. It lays down some basic principles which
every community is enjoined to adopt and then gives each the
liberty to develop its structure according to the needs of the time
and the genius of its people, provided that the super-structure
observes the basic principles and remains within their scope.10
The first basic principle of the Islamic political system is that
the sovereignty of the state rests with God and no legislature or
parliament has the right to pass an act or law which is contrary to
the letter and spirit of the commands of God as contained in the
Qur'an and the precepts of the Prophet. Thus Islam ensures uni
form justice and saves the state and the destinies of the people
from being swayed by the whims and short-sighted decision of the
legislators, and the minority groups from the brute will of the
majority, and the interests of the people as a whole from the de
signs of the dominating economic class in the parliament.
15. Wilfred Cantwell Smith, Islam in the Modem World, pp. 22-23.
16. Maulana Muhammad Ali, The New World Order (Ahmadiyyu Anjuman Isha
at-i-lslam. Lahore. 1944.)
202
The second basic principle is th at all public offices, including

that of the chief executive, are tru sts from God and the trustees
m ust exercise the authority given to them as per the commands of
God and for the benefit of the people. As the head of the state is
appointed by the people, he can also be removed by the people* if
they find that he is not carrying on the administration according to
the commands of God and in the best interests of the people.
The third basic principle is that all men (and that of course
includes women) are equal before law and in the sight of God. They
have equal political rights. The same law applies to all. In an Is
lamic state, no one, not even the head of the state, is above law. For
the breach of any law, even the Caliph can be summoned in the
court and punished, if found guilty.
The fourth basic principle is that all public m atters are to be
decided by consultation and alter ascertaining the views of the
citizens of the Islamic state, either directly or through their repre
sentatives :
"Pardon them therefore and ask God's protection for them, and
take counsel with them in the conduct of affairs: and when thou
hast thus determined, place thy trust in God: for God loves those
who trust in Him" (3:158).
"And those who respond to their Lord and keep up prayer, and
whose government is by consent among themselves, and who
spend on others of what We have given them" (42:38).
Islam brought into existence the first true democracy in which
there was no distinction of free-born and slave, citizen and alien,
and no discrimination on the basis of race or-colour or sex or creed.
The Economics of Islam
Islam considers God to be the Absolute Owner of all wealth and

the people who actually have it are only trustees; they can keep and
make use of the wealth only if by their doing so the interests of
other individuals and of the society as a whole are not unjustly
affected and if their economic activities are carried on within the
limits prescribed by God.
Islam regards all unearned income as unlawful. According
to the Qur an, "Man shall have only that for which he labours
(53:39). It upholds the dignity of labour. The Prophet said:
"No one eats better food than that which he eats out of the work
of his own hands."
There is nothing more reprehensible in the sight of God than
the exploitation of man by man. Islam severely condemns hoard
ISLAM
203
ing, profiteering blackmarketing and all such practices by which a

m an takes undue advantage of the needs of others. It is opposed
to cartels and monopoly and takes necessary measures to prevent
the concentration of wealth in few hands, "so that it may not cir
culate only among the rich of you" (59:7).
Most important of all, Islam interdicts Riba -- that is. the
system in which a m an lends or Invests money with a view to
increasing it by exploiting others, without employing his own
physical and mental powers to productive or creative use. Says the
Qur'an:
"O you who believe! Do not devour Riba (surplus-value, inter
est, usury, etc..), doubling and redoubling, and be careful of your
duty to God that you may be successful" (3:129).
"Those who swallow down Riba (the fruits of the labour of
others) cannot arise except as one whom the devil has prostrated
by his touch does rise (2:275).
"And whatever you lay out at Riba (i.e., lend ordnvest money
with the intention of appropriating the fruits of the labour of oth
ers), so th at it may increase in the property of men, it shall not
increase with God: and whatever you give in charity, desiring God's
pleasure these it is that shall get manifold" (30:39).
While on the one hand, Islam is against hoarding and am ass
ing of wealth, on the other it also censures squandering and all
forms of wasteful expenditure. It wants every man to be personally
responsible for the well-being of the society. The Prophet said. "He
is not a Muslim who eats his fill and leaves his neighbour hungry."
In order to reduce inequality and make sure that every one gets
the basic necessities dnd has equal opportunities in life. Islam
imposes a tax on the capital of the rich for the benefit of the poor.
This tax, called Zakat, is different from and in addition to Khairat
or voluntary charity. And finally by its judicious laws of inheri
tance, Islam makes the concentration of wealth in few hands
impossible.
While not ignoring the importance of economic activities in
hum an life, Islam condemns the tendency to give importance to
people on the basis of their financial and social status. The mark
of a man's worth is not his wealth but higher character and moral
integrity. Wealth is not an end, but "a means of support" to the
people. The wealth that a man earns is not absolutely his. It i s a
trust with him from God. He has acquired i t b y e m p l o y i n g G o d
given faculties and b y the aid and f a c i l i t i e s p r o v i d e d b y the s o c i e * v.
204
He m ust repay his debt to the society and spend as much as

possible, out of what he has honestly earned in the way of God.
Above all, in the pursuit of wealth a man m ust never lose sight of
the higher values of life.
Women in Islam
Before Islam woman was generally regarded as a slave. She was

not considered a person in the sense in which man was a person.
Several pre-Islamic religions looked down upon her as the tempt
ress and held her responsible for the fall of man and genesis of sin.
The Holy Qur'an cleared woman of the responsibility for the fall of
Adam and vindicated her honour and dignity. It raised the status
of woman to make her man's equal, declaring that both the sexes
have been created of the "same essence and kind." The Prophet
said: "Women are the twin halves of men. Islam makes no distinc
tion between them as regards their intellectual, moral and spiritual
capabilities and rewards:
"Whoever does good, whether male or female, and he (or she) is
a believer. We will make them live a happy life, and We will give
them their reward for the best of what they did" (16:97).
The men who submit to God, and the women who submit, and
the men who believe and the women who believe, and the men who
obey and the women who obey, and the men who are truthful and
the women who are truthful, and the men who persevere and the
women who persevere, and the men who are humble and the
women who are humble and the men who are charitable and the
women who are charitable, and the men who fast and the women
who fast, and the men who are chaste and the women who are
chaste, and the men who remember God much and the women who
remember -- God has prepared for them forgiveness and a mighty
reward" (33:35).
For the first time in history Islam gave women the same rights .
as those of men :
"And they (women) have rights similar to those of men over
them in a just manner (2:228).
The modem m an recognises that there can be no true freedom
and dignity without economic rights. Fourteen hundred years ago,
Islam gave woman the right to inherit the property of her father and
husband and to acquire, own and dispose of wealth as she liked.
The Qur'an says:
"Men shall have the b enefit o f what they earn and women shall
have the benefit of what they earn " (4:32).
205
ISLAM
"Men shall have a portion of what the parents and the near
relatives leave and women shall have a portion of what the parents
and the near relatives leave, whether there is little or much of it :
a stated portion" (4:7).
In marriage woman is considered to .be an equal and free
partner. Marriage in Islam is a sacred contract between a man and
a woman, and the consent of both the parties has to be taken before
marriage can take place. The Qur'an describes woman as a com
panion of her husband an object of love and a source of peace
and solace to him, as he to her :
"And one of His signs is that He created mates for you from
yourselves that you may find quiet of mind in (hem. and He put
between you love and compassion: surely there are signs in this for
a people who reflect" (30:21).
To impress upon his followers the exalted position and sacredness of womanhood, the Holy Prophet said: "Paradise lies at the feet
of the mother."
The Qur'an is the first revealed book to put restrictions on
polygamy. It allowed a man to marry more than one wife in very
rare circumstances only as after a war, in which many young
men have died, leaving behind widows and orphans. Hie Islamic
permission of a limited and conditional polygamy is only to provide
homes to homeless women, to protect them from being exploited by
men, and to save the society from moral corruption. Moreover.
Islam imposes conditions which make polygamy a well-nigh impos
sibility. "If," says the Qur'an, "you fear that you will not do justice
between them, then marry only one" (4:3). And a little later it goes
on to say : "And you have it not in your power to do justice between
wives and to love them equally, however mqeh you may wish to do
so" (4:129). From this it is clear that as a rule Islam recognises only
the union of one m an and one woman as a valid form of marriage.17
ISLAMS CONTRIBUTION TO CIVILIZATION
Within incredibly short time Islam spread over more than half
the earth. "The closer we examine this development," writes
Dr. A.M.L. Stoddard, "the more extraordinaiy does it appear. The
other great religions won their way slowly, by painful struggle, and
finally triumphed with the aid of powerful monarchs converted to
the new faith. Christianity had its Constantine. Buddhism its
Ashoka, and Zoroastrianism its Cyrus, each lending to his chosen
!7. Maulana Muhammad Ali, The Islamic Ixiw of Marriage and Divorce (Ahmadiyya Anjuman lsha'at-i-lslam, l.ahore).
206
cult the mighty force of secular authority. Not so Islam. Arising in

a desert land sparsely inhabited by a nomad race previously undis
tinguished in human annals, Islam sallied forth on its great adven
ture with the slenderest hum an backing and against the heaviest
material odds. Yet Islam tn. lphed with seemingly miraculous
ease, and a couple of generations saw the fiery crescent-borne
victorious from the Pyranees to the Himalayas and from the deserts
of the Central Asia to the deserts of Central Africa."18
Islam gave birth to a civilization which is still the wonder of the
historians. "Never has a people," writes H. Hirshfeld, "been led
more rapidly to civilization, such as it was, than were the Arabs
through Islam."19 History bears testimony to the fact that Islam
gave unprecedented impetus to the intellectual development of the
human race and the early Muslims held high the torch of light and
learning at a time when the world was immersed in ignorance and
barbarity. "During the darkest period of European history," writes
Bosworth Smith, "the Arabs for live hundred years held up the
torch of learning to humanity."20
The Prophet of Islam laid the greatest stress on the acquisition
of knowledge. He said: "The acquisition of knowledge is a duty
incumbent on every Muslim, male and female." "Acquire knowledge
from the cradle to the grave. "God in quest of knowledge even unto
China." "One hour's meditation on the work of the Creator is better
than seventy years of prayer." "The ink of the scholar is more holy
than the blood of the martyr."21
Before Islam religion was synonymous with blind faith and
dogmas, sacrifices and rituals: and bigotry had placed an embargo
on freedom of thought and enquiry. Whenever anyone conceived
any new idea or propounded a new theory, he was condemned and
even tortured to death by his coreligionists as a heretic. It was
Islam that for the first time discountenanced all dogmatic teach
ings and made reason the test of faith. "The first thing created,"
said the Prophet, "was reason." On another occasion he said:
"Verily a man has performed prayers, fasts, charity, pilgrimage,
and all other good deeds, but he will not be rewarded save in
18. AM. Lothrop Stoddard, The New World of Islam, pp. 1-2. (Chapman and Hall,
London.)
19. H. Hirshfeld, New Researches, p. 5.
20. Bosworth Smith, Mohammed and Mohammedanism (reprinted by Sind Sagar
Academy, Lahore).
21. The Sayings of Muhammed, translated by Sir Abdullah Al-Mamun al-Suhrawardy (Wisdom of the East series, London, 1945.)
207
ISLAM
proportion to the sense he employs." In the words of Guizot, "Islam

