Published by:

ECO Cultural Institute

Managing Director:
Dr. Mohammad Rajabi
President, ECI
Editor in Chief:
Ali Sabzalian
Editorial Board:
Parisa Firouzkouhi
Seyed Ali Lajevardi
Mitra Lotfi Shemirani
Nazir Olangian Tehrani
Mehdi Omrani Nezhad
Maryam Shafa
Framarz Tamanna
Sikandar Abbas Zaidi
Photography:
Ahmadreza Nasrollahi
Graphic Designer:
Ali Sabet, Navid Berahmand - Lohnegar
Advisory Board:
Serik Alybayev - Kazakhstan
Hassan Aminian-Iran
Mohmoud Boroujerdi-Iran
Morteza Damanpak Jami- Iran
Zamir Eraliev - Kyrgyzstan
Ali Gharachanlou - Iran
Shahmansoor Khajaev - Tajikistan
Orya Maqbool Abbasi- Pakistan
Mirza Molla Ahmad- Tajikistan
Saeed Oryan - Iran
Sorayya Rahmanova- Uzbekistan
Mehdi Sanaee- Iran
Mohammad Ali Shoaee- Iran
Ali Temizel Turkey
Address: No. 207 - Mirdamad Blv.,
Tehran (I.R. Iran)
Post Code: 1919614597
P.O.Box: 19395/6414, Tehran (I.R.Iran)
Tel: (+98-21) 22225846, 22226398,
22221147, 22220289
Fax:(+98-21) 22227635
Email: info@ecieco.org
Website: www.ecieco.org
The views expressed by the writers/ authors of
the articles, published in ECO Heritage do
not necessarily represent the views of ECI, but
are the personal views of the authors themselves.
Economic Cooperation Organization is an intergovernmental regional organization established
in 1985 by Islamic Republic of Iran, IslamicRepublic of Pakistan and Republic of Turkey for the
purpose of promoting economic, technical and
cultural cooperation among the member states.
It was the successor organization of what was the
Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD),
founded in 1964, which ended activities in 1979.
In the fall of 1992, the ECO expanded to include
seven new members, namely Islamic Republic
of Afghanistan, Republic of Azerbaijan, Republic of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Republic of
Tajikistan, Republic of Turkmenistan, and Republic of Uzbekistan. ECOs secretariat and cultural department are located in Tehran. ECO
Cultural Institute (ECI) is affiliated with ECO
and aims at fostering, understanding and the
preservation of the rich cultural heritage of its
members through common projects in the field
of the media, literature,art, philosophy, sport and
education.

Front Cover:
Maymand Mosque- Kerman, Iran.
Photo by Homayoun Amiryeganeh.
Gooya House of Culture & Art

Message of the President

Every element of cultural heritage is particular
and irreplaceable. Multiple layers of history and
time have created our heritage, thus respect for this
evolution is necessary for its conservation. Productions of the past are not subject to renewal, they are
not part of our inexhaustible resources. Our heritage
has the right to be passed on to the future generations and at the same time; it should grow richer
through the creations and testimonies of our own
time.
Art and Culture of a country or a region are the
outward manifestations of the collective pride and recognition of its people
built up by both physical and mental forces over centuries. This collective
pride is considered the backbone of a society. Great nations have great culture and traditions and all the successful and great leaders stress on developing and preserving this strong culture for the success of their nations.
Art and Culture include all forms of creative expression, from individual
to collective, from grassroots to professional and institutional. Arts and culture evolve, develop and enhance our cultural identities. It is the single
most powerful medium that can overcome boundaries and limitations, it
can change the individual, a mindset, or the way a society perceives itself
and its surroundings.
Art itself evolves and reinvents itself with time, history and geography.
For the youth specially the unemployed, arts can be an immense motivator,
it can actively engage them, demand disciplined and sustained attention,
persistence, encourage creative risk-taking and increase their craving and
aspiration to learn more.
We as the members of ECO need to reinvent our existing system that is
in use/practice to portray us as a region that is proud of its rich and long history and traditions in art and culture in order to meet todays challenges of
globalization.
To maintain our individuality in this ever decreasing global village, our

greatest strength, the enormous human resource, needs to be stimulated

and developed as a potential force that not only upholds and protects the art,
culture and traditions of this region but also plays an active role in developing, preserving and promoting the same with pride and fortitude.
While ECI is fully committed to implement it's medium and long term
plan of action including: 1- publish multilingual news oriented monthly
journals 2- establish special ECO news agency, as a reliable source of information on ECO countries 3- launch satellite TV channel to broadcast
activities of the Member States, but it also considers the publication of a
quarterly journal, covering the rich culture of ECO region as an obligation
and a mandate. It is with this intention that the previous ECI publication,
"Cultural Magazine" has been redesigned and restructured under a new format, entitled: ECO Heritage.
We hope our readers would convey to us their thoughts, suggestions and
comments. It is essential that we maintain open lines of communication to
statements both of concord and discord.
The recent tragic plane crash of the Kyrgyz Airline, just outside Bishkek,
killing 68 Kyrgyz and Iranian passengers, including the ECO Secretariat
Program Officer, Mr. Talanbek Kasymbekov, has brought sorrow and grief
to all of us here at the ECO Cultural Institute. May Almighty Allah bless
the departed souls in eternal peace and give patience and fortitude to the bereaved families to bear these irreparable losses.

Finally, as we are going through the blessed month of Ramadhan, I wish

to take the opportunity to convey my heartiest felicitations and a happy
Eid-ul Fitr to the entire Muslim community in the ECO region and beyond.
Mohammad Rajabi

The Editor of ECO Heritage had an opportunity to hold an exclusive interview with H.E. Ambassador Medetkhan Sherimkulov of Kyrgyz Republic in his office in Tehran. He was kind enough to answer the questions put forward to him thoroughly.
The interview was more like a friendly meeting and he was sharp- witted and to the point. He occasionally shifted the atmosphere with his delicate sense of humor, making his guest, more comfortable with his subtle notion. He is truly a man of
all seasons.

What is your educational background?

After doing my undergraduate work in history at the Kyrgyz
State University, I went to Moscow State University to get my
PHD in philosophy, the highest degree awarded by the university. I succeeded to get another doctorate degree in political
science from the same university. So you can see I am among
those few who blend political science with philosophy and
history! Knowledge knows no limits or boundaries. The more
one becomes familiar with diverse disciplines, the more he or
she becomes anxious to learn more and reach new frontiers in
understanding life itself.
What about your professional experiences?
Interestingly enough, my vocational activities began at the age
of 17, when as a junior cabinetmaker I was making furniture.
I served in the army for 3 years. I taught at the Kyrgyz State
University. From 1971 to 1990, I held many influential positions in the government, including the Secretary of the Communist Party of Issyk-Kul Region, the Head of the Ideological
Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party
and the Rector of the Institute for Physical Training and Sports.

In 1993, during my tenure of office as the head of the Council

of Representatives, the countrys new Constitution was ratified. Kyrgyzstan's national symbols such as the flag, emblem,
and national currency were all enacted during the same period.
CIS's inter-parliamentarian organization, now stationed in St.
Petersburg, had then its Headquarters in Kyrgyzstan and under
my supervision. I had the honor of having my signature at the
bottom of my countrys Declaration of Independence.
So in fact you are one of the main founders of Kyrgyz Republic's Independence?
Yes and I consider it a great honor to be a major player during
the modern history of my country.

What position did you have during your country's independence?

During 1990-1995, I was the chairman of Jogorku Kenesh
(Parliament) of the Kyrgyz Republic. On Dec. 15, 1990 under
my chairmanship, Jogorku Kenesh declared Kyrgyzstan as
a sovereign republic and on Aug. 31, 1991, the Parliament proclaimed Kyrgyzstan as an Independent State.

A Man of All Seasons

Exclusive Interview with

Ambassador Medetkhan Sherimkulov,

Kyrgyzstans Top Envoy to Tehran
4

We are very proud of his (Chengiz Aitmatovs) legacy and we practically

consider him as the "Father" of our nation. He was the prominent writer
of 21st century who had his own influence on the international literature.

