19 Hazard Psychosocial PDF

Psychosocial Hazards
and
Occupational Stress
OHS Body of Knowledge

Psychosocial Hazards and Occupational Stress
April, 2012
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April, 2012

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Work impacts on the safety and health of humans who work in organisations. Organisations are
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safety and health of people at work. The OHS professional applies professional practice to
influence the organisation to being about this improvement.

April, 2012
This can be represented as:
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April, 2012

Krsten A Way B.OccThy, B.A (Psych Hons), CPE, MAPS.
School of Psychology, University of Queensland.
k.way@psy.uq.edu.au
Krsten is an Organisational Psychologist, Occupational Therapist and Certified
Professional Ergonomist who specialises in how worker and group-level psychology
can affect occupational health and safety. She has been integral in determining and
implementing government policy in work-related psychological injury and has over
15 years experience investigating work-related injury or illnesses specifically due to
occupational stress, workplace bullying, human factors and ergonomics, both in
Australia and overseas. As well as working in private practice, she has worked in
various positions for the OHS regulator both in Queensland and the United Kingdom.
She is currently conducting research as part of her PhD studies at the University of
Queensland and has published on the role of supervisors in conflict. She has been
working collaboratively on research to develop a risk assessment tool for
occupational stress and bullying with The University of Queensland and The
Australian National University.
Peer reviewer
Bill Pappas BBSc, BA, BEd, DipTeaching, MVocCouns
Organisational Psychologist
National Coordinator, Australian Psychological Society, Occupational Health
Psychology Interest Group

Core Body of
Knowledge for the
Generalist OHS
Professional
April, 2012
Core Body of Knowledge for the Generalist OHS Professional

Abstract
Exposure to work-related psychosocial hazards is escalating in todays 24-hour society,
which is increasingly dominated by knowledge work. This chapter the first of three
chapters focused on psychosocial hazards introduces the topic and provides an overview
of key concepts related to psychosocial hazards. It presents a framework of twelve work
stressors that increase the risk of injury/illness: time pressure; cognitive demands;
emotional demands; hours of work; poorly defined work roles; conflict; poorly managed
change; violence and aggression; lack of job control; lack of supervisor and/or co-worker
support; organisational injustice; and inadequate reward and recognition. The riskassessment process for psychosocial hazards is outlined and implications for Occupational
Health and Safety (OHS) practice are discussed.
Keywords:
psychosocial, occupational stress, stress, mental health, work stressors

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Contents
Introduction................................................................................................................1
1.1
Definitions ...........................................................................................................2
Historical context .......................................................................................................3
Extent of the problem .................................................................................................4
Understanding psychosocial hazards ..........................................................................5

4.1
Occupational stress and worker health and wellbeing ...........................................5
4.2
Psychosocial hazards and organisational outcomes ..............................................8
4.3
Psychosocial risk factors/work-related stressors: An illustrative framework .........9
4.4
Psychosocial risk factors/work-related stressors explained ................................. 10
4.5
Individual differences ........................................................................................ 14
4.6
Risk assessment for psychosocial hazards .......................................................... 15
Risk control.............................................................................................................. 19
Implications for OHS practice .................................................................................. 23

6.1
High-risk occupations ........................................................................................ 23
6.2
Interactions between psychosocial hazards and HR practices, IR matters and line-
management skills ........................................................................................................ 23

6.3
Return-to-work implications .............................................................................. 23
........................................................................................................................................ 24
6.4
7
Workers with mental illness ............................................................................... 25
Summary.................................................................................................................. 25
Key authors and thinkers .................................................................................................. 25

References ....................................................................................................................... 26

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Introduction
During the last twenty years, risk management of work-related psychosocial hazards has
been a significant growth area within the Occupational Health and Safety (OHS)
discipline, both in Australia and internationally. Psychosocial hazards are poised to eclipse
many other hazards in terms of direct and indirect costs, contribution to ill health, and
importance to businesses and their undertakings. Furthermore, the regulatory space now
clearly encompasses psychosocial hazards with the national model Work Health and Safety
Act (Safe Work Australia, 2011a) specifying a definition of health that includes physical
and psychological components (WHSA s 4).
Psychosocial hazards pose a unique challenge to OHS professionals. This challenge is

fuelled by the complexity of research findings, high media interest, the limitations of
regulations, unique skills required by professionals working in this area, industry
perceptions of the issue, and the often cumulative nature of injury or illness outcomes that
are not proximal to one particular workplace event. Despite this, these hazards can and
should be managed in the same manner as any other OHS hazard. One of the defining
characteristics of psychosocial hazards is their interface with the very core of work,
including how work is designed and operationalised through management and human
resource practices. This means the reach of the hazard can be long with tentacle-like
influence on many aspects of the workplace through the nature of work demands, the
behaviours of individual workers and managers, and organisational policies.
It is somewhat difficult to consider psychosocial hazards without a concomitant focus on

mental health; however, it would be grossly erroneous to believe that controlling these
workplace hazards is relevant only to mental health. In fact, it is the physical health
outcomes that were first recognised by researchers and that still loom large in terms of
recognised health outcomes from exposure to work-related psychosocial hazards (see
section 4.1). As well as physical and mental health outcomes, psychosocial hazards can
have a negative impact on worker behaviours, on organisational outcomes such as
engagement, absenteeism, turnover and productivity, and on team cohesion and team
performance. Also, it has been recognised that psychosocial hazards can delay recovery
from work-related injury/illness and therefore can influence return-to-work outcomes. This
chapter provides an introduction to psychosocial hazards and, in particular, to work-related
stress. Two related chapters address the psychosocial hazards of fatigue and of bullying,
aggression and violence.1
See OHS BoK Psychosocial Hazards: Fatigue and OHS BoK Psychosocial Hazards: Bullying, Aggression
and Violence.
1

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1.1
Definitions
1.1.1 Psychosocial hazards

Broadly, the term psychosocial refers to the interrelationships between individuals
thoughts and behaviours, and their social environment. In literature outside the OHS field,
this term often refers to social environments such as family of origin, socioeconomic status
and level of education. Whilst it is important to be aware of individual and non-work
psychosocial factors, in the OHS context psychosocial hazards have come to refer only to
hazards created by work and the work environment. A key international policy document
PRIMA-EF Guidance on the European Framework for Psychosocial Risk Management
(Leka & Cox, 2008), which is part of the World Health Organizations Protecting
Workers Health Series states:
Work-related psychosocial risks [sic] concern aspects of the design and management of work and its
social and organisational contexts that have the potential for causing psychological or physical harm
(Leka, Giffiths & Cox as cited in Leka & Cox, 2008, p. 1).
Although psychosocial hazards is a term often used in policy documents both in Australia
and internationally, it is most useful as a broad reference to more specific occupational
hazards such as stress, bullying or harassment, occupational violence and fatigue.
1.1.2 Occupational stress

The definition of stress has been the subject of much academic and public debate.
Although the term has been expected to support an immense breadth of meaning (and
resultant research variability), it is now possible to draw the divergent threads together to
outline the key defining characteristics of occupational stress, which stem from the
evolution of stress theory. Specifically, occupational stress can be defined as:
The physiological and psychological responses of workers who perceive that their work demands
exceed their resources and/or abilities to cope with the work.
(see for example, WSHQ, 2010; Leka, Griffiths and Cox, 2003).
There are three main points to consider in relation to this definition. Firstly, it is important
to recognise that the stress response is a multifactorial (i.e. physiological, cognitive and
emotional) response to a set of stimuli that can lead to ill health. Secondly, stress is not a
disease in its own right, but a pathway that can lead to ill-health, whether mental or
physical health outcomes. The ill-health pathway occurs when there is significant
imbalance between the demands placed on a person, and the resources they have to cope
with those demands. Thirdly, the individuals perception of their work characteristics
(including their perceptions of their coping skills and how important it is to them that they
cope) is an integral part of the stress equation.