stands almost alone among the religions in discountenancing the
reliance on tradition without argument. It demands that its vota
ries should undertake the investigation of the great work of their
faith."22
The result of thesse teachings was that wherever the banner of
Islam was carried outstanding centres of learning sprang up in no
time and produced illustrious men in the fields of literature, arts,
philosophy, science and industry. Thus Baghdad, Damascus,
Cairo, Cordova and Granada became from time to time reputed
centres of Muslim culture and held aloft the torch of light and
learning in Asia, Europe and Africa, at a time when the West was
sunk in ignorance and superstition.
The Muslims, to begin with, brought together the learning of
the Greeks, the Byzantines, the Persians, the Chinese and the
Indians at one place. They had all the works of science hitherto
produced translated into Arabic. After having learnt and absorbed
all that had been written on various subjects in different languages
by different peoples, thfey went on to make fresh researches and
original contributions. They spread this knowledge wherever they
went through the schools, universities, libraries, observatories and
laboratories that they established. The gates of Muslim institu
tions of learning were open to all, to men as well as women, the
rich as well as the poor, Muslims as well as non-Muslims. Thus
Professor Frank Blackmore of the University of Kansas writes:
"In every country that was conquered, the first duty of Islam'
was to build a mosque in which Allah would be worshipped and His
Prophet honoured. Attached to the mosque was a school where
people were taught to read and study the Koran. From this initial
point they enlarged the study of science, literature and art, and,
through the appreciation of these sublime things, they collected the
treasures of art and learning wherever these could be found. From
imitation they passed on to the great field of creation and great
advances were made to the sum of hum an knowledge. Schools were
founded, great universities established, and libraries were built,
which laid the permanent foundations of knowledge."23
There is no branch of learning to which Muslims did not make
valuable contribution. They created modem chemistry, made most
important discoveries in Astronomy, added much to the knowledge
!
22. Guizot, History o f European Civilization.

23. Frank Blackmore, History o f Human Society.
of Mathematics and Medicine, laid the foundations of modem

historiography and sociology, and made very valuable researches
in Botany, Geology, Geography, Zoology, and other branches of
Science.24 The works of Al-Razi, Ibn Sina and Abu al-Qasim Zahrawi in the field of medicine; al-Khwarizmi. al-Battani, al-Zarqali
and Omar Khayyam in Mathematics and Astronomy; Ibn al-Baytar
and Abu Zakariya Yahya in Botany; al-Damiri in Zoology; Ibn alHaytham in Physics; Jabir and al-Jahiz in Chemistry; Yaqut in Ge
ography; and Ibn Khaldun in historiography and sociology (to name
only the most prominent among the many Muslim scientists) laid
the firm foundation on which the impressive structure of modem
European science has been raised. More important than their
contributions to particular branches of science, according to
Robert Briffault, is the Muslim invention of the scientific method
itself. In The Making of Humanity, he writes "Although there is not
a single aspect of European growth in which*the decisive influence
of Islamic culture is not traceable, nowhere is it so clear and
momentous as i n -----natural science and the scientific spirit".
"Science owes its very existence to Arabic culture. The ancient
world was pre-scientific. The Greeks systematised, generalised and
theorised, but the patient ways of investigation, the accumulation
of positive knowledge, the minute methods of science, detailed and
prolonged observation and experimental inquiry were altogether
alien to the Greek temperament. What we call science arose in
Europe as a result of new spirit of inquiry, of new methods of
investigation, of the method of experiment, observation, measure
ment, of the development of mathematics in a form unknown to the
Greeks. That spirit and those methods were introduced into the
European world by the Arabs."25
Moreover, Muslims made important contributions to the theory
and practice of music and have many glorious works of art and
architecture to their credit. Muslim advances in knowledge gave
stimulus to industry, agriculture, commerce and navigation. Al
though Muslims did not originate philosophical thought as they
originated scientific enquiry, some of their achievements in this
field were most remarkable. Muslim thought split up into a number
of schools, principal among! which were Mu'tazilism (Rational
Scholasticism), Asharism (Orthodox Scholasticism), Sufism (Mysti
24. For details see R.L. Gulick Jr.. Muhammad the Educator (Institute of Islamic
Cullure, Lahore, 1969.); A.M.A. Shushteiy, Outlines of Islamic Culture (Sh.
Muhammad Ashraf, Lahore, 1966.)
25. Robert Briffault, The Making o f Humanity, p. 191. (London, 1928.)
ISLAM
209
cism), and Hikmat (Scientific Philosophy). The first three schools

were not only bom of Islam, but also fostered and developed in the
cradle of that fafth. The last was, doubtless, influenced in its
inception by Hellenic culture, but here also Muslim philosophers - e.g., Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi, Ibn Maskawayh, Ibn Sina, IbnTufail and
Ibn Rushd -- impressed their individual stamp and exercised
considerable influence on the origin and development of European
philosophy.26
SUFISM
The first four Caliphs, who were elected as the heads of the
Islamic state after the passing away of the Prophet, were pious and
God-fearing men. They led a simple and pure life, as the Prophet
had done. They were completely devoted to the service of Islam and
the welfare and happiness of the people. But with the rise of the
Umayyads to power, luxury and corruption crept into the court
circles. The Umayyad rulers, with but few hpnourable exceptions,
led their lives and managed the affairs of the state in a manner
which was far from Islamic. Disgusted with the materialism and
corruption of the men in power, a large number of God-fearing and
righteous men withdrew from public life and devoted themselves to
self-perfection and cultivation of inner purity and sincerity. They
have been described by the Western writers as the ascetics' of
Islam. The common people turned to them for religious guidance
and inspiration for godly life. One of the earliest and most promi
nent among them was Hasan al-Basri (d. 728), an eminent theolo
gian and saint. Another was Kabia, perhaps the greatest woman
mystic and saint of the world. In her teaching she laid the greatest
stress on the love for God. Her prayer to the Divine Beloved was:
"O God! if I worship Thee in fear of Hell, bum me in Hell: and if I
worship Thee in hope of Paradise, exclude me from Paradise: but
if I worship Thee for Thine own sake, withhold not Thine Everlast
ing Beauty."27
It was among the 'ascetics' that mystical doctrines in Islam
made their appearance. But the Sufis (or Muslim mystics) declare
that Sufism is as old as Islam and that the Prophet himself was the
first Sufi. His religious experience, both in its form and content,
can be rightly understood only in the light of Sufism. The Sufi
writers quote verses of the Qur'an and sayings of the Prophet in
26. M. Saeed Sheikh, Studies in Muslim Philosophy (Pakistan Philosophical
Congress, I-ahore, 1962.)
27. Quoted by A.J. Arbeny in Sufism (George Allen and Unwin Ltd. London,
1950).
210
support of their doctrines and practices. Among the greatest of the

early Sufis were al-Muhasibi (781-837), Dhu'l-Noon the Egyptian
(d. 861), Abu Yazid (Bayazid) of Bistam (d. 875), al-Kharraz (d. 899),
al-Junaid of Baghdad (d. 910) and al-Hallaj. Some of these early
Sufis (the so-called "intoxicated mystics") were regarded with some
suspicion by the formal theologians (some of whom were, unfortu
nately, too literalistic and legalistic in their interpretation of relig
ion), and it was not until the elevt ith century of the Christian era
that a complete understanding was reached between the theologi
ans and the Sufis under the influence of the great theologian,
Ghazzali (d. 1111). His great reputation as a theologian and a u
thority on canon law (flqh) had caused him to be appointed a
teacher in the famous Nizamiyyah college in Baghdad, but his
study of philosophy led him into scepticism, and disgusted with the
arid pedantry of the formal theologians, among whom his life was
spent, at the age of fifty he fled from Baghdad, and became i
wandering dervish and lived a life of contemplation, practising th
forms of devotion of the Sufis. He thus regained his faith by the wav
of personal religious experience. Rejecting philosophy as a mean
of the attainment of truth, he accepts the fundamental principle
and practices of the Islamic faith on the ground of the personal ex
perience of their efficacy in bringing the believer into union witl
God; he lays special stress on the ethical aspect of mysticism anc
on the spiritual side of worship.28
Among the many general accounts of Sufism that appeared
during the tenth and eleventh centuries, mention may be made of
Kilab al Luma of Abu Nasr al-Sarraj (d. 988), Qut at Qiilub of Abu
Talib al-.Makki (d. 996). Al-Ta'amifJi-madhhab al-Tasawwuf of Abu
Bakr al-Kalabadhi (d. 1000), the Risala of al-Qushairi (d. 1074),
and KashJal-Mahjub of Hujwiri. With the 12th century comes the
foundation of the great Sufi Orders, the most important among
them being the Qadiriyah, founded by the great Mujaddid and
saint, Abdul Qadir Jillani (1078-1166); the Suhrawardiya, founded
by Shihab-ud-Din Umar bin Abdullah al-Suhrawardy (1144-1234);
the Chishtiya, founded by Khwaja Moin-ud-Din Chishti; and the
Maulawiya, founded by Jalal-ud-Din Rumi (d. 1237), perhaps the
greatest mystic poet of the world.
The Sufis speak of themselves as travellers or wayfarers, faring
updn a way (tdfiqa), which leads the traveller away from self to
begin with, from the carnal, self-indulgent self, and then, more and
*
28. W. Montgomery Watt (translator). The Fatih and Practice of Al-Ghazzali