What was the mechanism by which your country's Constitution was prepared?
We would first prepare the draft of the constitution and then
we would have extensive discussions and deliberations upon
each item, until we would come up to a consensus.
Have you played any role in the regional or international
level?
In 1994, as the Head of a Commission, I was instrumental in
establishing a ceasefire agreement between the Republic of
Azerbaijan and the Republic of Armenia, in the dispute over
the Negorna-Qarabagh region which still holds. Recently, I
read an interview by H.E. Mr. Ilhom Aliev, the President of the
Republic of Azerbaijan, pointing clearly to the same ceasefire agreement with my involvement. This initiation resulted
in the release of 3 Resolutions by the UN Security Council,
supporting the peace proposal put forward.
The demise of the great Kyrgyz writer and thinker Chengiz Aitmatov, a few month ago was a loss for the entire
ECO community and the entire world. How do you assess
this loss?
Chengiz Aitmatov was a great writer, eminent politician and
a renowned public character of Kyrgyzstan. He was the
prominent writer of 21st century who had his own influence
on the international literature. He presented a rich literary heritage to the world. His works have been translated into more
than 160 languages and published in more than 60 million
copies all over the world. No preceding author has gained such
an honor.
We are very proud of his legacy and we practically consider
him as the "Father" of our nation. His memory would be kept
in the heart of Kyrgyz nation forever. He was well known in
ECO Member States and his works have been translated into
many languages of the region including Farsi, Urdu, Kazakh,
Uzbek, Turkmen, Tajik, and Azeri. His tragic demise was a

great loss for the world of literature. To commemorate his

legacy the year 2008 has been named as "The year of Chengiz
Aitmatov" in my country.
I understand you have made Hajj pilgrimage shortly after
your Independence. How did you preserve your faith during those harsh years of Soviet rule?
I have never cared for the frameworks. You shouldnt suppose
that during USSR dominancy, everybody was atheist or agnostic and not believing in God. Beside, faith, spirituality and
culture are not some thing that could easily be eradicated or
stopped by political parties. During the Soviet rule, there was
separation of Church and State as it is said, and all religions
were kept separated from politics. Our government was materialist, not religious.
In terms of its natural beauties some consider Kyrgyzstan
as the Switzerland of the Central Asia. What measures did
your Government take to attract foreign tourists?
If Europe is proud of Switzerland, then Central Asia is proud
of Kyrgyzstan. Lake Issyk-Kul is in fact called the Pearl of
Asia and could be considered as a treasure to be discovered
and used as it belongs to the whole region. Currently, tourism
industry is developing rapidly in Kyrgyzstan and tourists from
all around the world, including Iran, come to visit here. Not
only do they visit the beautiful shores of Issyk-Kul but they
also travel to other wonderful parts of the country. Bishkek, the
countrys capital is considered one of the greenest cities of the
region. Its natural beauties could only be the creation of the
Almighty God. Right now, you could not find any empty spot
on Issyk-Kul shores to be used for building a hotel or recreation center as the countrys tourism sector has implemented
significant projects here so as to attract tourists. Manas International Airport welcomes tourists from all over the world on
daily basis.

Give us a few good reasons why people should come

to Kyrgyz Republic for their vacation time?
First, the country has got a pleasant weather which is an
important factor for the tourists. Inexpensive, unique
and delicious food, hospitable and kind attitude of people especially toward the foreigners and inexpensive
goods are some of the encouraging factors for people
to consider. Many people come to Kyrgyzstan for shopping because different goods from China, Russia, Arab
countries, Europe and Turkey are imported to the country and thats why Kyrgyzstan has become the trade
center of the region presenting various, inexpensive articles. As far as I know, many come from Iran to invest
here. We have huge markets, selling foods, and clothing
with low prices.
What about foreign investors including many Iranian investors who invest outside the ECO region, especially in the U.A.E.? What projects do you have
to offer?
We are not concerned about the investment being done

in other countries but right now there are 170 joint Iranian-Kyrgyz companies doing mostly small businesses
here. But we aim to attract the major investors for implementing large projects such as construction of mega
buildings and power plants. The construction of a
power plant in Kyrgyz Republic costs only USD
2,000,000! During my recent visit of the Iranian President H.E. Dr. Ahmadinejad and his First Deputy;
H.E. Mr. Davoudi, I discussed the same issue and extended our invitation for potential Iranian investors to
come to our country. We have so many of such projects to be done. Our fruits fall from trees and rot. We
need warehouses for preserving these fruits and turn
them to fruit-concentrate. We also need many small
power generators for electricity production. Many of
the water-falls around our mountains are relatively
small and therefore can be easily managed to produce
electricity. We have plans to hold a joint meeting in
Tehran between potential Iranian traders / investors,
members of Parliaments and concerned authorities of
both countries to introduce many of our attractive in-

In 1993, during my tenure of

office as the Head of the Council
of Representatives, the countrys
new Constitution was ratified.
Kyrgyzstan's national symbols
such as the flag, emblem, and national currency were all enacted
during the same period.

countries with more expensive prices and higher shipping

cost! I myself propose, ECI and ECO shoulder the important
responsibility of publicizing. They should have precise and
comprehensive information about the Member Countries,
their conditions, resources, possibilities and in turn provide
the public with that information. It is then that we could
move faster towards developing our region's economy.
vestment packages, including in the tourism industry. I have
discussed these matters with the Iranian President and now
we are working on the details for holding the said meeting.
Some critiques compare regional groupings such as EU
with ECO. How do you evaluate ECO's performance?
More than 15 years have passed since the establishment of
ECO while it is only 17 years that the Central Asian countries
gained their independence. In contrast most European countries have enjoyed many years of independence. Precisely 17
years ago, we and you were at two opposite sides! But the establishment of ECO in such conditions and with such objectives is itself a victory and now no minor obstacle could hinder
our economic and cultural cooperation. We have little knowledge about each other. The present level of publicity is not satisfactory and needs to be enhanced. Our traders could hardly
find their required information in the ECO region, but they
are well familiar about the markets and products of countries
such as Brazil, Argentina and Chile. May be they could find
the same articles in Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan
with lower prices but as they dont have sufficient information,
they have to supply these articles from such far a way

Kyrgyz people have a beautiful country and a fabulous

culture but very few people know enough about Kyrgyz
Republic. Do you think ECO Cultural Institute can play
a role in this regard?
ECI has a unique and an exceptional role in the propagation
of cultural treasures of ECO Member States. ECO has led significant activities in economic section, but without the knowledge about the history, culture and traditions of a nation or a
region, naturally the economy will not enjoy a noteworthy
growth. If I have sufficient knowledge about the history, culture and traditions of your country, it would be much easier for
me to cooperate with you. Therefore, the more we know about
each other, the better we could interact together including in
the economic field. It is interesting that all of the nations
dwelling in ECO Region have ancient history. For example, it
is said that Irans history dates back to 5000 years ago and researches show that Kyrgyz people has a 3000-year history,
even though some people want us to believe that it is only 110
years old! For sure this is the opinion of those who only judge
others in terms of their monetary significance and not in terms
of their deep true human worth and spiritual values.

On August 8 the 2008 Olympic Games, officially known as the Games of the XXIX Olympiad, started
in Beijing China. This Olympic Games, comprise of 302 events in 28 fields, has hosted more than 10,500
athletes from around the Globe and is considered as the most expensive one in the history of Olympic
Games. The total cost of the whole event is said to exceed more than $40 Billion, out of which $20
Billion has been spent for cleaning up the polluted environment surrounding the Beijing area.
The slogan of the 2008 Olympics "One World, One Dream", chosen from over 210,000 entries
submitted from around the world calls upon the whole world to join in the Olympic spirit and build
a better future for humanity.