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Historical context
For the majority of the 20th century, Australia was a country where work-related
psychosocial hazards were firmly believed to be outside the scope of OHS legislation and
there was little recognition of the potential effects of work stressors on worker health.
Health issues, and mental health issues in particular, were seen to be the concern of
individual workers and their treating medical practitioners if, indeed, workers were
encouraged to seek treatment at all.
By the end of the 20th century however, empirical evidence of the health effects of workrelated psychosocial hazards was accumulating. Governments and employer groups began
to see, in very real terms, the human and financial costs associated with exposure to workrelated psychosocial hazards. As risks associated with the more traditional areas of OHS
were being better managed, psychosocial hazards became the new frontier. Policy
directions in many countries were increasingly influenced by the World Health
Organisation (WHO) and their report on social determinants of health (see, for example,
CSDH, 2008). Governments in Australia and oversees began to make explicit the
obligation to manage psychosocial risks by drafting references into the scope of OHS
legislation, and releasing standards and codes of practice. This included the national model
Work Health and Safety Act (Safe Work Australia, 2011a), which defines health as
inclusive of physical and psychological health (WHSA s 4). Furthermore, research into
how OHS regulators in Australia have been responding to psychosocial hazards found that
there has been an increase in relevant interventions, campaigns and guidance (Johnstone,
Quinlin & McNamara, 2011).
Development of empirical evidence of the significance of work-related psychosocial
hazards has stemmed from large and separate bodies of literature on, most notably: work
organisation and job design; occupational stress; workplace bullying and harassment, and
other forms of negative workplace behaviours (such as workplace incivility,
counterproductive workplace behaviours, mobbing, abusive supervision, workplace
violence and aggression); fatigue; and the application of risk-management principles to
psychosocial hazards. In the limited space available for this chapter, it is impossible to
follow the historical developmental threads of each of these separate bodies of literature;
however, some influential theories are listed below.
Kompier (2002) identified seven main theoretical approaches to psychological hazards and
occupational stress: Cherns 1976 Sociotechnical approach; Hackman and Oldhams 1980
Job Characteristics model; Kahn et al.s 1964, and French, Caplan & Van Harrisons 1982
PersonEnvironment Fit model; Hackers 1964 Action Theory; Karasek and Theorells
1990 Job Demand-Control-Support model; Warrs 1994 Vitamin model and Siegrists
1998 Effort-Reward Imbalance model. More recently, the Job Demands-Resources model
(Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner & Schaufeli, 2001) has also gained support. These models
have veins of similarity and difference running through them and there are particular

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aspects on which most experts now agree. Most of these theories highlight the design and
management of work as fundamentally important in creating risk, and also that it is the
individuals cognitive appraisal of these work design and management factors that is
important. The importance of cognitive appraisal in stress and coping was first proposed in
Lazarus and Folkmans (1984) highly influential Transactional Model of Stress appraisal
and Coping.
Extent of the problem
According to the World Health Organisation, depression is the leading cause of disability
(in terms of years lived with disability) (WHO, 2011). In 2006 in Australia, 18% of adults
were reported to have had a mental disorder during the previous 12 months (ABS, 2006).
Since 200203, workers compensation claims for mental disorders have been trending
downwards and in 200809, they amounted to 5% of serious2 claims in Australia (Safe
Work Australia, 2011b). Safe Work Australia (2011b) speculated that this downward trend
may be due to legislative changes in some jurisdictions making it more difficult to meet
criteria for claims acceptance for mental disorders. Nevertheless in 200708, mental-stressrelated claims had the highest median payment ($16,500), which was more than double
that of all serious claims ($6900) and the median lost work time (11 weeks) was nearly
three times the median for all serious claims (4 weeks) (Safe Work Australia, 2011b).
Claims for other health outcomes associated with work stressors are notoriously high (e.g.
musculoskeletal disorders), and although it is difficult to quantify the relative contribution
of psychosocial hazards to these injury outcomes, it is important to consider them in
discussion of the size of the problem.
Anecdotal evidence has indicated for some time that claims are not a good indicator
of the scale of problems associated with psychosocial hazards. The likelihood of an
individual making a claim for a mental disorder can be influenced by stigma and
difficulty in having claims accepted. In 2008, an Australian study quantified this
underestimation of claims data, reporting that overall job-attributable risk for
depression is 13.2% for males and 17.2% for females about 30 times more than the
workers compensation claims statistics indicate (LaMontagne, Keegel, Vallance,
Ostry & Wolfe, 2008). In 2010, LaMontagne, Sanderson and Cocker reported that the
societal cost of depression attributable to job strain in Australia was $730 million over
one year and $13.8 billion over a lifetime. It should be noted that this does not include
the claims underestimation, or the costs associated with other mental illnesses, such as
anxiety disorders and adjustment disorders, nor does it take into account physical
illnesses (such as cardiovascular disease, musculoskeletal disorders, gastrointestinal
disorders) that may be attributable to job strain. Should these be considered, the lost
time and costs would be significantly greater, adding weight to the argument that
Serious claims involve either a death, a permanent incapacity, or a temporary incapacity requiring an
absence from work of one working week or more (Safe Work Australia, 2011, p. 1)
2

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psychosocial risk management is fundamentally important for individual workers, and

for the productivity of work teams, organisations and our nation as a whole.
Understanding psychosocial hazards
4.1
Occupational stress and worker health and wellbeing
Whilst a certain amount of stress can improve performance and motivation, extreme stress
or prolonged exposure to work stressors can have negative effects on health and wellbeing.
Although it has been criticised for its non-transactional view, it is useful to consider
Selyes (1956) seminal general adaptation syndrome theory which demonstrates early
understanding of the links between stress and ill-health. After exposing rats to prolonged
stress, Selye generated a three-stage model of the bodys physiological response to stress
encompassing:
1. Alarm where the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system is activated and there is
preparedness for action (fight or flight)
2. Resistance where there is an attempt to cope with a prolonged stressor by
maintenance of high levels of arousal
3. Exhaustion where the defence systems of the body become exhausted and health
effects occur (e.g. high blood pressure). In this phase, responses to any additional
stressors also become exaggerated. (Selye, 1956)
Seyles theory highlights that it is rarely single acute episodes of stress that lead to ill
health, but prolonged exposure to stressors. Also related to this, the frequently cited
Yerkes-Dodson Law (1908) suggests that for any particular task and worker there is an
optimum level of arousal, or stress, at which performance is at its maximum capacity and,
beyond which, performance decreases (Figure 1). This suggests that the stressor must be at
certain intensity for it to have detrimental effects.