(Geqrge Allen and Unwin); and Muslim Intellectual - A Study o f Al-Ghazzali,
also by Dr. Montgomery Watt (Edinburgh University Press).
(SLAM
211
nlore from any assertion of self or conscious regard of self. The goal
Dr destination is defined in various ways: as gnosis (ma'rifat), or as
union with God (visal iltihad), as vision of Him, in His unveiled
oeauty and glory, or again, as utter consumption in the fire of love,
or, simply, as perfection. The gist of the m atter seems to be deliv
erance from self by the alchemy of divine love, which takes man out
of himself and prompts him to consider himself as the servant of
^ U. In order to reach the goal a long process of training is required:
,ne Sufi literature describes several stages (maqcimat) through
//hich the wayfarer has to pass. The earliest of these constitute the
thical discipline of the Sufi - namely, conversion or repentance,
i enunciation, voluntary poverty, patience, abnegation of the per
sonal will in the will of God, trust in Him, and contentment, or the
State of one who pleases God and is always pleased with Him and
His ways. Their purpose is to set the disciple free from the tram
mels of the self, to dispose the soul to self-denial, sclf-transeendance, self-surrender. From another angle they may be said to aim
at a progressive purification of the soul, a testing and training in
purity of intention. The Sufi then experiences certain spiritual
states (ahwal), according as it may please God to bestow them
upon him. While the ethical stages (maqamai) are reached by the
tfi by his own personal endeavour (koshish), the spiritual Mates
(Chived) are due to supernatural attraction {kashislt). They are the
3 i Its of the divine grace and generosity to a soul stripped of all selfseeking and self-regard. So guided and favoured by divine grace,
f e Sufi may hope even in this mortal life to win a glimpse of
immortality, by passing away from self [fana) into the consciousr rss of survival in God (baqa). Thus Junaid of Baghdad says that
Sufism consists in this, that "the Lord causes you to die to yourself
e od to live in Him." In another place he writes: 'The arif (gnostic)
one from the depth of whose consciousness God speaks, while
i himself is silent.29
One of the most beautiful fruits of Sufism was the mystical
poetry of Persia, the great representatives of which were Sanai,
a 1tar, Rumi, Jam i and Hafiz. Their poetry breathes the spirit of
toleration and love for all and is the expression of the souls intense
longing for union with God. The following quatrains of Jalal-udDin Rumi (translated by A. J. Arberry) give expression to the
vorious experiences of the Sufi and are the outpouring of the
- iraptured soul:
Z i. Margaret Smith (editor). The Sufi Path o f Love (Luzac and Co., Ltd., London,
1954.)
212
As salt resolved in the ocean

I was swallowed in God's sea.
Past faith, past unbelieving.
Past doubt, past certainty.
Suddenly in my bosom
A star shone clear and bright;
All the suns of heaven
Vanished in that stars light.
2
Happy was I
In the pearl's heart to lie;
Till, lashed by lifes hurricane.
Like a tossed wave I ran.
The secret of the sea
I uttered thunderously;
Like a spent cloud on the shore
I slept, and stirred no more.
3
I sought a soul in the sea

And found a coral there;
Beneath the foam for me
An ocean was all laid bare.
Into my heart's night
Along a narrow way
I groped; and lo! the light,
An infinite land of day.30
The greatest work of Jalal-ud-Din Rumi is his vast poem (trans
lated by Professor R A Nicholson in three large volumes), the
Mathnawi which ranges over the entire field of Sufi speculation. It
is often described as the "Quran in Persian". In the words of
Professor A.J. Arberry, "As Ibn Arab! summed up and gathered into
a single system all that had been said on mysticism in Arabic before
him, so Rumi in his immortal mathnawi performed a like service in
Persian". The grand climax of the mathnawi according to Professor
Nicholson, are those lines in the third book where Rumi appears to
anticipate the Darwinian theory, and envisages a consummation of
30. A.J. Arberry (translator), The Rubaiyat oj Rumi (Emery Walker Ltd., London,
1949.)
ISLAM
213
all things in which the God-descended soul of Man returns at last

to its original and eternal Home.
I died as mineral and became a plant,
I died as plant and rose to animal,
I died as animal and I was Man.
Why should I fear? When was I less by dying?
Yet once more I shall die as Man, to soar
With angels blest; but even from angelhood
I m ust pass on: all except God doth perish.
When I have sacrificed my angel-soul,
I shall become what no mind e'er conceived.
Oh, let me not exist ! for Non-existence
Proclaims in organ tones. To Him we shall return.31
ISLAM AND OTHER RELIGIONS
The Qur'an describes God as "the Creator and Sustainer of the

worlds." He provides for the satisfaction, not only of the physical
needs, but also of the spiritual needs of humanity. Man needs
revelation from God to satisfy his religious hunger and to guide him
on the straight path in the journey of life. This need is obviously
felt by people all over the world. And so, the Quran says that God
has revealed Himself and sent His Messengers to men of every
country and every nation.
"There is not a nation but a wamer has gone among them"
(35:24).
"And every nation had an apostle" (10:47).
The Qur'an asks the Muslims to believe in the prophets and
inspired religious teachers of all the nations:
"Say: We believe in God and in that which has been revealed to
us, and in that which was revealed to Abraham and Ishmael and
Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and in that which was given to
Moses and Jesus, and in that which was given to all prophet^ from
their Lord: we do not make any distinction between any of them,
and to Him do we submit" (2:136).
It is obvious that many of the Biblical prophets have been
named and acknowledged here: others have been acknowledged by
the general affirmation that no people have been without a
Divinely-inspired apostle, and there is a clear indication in the
31. R-A. N icholson (tran sla to r).
Ltd, L ondon. iy ? 0 .)
R u m i:
P oet a n d
M y s tic
(George Allen a n d Unw in.
214
Quran that many of the prophets have not been named in thr
Book. T hus:
And certainly We sent prophets before thee: there are son e

th em th a t We have mentioned to thee and there are others vhor
We h ave not mentioned to thee" (40:78).
The Qur'an is not a book of history: it only mentions a*few o
the prophets - some Biblical (i.e., of the Israelite race) and s o it h
non-Biblical (i.e., of the races other than the Israelite) - as ex
amples. But it enjoins faith in the prophets of all the nations,
whet her m e n tio n e d by name or not. The Holy Prophet Muhammad
regarded Zaralhushtra, though he is not mentioned in the Qur'an,
as a Divinely-inspired prophet, and Zoroastrains as the "People
the B o o k (i.e. followers of a revealed religion). Similarly, oth<
religious teachers such as Krishna, Buddha. Confucius Lao T/.
Mo T zu , Socrates, etc. - will command the allegiance and reveram
o f the Muslims, as they all fall within the scope of thfe lir
1 hat
quoted.
T h e equal acknowledgment of religious teachers b y Islam <
a lso a p p a ren t from the fact that the Muslims do not call themselve
M u h a m m a d a n s. For, their attachment is rather to the purpose oi
G od th a n to the person of Muhammad. One who submits to th<
Divine purpose is a M u slim . Prophet Muhammad himself has beer
called a Muslim. Similarly, other prophets and their true followers

are Muslims and have been so called in the Qur'an.
As all the prophets received their guidance from the same God
---- the one and only G o d ------so the essentials of the messages
of all the prophets were the same. They taught the same religion
to their respective nations.
T h e s a m e religion has H e established for you (O Muslims) as
th a t w h ich H e enjoined upon Noah - and that which We have
revealed to th ee (Muhammad) - and that which We enjoined or
A brah am and M o ses a n d J e s u s - so, you should remain steadfas
in religion a n d m a k e n o d iv isio n s therein1' (42:13).
T h e fu n d a m e n ta l d o c tr in e s of the true religion as it was re
v ea led th ro u g h th e p ro p h ets, whenever a n d wherever they migl
h ave b e e n ra ised , w ere th e follow ing:
(1) Efelief in
the unity a n d g o o d n e ss o f God.
(?.) B elief th a t G od is a livin g God. an d s o reveals H im self to m a

and g u id e s h im to th e right p a th . H en ce -
ISLAM
215
(3) Belief in the prophets as the Messengers of God, and in the