The Origin of

Olympic Games
Story of the Ancient Greeks
Seyed Ali Lajevardi

he ancient Olympic Games were primarily part separate races for girls, teenagers, and young women. The
of a religious festival in honor of Zeus, the father length of their race-course was shorter than the men's
of the Greek gods and goddesses. The festival track; 5/6 of a stade (about 160 m.) instead of a full stade
and the games were held in Olympia, a rural sanctuary site (about 192 m.). The winners received olive crowns just
in the western Peloponnesus.
like Olympic victors.
The Greeks that came to the Sanctuary of Zeus1 at
Olympic Games were the most important national fesOlympia shared the same religious beliefs and spoke the tival of the ancient Greeks, and a focus of political rivalries
same language. The athletes were all male free-born Greek between the nation-states. Winning an Olympic contest
citizens of the city-states from every corner of the Greek was regarded more highly than winning a battle and was
world, coming from as far away as Iberia (today's Spain) proof of a personal excellence.
in the west and the Black Sea (today's Turkey) in the east.
The winners were presented with garlands, crowned
There were separate mens and boys' divisions for the with olive wreaths, and viewed as national heroes. Olive
events. The judges divided youths into the boys' or mens trees were an important resource in the rocky and dry
divisions based as much on physical size and strength as Greek environment, which supplied the Greeks with olive
age. However, all competitions involved individual com- oil, olives; used as a cleaning agent for bathing, and a base
petitors rather than teams.
for perfumes.The simple crown of wild olive was suffiWomen, foreigners, slaves, and
cient to immortalize the victor, his
dishonored persons were forbidden
family, and his city.
The ancient Olympic
to compete; however, women could
The sanctuary was named in anenter equestrian events as the owner
tiquity
after Mt. Olympus, the highGames were primarily part
of a chariot team or an individual
est mountain in mainland Greece. In
of a religious festival in
horse, and win victories that way.
Greek mythology, Mt. Olympus
honor
of
Zeus,
the
father
The winner of the first Olympic
was the home of the greatest of the
chariot and pair race is listed as
Greek gods and goddesses. In conof the Greek gods and
"Belistiche, a woman from the
trast to most Greek sites, Olympia
goddesses. The festival and
seaboard of Macedonia".
is green and lush, amidst groves of
the games were held in
Women, once they were married,
trees. Here was the great Sanctuary
Olympia, a rural sanctuary
were not even allowed to watch any
of Zeus, the Altis, and the setting for
Olympic events, under penalty of
the Olympic Games. For over a
site in the western
death except for chariot races. Pauthousand years, in peace and war,
Peloponnesus.
2
sanias tells the story of Callithe Greeks assembled here to celepateira, who broke this rule to see
brate this great festival.
her son at the Games:
The earliest building remains at
Olympia are a cluster of Bronze Age houses at the base of
"She, being a widow, disguised herself exactly like a the Kronos hill. The ruins of one of these houses were pregymnastic trainer, and brought her son to compete at served by the Greeks as the megaron3 of Oinomaos, the
Olympia. Peisirodus, was victorious, and Callipateira, as legendary king. Nearby was established the tumulus (large
she was jumping over the enclosure in which they keep artificial mound built over a grave) of Pelops.
An ancient Greek story says that Tantalus, a king fathe trainers shut up, stripped her outfit. So her sex was discovered, but they let her go unpunished out of respect for vored by the gods and son of Zeus, invited the gods to dine
her father, her brothers and her son, all of whom had been with him in his palace in Asia Minor. Having invited them
victorious at Olympia. But a law was passed that for the he couldn't think of anything that was so valuable to set
before his highest ranking guest. The only real treasure he
future trainers should strip before entering the arena."
had was his son Pelops. So, he decided to sacrifice his son
However, Athletic competitions for women did exist in for the gods by making a stew of him and set the dish beancient Greece (beginning as early as the 6th century B.C. fore the gods.
The Olympian gods detested human sacrifices and they
and lasting at least six centuries until Roman rule). The
most famous one was a maidens' foot-race in honor of the punished Tantalus by throwing him in the underworld and
goddess Hera, called the Heraea was held every four giving life again to Pelops. One of Pelop's shoulder bones
years at the Olympic stadium. There were three was missing so they restored it with a piece of ivory and

10

gave him many rich gifts. One of them was a gift from Poseidon. They gave him fast horses and with them to set off
and win himself a new kingdom.
In the kingdom of Elis, king Oenimaus had a beautiful
daughter, Hippodamia. Any man that married her would
inherit the kingdom but her father loved her so much that
he could not suffer the thought of losing her.
King Oenimaus had a set of horses given to him by
Ares, the god of war. Whenever a suitor came to ask for his
daughters hand in marriage, Oenomaus would challenge
him to a chariot race. If the suitor won, he would win his
daughters hand in marriage. Suitors came and were defeated. Twelve in all lost their lives attempting to win Hippodamia's hand in marriage.
When Pelops came to Elis to ask for the princess's hand
in marriage, king Oenomaus was not aware that Pelops
horses were magic. Not knowing this, he accepted yet another challenge. Hippodamia, after falling in love with
Pelops, fearing her father would win again, bribed her father's stable boy to fix her father's chariot so that Pelops
would win. The stable boy took out the wooden pins that
held the wheels to the axle, and replaced them with pins of
wax.
The race started. Oenomaus was surprised when he saw
he could not pull ahead in the race. No matter what he did,
they were neck to neck. Suddenly, the wax pins gave way
and the wheels of the chariot broke and he was dragged to

his death by his horses.

The king lost his life and Pelops had won Hippodamia's
hand in marriage, became king and ruled over the region,
which he called the Peloponnese after himself. Today, the
southern part of the Greek mainland is still called by this
name.
In honor of the old king, Pelops had a funeral feast
inviting heroes from all over Greece to take part in athletic
games. These games were held on the plain of Olympia, in
Elis, and were repeated every four years. They were
called, "The Olympic Games".
The stadium at Olympia was originally within the sacred precinct, where spectators could view the races from
the hill of Kronos. Gradually, the stadium was pushed farther east, until the late classical period, when it reached its
present location outside the precinct. All the embankments
are of earth, and only a few stone seats were provided for
officials. Connecting the sanctuary and stadium was a
vaulted passageway, an early example of the use of vaulting by the Greeks.
The ancient Olympic Games began in the year 776 BC,
when Koroibos, a cook from the nearby city of Elis, won
the stadion race, a foot race 600 feet long. According to
some literary traditions, this was the only athletic event of
the games for the first 13 Olympic festivals or until 724
BC.
Contrary evidence, both literary and archaeological,
Palestra at Olympia

11

suggests that the games may have existed at Olympia

much earlier than this date, perhaps as early as the 10th or
9th century BC. A series of bronze tripods have been
found at Olympia, some of which may date to the 9th
century BC, and it has been suggested that these tripods
may in fact be prizes for some of the early events at
Olympia.
Apart from these evidences, Homer's Iliad suggests
that Olympic Games existed as early as the 12th century BC. Male athletes usually competed nude, there
are stories that it was the Spartans who introduced nudity to the Olympic Games in the 8th century BC as it
was a Spartan tradition. From 776 BC, the Games were
held in Olympia every four years for almost 12 centuries. Additional athletic events were gradually added
until -by the 5th century BC- the religious festival consisted of a five-day program.
The athletic events included: three foot races (stadion,
diaulos, and dolichos) as well as the pentathlon (five contests: discus, javelin, long jump, wrestling, and foot race),
pugme (boxing), pale (wrestling), pankration, and the ho- boxing, wrestling and judo. The only banned moves were
biting and gouging the eyes, nose or mouth with fingerplitodromos.
Additional events, both equestrian and for humans, nails.
Running was organized
were added throughout the
into several events. Chief
course of the history of the
Women, foreigners, slaves, and disamong them was the stadion,
Olympic Games. Equestrian
which was a 192 meters sprint,
honored
persons
were
forbidden
to
events, held in the hippodrothe length of the stadium;
mos, were an important part
compete; however, women could
However there was also disof the athletic program of
enter
equestrian
events
as
the
owner
tance running competitions.
the ancient Olympic Games
of
a
chariot
team
or
an
individual
The hoplite race was origiand by the 5th century BC
nally conducted in full hoplite
included the tethrippon and
horse, and win victories that way.
armor weighing 50-60 lbs, but
the keles.
by the 5th century BC comBoxing was fought withpetitors
wore
only
a
symbolic
helmet and shield.
out rounds until one side was either knocked out or admitWrestling
required
three
throws
of one's opponent. Bitted defeat. There were no weight divisions, and opponents
ing
was
not
allowed
and
neither
were
genital holds, but
were selected by random lot. Boxers did not wear gloves,
breaking
an
opponents'
fingers
was
acceptable.
but instead wore himantes, pieces of leather tied around
The pentathlon was the event from which the modern
the hands and wrists leaving the fingers free.
Chariot racing was a sport that only the wealthiest con- Olympics derive many of its events, including the discus,
testants could take part in since the cost of maintaining a javelin, long jump, running and wrestling. Aristotle said
chariot was prohibitively expensive. Chariot racers com- of it "a body capable of enduring all efforts, either of the
peted in various courses, some of which involved poten- racecourse or of bodily strength... This is why the athletes
in the pentathlon are most beautiful."
tially lethal obstacles.
The marathon was not an event of the ancient Olympic
Horse racing was divided into separate competitions for
Games.
The marathon is a modern event that was first inadult horses and foals. They took place away from the athletic stadium in a large arena called the hippodrome. Stir- troduced in the Modern Olympic Games of 1896 in
rups were not used and the usual distance run was 1200 Athens, a race from Marathon - northeast of Athens - to the
Olympic Stadium, a distance of 40 kilometers.
meters.
Marathon was a small town about 26 miles from the
Pankration was a form of single combat that combined