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Figure 1: Representation of the Yerkes-Dodson (1908) Law (Modified from Wickens,

Gordon & Liu, 1998)
Applying these principles to an organisational context, Figure 2 shows the causal flow from
work characteristics (or work stressors) to health outcomes, and adds in our modern
understanding of moderating or buffering effects. These buffering effects, and the
mechanism of the stress-strain process will be explained further in subsequent sections.
(note this figure also depicts three intervention points which will be relevant to risk
controls in section 5.)

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Figure 2: The job stress process, modifying variables and intervention points
(Modified from LaMontagne, Keegel & Vallance, 2007a, p. 224)
4.1.1 The link between work stressors and worker strain

Work stressors are demands that workers perceive as threatening (e.g. certain tasks and
role requirements, conflict, some management actions) whereas strains are negative
responses that result when such demands are in excess of the coping resources of workers
(Koslowsky, 1998). Therefore, stress is a dynamic process in which physiological and/or
psychological3 manifestations are relative to a perceived imbalance between work demands
and ability to cope with those demands. This process elicits change in the normal
psychological or physical functioning of the worker. Most theories of occupational stress
conceive of this processes as the mechanism or causal link between work characteristics
and worker outcomes or, alternatively, from work stressors to worker strain (Lazarus,
1990; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Spector, Chen & OConnell, 2000). This understanding
of the stressor-strain relationship has allowed research to identify measurable antecedents
(stressors) and outcomes (strain).
Work stressors have been empirically linked with negative health outcomes including
anxiety, depression, burnout, cardiovascular disease and associated risk factors (e.g. blood
pressure, serum cholesterol and distribution of body fat) (Bishop et al., 2003; Bromet,
Dew, Parkinson & Schulberg, 1988; Bunker et al., 2003; Kivimki et al., 2002; Kuper &
Marmot, 2003; Landsbergis et al., 2003; Tsutsumi, Kayaba, Theorell & Siegrist, 2001; van
der Doef & Maes, 1999; Wilhelm, Kovess, Rios-Seidel & Finch, 2004), and
3
See OHS BoK The Human: Basic Principles in Psychology

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musculoskeletal disorders (Devereux, Vlachonikolis & Buckle, 2002; Engstrom, Hanse &
Kadefors, 1999; Hagen, Magnus & Vetlesen, 1998; Torp, Riise & Moen, 2001). Exposure
to work stressors has also been linked with increases in alcohol consumption and smoking,
and difficulty sleeping (see, for example, de Lange, Taris, Kompier, Houtman & Bongers,
2003). One of the most influential studies in this area is the longitudinal Whitehall II study,
which has followed 10308 British public servants over 14 years, and resulted in more than
100 published papers. Head, Martikainen, Kumari, Kuper and Marmot (2002) summarised
findings relevant to the work-related psychosocial hazards and health outcomes for this
research cohort (Table 1).
Table 1: Summary of findings from two Health and Safety Executive funded research
reports using the Whitehall II cohort (Head et al., 2002, p. vi)
Work Characteristic
Low decision latitude
High job demands
Low social support at work
Combination of high effort and low

rewards
4.2
Associated with
Obesity
Alcohol dependence
Poor mental health
Poor health functioning
Increased sickness absence
Coronary heart disease
Obesity
Poor mental health
Obesity
Poor mental health
Increased sickness absence
Alcohol dependence
Poor mental health
Sickness absence (long spells)
Diabetes
Psychosocial hazards and organisational outcomes
Psychosocial hazards can have critical impacts on various areas related to organisational
performance; indeed, it has been argued that worker strain mediates the relationship
between work stressors and organisational ineffectiveness (Darr & Johns, 2008; Kahn &
Byosiere, 1992). Negative organisational outcomes can include:
Absenteeism: Mental health problems have been identified as the third most
commonly cited reason for absence for Australian workers, with 18% of workers
identifying anxiety, stress and/or depression as a cause of work absence (Direct
Health Solutions, 2009).

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4.3
Presenteeism or disengagement: Presenteeism is defined as the decreased

productivity and and below normal work quality that occurs due to health
problems when employees are physically present in their jobs (Koopman et al.,
2002). Whilst unplanned or sick leave may be the most obvious cost associated
with psychosocial hazards, research has suggested that the cost of reduced
productivity at work is much higher than the cost of absence; while 32.4% of the
cost of work-related stress can be accounted for by absenteeism, 58.4% is due to
presenteeism (Sainsbury Centre for Mental Health, 2007).
Other organisational outcomes: Other outcomes that have been shown to be related
to exposure to psychosocial hazards at work include turnover/attrition, elevated
workers compensation cost, negative customer service impacts and relationships
with stakeholders, and indirect costs (e.g. management time spent dealing with
conflict, team disharmony, training and employee assistance program costs (Kahn
& Byosiere, 1992).
Psychosocial risk factors/work-related stressors: An illustrative framework
It is important to consider how work stressors can be best represented in order to be easily
understood by industry. As there may be many work stressors implicated in any risk
assessment (12 are listed in this chapter), authors have tended to use multiple ways to
categorise them as, for example, stressors related to work content or work context (Cox,
Griffith & Rial-Gonzlez, 2000) or stressors related to job demands and job resources
(Demerouti et al., 2001). Job demands have been conceptualised as work stressors that can
have a negative effect on physiological and psychological heath (e.g. time pressures,
workplace conflict or high emotional demands). Job resources, on the other hand, have
been described as creating a buffer against the potential negative effects of job strain.
This occurs via a mechanism of increased coping. Examples of job resources include
supervisor support or change management strategies.
The framework represented in Figure 3 is underpinned by several theoretical models,
including the Job Demands-Resources model (Demerouti et al., 2001) and the Job
Demand-Control-Support model (Karasek & Theorell, 1990). The latter is possibly the
most empirically tested and certainly most influential model of work-related stress. It
suggests that work characteristics are not linearly related to worker health, but are
interactive in their effects. More specifically, the Job Demand-Control-Support model
postulates that work that is high in job demands and low in decision latitude (workers
perceived control over their tasks and conduct during the working day) is associated with
strain, but that this relationship is buffered by social support. Also underpinning the
framework depicted in Figure 3 is the Effort-Reward Imbalance model (Siegrist, 1998),
which posits that effort invested by a worker is part of a social contract reciprocated by
appropriate rewards (e.g. money, esteem and social control) they gain. Other potential
work stressors included in the framework, such as interpersonal conflict, (poorly managed)