Scriptures (in their original forms) as the Books of God.
(4) Distinction between good and bad, and mans obligation to
shun evil and do that which is right and good.
(5) Man's personal responsibility for his actions.
(6) The immortality of the soul and the life after death, when the
good and bad deeds of every man will become manifest.
Every one of the prophets said that the aim of religion was to
bring m an closer to God; true religion being submission to the will
and purpose of God and doing good to others. The moral teachings
of the prophets were very similar. The core of that teaching was the
golden rule: "No one of you is a believer until he loves for his brother
that which he loves for himself. If today the religions associated
with the names of t lie different prophets differ among themselves,
and from the fundamental doctrines mentioned above, it is because
of the following reasons;
(1) The messages of the prophets who came before Prophet
Muhammad have not come down to us in their pristine purity
----the revelations and inspired teachings of the prophets were not
written down in their life time; by the time they were written down
they had been intentionally or unintentionally distorted and al
tered in many ways by their respective followers; the Scriptures
were repeatedly revised and altered; greater reliance was placed on
the expositions of the religions by the later followers than on the in
spired sayings and teachings of the founder-prophets (as, on the
Epistles of Paul rather than on the genuine sayings of Jesu s in
Christianity).
(2) The missions of the prophets who had come before the
Prophet Muhammad were for their respective nations and times
only and not for the whole of mankind and for all ages - - - and
so, together with the fundamental and universal religious doc
trines, they also contained many things which were of only tempo
rary significance. The essentials were the same but the details
varied to suit the needs of each age and each nation.
The Prophet Muhammad revived the original message of the
earlier prophets and corrected the errors that had crept into their
religions due to the failure of their followers to hand them down in
their original purity. Thus the prophets of all the religions are the
prophets of Islam, and truths, whenever and wherever revealed, are
included in the Qur'an and are Islamic truths. But, while the
earlier prophets had come for their own nations only, the Prophet
216
Muhammad has come for all mankind : "We have not sent thee
(O Muhammad) but as a mercy to all the nations" (24:107). The
religions revealed to the earlier prophets were not complete and
final, being suited only for the needs of the age and nation for which
each was meant, but Islam is a complete and universal religious
system, providing guidance for all aspects of life and meeting the
religious and moral needs of all ages : "This day have I perfected for
you your religion and completed My favour on you and chosen for
you Islam as a religion" (5:3). Moreover, the Q uran was written
down in the lifetime of the Prophet and has come down to us
exactly as it was revealed to him by God.
How, then, does Islam stand in relation to the other religons?
First, Islam presents the heart and core of the earlier revealed
religions the undying essentials apart from later accretions
and emphases. The Prophet Muhammad rediscovered the original
purity and simplicity of the earlier revealed religions, the timeless
essentials that the earlier prophets had attempted to establish.
Secondly, the Prophet Muhammad universalised the content of
the teachings of the earlier prophets by outting out those that are
particularistic---- of value, meaning and significance for particu
lar nations and times only---- and by highlighting those of univer
sal significance..
Thirdly, Islam made clear what was vague in the other religions
and taught many truths which had not been revealed earlier, as the
time was not then ripe and those prophets were not sent for all
mankind and all ages - - - thus. Prophet Muhammad completed the
edifice of revealed religion.
Fourthly, whereas the earlier prophets had performed miracles
in support of the truth of their religions and to convince their
respecive peoples, Islam appeals to the faculty of reason in man
and asks him to observe the signs in nature and the lessons of
history. The qur'an encourages man to search for wisdom and for
truth, to use his intellect and to apply reason. Now miracles may
convince the few who actually witness them, but are of no value to
the succeeding generations of truth-seekers, reason and the signs
in nature, on the other hand, have universal validity. Muhammad
is the Prophet of the modem age and Islam is the religion of
humanity. By accepting the n-ophets of all faiths as true Messen
gers of God, Islam seeks to unite all religions in a single Universal
Religion.
SELEC T B IBLIO G RA PH Y
G ENERAL
1. History of Religion by Allan Menzies (John Murray. London, 1895).

2. A short History of Religions by E. E. Kellett (Pelican Book, Penguin
Books Harmondsworth. 1962)
3. The Religions of Man by Huston Smith (Mentor book. New York, 1959)
4. The Great Religions of the Modem World, edited by Edward J. Juiji
(Oxford University Press, 1947)
5. The Living Religions of the World (A Socio-Political Study) by Ahmad
Abdullah al-masdoosi (Begum Aisha Bawany Wakf, Karachi, 1962)
6. A Handbook of Living Religions, edited by J.R.Hinnels. Penguin books,
1985.
7. The Religious Experience of Mankind, by Ninian Smart. Fontana
Library. Glasgow. 1971.
8. Philosophy of Religion by David Elton Trueblood (Rockliff, London,
1957).
9. An Introduction to the Psychology of Religion by R. H. Thouless (Cam
bridge University Press. 1936)
10. The Varieties of Religious Experience by William James (The Modern
Library, New York)
11. On Religion by F. Schleirmacher (Harper Torchbooks, New York)
12. The Origins of Religion by Lord Raglan (The Thinker's Library, 1949)
13. The Euolution of the Idea of God by Grant Allan flhinkers Library,
London, 1931).
14. The Golden Bough (abridged), 2 vols: by James Frazer (Macmillan, New
York, 1959).
15. Primitive Culture (2 vols.) by E. B. Tylor (Harper Torch books. New
York, 1929)
16. The Future of ah Illusion by Sigmund Freud (Hogarth Press. London,
1962)
17. Mysticism in World Religions by Rev. Sidney Spencer (Pelican
Book, Harmondsworth, 1963.)
18. Mysticism - A Stuck; and an Anthology by F.C. Happold (Pelican Book,
Harmondsworth, 1963.)
19. Mysticism by Evelyn Underhill (Methuen & Co., London, I960)
20. The Teachings of the Mystics edited by W. T. Slace (Mentor Books, New
American Library. New York. 1960.)
21. Reign of Quality by Rene Guenon. (Reprinted. Suhaii Academy, Urdu
Bazar. Lahore.)
218
22. Crists of the Modem World by Rene Guenon, (Reprinted, Suhail

Acamedy, Lahore.)
23. The meaning and End of Religion; A New Approach to the Religious
Traditions of Mankind by W. Cantwell Smith (Mentor Books, New
American Library, New York, 1964)
24. The Transcendent Unity of Religions by Frithjof Schuon. (Faber and
Faber, London, 1953)
25. The World Gospel selected and translated by Duncan Greenlees
(Theosophical Publishing House, Adyar, Madras).
HINDUISM
1. Hindu Scriptures (Selections from the Rig Veda, the Atharva Veda, the
Upanishafls, and the complete Bhagvad Gita) translated by R. C.
Zaehner (Everyman's Library, London, 1966)
2. The Vedic Hymns translated by F. Max Muller (Sacred Books of the
East, Oxford, 1880)
3. Rigveda; A n Anthology, translated and edited by W. D. OFlaherty (Pen
guin Books, Harmondsworth, 1981)
4. The Satapatha Brahmana (5 Vols.) translated by Julius Eggling ffhe
Sacred Books of the East, Oxford, 1889)
5. The Upanishads translated by Swami Prabhavananda and Frederick
Manchester (Mentor book. New York, 1957)
6. The Bhagvad Gita, translated by Juan Mascara (Penguin Books, Har
mondsworth, 1962) .
7. The Laws ofManu translated by George Buhler (Sacred Books of the
East, Reprinted. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1967)
8. The Mahabharaia translated by C. Rajagopalachari (Bharatiya Vidya
Bha\ m, Bombay. 1951)
9. The Ramayana translated by C. Rajagopalachari (Bharatiya Vidya
Bhavan. Bombay. 1957)
10. Tales of Hindu Gods and Goddesses by Ethel Beswick (Jaico Books,
Bombay, 1960)
11. Hinduism, edited by Louis Renou (Washington Square Press Book",
New York. 1963)
12. Hinduism by K.M. Sen (Penguin Books, 1961)
13. The Essence of Hinduism by Swami Nikhilananda. (Beacon Press,
Boston, IMS.)
14. The Hindu View of life by S. Radhakrishnan (Unwin Books. London,
1927]
15. Sanatana Dharma by Annie Besant and Dr. Bhagwan Das (Theosophi
cal Publishing House, Madras. 1940)
219
S E L E C T B IB L IO G R A PH Y
16. The English Works o f Raja Ram Mohan Roy (B rah m o S a m a j, C alcu tta).
17. The Origin, Scope and Mission o j the A rya Sam aj b y G a n g a P rasad
U p a d h y a y a (Arya S am a j, C h ow k , A lla h a b a d , 1 9 5 4 )
18. The Complete Works o f Sw am i Vivekananda (A dvaita A sh ra m a , Alm ora).
19. The Religion o f the Hindus, e d ite d by K.W. M organ, R on ald P r e ss, N ew
York, 1 9 5 3 .
2 0 . Vedanta fo r the M odem man b y C h r isto p h e r Ish erw o o d (H arper an d
b ro th ers, N ew York. 1951)
2 1 . Indian Philosophy (2 V ols.)
U n w in , L on d on , 1923).
b y S . R a d h a k r ish n a n (G eorge
A llen &
2 2 . E ssentials o f Indian Philosophy b y M. H iriy a n n a (G eorge A llen & U n w in

L on d on , 19 4 8 .)
2 3 . The Philosophies o f India b y H ein rich Z im m er. (P a n th eo n B o o k s, N ew
Y ork, 19 5 1 .)
BUDDHISM
1. Buddhist Scriptures translated by Edward Conze (Penguin Classics
Harmonds worth 1959)
2. The Dhammapada translated by F. Max Muller, and The Sutta Nipala
translated by V. Fausball (Sacred Books of the East, Oxford, 1881)
3. The Dhammapada translated by N. K. Bhagwat (The Buddha Society,
Bombay).
4. The Gospel of the Buddha, selected and translated by Ducan Green
lees (Theosophieal Publishing House, Adyar, Madras).
5. the Gospel of Mahayana, selected and translated by Duncan Green
lees (Theosophieal Publishing House, Madras).
6. Some Sayings of the Buddha translated by F. L. Woodward (The
World's Classics, Oxford University Press, 1939)
7. The Teachings of the Compassionate Buddha edited by E; A. Burtt
(Mentor Book, New American Library, New York, 1955)
8. The Living Thoughts of Gautama the Buddha presented by Ananda
Coomaraswamy and I. B. Horner ( Die Living Thoughts Library,
Cassell & Co., London, 1948)
9. Gautama the Buddha by S. Radhakrishnan (Hind Kitabs, Bombay,
1945)
10. The Buddha by Trevor Ling (Penguin Books Harm/;; ds> -th. (976.)
11. The Life of the Buddha by L. Adams Beck (Collins Lc
..959
12. The Life of the Buddha a s Legend and History By E J. T n,;s t?i. A.
Knopf, xmdorij
220
13.
T H E GREAT RELIGIONS O F T H E WORLD
Buddhism, edited by R ichard A. C ard (W ashington S q u are P ress Book,

New York, 1963)
Buddhism by C h ristm as H um phreys (Penguin Books, 1951)

15. Buddhism : Its E ssen ce and Development b y Edw ard Conze (Harper
14.
Torchbooks, New York, 1959)
Early Buddhism b y T. W. Rhys D avids (Constable a n d Co., London).

17. An Introduction to Zen Buddhism by D. T. Sazukl (Arrow Books, Lon
16.
don, 1959)
18. What the Buddha Taught by Walpola Rahula, Evergreen ed Grove

Press New York, 1962).
Buddhist Ethics by A .H .S addhatissa (Allen a n d Unwin, London, 1970.)