12

The (Marathon) race commemorates the run of Pheidippides. When The

Athenian army was seriously outnumbered by the great Persian army that
landed at Marathon, a small town about 26 miles from the city of Athens in the
5th century B.C, they sent messengers to cities all over Greece asking for help.

city of Athens in the 5th century B.C. When The Athenian

army was seriously outnumbered by the great Persian
army that landed at there, they sent messengers to cities
all over Greece asking for help.
According to the fifth century BC ancient Greek historian Herodotus, Pheidippides, an ancient "day-runner" carried the news to Sparta (a distance of 149 miles) in order
to enlist help for the battle and died on the spot. The race
commemorates the run of Pheidippides. The distance of
the modern marathon was standardized as 26 miles 385
yards or 42,195 kilometers in 1908 when the Olympic
Games were held in London. The distance was the exact
measurement between Windsor Castle, the start of the
race, and the finish line inside White City Stadium.
There are stories about great ancient athletes. The boxer
Melankomas the Victor in the 207th Olympiad, in 49 AD
was from Caria, a region of what the Greeks called Asia
Minor and is now known as Turkey. Born to an outstand-

ing father, Melankomas was known for his handsome

looks. This athlete had a "brave soul".
In an effort to prove his courage, Melankomas chose
athletics, since this was the most honorable and most
strenuous path open to him. Evidently some men believed
that training a soldier that must endure, is less difficult
than that of an athlete, particularly that of a boxer.
Amazingly enough, Melankomas was undefeated
throughout his career yet he never once hit an opponent
or was hit by one. His boxing style was to defend himself
from the blows of the other boxer and avoid striking the
other man. Invariably, the opponent would grow frustrated
and lose his composure. This unique style won Melankomas much admiration for his strength and endurance.
He could allegedly fight throughout the whole day,
even in the summer, and he refused to strike his opponents
even though he knew by doing so he would quickly end
the match and secure an easy victory for himself.
First modern
Olympic Games
in Greece - 1896

Issue 8 - Vol 4

13

No doubt his success was due in large part to his

rigorous training. Melankomas exercised far more than the
other athletes. Indeed, one story relates that the boxer went
for two straight days with his arms up, not once putting
them down or resting. Unfortunately, Melankomas of
Caria died at a young age.
Always the eager competitor, the boxer, lying on his
deathbed, asked a friend how many days of the athletic
meet were left. He would not live to compete again. Even
so, his name lives on for his remarkable boxing skills.
The ancient games carried on, even as Greece's power
declined and Rome's power rose. Although the Olympics
continued to enjoy a measure of prestige, the varying political and economic changes of the Hellenistic and Roman
periods affected both the site and the games.
Some later Roman emperors, who admired Greek culture, revived the splendor of the games and restored the
site and buildings. By the 3rd century A.D., however, the
lists of victors are increasingly uncertain and incomplete;
by the end of the century the lists stop altogether.

2008 Beijing Olympic Mascots*

Jingjing
makes children smile,
and that's why he
brings the blessing of happiness
wherever he goes.
You can see his joy
in the charming
naivety of his dancing pose and the
lovely wave of his
black and white fur. As a national treasure and a protected species, pandas
are adored by people everywhere.

Huanhuan
the big brother,
child of fire,

14

stands in the center of Friendlies as the core

embodiment of the Olympic spirit. Symbolizing the Olympic Flame and the passion of sport--and passion is the blessing
he bestows. Wherever the light of Huanhuan shines, the inviting warmth of Beijing
2008 and the wishful blessings of the Chinese people can be felt.
Like all antelopes, Yingying is fast and agile and
can swiftly cover great stretches of land as he races
across the earth. A symbol of
the vastness of China's
landscape, the antelope carries the blessing of health, the
strength of body that comes from
harmony with nature.
Yingying's flying pose captures
the essence of a species unique to
the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, one of
the first animals put under protection in China. The selection of the Tibetan Antelope reflects Beijing commitment
to a Green Olympics.

Once the Roman emperors formally adopted Christianity, they discouraged and eventually, outlawed, old
"pagan" religious practices. Since the Olympic Games
were first and foremost a religious celebration in honor of
Zeus, they held no place in the Christian empire. The emperor Theodosius I legally abolished the games in 393 or
394 A.D.
It took 150 decades for the Olympics to return. The first
modern Olympics were held in Athens, Greece, in 1896.
The man responsible for its rebirth was a Frenchman
named Baron Pierre de Coubertin, who presented the idea
in 1894.
His original thought was to unveil the modern Games
in 1900 in his native Paris, but delegates from 34 countries
were so enthralled with the concept that they convinced
him to move the Games up to 1896 and have Athens serve
as the first host.
Baron De Coubertin who is known as the founder of
the modern Olympic Games also designed the emblem of
the Olympic Games which is composed of five interlocking rings on a white field in 1913. These five rings stand
for passion, faith, victory, work ethic and sportsmanship.

His head ornament incorporates

several decorative styles from the
Qinghai-Tibet and Sinkiang cultures and the ethnic design traditions of Western China. Strong in
track and field events, Yingying is a
quick-witted and agile boy who represents the yellow Olympic ring.
Every spring and summer, the children of Beijing have
flown beautiful kites on the currents of wind that blow
through the capital. Among the kite designs, the goldenwinged swallow is traditionally one of the most popular.
Nini's figure is drawn from this grand tradition of flying
designs. Her golden wings symbolize the infinite sky and
spread good-luck as a blessing wherever she flies. Swallow is also pronounced "yan" in Chinese, and Yanjing is
what Beijing was called as an ancient capital city.
Among the Friendlies, Nini is as innocent and joyful as
a swallow. She is strong in gymnastics and represents the
green Olympic ring.

According to De Coubertin the ring colors stand for

those colors that appeared on all the national flags of the
world at that time.
Today, the Olympic Games are the world's largest pageant of athletic skill and competitive spirit. They are also
displays of nationalism, commerce and politics. These two
opposing elements of the Olympics are not a modern invention. The conflict between the Olympic movement's
high ideals and the commercialism or political acts which
accompany the Games has been noted since ancient times.
1. The Greeks referred to the Sanctuary of Zeus as the Altis. The name
Altis came from a corruption of the Elean word for grove, alsos. Sanctuaries were centers of religious worship where the Greeks built temples,
treasuries, altars, statues, and other structures.
2. Pausanias was a Greek traveler and geographer of the 2nd century
AD. He is famous for his Description of Greece, a lengthy work that describes ancient Greece from first hand observations, and is a crucial link
between classical literature and modern archaeology.
3. A megaron was the large hall or main room of an early Greek house,
with the roof supported by columns, the light entering through the doors, the
smoke-hole, and the apertures just under the roof.

In China's traditional culture and art, the fish and water

designs are symbols of prosperity and harvest. And so
Beibei carries the blessing of prosperity. A fish is also a
symbol of surplus in Chinese culture,
another measure of a good year
and a good life. The ornamental lines of the water-wave designs
are
taken
from
well-known Chinese paintings
of the past. Among the Five
Friendlies, Beibei is known to be
gentle and pure. Strong in water
sports, she reflects the blue
Olympic ring.
When the five names are put together, they form a pun
on the phrase "Beijing Huan Ying Ni" which means:
Beijing Welcomes You".
--------------------------Source: The Official website of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games.