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change and organisational (in)justice, have been included due to the strong evidence base
regarding their association with job strain.
Figure 3: Psychosocial risk factors/work stressors illustrative framework potential

imbalance between work demands and work resources contributing to worker
experience of strain.
The risk factors depicted as work resources or work demands in Figure 3, and described in
more detail below, represent ways that organisations can influence the balance/imbalance
at the worker-demands interface and thereby manage worker exposure to occupational
stress. That is, the see-saw can be tipped in favour of reducing stress by reducing the
work demands (for example, by redesigning the work), and or by increasing their job
resources (for example, by providing additional support or increasing their job control).
The work-related stressors which should form the basis of any assessment of risk are
discussed in more detail below.
4.4
Psychosocial risk factors/work-related stressors explained
4.4.1 Time pressure

Time pressure or role overload refers to the requirement to work very hard and/or very fast
to meet key performance indicators set for the job or task, or having inadequate time to
complete work tasks and requirements (Ohly & Fritz, 2010). Also, time pressure may
result from unrealistic deadlines or inadequate resourcing to achieve work tasks. Work
pacing dictated by machines and electronic monitoring of performance have been shown to
create time pressure if not well designed and implemented. Time pressure may not be

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problematic if it occurs infrequently or at certain defined times within the job cycle or
year; however, where it is constant, frequent or excessive, it can be a work stressor (Rick,
Thomson, Briner, ORegan & Daniels, 2002).
4.4.2 Cognitive demands

Cognitive demands associated with work tasks can be many and varied; however, two
main types of cognitive demands have been shown to negatively affect psychological and
physical wellbeing, and result in performance decrements. These are tasks with high
cognitive loads and task with low cognitive loads (monotonous tasks). The former require
sustained concentration, divided attention and high-level decision making (Jackson, Wall,
Martin & Davids, 1993). Air-traffic controller and anaesthetist positions are examples of
jobs that may fit into this category. On the other hand, under-arousal occurs when tasks
require too little of our cognitive resources (e.g. sorting fruit, folding boxes, quality
checking pastry). Monotonous tasks with little variety can be fatiguing, stressful and prone
to error as evidenced in the example of quality control inspectors on a production line who
had a 3040% miss rate (Wickens et al., 1998).
4.4.3 Emotional demands

Emotional demands or work-related emotional labour can include:
Jobs requiring workers to show false displays of emotion, such as happiness or

desire to please/serve, even in situations where the work has induced anger and
resentment. The suppression of negative emotion combined with the job
requirement for surface acting positive emotion has been associated with
detrimental effects on worker wellbeing (Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002; Zapf,
Vogt, Seifert, Mertini & Isic, 1999). Flight attendant and retail worker positions are
examples where emotional labour may be a job requirement.
Jobs where workers are exposed to emotionally distressing situations. Such
positions have been associated with a heightened risk of illness (see for example,
Schnurr & Green, 2004). For example, police officers and fire fighters may be
exposed to risks of this nature.
4.4.4 Hours of work

Hours of work, including poorly designed/managed work scheduling, can create risks to
health and safety via two mechanisms:
Exposure time hours of work may dictate how long workers are exposed to
psychosocial hazards in a given working week and therefore directly influence the
level of risk.

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Fatigue hours of work and shift designs can lead to fatigue, which is a significant
predictor of injuries and near-miss accidents at work (Gold, Rogacz, Bock,
Tosteson, Baum et al., 1992; Swaen et al., 2002), sickness and absenteeism
(Dembe, Erickson, Delbos & Banks, 2004, Janssen et al., 2003), and poor work-life
balance (Lingard & Francis, 2004).4
4.4.5 Work Roles

Role conflict and ambiguity refers to workers understanding of their role within the
organisation and whether the organisation ensures that roles do not conflict. This includes
people having an unclear understanding of performance requirements and job
responsibilities, frequent or sudden changes in roles, or problematic role overlap with
others roles (see, for example, the seminal paper by Rizzo, House & Lirtzman, 1970).
4.4.6 Conflict
Interpersonal stressors, which may include, for example, workplace incivility or certain
management styles, have been reported to be among the more extreme stressors at work
(Jex & Beehr, 1991; Jex, 1998; Smith & Sulsky, 1985), responsible for more than 80% of
difference in daily mood (Bolger, DeLongis, Kessler & Schilling, 1989). Empirical
evidence suggests that work-related interpersonal conflict is associated with compromised
psychological and physical functioning (for a meta-analysis, see Spector & Jex, 1998) as
well as contribution to psychological disturbance when controlling for health practices,
age, stressful work events, stressful life events, and support from work and home
(Gilbreath & Benson, 2004). Workplace bullying and harassment are particular
interpersonal stressors, which can lead to outcomes of an even more severe nature
(Einarsen, 1999).5
4.4.7 Change
This risk factor refers to how organisational change is managed, including how it is
communicated. There is a large amount of research suggesting that organisational change
is a work stressor (see, for example, Sutton & Kahn, 1986; Jimmieson, Terry & Callan,
2004). Having effective systems to communicate and manage the change process can
prevent or minimise this stress.
4
5
See OHS BoK Psychosocial Hazards: Fatigue

See OHS BoK Psychosocial Hazards: Workplace Bullying, Aggression and Violence

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4.4.8 Violence and aggression

Occupational violence and workplace aggression are risk factors for work-related stress
that are addressed in a companion chapter.6
4.4.9 Job Control

Job Control refers to how much say people have in the way they do their work; it has
been studied extensively as a job resource, most notably in the influential Job-DemandControl-Support model (Karasek & Theorell, 1990). In this model, the related term - Skill
discretion - refers to how much variety people get in their work and how much
opportunity people get to use their skills; low skill discretion has been found to have a
negative impact on a range of work-related outcomes, whereas decision authority or
autonomy has been shown to buffer the effect of high job demands on health-related
outcomes (de Lange et al., 2003).
4.4.10 Co-worker and Supervisor Support

One characteristic of work that has been extensively studied as a buffer in the stressorstrain relationship is social support (Karasek & Theorell, 1990; for reviews, see van der
Doef & Maes, 1998, 1999). Social support in the workplace can be provided by coworkeres and/or supervisors, and can classified as instrumental support or emotional
support; instrumental support involves providing practical assistance to solve problems or
offering tangible help, such as advice or knowledge, whereas emotional support involves
listening empathetically or providing care (Swanson & Power, 2001). Empirical evidence
of the buffering effect of social support has been gathered in a meta-analysis by
Viswesvaran, Sanchez and Fisher (1999). Beehr et al. (2003) found that social support
weakens the association between work stressors and strain even when the source of social
support and the source of the stressor are the same. This implies that the instigator of the
stress (e.g. a supervisor) also may be able to provide social support.
4.4.11 Organisational justice