20. Mahayana Buddhism b y B.L. S u zu k i (D. Marlowe, London).
21. Buddhist Philosophy - Theory and Practice by H.V. G u e n th e r (Pelican
19.
Book, H arm ondsw orth)

22. The
Light of Asia by Sir Edw in Arnold (Jaico Book, Bom bay, 1949)
SIKHISM
1.
Translation of the Adi Grcmlfi by Dr. G opal Singh D ardi (G ur D as

K apur, Delhi, 1960)
2. The Gospel of the Guru Granlh, selected and translated by Duncan

Greenlees (Theosophical Publishing House, Madras, 1952)
3. The Japji tra n sla te d by Teja Singh (The S ikh T ract Society, A m ritsar,
2 n d edition 1924)
Nanak by R aja S ir D aljit Singh (The Lion Press, Lahore. 1943)

5. The Life of Guru Nanak by K artar Singh (Singh B rothers, Mai Sewan,
4. G uru
A m ritsar, 1937)
6.
Guru Nanak and the Sikh Religion by W.H.McLeod. (C larendon Press,

Oxford, 1968.)
7.
The Life and Work of Guru Gobind Singh by B hagat
Lakshman Singh
(The T rib u n e P ress, Lahore, 1909)
Ten Masters by P u ra n Singh (Singh B rothers, Am ritsar).

9. The Growth of Responsibility in Sikhism b y Teja Singh (Shirdm ani
8.
G urdw ara P ra b a n d h a k C om m ittee, A m ritsar, 1928)

10. The Sikh Religion (6 Vols.) b y M. A. Macauliffe (C larendon Press,
Oxford. 1909)
11. The Sikh Religion b y Teja Singh (Hie S ikh P ublishing H ouse, J a b a lp u r,
1948)
12. The Sikhs; Their Religious Beliefs
(Routlege, London, 1978.)
and Practices by Cole a n d Sam ohl.
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
221
13. T he Q uintessence o f Sikhism b y Dr. G o b in d S in g h (S in g h B ro th ers,

A m ritsar).
14. Transformation o f Sikhism b y G o k u l C h a n d N a r a n g (N ew B o o k S o ciety ,
B om bay, 1960)
15. A History o f the Sikhs (2 V ols.) b y K h u sh w a n t S in g h (P rinceton U n iv er
s ity P r e ss, P rin ceto n , N .J; 1 9 6 3 -6 6 )
16. Evolution o f the K h a lsa (2 V ols.) b y I.B . B a n e r je e (M u k eijee & C o.,
C a lc u tta , 19 4 7 )
17. Influence o f Islam on Indian Culture b y Dr. T ara C h a n d (A llahabad
U n iv ersity , 1954)
ZOROASTRIANISM
1. Zend-Avesta translated by James Darmesteter (Sacred

East, Reprinted. Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi. 1965)
Books of
the
2. The Gospel of Zarathushtra, selected and translated b y Dun in

Greenleess (Theosophical Publishing H ouse, Madras).
3. Tiie C a l i tus of Zarathushtra translated by l.J.S. Taruporewula (7,

Vatchagandhi Road, Gamdevi, Bombay, 1947)
4. The Hymns of Zarathushtra translated with an introduction by Jaques
Duchesne-Ghillemin (Wisdom of the East series 1952)
5. Songs of Zarathushtra by Dastur Framroze Ardeshir Bode and Piloo
Nanavutty (George Allen and Unwin Ltd. London)
6. The Life and Teachings of Zoroaster h y A. R. Wadia (G. A. Natesan and
Co., Madras, 1938)
7. The Religion ofZarathushtra by l.J.S. Taraporewala (Theosophical Pub
lishing House. Madras, 1926)
8. Early Zoroastrianism by J.H. Moulton (Williams and Norgate, London
1913)
9. Zoroastrians; Their Religious beliefs and Customs, by M.Boyce, (Routlege, London, 1979.)
10. History of Zoroastrianism by M.N. Dhalla, (Oxford University Press).
11. Religious Ceremonies and Customs of the Parsis by J.J. Modi (Re
printed, Garland, New York, 1980)
,
12. Islam and Zoroastrianism by Khwaja K a m a l ud-Din (Woking Muslim
Mission and Literary Trust, Woking, Surrey, England, 1925)
CONFUCIANISM
1. Essential Works of Confucianism, edited by Chu Chai and Winberg

Chai (Bantam Book, New York, 1965)
222
2. The Sayings of Confucius, translated by James R Ware (Mentor Book,

New American Library, New York. 1955)
3. The Sayings oj Confucius, translated by Lionel Giles (Wisdom of the
East series, London)
4. The Analects of Confucius by Arthur Waley, (Allen and Unwin, London,
1938.)
5. The Wisdom of Confucius by Lin Yutang (Modern Library, New York)
6. The Living Thoughts of Confucius, presented by Alfred Doeblin (The
Living Thoughts Library, Cassell and Company, London, 1942)
7. Confucius by Shigeki Kaizuka (George Allen & Unwin, London)
8. Confucius and Confucianism by William Richard (Harcourt, Brace).
9. Confucius and the Chinese Way by H.G. Creel (Harper Torchbooks, New
York. 1960).
10. The Book of Mencius, translated by Lionel Giles (Wisdom of the East,
London)
11. Three ways of Thought in Ancient Chinn by A.Waley, (Anchor Book,
Doubleday, New York.)
12. A Short History ofConfucian Philosophy by Liu Wu-chi (Pelican Book,
Hannondsworth, 1955)
13. The Gospel of China, selected and translated by Duncan Greenless
(Theosophical Publishing House, Madras).
14. The Wisdom of China, edited by Lin Yutang (Michael Joseph, London,
1949)
15. Chinese Religion by L.G.Thomson (Wadsworth, Belmont, California,
3rd Edition, 1979.)
TAOISM
1. Tao Te Ching: The Way of life, translated by R.B. Blackney (Mentor

Book, New American Library, New York, 1955)
2. Tao Te Ching, translated by J.J.L. DuyvendakJWisdom of the East,
London).
3. The Sayings of Lao Tzu, translated by Lionel Giles (Wisdom of the East
series, London 9th edition, 1950)
4. The Musings of a Chinese Mystic (Selections from Chuang Tzu) trans
lated by Lionel Giles (Wisdom of the East series, London)
5. The Parting of the Way: Lao Tzu and the Taoist Movement (Beacon Press
Boston, 1957)
6. Taoist Teachings by Lionel Giles (Wisdom of the East series, London)
7. The Teachings of the Taoist Master Chuang by M.Saso, (Yale University
Press, 1978.)
223
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
JUDAISM
1. The Holy Bible: The Old Testam ent, Authorized Version (Collins).
2. The Gospel o f Israel, selected and translated by Duncan Greenless
(Theosophical Publishing House, Madras).
3. The Apocrypha, Revised Version (The World's Classics. Oxford Univer
sity Press, London, 1926)
4. The Talmud, translated by H.Polano (The Chandos Classics).
5. The Living Talmud: The Wisdom of the Fathers, translated by Judah
Goldin (Mentor Book, New York, 1957)
6. M oses by Martin Buber (Harper Torchbooks, New York)
7. The Prophetic Faith by Martin Buber (Harper Torchbooks).
8. The Thoughts o f the Prophets by Rabbi Israel I.Matluek (George Allen
& Unwin, London, 1953)
9. The W ay o f Israel by James Muilenburg (Routlege and Kegan Paul).
10. Judaism , edited by Arthur Hertzberg (Washington Square Press Book,
New York, 1963)
11. Ju daism - A Historical Presentation by Isidore Epstein (Pelican Books,
Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1959)
12. Jew s; Their Religious Beliefs and Practices by A. Unterman, (Routlege,
London, 1981)
13. History o f the J e w s by A. L. Sacher (A. A Knopf, New York, 1953)
14. God a n d Man in the Old Testam ent by Leon Roth (George Allen &
Unwin, London)
15. The Bible an d its Background, Vol. I (The Old Testament) by Archibald
Robertson (The Thinker's Library, London, 1942)
16. The Scrolls from the D ead Sea by Edmund Wilson (Fontana Books,
Collins 4th edition, 1960)
17. The Meaning o f the Dead Sea Scrolls by A. Powell Davies (Mentor Book,
New American Library, New York, 1956)
18. The W isdom o f Israel, edited by Lewis Browne (Four Square Book,
London, 1962)
19. Islam Versus Ahl al-Kitab (Judaism and Christianity) by Maiyam
Jameelah (Muhammad Yusuf Khan, Sant Nagar, Lahore.)
CHRISTIANITY
1. The Holy Bible, Authorized Version (Collins, London/Glasgow)

2 . The Neu) E nglish Bible: The NeuJ Testam ent, (Penguin C lassics, 1964.)
3. Good News Bible, Today's English Version (Collins/Fontana, 1976)
224
THE GREAT RELIGIONS O F THE WORLD'
4. The Gospel o f St. B arnabas, translated by Lansdale and Laura Ragg.

first published by Clarendon IVess, Oxford; 1907 reprinted by Aisha
Bawany Wakf; 8th edition, 1980).
5. A Life o f J esu s by E.J. Goodspeed (Harper Torchbooks, New York,
1956)
6. The life o f J e su s by Ernest Renan (The Modem Library).
7. The Life o f J e su s by C.J. Cadoux (Pelican Book, 1948)
8. J esu s in H eaven on Earth by Khwaja Nazir Ahmad (Woking Muslim
Mission, England / Lahore, 1952.)
9. J esu s lived in India by Holger Kersten (Element Books, Longmead,
Shaftsbnry, Dorset, 1986.)
10. Jesus and the Origins of Christianity by Maurice Goguel (Harper Torch,
books, New York)
11. The Bible an d its Background (2 Vols), by Archibald Robertson (The
Thinker's Library, London, 1942.)
12. In Search o f the Real Bible by A D. Howell Smith (Thinker s Library,
London 1943)
13. History of New Testam ent C riticism by F. C. Conybeare (Walts & Co.,
London)
14. B asic Bible Doctrines by R.E Harlow (Emmaus Bible School, Oak Park,
Illinois, 1972)
15. Myth o f God Incarnate, edited by John Hick, (SCM Press, London,
1977.)
16. The Sources o f Christianity by Khwaja Kamal-ud-Din (Woking Muslim
Mission, England, Lahore, 4th edition, 1934)
17. Christian Beginnings by Morton Scott Enslin (Harper Torchbooks, New
York, 1956)
18. The First Coming: How the Kingdom o f God B ecam e Christianity by
Thomas Sheehan (Vintage Books, Random House, New York, 1988.)
19. Earliest Christianity (2 Vols), by Johannes Weiss (Harper Torchbooks
New York)
20. Mere Christianity by C.S. Lewis (Fontana Books, Collins, Glasgow,
1955.)
21. Christianity, Past and Present by K. Guignebert (Macmillan).
22. What is Christianity? by Adolph Hamack (Harper Torchbooks, New
York)
23. The Truth o f Christianity b y W.H. Turton (Wells Gardner, Darton & Co.,
London, eight edition 1912)
24. Protestantism, edited by Leslie Dunstan (Washington Square Press
Book, New York, 1962)
.ELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
225
; Catholicism, edited by George Brantl (Washington Square Press Book,