15

Chinghiz Aitmatov (1928-2008)

Kyrgyzstan's
Modern Hero
Maryam Shafa

hinghiz Aitmatov, a writer who rose from humble roots in Soviet Central Asia to become a
standard-bearer for freedom and independence,
was laid to rest in his native country of Kyrgyzstan in June
2008. Some Kyrgyz have likened the impact of his passing
on their Central Asian nation to Russias loss of Lev Tolstoy
in the early 20th century.
Aitmatov was six months short of his 80th birthday when
he succumbed to pneumonia in Germany on June 10. He
was born in 1928 in the Soviet republic of Kirghizia and
raised by his mother after his father, a respected Communist
official, disappeared amid the Stalinist purges.
Aitmatov was branded as a son of an "enemy of the people" and denied entrance to university on account of his
dirty past. With many opportunities shut off, Aitmatov resolved to become a writer. Living on the fringes of Soviet
society, he carved out an unusual literary license.
Moscow accepted him because he was a minority writer
who had advanced under the Kremlins policy of promoting
the titular nationalities of the Soviet republics.
A Communist Party member himself, Aitmatov commended the Soviet leadership for bringing modern civilization -- electricity, running water and, importantly, literacy -to a region of nomads. In return for his public expressions
of fealty to the Soviet system, he was handsomely
rewarded.
He rose to high positions in the Soviet literary establishment, serving as a head of
the Kyrgyz Film Union and editor of the
popular Soviet journal Inostrannaya
Literatura. Along with those positions
came perks -- such as access to foreign literature, dachas and trips to
government sanatoriums.
But like his nomadic forefathers, he retained a free spirit,
and his writings subtly challenged Soviet orthodoxy.
He stretched the limits
of Socialist Realism,
shunning
conventional sugary sweet

Statue in Bishkek, Kyrgyz Rep.

Photo: Seyyedi

17

themes for more complicated topics.

At the outset of his writing career, he chronicled Kyrgyz village life during the difficult period of World War II
and its aftermath. His breakthrough work, a short story
called Jamilya, came out in the late 1950s. Its hero was a
young Kyrgyz woman who broke tradition by deserting
her husband who was serving at the front for a rootless
veteran she had fallen in love with.
Starting in the 1970s, Aitmatov tackled taboo subjects
like the Stalinist purges, freedom of expression and disregard for the environment. His first novel, entitled "The
day lasts longer than a century", was published in 1980.
It centered on the obstacles a Kazakh man encounters
when he tries to bury his best friend according to Muslim
custom. In the book Aitmatov popularized the term
"mankurt" for a person who loses touch with his traditions, a stab at the Soviet system which was trying to create a Soviet man in place of the cultures and traditions of
its constituent republics.
Some say Aitmatov outsmarted Communist censors by
using Central Asian myths in such a way that they
couldnt see that he was poking holes in carefully crafted
Soviet reality. His screened yet scathing critiques made
him one of the countrys most popular writers in the
1980s.
Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev took Aitmatov on
as an advisor during the heady years of perestroika. He
relied on Aitmatov to give him accurate information about
Central Asia, which, like much of the rest of the Soviet
Union, was bubbling up with a collective desire for
change.
With Gorbachevs permission, in the late 1980s, Aitmatov encouraged the opening of his native land, which
had been closed to foreigners because of its border with
China. At Kyrgyzstans mountain Lake Issyk-Kul, he organized gatherings of intellectuals and writers from
around the world, including Arthur Miller, Alvin Tofler,
Claude Simon and James Baldwin.
When Gorbachev asked one day about the complicated
situation in Central Asia, Aitmatov answered with a grim
fable about a king who was pondering whether or not to
grant liberties to his subjects. The king is told that his
newly freed citizens, instead of feeling grateful, will only
demand more, including his overthrow.
Aitmatovs message was that Gorbachev had to come
to terms with the bitter irony of his predicament -- that he
would have to sacrifice his position for the greater good

18

of society. Aitmatov was prophetic, as just a few years

later the Soviet Union collapsed, giving birth to 15 independent countries, including Kyrgyzstan.
Back home on the smaller stage of independent Kyrgyzstan, Kyrgyz politicians asked Aitmatov to become
the countrys first president in 1990, and some students
even went on a hunger strike to convince him. But he refused all entreaties, saying that his calling was writing,
not politics.
But Aitmatovs presence loomed large over Kyrgyz
politics. He basically anointed the countrys first president
Askar Akayev when he recommended the young physicist
in place of himself, and he served as Kyrgyzstans ambassador to the Benelux countries for the past 15 years.
In a speech last year to Kyrgyzstans intellectual elite,
Aitmatov himself mourned the loss of the good old days.
"However bad and totalitarian the system was," he said,
"it worked smoothly to allow the cultural sphere to function. Not like today when culture is thrown to the whims
of fate."
A journalist writing about the speech noted that it was
all easy to say for Aitmatov: he was living in Brussels and
well-off because of proceeds from sales of millions of his
books around the world while workers at the Kyrgyz State
Opera House scraped by making $100 a month.
Though revered on the whole by Kyrgyz citizens, Aitmatov in recent years had come to be regarded scornfully
by some politicians and journalists for what they saw as
him selfishly deserting the country for Europe when his
moral authority was sorely needed at home.
"Let people reproach me for not being here for past 15
years, it was my fate to be away. No one called me to
come."
A professional colleague of Aitmatovs said last year
that Aitmatovs latest novel "When the Mountains Fall" - about a Soviet-trained journalist foundering in post-Soviet Kyrgyzstan -- was in part autobiographical. "People
and the times have changed," the colleague said. "People
are not so interested in him now. Chinghiz suffers from
this."
Aitmatov was buried next to the grave of his father,
whose bones were finally located in 1991 in an execution
pit outside the Kyrgyz capital of Bishkek. Once branded
a son of the enemy of the people, Aitmatov was hailed as
the nations moral conscience. Even politicians and journalists had to salute him for his remarkable life and the
impact he had on their small country.

Ferdowsi
Iran's National Epic Poet
Shahmansour Khajaev
Secretary-General of Iran's Ferdowsi Foundation asked UNESCO to name 2009 as
"Ferdowsi year" The Ferdowsi Congress commenced its work in Mashhad on May 14.
A number of Iranian and international scholars, writers, poets and other cultural figures took part in the congress held to commemorate the birth anniversary of the author
of Iran's national epic. Iranians annually celebrate May 14 as Ferdowsi Day. An expert
session on Ferdowsi and his masterpiece, Shahnameh, was held at the Aabi Hall of the
Niavaran Palace Museum in Tehran on May 14. By 2009, a millennium would be past
the composing of Ferdowsi's magnum opus Shahnameh. UNESCO celebrated the
800th birthday anniversary of the Persian mystic and poet Molana Jalal al-Din Rumi
(1207-1273) in 2007.

19

akim Abol-Qasem
Ferdowsi Tousi,
more commonly
transliterated as Ferdowsi,
(9351020) is a highly revered
Persian poet. His masterpiece,"
Shahnameh" or the "Book of
Kings", is the national epic of
Persian-speaking people that at
one time made up the greater
Persian Empire as well as the
entire world. Shahnameh tales
are written in poetic form and in
Dari Persian, starting 7,000
years ago, narrating the story of
Persian kings, Persian knights,
Persian system of laws, Persian
religion, Persian victories and
Persian tragedies.
Thus the greatest achieveRudabeh giving birth to Rostam (Photo from "Shahment of Ferdowsi is to have all of nameh", A publication of "Atoliyeh Honar")
the named fragments of the former Persian Empire, once again recite together "if there is no Iran, may my body be vanquished, and in this land and
nation no one remain alive, if every one of us dies one by one, it is better
than giving our country to the enemy." If there is a single document in the
Persian literature that can reunite Persia and all of its nations, it is this document.
Ferdowsi was born in 935 in a village near Tous, in Greater Khorasan.
His father was a wealthy land owner and he was a pious Muslim. When he
was just 23-years old, he found a Shahnameh written by Abu-Mansour
Almoammari; it was not, however, in poetic form. It consisted of older versions ordered by Abu-Mansour ibn Abdol-razzagh. The discovery was a

20

fateful moment in the life of the poet.