Fairness at work, or organisational justice, is considered a multifactorial construct
comprising:
Procedural justice the perceived fairness of procedures used in workplaces (e.g.

the content, whether they are implemented consistently across time and workers)
(Leventhal, 1980)
See OHS BoK Psychosocial Hazards: Workplace Bullying, Aggression and Violence

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Distributive justice the perceived fairness of decision outcomes (e.g. rewards are
commensurate with effort, the candidate who best meets selection criteria gets
offered the position/promotion) (Adams, 1965; Leventhal, 1976)
Interactional justice the perceived fairness of interpersonal treatment (e.g. dignity
and respect) (Bies & Moag, 1986)
Informational justice the provision of information about the use of procedures,
timelines, progress in application of procedures/decisions, and why outcomes were
determined (Greenberg, 1993).
There is substantial evidence of associations between stressors, a sense of injustice and

health (see for example, Brotheridge, 2003; Elovainio, Kivimki, Vahtera, Virtanen &
Keltikangas-Jrvinen, 2003; Kivimki et al., 2002; Taris, Peelers, Le Blanc, Schreurs &
Schaufeli, 2001; Vermunt & Steensma, 2001; Ylipaavalniemi, Kivimki, Elovainio,
Virtanen, Keltikangas-Jrvinen & Vahtera, 2005).
4.4.12 Recognition and reward

The Effort-Reward Imbalance model (Siegrist, 1998) centres on the concept of imbalance
between the effort that a worker puts in and the rewards (e.g. money, esteem and social
control) they gain. It is postulated that imbalances in this area are linked to negative effects
on self-esteem, self-efficacy and health (Neidhammer et al., 2004, Pikhart et al., 2001,
2004; Tsutsumi et al., 2001). Siegrist (1998) referred to overcommitment to explain why
people who are intrinsically high in effort are more at risk of ill health from stress at work.
The person-driven effort and the need for reward are acknowledgement of the contribution
of individual differences to the stress response.
4.5
Individual differences
While the work stressors outlined above influence the likelihood and severity of worker
strain, there are individual differences in how people respond to work stressors. That is,
some individuals seem to cope with exposure to work stressors differently to others.
Individual differences have been attributed to physiological and/or personality factors.
There is evidence to suggest that individuals with high psychological wellbeing have
substantially lower overall cortisol secretion, and also that oxytocin plays an important role
as a biological mechanism underlying the stress-protective effects of positive social
interactions (Heinrichs et al., 2003). Personality factors such as negative affectivity can
increase the likelihood of job strain (see, for example, Spector, Fox & Van Katwyk, 1999)
whereas strong self-esteem and perceived competence can strengthen a workers belief in
his/her capability and significance, and thus support active coping in stressful situations
(Jimmieson, 2010).

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There is a large and complex body of literature focused on individual differences and stress
responses as well as attempts to identify vulnerable groups of people. This research is
perhaps best summed up by Cox, Griffith & Rial-Gonzlez (2000, p. 52), when they stated
there appears to be little evidence of trait-like vulnerability to stress beyond that implied
for psychological health by a personal or family history of related psychological
disorders. Therefore, whilst it is important to acknowledge individual differences, health
and safety legislation requires duty holders to act to control the risk of job-attributable
strain. Control of this risk should be done with a greater focus on aspects of the design and
management of work that may be creating a risk to health and safety. To focus on
individual differences at the expense of controlling work-related stressors would constitute
a failure to ensure health and safety.
4.6
Risk assessment for psychosocial hazards
Risk assessment for psychosocial hazards follows the same principles as risk assessment
for many other OHS hazards. Techniques can include analysis of organisational data, such
as absenteeism, turnover and lost-work-time injuries; assessing worker complaints;
observation of the workplace, tasks, context, practices and human interactions; and the use
of worker surveys and/or focus groups. Assessment should include data collection and
measurement of the relevant work stressors outlined in section 4.4.
Many studies have described processes used in successful interventions (Giga et al., 2003b;
Cox & Griffiths, 2000; Kompier et al., 1998). In fact, an Australian measure of
psychosocial safety climate has been developed, which focuses on a number of these
processes (Hall, Dollard & Coward, 2010). Six factors fundamental to successful risk
assessment are discussed below. (Although these are introduced in the risk-assessment
section, they apply throughout the risk-management process for psychosocial hazards.)
4.6.1 Organisational and management commitment

Within a given organisation, initial recognition of the need for risk assessment and control
for psychosocial hazards commonly stems from Workplace Health and Safety or Injury
Management work units or committees. This is not unusual as practitioners working in
these areas see firsthand the everyday health and organisational effects from exposure to
psychosocial hazards. Consequently, prior to commencing risk assessment, one of the first
endeavours is often the task of gaining senior management commitment to addressing
these hazards.
Why is commitment important?

While senior management commitment is important for all areas of OHS, it is particularly
important for psychosocial hazards because:

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Overt and visible senior management involvement is required for success. Senior
management involvement signals the importance of the work and can directly
impact a sense of greater support for the workforce. That is, a manager who
openly and convincingly expresses their desire for their workplace to be free from
psychosocial hazards sends a message of care and concern for worker wellbeing.
This can directly increase a sense of emotional support which can buffer against
worker strain. The visible commitment may involve, for example, email or other
communication from the CEO or GM, senior managers sitting on steering
committees, standing items on agendas at staff and executive meetings and the
CEO having final sign off/accountability for success.
Resource commitments are required (e.g. time for staff participation, costs for
interventions)
Upward communication regarding potential business implications is required (e.g.
cost-benefit ratios of intervening versus not intervening, potential lag times and
realistic timeframes, likely business outcomes, possible associated business risks,
links between psychosocial hazards and work design and management). Where
management commitment is present and senior managers have a full awareness of
implications, programs are less likely to be terminated prior to completion due to
management surprise or fear regarding findings or recommendations.
4.6.2 Organisational communication

Organisational communication regarding any assessment and intervention is essential in
order to convey management commitment to addressing the issue. Also, it is integral to the
logistics of implementation of risk management processes and, particularly, to ensure
adequate worker participation. Communication may be in the form of broadcast emails,
posters, workshops, focus groups, or standing items on management and team meeting
agendas.
4.6.3 Worker participation

Crucial to successful stress management is worker participation in:
Risk identification and assessment

Feedback of risk-assessment results
Action planning
Implementing interventions.
Worker participation influences success in the following ways:

1. Stress theory specifies that workers perception of work stressors influences
whether workers experience a strain or not. Therefore, the only way an accurate

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risk assessment can be conducted is by asking workers about their perceptions of

work stressors.
2. Involving workers in the process serves to increase their sense of work control
and support, thereby having a positive impact on work stressors that may
otherwise be increasing the risk associated with psychosocial hazards.
3. Worker input into action plans and interventions can mean that they are better
targeted to problem areas as those who are familiar with the work have designed
the risk-mitigation strategies.
4.6.4 Definition of areas / work groups for assessment