New York, 1962).
'! Catholic Teaching by Rev. J.F. DeGroot (Hind Printing Works, Bombay,
1934)
7. 1New Catechism: Catholic Faith forAdults (Herder & Herder, NewYork,
1967
The New Theologian by Ved Mehta (Pelican Books, 1968)
Dogmatics in Outline by Karl Barth (Harper Torehbooks. New York)
Dynamics oj Faith by Paul Tillich (Harper Torehbooks New York)
Muhammad and Christ by Maulana Muhammad Ali (Ahmadiyya
Anjuman Isha'al-i-Islam, Lahore, Reprint. 1963)
' . Islam and Christianity by Khwaja Kamal-ud-Din (Woking Muslim Mis
sion. England).
L A Comparative Study of Christianity and Islam by Utfal Aziz-us-Samad
(Sh.M.Ashraf. Lahore, 1976.)
; L Studies in Islam and Christianity by Dudley Wright (Woking Muslim
Mission England.)
ISLAM
1. The Holy Quran, Arabic (ext, English translation and commentary by

Maulana Muhammad Ali (Ahmadiyya Anjuman lshaat-i-Islam, La
hore, 4th edition, 1951)
2. The Holy Quran Arabic text, English translation and commentary by
Abdullah Yusuf Ali (Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, Lahore, 3rd edition. 1938)
3. A Manual of Hadith, Arabic text, English translation and notes by
Maulana Muhammad Ali (Ahmadiyya Anjuman Isha at-i-lslam, La
hore).
4. The Sayings of Muhammad, translated by Sir Abdullah al-Mamun alSuhrawardy (Wisdom of the East series, London, 1945)
5. The Gospel of Islam, selected and translated by Duncan Greenless
(The Thosophieal Publishing House, Adyar, Madras. 1948)
6. The Ideal Prophet by Khwaja Kamal-ud Din (Woking Muslim Mission,
England, 4th edition, 1956.)
7. Muhammad the Prophet by Maulana Muhammad Ali (Ahmadiyya
Amjuman Isha at-i-Islam, Lahore second edition, 1933)
8. The Living Thoughts of the Prophet Muhammad, presented by Maulana
Muhammad Ali (The Living Thoughts Library, Cassell & Co., London,
1948)
9. The Eternal Message of Muhammad by Abd al- Rahman Azzam (Mentor
Book, New York. 1965)
226
10. The Prophet an d His M essage by Khalifa Abdul Hakim (Institute of

Islamic Culture, Lahore, 1972)
11. Muhammad the Educator by R. A. Gullick Jr. (Institute of Islamic
Culture, Lahore, 1953)
12. Muhammad in World Scriptures by Abdul Haque Vidyarthi (Ahmadiyya
Anjuman Isha at-i-Islam, Lahore, 1940)
13. Islam - Its Meaning fo r M odem Man by M. Zafrullah Khan (Routlege
and Kegan Paul, London, 1962)
14. The Teachings o f Islam by Mir/.a Ghulam Ahmad (Ahmadiyya
Anjuman Isha' at-i-Islam, Lahore, 6th edition, 1968)
15. The Religion o f Islam by Maulana Muhammad Ali (Ahmadiyya\njurnan
Isha' at-i-Islam, Lahore, fifth edition, 1983)
16. The Spirit o f Islam by Syed Ameer Ali (Christophers, London, 1935)
17. An Interpretation o f Islam by Laura Veccia Vaglieri (The Oriental and
Religious Corporation Ltd., Rabwah, 1957)
18. Understanding Islam by Frithjof Schuon (George Allen & Unwin, Lon
don, 1963)
19. Towards Islam by Khwaja Kamal-ud-Din (Woking Muslim Mission,
England).
20. Islam and Civilization by Khwaja Kamal-ud-Din (Woking Muslim
Mission, England).
21. Islamic Culture by Marmaduke Pickthall (Sh. Muhammad Ashraf,
Lahore).
22. Dimensions o flsla m by Frithjof Schuon (Reprinted by Suhail Academy,
Lahore.)
23. Islam and the Perennial Philosophy by Frithjof Schuon, (Suhail Acad
emy, Lahore.)
24. Islamic Life an d Thought by Sayyad Hussein Nasr (Reprinted by Suhail
Academy, Lahore.)
25. Islam an d the Plight o f M odem Man by Sayyad Hussein Nasr (Suhail
Academy, Lahore)
26. Science and Civilization in Islam by Sayyad Hussain Nasr (Suhail Acad
emy, Lahore.)
27.Outlines o f Islamic Culture by A. M. A. Shushtery (Sh. Muhammad
Ashraf, Lahore, 1966)
28. Muslim Thought - Its Origin and Achievement by M. M. Sharif (Sh.
Muhammad Ashraf, Lahore, reprinted, 1959)
29. Reconstmction o f Religious Thought in Islam by Dr. Muhammad Iqbal
(Sh, Muhammad Ashraf, Lahore, 1944)
30. Islamic Ideology by Khalifa Abdul H akim (In stitute of Islamic C ulture.
Lahore, third edition, 1965)
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
227
31. Islam - A Challenge to Religion by G. A. Pervez (idara Tulu-e-Isam,

Lahore, 1968)
32. Islam at the Crossroads by Leopold Weiss (Muhammad Asad)
(Sh.Muhammad Ashraf, Lahore. 1947)
33. Sufism by AJ. Arberry (George Allen & Unwin, London, 1950)
34. The Sufi Path of Love, compiled by Margaret Smith (Luzac & Co., Ltd.,
London, 1954)
35. An Introduction to the Sufi Doctrine by Titus Burckhardt (Sh. Muham
mad Ashraf, Lahore, reprinted, 1963)
36. The Legacy of Islam, edited by Sir Thomas Arnold and Alfred Guillaume
(Oxford University Press, 1931)
37. The Islamic Impact, Edited by Yvonne Yazbeck 1 laddad, (Syracuse
University Press, N ew York, 1984)
3b. The Bible, the Qur'an and Science by Maurice Bucaille (North American
Trust Publications, 1979)
39. Islam and its Contemporary Faiths by Professor Mahmud Brelvi (avail
able from Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, Lahore).
INDEX
A
A braham , 112,171,195,213,214
Advaita, 28,2 9 ,5 6
A hm ad, M irza G hulam , 153, 186,
196
A hura - M azda, 69,71,73,74,75,77,
78,79,175
Alexander, 78,118
Ali, M aulana M uham m ad, 185,201,
205
Allen, G rant, 2
Amos, Prophet, 116,117,124
Analects o f Confucius, 85 ft, 94,96
A natta (no-self), doctrine of, 39,44
Animism, 3 -4 ,7 ,8
A postles C reed, 153,165
Apocrypha, The, 128,129
A rjun, G uru, 62-63,67
A rnold, Sir Thom as, 49,50,195-196
Aryans, T he religion of, 12-14, 20,
69-70
Arya Samaj, 24,29
Asceticism, 1 2 ,1 4 ,1 7 ,2 0 ,3 2 ,3 3 ,3 4 ,
4 6 ,5 1 ,5 4 ,7 5 ,1 9 1 ,2 0 9
Asha, Path of, 75
Ashoka, 42,205
Asvaghosa, 3 5 ,4 2 ,4 7
A thanasian C reed, 162-163,165
Atman, 17
A tonem ent, Vicarious, 39, 76, 143,
160,163,166,168
Avesta, Zend, 69,71,81-82
B
Baptism, 143,150,163,166
146,158
Besant, Mrs. Annie, 19,21, 66,179
Barnabas, The Gospel of,
Bhagavata Religion, 18-19,20

1 8 ,1 9 ,2 0 ,2 3 ,2 4
Bible, The, 112, 124 ff, 143, 146 ff,
148,150,153,167,169,213,214
Bodbisattva, 45
Bhagavad Gita,
B rahm a (the H indu C reator-G od),

22,23,187
Brahm an (the Suprem e Being, the
A bsolute), 1 6 ,1 7 ,2 2 ,2 3 ,3 0 ,4 0
Brahmanas, The (H indu sacred
Books,
Scriptures
of
Brahminism), 15,20
B rahm ins (H indu priestly caste), 14,
1 5 ,1 6 ,2 7 ,2 8 ,3 1 ,3 8
Brahminism, 1 4 ,15,16,18,20,31,46
Brahmo-Samaj, 29
B u d d h a : India at the time of, 31-32;
life of, 32-35; teachings of,
36-41; preached return of good
for evil, 38; abolished caste
system, 38; rejected vicarious
atonem ent, 39; on the Self, 39;
on G od, 39-41; deified, 42; in
T heravada Buddhism, 44; in
M ahayana Buddhism, 45; a true
prophet, 214
Buddhacarita, 35,42
Buddhism : a universal religion, 31;
founder of, 32-35; the M iddle
Way, 36; Four Noble Truths, 36;
Eightfold Path, 36-37; the
gospel of peace and love, 38;
history of, 41-44; sects of, 44-46;
scriptures of, 46-48; influence
on Taoism, 110 - 111; in seventh
century (at the birth of Islam),
175
230
c
Cadoux, C. J , 144-145,146,147,148
Calvin, John, 166,168 -169
Caste System, 14, 15, 27-28, 31, 39,
49,51,58, 59
Catholicism, 146,161, 163,164-167,
168,169,170
Christ, sec Jesus
Christian Beginnings, 141, 149, 154,
156,159
Christianity: Scriptures of, 143-147;
reputed founder of, 148- 153;
history of, 158-172; religion of
Paul, 159-161; deification of
Jesus in, 158-162; Jesus as
Divine Saviour in, 159, 160;
doctrine
of Logos,
161;
Original sin, 160,163,166,169;
Atonement, 160, 163,166,168;
Trinity, 162-163, 166, 172;
Apostles Creed,
152-153;
Nicene
Creed,
161-162;
Athanasian Creed, 162- 163;
Baptism, 163, 166; Eucharist,
163,166; pagan influence on,
161, 163-164; sects of, 164-172;
in the seventh century (at the
birth of Islam), 176
ChuangTzu, 105-109
Confucius: China at the time of, 83;
life of, 84-85; character of, 85;
teachings of , 85-88; ethical
monotheist, 85; on man, 86- 87;
deified, 93-94; comparison with
Lao Tzu, 97
Confucianism: founder of, 84 85;
humanism H6-87; ethics of.
57,90; political principles of,
87-88, 90-91; history of 88-89,