Ferdowsi started his composition of the Shahnameh in the Samanid era
in 977 A.D. During Ferdowsis lifetime the Samanid dynasty was conquered by the Ghaznavid Empire.
According to popular legend, Ferdowsi was commissioned by Sultan
Mahmud of Ghazni to write a book about his valour and conquests. However, the poet, though dedicating the book to the King for an agreed fee of
30 horses loaded with gold coins, decided to tell the story of the Kings that
had made the land of Persia into an Empire throughout the ages. This task
was to take the poet some thirty
years or more, during which he
included the verse:
... I suffered during these
thirty years, but I have revived the
Iranians (Ajam) with the Persian
language; I shall not die since I
am alive again, as I have spread
the seeds of this language
After 30 years of hard
work, he finished the book
and two or three years after
that he went to Ghazni, the
Ghaznavid capital, to present
it to the king. There are various stories in medieval texts
describing the lack of interest
shown by the new king, Sultan
Mahmud of Ghazni, in Ferdowsi
and his lifework.
According to historians, Mah-

Shah Ismaeeli Shahnameh- Iranians are observing Turans

advancing, Qazvin School, attributed to Mehrab, 1605
B.C (Photo from "Shahnameh", A publication of
"Atoliyeh Honar")

21

mud had promised Ferdowsi a dinar for every distich written in the Shahnameh (60,000 dinars), but later retracted and presented him with dirhams
(20,000 dirhams), which were at that time much less valuable than dinars
(every 100 dirhams worth 1 dinar).
Some think it was the jealousy of other poets working at the kings court
that led to this treachery; the incident encouraged Ferdowsi's enemies in the
court. Ferdowsi rejected the money and, by some accounts, he gave it to a
poor man who sold wine. Wandering for a time in Sistan and Mazandaran,
he eventually returned to Tous, heartbroken and enraged.
He had left behind a poem for the King, stuck to the wall of the room
he had worked in for all those years. It was a long and angry poem, more
like a curse, and ended with the words:
"Heaven's vengeance will not forget. Shrink tyrant from my words of
fire, and tremble at a poet's ire."
Ferdowsi is said to have died around 1020 in poverty at the age of 90,
embittered by royal neglect, though fully confident of his works ultimate
success and fame (clearly seen especially in last verses of his book). One
tradition claims Mahmud re-sent the amount promised to Ferdowsis village, but when the messengers reached his house, he had died a few hours
earlier.
The gift was then given to his daughter, since his son had died before his
father at the age of 37. However, his daughter refused to receive the sum,
thus making Ferdowsis Shahnameh immortal.
Later the king ordered the money be used for repairing an inn in the
way from Merv to Tous, named Robat Chaheh so that it may remain in
remembrance of the poet. This inn now lies in ruins, but still exists.
Some say that Ferdowsi's daughter inherited her father's hard earned
money, and she built a new and strong bridge with a beautiful stone caravanserai nearby for travelers to rest and trade and tell stories.
Ferdowsi was buried at the yard of his own home, where his mausoleum
now lies. In 1925, a mausoleum was built for the great poet.

22

Colorful Image of

Women
in Classical
Persian Literature

Humay at the gate of Humayuns palace

Divan-e-Khaju Kermani
Late 14th century (1396 A.D)
Baghdad school of painting
Painter: Junaid

23

Introduction
ersian literature is one of the richest treasures of
various literary genres in the world. During the
course of history, various cultural, mythological
and folklore resources have nourished the vast territory of
Persian literature. Ancient Persia was the home to many
different races and tribes, whether native or immigrant,
even the conqueror, first were fascinated with Persian
culture, and then integrated to it.
In Western's eye, after renaissance era in particular, the
orient was a definition which brought naivety, passiveness,
and simplicity in one hand yet at the same time luxury,
mystery and spirituality in mind. Accounts of the travelers,
merchants and missioners who had visited the "Orients",
failed to give a clear truthful picture from people's life in
those countries.
Women, perhaps, were the most mysterious subjects for
travelers from western countries. Unfamiliar with the traditions and culture (as well as the languages) of the socalled Orients, Europeans' perception of what they had
experienced remained immature and to some extent mixed
with misperceptions until the recent time. Therefore we
face with much wrong accounts and interpretations about
the oriental women's character in their memoirs and travel
accounts of the European travelers.
For example painters such as the French Delacroix, in illustration of a harem, relied merely on his imagination and
the women which he used for his creation of the harem
were French models. However this generalized view
(whose geographical expansion contained vast regions
from North African Muslim countries such as morocco,
Egypt and Alger, to the territories of Ottoman Empire, Iran
and India, was gradually to be altered through the translations of literary texts.
Writers and scholars such as Goethe, Fitzgerald and Jul
Muhl, Martin Lings, Titus Borkhardt and many other historians, philosophers and writers are among the western pioneers who gave a quite different picture of the Orients.
Through their translations of literary texts and critiques,
compilation of scientific and methodological works, the
image of women as the heroines of different epics and romance stories emerged as quite amazing characters with
remarkable abilities in politics, social affairs, art, literature
and religion.
The classical Persian literature provides us with an enormous source of literary archetypes for women characters.
Reading stories of these heroines connects the audience

24

Rudabe sends massage to Zal through her maids

Ferdausis Shahnameh (book of kings)
Shah Tahmasb Shahnameh (Hughton Shahnameh)
16th century-Tabriz school of painting

with the true image of Persian women and gives us a firm

ground to reconstruct the history of gender in Persia. In literature we find different characters of women, behind the
thin curtain of fiction reality unfolds itself in front of our
eyes. These women are not goddesses just like the Greek or
Egyptian mythology.
They are real, no magic spells , no super natural power,
no Olympus like court where they can not be reached, they
are flesh and blood, therefore upon hearing their stories we
sympathize with them, live their lives, follow their dreams
and feel the agony and pain that they have suffered and
that's what makes them immortal yet tangible.
Various types of women can be found in Persian literature, their beauty is balanced with their wisdom, their
courage with their providence. They are not fancy creatures
who live in golden cages, but bold enough to follow their
hearts and live the adventure. Sometimes they are deceptive and mischievous, cruel enough to bring dreadful blood
shedding wars upon two kingdoms but in the end the good
claims the victory and the evil is punished. With this brief
introduction, some highlights of classical literary texts
where the heroin takes the action and rule her fate (although in Persian literature fate is the one mighty force that
no one can escape from it), are studied.

Matrilineal In Marriages of Shah-Nameh

(Persian Book of Kings by Ferdowsi)
Johan Jacob Bachophen, Swiss jurist and philosopher,
first proposed the theory of "Matriarchy" in 19th century.
He believed that in the ancient times the superiority and
power in the social life were not exclusive to men, but there
were periods in history when women were the source of
decision making and instead of father, it was the mother
who assumed the position of the head of the family.
To prove his theory, Bachophen used the researches and
the remaining evidences of "Mutterrecht" (Matrilineals)
and the examples of women's power and supremacy in
Egyptian and Greek myths:
1- According to custom, Greek inhabitants of Lyceum
the newborn assumed mother's surname.
2- In ancient Egypt, women from the royal family were
the rightful successors to the throne.
3- Iphigenia (daughter of Agamemnon, king of Greek
and Kolimenster) was offered as sacrifice to Dian (the goddess of moon and hunting), this act implied the fact that in
ancient times, women had a superior rank in matters related
to sanctity and religious importance.

25

Humay and Humayun- Diven-e-Khaju Kermani

Late 14th century (1396 A.D),
Baghdad school of painting
Attributed to: Junaid

There are thirty eight cases

of marriages in this book
(Shah-nameh), fourteen of
which can be considered as
the clear examples of survival
of the old tradition of
matrilineal. In all fourteen
cases none of the men (kings)
proposed to women in first
place, but it was the woman
who took the initiative and
made the proposal.

26

He then concludes that in the ancient history, due to the

chaotic state of sexual relations, women who were more
sensitive and gentler in nature than men finally with the aid
of religious ideals resorted to violence in order to put an
end to this much hated situation.
In this way the earliest marriages were supported and
arranged by women. Bachophen also pointed out that the
Latin name of "marriage" and "matrimony" was derived
from the word "mother". However the critics of evolutionism opposed to this idea. But this tradition still goes on
among some of the oldest surviving tribes in different parts
of the world such as Queens land (Australia), Papua in New
Guinea or Torres Strait where it is customary for women to
choose their spouse and subsequently make the marriage
proposal to men.
There are many examples of such tradition in Persian
literature. Here we discuss some of the famous cases of
such tradition:
Shah-nameh authored by Ferdowsi, is one of the most
reliable documents in Farsi language, in another word; it is
the only documented work which has discussed the various
marriages in mythological and historical periods in pre Islamic Persia, in detail. There are thirty eight cases of marriages in this book, fourteen of which can be considered as
the clear examples of survival of the old tradition of matrilineal.
In all fourteen cases none of the men (kings) proposed
to women in first place, but it was the woman who took
the initiative and made the proposal. The proposal was
made either by the woman herself or by her father or relatives. Sometimes we find cases when a king accidentally
encounters a girl and it is the girl who captures the King's
attention and makes him fall in love with her.
Sometimes choosing the spouse and the marriage is
done without the consultation with the father or the girl's
family members. The girl ventures to take the first step and
offer her hand to the man (the king). There are at least six
cases of such event in Shah-nameh:
Marriage of Zal (Father of Rustam the greatest hero of

Women, perhaps, were the

most mysterious subjects for
travelers from western
countries. Unfamiliar with the
traditions and culture (as well
as the languages) of the
so-called Orients, Europeans'
perception of what they had
experienced remained
immature and to some extent
mixed with misperceptions
until the recent time.