When undertaking risk assessment for psychosocial hazards, it is important to give careful
consideration to work areas to be included in the assessment. For example, will the whole
organisation be included in the risk assessment or only departments identified as
potentially higher risk? Will the assessment allow for risk profiles to be ascertained at the
work unit level, so as to adequately target both causative work stressors and subsequent
interventions? Should risk profiles be available at the occupational level for certain parts of
the organisation? In all of these decisions the aim is to ensure that work groups are defined
and assessed to a level of detail that enables accurate targeting of risk-control measures.
Case Example 1
Organisation ZZZ employs 300 workers; of these 150 work in a manufacturing plant (that has three dayshift work groups and one night-shift work group), 100 work in a call centre (that has four work groups), and
50 work in head office functions such as HR, Marketing, Finance, Research and Development, and
Management. In identifying work groups for assessment, the steering committee decided they would like to
see the psychosocial risk profiles for:
Each of the three day-shift work groups in the manufacturing plant

The night shift in the manufacturing plant
Each of the four call centre teams
HR, Finance and Marketing as one work group
Research and Development
As the organisation was concerned about stress on their line managers, they decide to assess the
risk profile for Line Managers.
When the risk profiles for these eleven work groups were analysed, it was clear that that those with the
poorest psychological wellbeing were line managers (with work stressors identified as time pressure, workgroup conflict, and inadequate reward and recognition) and those working in the call centre (with work
stressors identified as time pressure, emotional demands and lack of control). The specificity of this risk
assessment allowed for a risk-control plan to be targeted to the work stressors unique to each of these two
different work groups/occupations.

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4.6.5 Use reliable methods for risk assessment

Assessing risks associated with psychosocial hazards is most commonly done using focus
groups and/or worker surveys. Where either of these methods is used it is important that
they focus on the work stressors that have empirical links with health outcomes as outlined
above. Proprietary surveys have been developed to assess a myriad of outcomes in the
workplace, including physical and mental health, emotional exhaustion or burnout,
workplace accidents, employee wellbeing, job satisfaction, productivity, engagement,
morale, turnover, absenteeism and distress. Although these outcomes may be important to
employers, and therefore could be used as a lever to evoke behaviour change, OHS
professionals primary purpose is to prevent illness and injury. Therefore, the single most
important factor for choice of assessment method is its ability to reliably and validly assess
the risk of illness and injury. Further, it is important that assessment tools can reliably and
validly identify and assess significant (non-trivial) work stressors.
In 2001, a review of psychosocial-hazard measures (Rick, Briner, Daniels, Perryman &
Guppy, 2001) identified limitations to the reliability and validity of many tools. In
response to this, the UK Health and Safety Executive (HSE) produced a worker survey that
is freely available for use and is based on six work stressors (Demand, Control, Support,
Roles, Relationships and Change) (Cousins, Mackay, Clarke, Kelly, Kelly & McCaig,
2004). This Management Standards framework, which has been in place in the UK since
2002, allows organisations to compare their performance to UK benchmarks sourced from
five (predominantly public sector) high-risk industries. In addition to the HSE assessment
tool and the many others identified by Rick et al. (2001), the National Institute of
Occupational Health (NIOH) in Denmark developed the Copenhagen Psychosocial
Questionnaire (COPSOQ) for assessing psychosocial work environment factors
(Kristensen, Hannerz, Hgh & Borg, 2005). The COPSOQ encompasses categories
focused on job tasks, social and organisational aspects of the job, and individual or
personality factors.
In Australia, a consortium of OHS regulators and universities developed the People at
Work survey, a dedicated risk-assessment tool for psychological injury, which has
associated Australian normative data on 10 of the 12 work stressors discussed in section 4
(see for example, Way, Jimmieson & Bordia, 2010). Also, the Australian Workplace
Barometer, designed as a national surveillance system, measures several of these work
stressors (Dollard & Skinner, 2007).
4.6.6 Realistic timeframes

Finally, it is important for managers and workers to have realistic notions of the
timeframes for assessment and implementation of risk-control plans, and the lag times for
interventions to take effect. The assessment and implementation process can take 1218
months (depending on factors such as the size of the organisation) from initial

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organisational commitment to action through to implementation of risk control plans. The

average lag/post intervention evaluation is also something to consider. Research into this
area found the average lag time for individual interventions was nine weeks and was thirtyeight weeks for organizational interventions (van der Klink et al., 2001). Giga et al.,
(2003a) argues for continual evaluation whereas de Lange et. al. (2003) argues for at least
1 year, depending on what intervention is being conducted and basing the decision on
theoretical considerations. In a complex system, it is perhaps unrealistic to expect change
to last forever (Semmer, 2003) - the dynamicism of organizations can mean changes such
as a new supervisor or new colleagues and changes in the prevailing economic or political
climate. These can make marked and unplanned alterations in stress responses of workers.
Risk control
So what has been done in organisations to respond to psychosocial hazards at work? As

well as a plethora of individual studies, several reviews of occupational stress interventions
have been conducted in the last 15 years (Caulfield et al., 2004; Cox & Griffith, 2000;
Giga et al., 2003b; Kompier & Cooper, 1999; Murphy, 1996; Quick et al., 1997; Semmer,
2003; VanDer Kink et al., 2001). Overall, there is reason to be optimistic about the
effectiveness of interventions as long as they are targeted accurately, use appropriate
processes, and are clear and realistic about intended outcomes.
Intervention types studied have been many and varied, and are classified in different ways.
LaMontagne, Keegel, Louie, Ostry and Landsbergis (2007b) studied the efficacy of
primary, secondary and tertiary interventions (Figure 2) and found that primary prevention
had the greatest efficacy in reducing job stress (Table 2).
Table 2: A systems approach to job stress (LaMontagne et al., 2007b, p. 269)

Intervention Level
Effect
Rating
Intervention
Targets
Examples
1. Primary (Preventative)
Goal: reducing the nature of the
stressor before employees
experience stress-related symptoms
or disease
+++
Stressors at their
source;
organisation of
work; working
conditions
job redesign;
workload reduction;
improved
communication
2. Secondary (Ameliorative)
Goal: to help equip employees with
resources to cope with stressful
conditions
++
Employee
responses to
stressors
cognitive
behavioural therapy;
coping classes;
anger management

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3. Tertiary (Reactive)
Goal: to treat, compensate, and
rehabilitate employees with enduring
stress-related symptoms or disease
Enduring adverse
health effects of
stressors
return-to-work
programs;
occupational
therapy; medical
therapy
A different classification structure proposed by de Frank and Cooper (1987) included

interventions targeted at:
a) The individual level where they are aimed at assisting individuals to cope or build
resilience. This includes activities such as training in resilience, stress and coping,
relaxation or cognitive behavioural interventions (CBT)
b) The individual/organisational interface level where they are aimed at improving
the fit between the person and the organisational system. This includes activities
such as improving interpersonal skills, job demand monitoring and improving role
clarity
c) The organisational level where they are aimed at altering parts or components of
the organisational system itself. This includes activities such as work redesign,
improving management commitment, organisational communication, improving
work content and managing change.
Table 3 provides a list of possible types of interventions, categorised using this framework.
Table 3: Overview of types of work-stress interventions classified according to de