92-94; as taught by Mencius ,
89-91; Hsun Tzu, 91-92; TUng
Chung-shu,
92-93;
sacred
books of, 94-96; relation with
Taoism, 97; in seventh century
(at the birth of Islam), 175
CoomaraswamVj Ananda, 32,40
Cyrus, 76,117,205
D
David, 115, 116, 119, 121, 126, 127,
135
Davids, Mrs. Rhys, 36, 39
Dhammapada, The, 38ff., 47
Dharma (Dhamma), 24, 25, 26, 27,
28,33, 34, 42, 44
Doctrine of the Mean, 89,96
Dravidians, The religion of, 10-12,
20
Dualism, 74-75,77,133,175
Durkheim, Emile, 4
E
Elijah, Prophet, 116
Enslin, Morton Scott, 141, 149, 154,
156,159
Epistles, The, 143-144,153,160,167,
168,215
Essenes, 120-121,142,150
Essential Works of Confucianism ,

8 9 ,9 0 ,91,92
Eucharist (rite of eating the flesh
and drinking the blood of a
saviour-god), 7, 143, 163,
166,168
Evolution o f the Idea o f God, 2ff

Ezekiel, Prophet, 124,126,128
Ezra, 118,125,129
INDEX
231
F
Frazer, Sir James, 3
Freud, Sigmund, 5
Future of an Illusion, 5
G
Gathas, The, 69,71,73-74,76,79,81

Ghazzali, Imam, 210
Gemara, The, 130,135
G od: and ghost - worship, 2,7,8; and
spirits of nature, 3-4, 12, 23,
69-70, 77, 78, 83, 175;
humanised
nature
5;
father-image, 5; deified king, 6,
7; and sacrificial victims, 6-7,
160; saviour-gods, 7, 142-143,
159; High Gods, 7; unity of, 8,
13-14, 16, 18-19, 21, 23, 29, 50,
55-56, 70, 73, 83, 99, 106, 112,
133,154,172,175,178,187-189,
193,214; Dravidian conception
of, 10-11; Vedic conception of
12-14; in the Upanishads, 16-17;
in Bhagavad Gita, 19; Hindu
conception of, 21- 24; different
paths to, 25-26; Brahmo Samaj
conception, 29; Arya Samaj
conception,
29;
Buddhist
conception,
39-40;
in
Mahayana
Buddhism,
45;
Kabirs conception, 50-51;
Nanaks conception, 55- .57;
Zoroasters conception, 73-75;
in later Zoroastrianism; 77;
Confucius' conception, 85-86,
Lao Tzus conception,98-100;
Jewish conception, 133-134;
Jesus
conception,
154;
Christian conception, 162-163;
Calvins
conception,
169;
Unitarian conception, 172;

Islamic conception 185-188;
Islamic conception compared
with those of other religions,
187-188
Golden Bough, The, 3
Gospels, T*he, 143-147,149,152
Granlh, TheAdi, 53,60,62,64,66,67
H
Heaven, 25,39,76,82,120,134,143,
163,166
Hell, 25,39,76,82,120,134,143,152,
155,156,166,172,176
Herod*, King, 119,144
Hinayana (Theravada), 41,42,44-45
Hinduism : a syncretic faith, 10, 20;
Dravidian religion, lOff, 20;
Aryan religion, 12 ff, 20;
sacrificial rites in, 13,15,16,19,
20; Brahminism, 14-15, 20;
religion of the Upanishads, 15ff;
Bhagavata
religion,
18ff;
emergence as an eclectic faith,
20ff; religion of Indian
aborigines, 20; conception of
God in, 21-24; transmigration
in, 24-25; the three paths
(tnaigas or yogas), 25- 26; the
four ashramas, 26; caste system,
27-28; orthodox sects of, 28-29;
modern sects of, 29-30;
confrontation with Buddhism,
31, 43; in the sixth century B.C.
(at the birth of Buddhism), 3132; rejected by Nanak, 52,
53-54, 56, 57,59; in the seventh
century (at the birth of Islam),
175
232
T H E G RE A T RELIGIONS O F T O E W ORLD
Hiriyanna, Professor M., 15,18

Hocart, A.C., 5-6
Hosea, Prophet, 116
Humphreys, Christmas, 36
I
Idolatry (image-worship), 12,14,20,
29,42,51,54,57,59,75,93,115,
116,117,130,135,166,176,177,
178
Incarnation, 7,12,14, 18, 20, 45,51,
56,133,160,161,162,187
Indra, 12,13,32,69
Isaiah, Prophet, 117,124-125,126
Islam: a universal religion, 173,216;
religion of all prophets, 173,
213- 214; significance of the
name, 173-174; all prophets
taught the same religion, 174,
214- 215; religions of the world
at the time of the birth of,
174-177; Muhammad, the last
prophet of, 173, 177-184, 193;
the scripture of (the Quran),
184- 185; conception of God in,
185- 188; compared with those
of other religions, 187-188;
conception of man in, 188-190;
idea of the world in, 191; human
brotherhood,
191-192; no
priesthood in, 192; Five Pillars,
193-1%; ethics of, 196-201;
political principles of, 201-202;
economic
principles
of,
202-204; status of women in,
204- 205; marriage in, 205;
contribution to civilization,
205- 209; faith and reason,
206- '>07;
contribution
to
science,
207-208;
Sufism,
209-213; relation to other
religions, 213-216, influence on
Hinduism, 29, 50; influence on
life and thought of India, 49- 50;
influence on Sikhism, 58-61;
relations with Zoroastrians, 80;
relations with Jews, 122-123;
influence on the west, 208
Israel, 112 ff, 123-124,131 ff, 214
J
52,53,54, 55,67
J a p ji, The, 55 ff, 67
Jehovah, see Y ah w eh
Jehovahs witnesses, 171-172
Jeremiah, Prophet, 117,124,126,171
Jesus: historicity questioned, 32,97,
147,148; Jews at the time of the
birth of, 141-142; rejected by
Jews, 121, 151-152; sources of
our knowledge of, 143-147;
birth of, 148-149; life of,
148-153; miracles of, 150;
crucifixion of, 152-153; death
of, 153; teachings of, 153-158;
did not found a new religion,
153-154; a prophet, 151,
156-158; a messenger of God to
the
Israelites,
156-157;
disclaimed divinity, 157; son of
God in a metaphorical sense,
157; Son of Man, 157-158;
followers
first
called
Nazarencs,
158;
deified,
158- 162; made a saviour-god,
159- 160; religion of, contrasted
with that of Paul, 160; made the
incarnation of Logo' 161;
J a n a m sa k h is,
233
INDEX
controversies about the nature

of, 161-162; in Nicene Creed,
162; as one of the Divine Trinity,
162; a Muslim Prophet,
213-214.
J e s u s o r P a u l (by Arnold Meyer), 160
Jews : history of, 112-124; rejeeted
Jesus,
121; in Christian
countries, 122-123; relations
with Muslims, 122-124; of the
dispersion (diaspora), 128,
141-142,159. 161; at the time of
Jesus birth 141-142; in the
seventh century (at the time of
the birth of Islam), 175
Job, 124,127-128
John the Baptist, 150, 171
Jonah, 124,126
Judaism ; significance of the name,
117; sects of, 119-121, 142;
scriptures of, 124-130; essence
of, 130-131; concept of Chosen
People, 131-132; conception of
God in. 133-134; other basic
doctrines of, 134-135; ethics of,
135-136; laws of, 136-138;
sacrificial rituals of, 138-139;
festivals and ceremonies of,
139-140; at the time of Jesus
birth, 141-142; at the time of the
birth of Islam, 175
K
Kabir, 50-52,57,67
Kali, 23, 29
Karma, the doctrine of, 24-25,26,28
Khalsa, 65,66
K in g sh ip , 5-6
King-worship, 6 ,7 ,8
Krishna : 18-19, 20, 22, 31, 97, 175,

187,191,214
L
Lakshmi, 22, 28
Lang, Andrew, 7
Lao T/u ; historicity questioned. 32,
97; life of, 97-98; teachings of,
98-105: preached return of
good for evil, 102; love tor all,
is >2; condemned wars, 103-104
Logos, doctrine ol, 142, 161
Luther, Martin, 166-108
M
18, 20, 22,64
Mahayana, 41,42,43, 45-46, 47, 187
M a k in g o f H u m a n ity, T h e (by Robert
Briffault), 208
Man, nature of, 24-26, 44-45, 58,76,
86-87, 90, 91-93, 104, 134, 160,
168,169,189-190
Mazda, sec A h u r a -M a z d a
M e a n in g o f th e D e a d S e a S c ro lls, 120,
121, 146,147
Mencius, 8 9 - 9 1
Messiah, 119,121,135,142,151,153,
157,158,189
Micah, Prophet, 117
Middle Path, 17,19,36,96,191
M ish n a , The, 122,129-130,132
Monasticism, 39,45,51,75,165,191;
see also, a sc e tic is m
Monotheism, 2,7,8,13,14,16,18,19,
20,29, 50, 55 73, 77,79,83,85,
99,112,114, 116,133,154,178,
187, 189. 195, 214; see also,
M a h a b h a r a ta , The,
G o d , u n ity >f
Mormons, 170-171
:3 4
T H E G REA T RELIGIONS O F T H E W ORLD
Moses, Prophet, 112-113, 116, 117,