Persia) to Rudabe (the daughter of Kabul's king), when

Young Zal hears about Rudabe's beauty and virtues, he instantly falls in love with her without having seen her.
Listening to her parents' conversation about Zal, Rudabe
also falls in love with this young hero. But it is Rudabe
who tries to find Zal. She sends five maids and servants
after young Zal and invites the Persian hero to her palace.
When Zal reaches the palace, Rudabe receives him with
much honor and respect. Despite the difficulties and objections to their marriage, this couple overcome the obstacles and the story ends with the marriage of Zal and
Rudabe.
Another example of such choice is the sad story of Rustam and Tahmineh (mother of Sohrab, Rustam's unfortunate son). When hunting, Rustam loses Rakhsh, his favorite
horse and in pursuit of his horse, he reaches Samangan.
The king of Samangan is Tahmineh's father, he promises
Rustam to help him find Rakhsh and invites him to stay in
palace until he finds his horse.
Tahmineh hears that Rustam has come to her father's
palace, she knows about Rustam and his heroic deeds. At
night accompanied by a servant, she goes to Rustam's room
and after introducing herslf to Rustam, asks him to marry
her and so this is done. Rustam asks a holy man to perform
the marriage ceremony and Tahmineh becomes Rustam's
wife.

Not always the heroin knows the true identity of her

lover, in some cases the woman, regardless to her superior
social position, makes her own choice, when choosing the
spouse. Katayoon (Kathrin) was the daughter of Roman
emperor; Shah-nameh gives us an account regarding a
Roman tradition that is "choosing the spouse" for the Emperor's daughter.
In a ceremony, young men from noble roman families
were gathered around the emperor's palace so that the
emperor's daughter could choose one of them as her future
husband. Gushtasp, son of Lohrasb, king of Iran, who was
a stranger with no money in Rome was chosen by Kathrin.
Kathrin's father who did not want to marry off her
daughter to a foreign stranger didnt consent but the Grand
Bishop of Rome reminded him of the old tradition of his
ancestors and that these traditions must be respected by all
Roman citizens even the emperor himself; the girl could
choose anyone as her future husband without any condition. The emperor accepted bishop's advice and Kathrin
married Goshtasp.
After marriage Goshtasp revealed his true identity and
emperor blessed this marriage whole heartedly.
There are some cases of social inferiority of the heroin
to the man who she falls in love with. In the story of Shapur, son of Ardeshir, the first Sassanid king, during a hunting expedition, Shapur reached a village. He saw a girl who
was drawing a heavy bulk of water from the well. The girl
came forward and offered Shapur to bring water to him and
his companions.
Shapur rejected this offer and ordered one of his soldiers
to bring water out of the well. But the girl with much
strength and skill brought the water out of the well and this
astonished the Prince and made him curious find out the
true identity of the girl whose beauty and skillful speech
did not match the position of an ordinary peasant girl and
at this turn the girl revealed her true identity.
She was the daughter of Mehrak Nooshzad, the ruler of
city of Jahrom who had been killed by Shapur's father, king
Ardeshir. In order to save the girl (back then a baby), from

27

Khosrau and Shirin, the hunting scene- Shirin slays a lion

Khosrou and Shirin- Nezamis Khamseh (The Quintet)
Early 15th century- Tabriz school of painting

the bitter fate she was

to face, she had been
brought to a peasant
family where she remained and raised by
them.
Subsequently
Shapoor falls in love
with the girl and marries her secretly. The
girl gives birth to Ormazd, the greatest
king of Sassanid dynasty who restores
greatness and prosperity to Persia and
unites different tribes
and races under the
sovereignty of a
powerful
government.
The last example
is the romance of
Khosraw, the Sassanid king and Shirin, the Armenian
Princess. Firdausi in his Shah-nameh and and Nezami in
his very popular lyrical work Khamseh (the quintet) have
narrated this story. Shirin is one of the most remarkable
heroines of Persian literature. Known for her wisdom,
strength and beauty, Shirin falls in love with a painting of
the Sassanian king Khosrau Parviz (reigned 591- 628) by
coincidence, the king also enamored with Shirin's description. But it's Shirin who disguises herself as a young man
and sets out in a journey to see Khosrau.
In a hunting expedition Khosrau sees Shirin when
bathing in a spring, without recognizing that this beauty is
the same person he has fallen in love with. When two finally meet, they set out on hunt, the royal pastime par excellence but not necessarily associated with women.
According to Nezami, Shirin's prowess deeply impresses
the king, who compares the princess to a liones and her
hunting skills and horsemanship to those of a man.

28

There are some instances in Persian literature, when

women engage in a battle with the heroes before they are
formally introduced to each other. In Humay and Humayun, the lyrical romance by Khaju Kermani, these two
enter in a battle without knowing their true identity and
Humay is not aware that the warrior he is fighting with is
actually a woman.
Another such case is Sohrab (son of Rustam) and Gord
Afarid (she is the daughter of one of Persian princes), when
Sohrab is about to defeat the princess's father, Gord Afarid
sets out to fight with Sohrab. When true identity of Gord
Afarid is revealed to Sohrab and he sees her beauty and
strength and fighting skills, he has no choice but to fall in
love with her.
As mentioned before there are characters of women who
are weak and cruel, perhaps one of the most notorious
women character in Persian literature is Sudabe the wife
of Kavoos, the king of Persia. Sudabe falls in love with
Prince Siavosh, her stepson (son of kavus).
She constantly imposes herself to the young prince trying to seduce him. But Siavosh who is the symbol of purity
and honesty in Persian literature, rejects her proposals and
at last disappointed of her temptations and receiving no answer from Siavosh to her love, Sudabe falsely accuses
Siavosh of having attempted to seduce her. Upon this accusation, in spite of Siavosh's denial, King Kavoos, orders
the fire ordeal, an old tradition for recognition of truth from
false, Siavosh is to be put in to fire, if he is truthful the fire
would not harm him but if he has lied, fire will burn him.
Courageous and confidant, Siavush mounted on his
horse, jumps in to fire and unharmed comes out of it. This
tragic story ends with the death of Siavosh by Afrasiab, his
deceitful father-in-law who has been Iran's sworn enemy
for a long time. But Afrasiab is killed himself by Kaykhosrau, son of Siavosh and sudabeh is killed by Rustam who
claims the revenge upon her and castigate Kavoos for his
simplicity and blindness in seeing the truth.
In the End there is a bloody war between Iran and Turan
(the kingdom of Afrasiab) and finally it is the fate that
brings everything to its ultimate destination whether happy
or tragic.

Afghan
Embroidery
Bernard Dupaigne *

fghanistan is a land of harsh steppes and mountain

valleys crisscrossed by irrigation channels sparkling
in the sun. In this arid landscape, the embroideries
of Afghani women glow with color like bright exotic flowers.
The women, hardworking and courageous, express themselves in these exuberant works of art. Their embroideries
are everywhere, always fresh, as diverse as the countryside itself.
These embroideries are hung in front of tents and yurts,
inside mud houses and along bazaars; they are hidden
under men's turbans and women's veils; they decorate
shawls, shirts, tunics, dresses; they adorn horses, donkeys,
camels. They are a blaze of color.
Afghanistan, a country proud of its traditions and independence, has been shaped by its history. It is rough and
very appealing. This dramatic history, with successive
waves of people bringing their own contribution and influence to the country, has fashioned and enriched the face of
Afghanistan.
An important staging post on the Silk Road, it absorbed influences from Greece as well as China, Persia and Central Asia,
Mongols and Turks. It retains a wonderful diversity of cultures,
languages, traditions and crafts.
The richness of the history, the diversity of the landscape and everything else conspires to make Afghanistan a stronghold of traditions and
art forms. Each valley has its own cultural identity, its own originality. It
is a country where the main routes of each valley have cherished their individuality.