Frank and Coopers (1987) level of intervention classification#
Level
Organisational
Individual-organisational
interface
Individual
Intervention*
Improving work content
Management commitment
Management training
Selection and placement
Physical and environment characteristics
Communication
Job design/restructuring including hours of work and shift/roster design
Improving decision making
Conflict management systems
Policies and procedures
Time management, improving interpersonal skills, work/home balance
Supervisor skills
Job demand monitoring
Role issues (ambiguity and conflict)
Participation and autonomy
Peer support groups, coaching, career planning
Pre-employment medical examination
Selection and placement
Individual psychotherapy including didactic stress management, CBT
Relaxation
Meditation

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Industry level
Biofeedback
EAS supportive counselling, CISD
Stress management, resilience and fatigue management training
Exercise
Time management
Rehabilitation after sick leave
Disability management/case management
Awareness raising interventions
Promotional materials
Advertising health promotion
Regulation
Incentives
Media
# Intervention types summarised from multiple sources (including Giga et al., 2003a; Cox et al., 2000; De Jonge & Dollard, 2002)
*It is possible that some interventions fit into two of these categories (depending on how they are targeted and what their aims are) this
is why the individual./organisational interface category is sometimes omitted.
A theme evident in the literature is that the majority of interventions conducted in

organisations have been individually focused and targeted towards helping those already
distressed. This was the case for interventions in Australia (Caulfield et al., 2004) and
internationally (Giga et al., 2003b; Kompier & Cooper, 1999; LaMontagne, 2001; VanDer
Kink et al., 2001). This tendency may be indicative of an underlying belief that
experiencing work strain is a consequence of inadequate coping mechanisms of individuals
rather than looking to potential work contributors to the risk of injury. It may further signal
that organisations are not yet sharing responsibility for workers stress responses.
However, it may be due also to lack of knowledge regarding how to best control the risk
and/or to the belief that individual-level interventions are easier to implement than
organisational interventions. Whatever the cause, continuing to focus interventions on
bolstering individual coping at the expense of organisational-level interventions is not in
line with modern OHS practice.
In summary, in addition to general principles (section 4) that should permeate the entire
risk-management process, risk-control plans should embrace the following factors:
Activities to control the risk should be organisation and work-group specific, and
be adapted to the needs, cultures, politics and economic realities of the
organisation/work group
Activities to control the risk should be targeted to problem work stressors identified
via risk assessment
Risk-control plans should focus on primary prevention, but also include secondary
and tertiary prevention activities
Risk-control plans should focus on organisational-level interventions, but also
include individual-level interventions
A focus on worker training, including mental health training, or off-the-shelf riskcontrol interventions is unlikely to ensure health and safety.

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Case Example 2
A large, 100+ seat inbound call centre has been getting feedback from the Australian Services Union that their members are
dissatisfied with working conditions. The most recent manifestation of this was the presentation of a letter, signed by 80
workers, itemising complaints relating to stress, inability to meet targets, not enough time to go to the toilet, and severe
and unjust consequences for workers for minor discretions. This was on top of several individual bullying complaints that
had been investigated and resolved, but that had impacted negatively on worker morale.
In response to this, the company decides to undertake a systematic risk assessment and implement relevant controls to
manage risks to health and safety. With the unions support, they:
1.
2.
Inform workers of the process and invite them to be active participants.

Form a steering committee with representatives from a vertical slice of the organisation, including workers, team
leaders, union representatives, senior managers, and WHS and HR practitioners.
3. They undertake an analysis of absenteeism, turnover and grievances, identifying trends in peak absenteeism and
turnover times and locations within the centre. They find:
a. That absenteeism peaks at the time of the monthly performance reviews when there is implementation of
new business practices, such as introduction of the new IT system, and at times of high work demand,
such as end of financial year
b. That absenteeism is trending upwards, costing almost half a million dollars per year
c. That both absenteeism and turnover are higher in certain work groups.
4. Conduct a staff survey asking specific questions about wellbeing and associated work stressors. They take an
existing survey that will allow them to benchmark against other organisations, and add some additional items
(specific to the type of work they conduct and the issues raised by workers). In addition to measurement of the
work stressors of work demands, control, support, roles, relationships, change, recognition, and reward and
justice, they add: perceived achievability of targets, dealing with difficult/aggressive clients, KPIs and Performance
Reviews (including the use of electronic performance monitoring, and the frequency and quality of performance
reviews).
5. Interview team leaders, call centre managers, and workers in HR, WHS, RTW and training and development roles,
focusing questions on perceived work stressors and ideas for improvements.
6. Provide interim results of the risk assessment to the steering committee.
7. Run focus groups with worker representatives to:
a. Provide results of the survey to staff
b. Seek worker input to clarify issues raised in the survey
c. Develop a risk-control plan with worker input.
8. Finalise the risk-control plan and present it to the steering committee for sign off. The risk-control plan includes
five major (along with various smaller) activities:
a. As 80% of staff are currently not meeting KPI, a participative review of targets will be conducted; targets
will be reviewed regularly with staff input
b. A review of the performance-management process will be undertaken, including the reasonable use of
electronic performance monitoring, frequency of performance feedback and fairness around performance
management; line managers will be provided with training and live coaching regarding performance
management and review
c. Weekly standing team meetings will be instituted where workers have an opportunity to have input into
their working conditions and raise concerns
d. Line-manager competencies for occupational stress will be assessed and they will work participatively to
develop these
e. Workplace bullying policies will be drafted and implemented; line managers and staff will attend training
to ensure they have the capacity to minimise risks associated with bullying and know how to respond
appropriately should bullying issues be raised; monitoring and review processes for this are to be
implemented.
9. Monitor implementation of the risk-control plan (i.e. by the steering committee).
10. Review improvements on a regular basis by checking with line managers and staff in weekly meetings, but formally
review improvements in twelve months time by conducting another staff survey.