118,121,124,125,129,130,134,
140,154,158,160, 171,213,214
Muhammad, Prophet : last of the
prophets, 174, 193; historical
prophet, 177; life of, 177-182;
love for mankind, 177,182-183;
preached faith in one God and
service to fellowmen, 178; led a
simple life, 180; social reforms
of, 180-181; defensive wars of,
181-182;
freedom
of
conscience,
181;
forgave
enemies, 181-182; character of,
182- 184; greatest man of
history, 183-184; teachings of,
185-207; prophet for all
mankind, 193, 216
Muller, Max, 13, 70
Mystery Cults, 142-143, 159-160
O
Old Testament, 124, 128, 157; see
N
Nagarjuna, 42, 47
Nagasena, 42
Nanak, Guru: a sufi saint, 52,61; life
of, 52-55; did not found a new
religion, 53, 61; rejected
Hinduism, 52, 53-54, 56-59;
teachings of, 55-58; affinity with
Islam, 58-61
Nazarenes, 146,158,161
Nehru, Jawaharlal, 21,149-150
Neo-Confucianism, 94
New Testament, 143, 147, 161, 168;
see also G o s p e ls and E p istle s
Nicene Creed, 161-162,165
Nirvana, 34,41,44,45-46
Noshirvan (Khusrav I), 79-80
Ouran,The, 52,60-61,153,174,181 ff
a ls o J u d a is m , sc r ip tu r e s o f
O rig in s o f R elig io n , The,
Orthodox Church, 166'
P
Parsis, 78,80
Parvati, 23,28
Paul, 41,145,159-161,167,215
Pharisees, 119-120, 142, 151, 154,
155-156
Philo, 141-142,161
Polytheism, 2,7,12,23,31,32,49,69,
70,73,112,117,133,134,188
Prajapati, 13
P re a c h in g o f Isla m , 49,50,1%
Predestination, 120,168,169
P rim itiv e C u ltu re, 3
Protestantism, 166-172
R
Rabia, 209
Radha, 22, 28
Radhakrishnan, 5,13,14,32
Raglan, 1 ord, 6-7
R a m a y a n a , The, 22,64
Religion : natural, 1 ff; origin of, 2 ff;
and anthropology,2ff; and
ancestor-worship, 2, 7, 26, 69,
77,83,175; and magic, 3,7; and
psychoanalysis, 5; a historical
phenomenon, 5ff; and kingworship, 6; and sacrificial rite
(blood sacrifice), 6-7,13,15,16,
19,20,23,69,75,78,81,83,116,
121,138-139,160; man-made, 8;
INDEX
revealed, 8-9; Dravidian, 10-12;

Vedic, 12-14; Brahminic, 14-15;
Upanishadic, 15-17; of Krishna
(Bhagavata Dharma), 18-19; of
Indian aborigines, 20-21; of
Hinduism, 20-30; of Buddha, 36
ff; of Kabir, 50-52; of Guru
Nanak, 55 ff; of Zarathushtra,
72 ff; of Confucius, 85 ff; of Lao
Tzu, 98 ff; Jewish (Judaic), 130
ff; of Jesus, 153-158; of Paul,
159-161; Christian, 163-164;
Islamic, 173 ff
Renon, Louis, 23-24
Resurrection, 2, 120, 134, 152-153,
166
Roy, Raja Ram Mohan, 29
Rta, 13,75
Rumi, Jalaluddin, 210,211-213
S
Sabbath, 131,139,152,155,172
Sacrifices (sacrificial rites), 4,6-7,8,
13,15,16,19, 20, 23, 31, 69, 70,
75, 78, 81, 83, 116, 117, 121,
138-139,151,160,171
Sadducees, 119-120,142,151,154
Samaritans, 132,142
Sangha, 44,45
Sarasvati, 22,28
Sarasvati, Swami Dayanand, 28
Sariputra, 41
Saviour, 7, 39, 76, 86, 93, 142,
143, 159 ff.
Schmidt, Pater W., 7-8
Shaivism, 28
Shakta sect, 28-29
Siddhartha, sec Buddha
Sikhism: religious life in India at the
235
tim e' of the birth of, 49-52;

reputed founder of, 52-55;
conception of God of, 55-57;
different from Hinduism, 56,
57- 58, 59; affinity with Islam,
58- 61; rapproachement with
Hinduism, 61; ten Gurus of,
62-66; history of, 61-66;
transformation into a military
sect, 63-66;
Khalsa, 65; scriptures of, 67
Sin Original, 76, 86, 134, 160, 163,
166,168,169,176,190
Singh, Guru Gobind, 64-66,67
Singh, Khushwant, 58-59,63,66
Singh, Raja Sir Daljit, 55,59
Singh, Teja, 56,64,65
Shiva, 10,20, 22-23, 28,187
Solomon, 115-116,124,126-127,141
Smith, Joseph, 170-171
Spirit of Islam, The, 192
Sudras, 14,27,31
Sufism, 49-50,52,54,209-213
Sutta Nipata, 33,47
T
Tagore, Rabindranath, 29,38
Talmud, The, 129-130,132,136; see
also Mishna and Gemara
Tao, 75,98
Tao Te Ching, 75,98 ff
Taoism:
compared
with
Confucianism, 97; founder of,
97-98; concept of Tao, 98 ff 105;
doctrine of Wie-wu-wie, 102,
105, 108;doctrine of love and
service, and return of good for
evil, 102-103; against war,
103-104; against too much
236
government, 104- 105; message

of return to nature, 104-107;
Chuang Tzus exposition of,
105-109; history of, 109 ff;
contact with Buddhism, 110; in
the seventh century (at the birth
of Islam), 175
Taraporewala, IJ.S., 70-71, 74-75,
79,80
Thcravada, see Hinayana
The Teachings of Islam, 186, 196
Vie Teachings of the compassionate

Buddha, 38
Torah, The, 114, 120, 122, 124-125,
129,134,135,136,139,155
Toynbee, Arnold, 192
Transmigration, 12, 20,24-25,39,45
Trimurti, 22,187
Trinity, 22, 23, 56, lit), 133,162-163,
166,172, 176
Tripitaka, 41,46, 47
Tylor, Sir E.B., 3-4
U
Unitarians, 169,172
Untouchables, 27-28
Upanishads, The, 15-17, 19, 20, 24,
25,30,31,40,175
V
Vaishnavism, 18,28
Varuna, 13
Vedas, Vie, 12 ff, 15, 16, 19, 20, 29,
30, 31,60,69
Vishnu, 18, 20,22, 23, 28,187
Vishtaspa, 72,76, 78
Vivekananda, Swami, 23,30
W
Wadia, A.R., 72,75-76,77,78
T l IE G RE A T RELIGIONS O F T H E W ORLD
Wells, H.G., 159-160

Wisdom of Israel, 122
Wisdom of the Fathers, 129

Y
Yahweh (Jehovah), 114 ff, 116, 117,
125,131,132,133-134
Yoga, 11,12,14,19, 24,54,109
Young Brigham, 171
Z
Zarathushtra; Iran at the time of the
birth of, 69-70; life of, 70-72;
against aggressive wars. 72;
teachings of, 72-76; preached
ethical monotheism, 73-74; did
not preach dualism, 74-75;
ethics of, 75-76; a Muslim
prophet, 214
Zealots, 120,121,142,151
Zen, 43,46,94
Zend A vesta, see A vesta
Zionism, 123
Zoroaster, see Zarathushtra
Zoroastrianism : founder of, 70-72;
essence of, 73-74; conception of
God of, 73-74; dualism, 74-75,
77; path of Asha, 75; ethics of,
75- 76; later form and history of,
76- 80; contact with Islam, 80;
ceremonies
of,
80-81;
scriptures of, 81 82; in the
seventh century (at the time of
the birth of Islam), 175
Z w in g li, U lr ic h , 168

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MRS.

ULFAT AZIZ - US - SAMAD

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED WITH PUBLISHERS

First Published in 1976

JAYYED PRESS, BALLIMARAN, DELHI.

About the Author

Christianity and Islam, was published by Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, Lahore, in

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

The first edition of the Great Religions of the World was

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

Religious consciousness seems to be ingrained in hum an

THE GREAT RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD

so-called spirits of trees and rivers, worship of the tombs of the

elevated by his worshippers to divine rank (after his death) and

THE GREAT RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD

knew by experience that his body did not go on these excursions,

Sigmund Freud, the famous founder of Psycho-analysis, also

THE GREAT RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD

"The earliest known religion is a belief in the divinity of kings.

A.C. Hocart,Kingship. (The Thinker's Library, London 1941).

compelled to take his place, and be sacrificed. He would then

Andrew Lang, The Making of Religion. London, 1998

THE GREAT RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD

derived the origin of religion".9

The Dravidians had reached a very high level of civilization

THE GREAT RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD

There is also evidence among the Indus Valley people of phallic

K.M. Sen, Hinduism, Penguin Books, p. 18.

3. S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, Vol I, p. 26 (George Allen and Unwin,

J'lIE GREAT RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD

monotheistic yearning was satisfied, even though the existence of

With the passage of time the Indian Aryans advanced beyond

time an almost divine status and honour and gave rise to an

The next phase in the development of religious thought in India

THE GREAT RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD

The inspired sages of the Upanishads condemned the Brahmin

"Unmanifest to the senses, beyond all thought, infinite in form,

He is both transcendent and immanent; not only in the uni

THE GREAT RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD

THE RELIGION OF SRI KRISHNA

We now come to the second great religious movement that

Richard Garbe, Philosophy o f ancient India (Open Court, Chicago, 1899).

Like the inspired Rishis of the Upanishads. Sri Krishna also

THE GREAT RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD

THE EMERGENCE OF HINDUISM

India is a land of many races, cultures and religions. We have

It is sometimes said that Hinduism is a store-house of all kinds

In Hinduism, as stated earlier, there is absolute freedom in

THE GREAT RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD

this school of thought do not define the one Ultimate Reality, or

symbol is Linga or Phallus. His wife is Parvati; Durga and the

THE GREAT RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD

If he faithfully performs his duty, his dharma, in this life, he will

Hinduism believes that there are different paths to God for

THE GREAT RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD

emotions is drawn towards one or more of the personal gods. He

THE CASTE SYSTEM

The Hindu Scriptures (Shruti) and law books (Dharma Shastra)