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Implications for OHS practice
The implications for OHS practice are many and varied; this section will discuss a
limited number of these.
6.1
High-risk occupations
Safe Work Australias (2010) Occupational Disease Indicators provides occupationallevel data relevant to the incidence of mental disorders. In the three-year period from
200405 to 200607, train drivers and assistants, police officers, prison officers,
ambulance officers and paramedics, nurse managers, social workers, welfare and
community workers, secondary school teachers, special education teachers, education
managers, firefighters, registered mental health nurses, and bus and tram drivers had
the highest rates of claims for mental disorders. These occupations also tend to have
high exposure to work stressors, including, for example, emotional demands,
violence/aggression and hours of work (shift work).
6.2
Interactions between psychosocial hazards and HR practices, IR matters and

line-management skills
Risk management for psychosocial hazards often has implications for, and overlaps with,
other areas of organisational concern including industrial relations (IR) and human
resources (HR). Indeed, sometimes risk factors are directly within the domain of these
areas of practice. Risk factors such as hours of work (and shift work), organisational
(in)justice, and how management responds to issues such as workplace conflict and
change, can be sources of job dissatisfaction, grievances and industrial disputes (see Case
Example 3). For this reason, it is important that OHS professionals work closely with
practitioners in the HR and IR areas of the organisation as a multidisciplinary approach to
psychological hazards. For complex risk management scenarios it can be beneficial to
engage professionals with specialist skills in psychosocial risk management (e.g.
organisational psychologists or occupational physicians).
6.3
Return-to-work implications
The influence of psychosocial factors in delaying return to work after injury is well
established with the medical profession now encouraged to assess psychosocial factors as a
prognostic factor. A system of flags indicating possible obstacles to recovery includes
psychosocial factors (Kendell, Linton & Main, 1997) (Figure 4).

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Figure 4: The clinical flags approach to obstacles to recovery from back pain and
aspects of assessment (Kendell, Linton & Main, 1997, adapted by Main & Williams,
2002, p. 535)
In practice, this means that it is important for OHS professionals to work closely with
return-to-work and disability-management practitioners to ensure that any risks associated
with psychosocial hazards in the relevant work team are identified, assessed, controlled
and monitored in any return-to-work scenarios.
Case Example 3
Charles, an older worker, is a machinist in a metal fabrication plant. He had been working for the
company for many years when he put in a workers compensation claim for a musculoskeletal injury
to his neck. When the return-to-work coordinator contacted Charles to facilitate a graduated return-towork program, Charles stated he was happy to go back to work, but did not want to work the same
shift as Sam, another machinist.
Charless son, Logan, worked at the same workplace and had been in a long-running conflict with
Sam; this had culminated in Logan making allegations that Sam had been bullying him, and had been
stealing stock and selling it online. Sam, on the other hand, alleged that Logan had made comments
regarding his integrity on a social networking site and had made threats to his safety. Sam had raised
these issues with the company owner and the case was being investigated by the police. Subsequently,
Logan resigned from the company and investigation of the bullying complaint and stealing allegations
provided no evidence of wrongdoing by Sam.
Charles was told that it could not be guaranteed that he could work different shifts to Sam. The
following day, Charles worked half a shift, but had to leave early as his neck was really playing up.
Charles went to see his treating medical practitioner, who confirmed the neck pain was not yet
resolved. He remained off work for a further 5 weeks.

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6.4
Workers with mental illness
Given the prevalence of mental illness in the community, it is relatively commonplace for
managers and employees to work alongside someone who has a mental illness.
Consequently, in every workplace:
Management, and the workforce in general, should have an understanding of

mental illness
Reasonable adjustment obligations under the anti-discrimination legislation should
be met
Steps should be taken to create a healthy and safe work environment for everyone
at the workplace
It should be recognised that effective communication skills are integral, particularly
for line managers
Support and coaching for line managers should be made available as needed
Performance management and team dynamics considerations should be made.
This is a complex area, the nuances of which cannot be adequately dealt with in this
chapter; however, for further information see the Australian Human Rights Commission
(2010).
7
Summary
This chapter has introduced the concept of psychosocial hazards and addressed it from the
perspective of work-related stress. After brief consideration of the historical context and
extent of the problem, the chapter outlined key aspects of psychosocial hazards and their
consequences. It presented a framework for conceptualising twelve psychosocial risk
factors, and reviewed relevant risk-assessment and risk-control processes. Finally,
implications for OHS practice were discussed.
Key authors and thinkers

Carey Cooper, Tom Cox, Amanda Griffiths, Anthony LaMontagne
Michael Marmot (Whitehall II Studies)
R. Karasek and T. Theorell (Job Demand-Control-Support model, 1990)
J. Siegrist (Effort-Reward Imbalance model, 1998)
P. Cotton and P. M. Hart (The Organisational Health Framework) (2001, 2003)
C. Maslach and S. E. Jackson (Burnout, 1981, 1984)
van Veldhoven et al. (Demand-Skill-Support model, 2005)
R. S. Lazarus and S. Folkman (Cognitive Appraisal model, 1984)

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P. Warr (Vitamin model, 1994)

E. Demerouti, A. B. Bakker, F. Nachreiner and W. B. Schaufeli (Job Demands-Resources
model, 2001)
Major psychosocial policy frameworks/directions:
Health and Safety Executive (UK) Framework (Mackay et al., 2004; Cousins et al., 2004)
Luxenbourg Declaration, 1997
Tokyo Declaration, 1998
PRIMA-EF Guidance on the European Framework for Psychosocial Risk Management: A
Resource for Employers and Worker Representatives (Leka & Cox, 2008)
WHO Social Determinants of Health
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This can be represented as:

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Psychosocial Hazards and Occupational Stress

OHS Body of Knowledge

Core Body of Knowledge for the Generalist OHS Professional

Psychosocial Hazards and Occupational Stress

OHS Body of Knowledge

Historical context .......................................................................................................3

Extent of the problem .................................................................................................4

Understanding psychosocial hazards ..........................................................................5

Occupational stress and worker health and wellbeing ...........................................5

Psychosocial hazards and organisational outcomes ..............................................8

Psychosocial risk factors/work-related stressors: An illustrative framework .........9

Psychosocial risk factors/work-related stressors explained ................................. 10

Individual differences ........................................................................................ 14

Risk assessment for psychosocial hazards .......................................................... 15

Implications for OHS practice .................................................................................. 23

High-risk occupations ........................................................................................ 23

Interactions between psychosocial hazards and HR practices, IR matters and line-

management skills ........................................................................................................ 23

Return-to-work implications .............................................................................. 23

Workers with mental illness ............................................................................... 25

Key authors and thinkers .................................................................................................. 25

OHS Body of Knowledge

OHS Body of Knowledge

Psychosocial hazards pose a unique challenge to OHS professionals. This challenge is

It is somewhat difficult to consider psychosocial hazards without a concomitant focus on

OHS Body of Knowledge

1.1.1 Psychosocial hazards

1.1.2 Occupational stress

OHS Body of Knowledge

OHS Body of Knowledge

Extent of the problem

OHS Body of Knowledge

psychosocial risk management is fundamentally important for individual workers, and

Understanding psychosocial hazards

Occupational stress and worker health and wellbeing

OHS Body of Knowledge

Figure 1: Representation of the Yerkes-Dodson (1908) Law (Modified from Wickens,

OHS Body of Knowledge

4.1.1 The link between work stressors and worker strain

See OHS BoK The Human: Basic Principles in Psychology

OHS Body of Knowledge

High job demands

Low social support at work

Combination of high effort and low