Purse, Pashtun nomad, Katawaz (Ghazni), Circa 1960

Photos by Ronald Paiva & Mathew Paiva
A publication of Ferozsons (pvt) Ltd. Pakistan

29

30

Sandal, Kandahar, Circa 1950

At the same time, there were

significant population movements
and displacements. Traditions
were intermingled and it is now
sometimes difficult to ascertain the
origin of a custom, a craft or a decorative pattern. Should the subject
therefore be approached on the
basis of ethnic style or regional
style?
Certain general characteristics
are apparent: there are very different ethnic groups, each with itsown identity, its own skills, its
own artistic traditions and, at the
same time, on the fringes, in areas
where people come into contact
with others, a borrowing from
each other so that crafts and art
forms mingle into a regional style.
The embroidery of Afghanistan
is the work of women and young
girls. In the privacy of their homes,
they decorate fabrics with threads
of gold, silver, silk or wool.
They embroider for themselves
- on their festive costumes and
headgear - and for their children
and husbands. They embroider
among themselves in the evenings,
to relax from household chores
and enjoy themselves in a convivial atmosphere. They embroider too to demonstrate their skill
and enhance their own prestige
and that of their family: embroideries worn at festivities or shown
to guests are evidence for all to see
and admire the skills of the women
of the house.
For an eminent guest, they em-

An important staging
post on the Silk Road,
it absorbed influences
from Greece as well as
China, Persia and
Central Asia, Mongols
and Turks. It retains a
wonderful diversity of
cultures, languages,
traditions and crafts.

broider a souvenir of his stay. As

in earlier days the Emir of Bukhara
placed on the shoulders of visiting
dignitaries a splendid Khalat (a
velvet coat embroidered with silver or gold). So today, the master
and mistress of the house offer
their guest a token from their home
- a memento of the workmanship
of the household, a good-luck
charm for the road, a souvenir to
remind him of them and keep them
in his thoughts, a gift of friendship
and confidence. This explains the
variety of clothing and embroidery
in present day Afghanistan.
There are numerous techniques
and styles of embroidery as well as
a variety of shapes, colors and motifs for the men's and women's
caps.
The raw materials of clothing
and embroidery are cotton, silk
and wool. Pakhta cotton, indigenous to Central Asia and white or
brown in color, was cultivated
everywhere in low-lying fields.
Sheep and goat's wool were used
to make the coats and shirts worn
by mountain people, while in
many areas, in the north as in the
south, silkworms were bred at
home to provide silk thread.
Skull Caps
The caps worn by men under
their long turbans and by women
under their shawls are made by the
women, until recently, only for
family use.
They vary greatly according to

the region and family tradition.

These caps identified the ethnic
group, the region and even almost
the village to which the wearer belonged: each area has its own caps
differing greatly in shape, color
and the patterns embroidered.
The development of modem
communications has meant that it
is now possible to find caps in
shops along every road and track;
men have started making them to
sell outside their village.
The gradual introduction of
sewing machines from the 1930s
has accelerated this trend. Also
commercial production patterns
have been modified and certain
standardization has crept in.
There are four types of embroidered caps: conical, cupolashaped, flat-topped toque and
four-sided. They are made in two
sections, the upper part and the
headband which are seamed together.
In the case of the conical cap,
the background fabric is completely covered with embroidery
Zaminduzi. In the others the embroidery may only be in motifs on
the fabric Gul Duzi.
The motifs are geometric,
squares, rosettes, hearts, hooks,
lozenges, but most frequently floral in the shape of flowers or stylized leaves, palmettes, buta, apple
blossom, pomegranate or almond
blossom, four-petal flowers, moon
flowers, almond or clover leaf.
Conical cap or kola-ye Char-

Woman's Cap, Hazara, Bamyan, Circa 1960

Woman's Boots, Uzbek, Andkhoy, 1965

The women, hardworking and courageous, express

hemselves in these
exuberant works of art.
Their embroideries are
everywhere, always
fresh, as diverse as the
countryside itself.
These embroideries are
hung in front of tents
and yurts, inside mud
houses and along
bazaars.

taqi has a circular upper part

which is decorated in four symmetrical sections. This part is often
quilted with threads of cotton to
give it a relief pattern. This cap is
characteristic of the north of
Afghanistan (Uzbek, Tajik) and
has been copied by the Hazaras
living in the centre of the country.
Cupola-shaped cap has an
upper part that is also embroidered
all over in four symmetrical sections but it is less pointed than the
conical cap. This upper part, once
embroidered, is covered with vegetable glue, stuck to a wooden
mould and then joined to the headband by a seam.
In the north of the country this
cap is embroidered with multicolored silk in vivid colors, while
those of the Pashtuns of Kandahar
are worked in either gold or silver
metallic thread.
Toque has a flat round upper
part. It is only embroidered over
part of the surface, in silk for the
Tajiks of the north and in metallic
thread for the Pashtuns of Kandahar.
Mitre is a square shaped cap
that can be folded. It is often made
of velvet, strengthened with cardboard and embroidered with floral
motifs over part of the surface. It
is worn by the Uzbeks and Tajiks
of the north, from Mazar-i Sharif
to Kandahar. It is influenced by the
traditions of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan as many of the inhabitants of
northern Afghanistan are refugees

31

19
20
N
ap
ki
n,
Pa
sh
tu
n,
W
ar
da
k,
Ci
rc
a

from Central
Asia from the
time of the largescale collectivizing of
land and herds in the
1930s.
Mitresin in Bukhara tradition are embroidered with colored
flowers. Those influenced by the
Tashkent region are in black velvet embroidered in colored silks while those in the tradition of the Ferghana valley are in black velvet
embroidered with four white palmettes.
There is also a special cap for children in
Afghanistan, the Gush Pushak, in a soft fabric, lined
and padded, which protects the ears and nape of the neck
from cold and heat. These soft children's caps often have
a plume on the top and metal sequins with an amulet
Tumar sewn onto them, which protects the child against
the evil eye.
At the time of weddings in Afghanistan, certain marriage hangings of a natural cotton karbas are used. These
are embroidered by specialist male artisans who move
around the countryside wherever there is work available
for them.
Also at weddings, women and girls wear admirable red
or green coats braided with gold caps with plumes laden
with silver jewels and incrusted with gold.
The war period from December 1979 to February 1989
(and in during of interior war until 2001) have ruined
Afghanistan. Three million Afghans have been forced to

32

flee to Pakistan, driven by

fear,
hunger,
bombing, tank attacks, the ruin of their
village and the violent death
of members of their family.
One and a half to two million
Afghans have had to leave for Iran.
They fled in haste, in blood and in
tears. Many have lost everything. Warmly
welcomed by Pakistan and Iran, these refugees
have gradually settled and what was a temporary
welcome has had to be extended. Their host countries
have met this burden and the extra costs it entails with
generosity and great solidarity.
Craft workshops, especially for embroidery, have been
established when events permit, when their village or town
has been rebuilt, when their fields have been restored and
their irrigation systems repaired, so that their agriculture
can support a returning population, the Afghan women will
pick up their lives again.
The beauty of what they create will remain a source of
pride to them. It is fervently to be hoped that these lovely
creations will remain as diverse, as appreciated and as
widespread in the country as once they were, for people
of every nation need beauty, art and a sense of achievement in life.

*The author has been the Director, Department of Ethnologic

Musee De L' Homme, Paris.

Alhamra, Badshahi Mosque

Lahores

Alhamra
Arts Council
33

Alhamra, Exterior, main auditorium

ituated on the banks of Ravi River, the historical

city of Lahore has been a citadel of glorious traditions. These traditions evolved after a long intercommunal, multi-ethnic interaction that spread over
several centuries. The people of Lahore carry forward their
traditions with a characteristic of cultural vivacity and religious fervor, which are not on a collision course with modernism.
With these noted virtues, the lifestyle of the Lahorites
points towards an influence of the orthodox, the traditional
and the progressive streams. Lahore is the city of beautiful
Badshahi Mosque, historic Fort and magnificent Shalimar
Gardens. It is the city of fairs and festivals as well as refreshing and fragrant gardens.
With the creation of Pakistan, the multi-faceted cultural
environment of Lahore changed radically and a new start
had to be taken. Art lovers and artists thought of creating a
forum from where artistic activities could be organized. It
was when Alhamra was born.
Alhamra is the heart of Lahore as Lahore is the cultural
capital of the country. Alhamra is basically an Arabic word,
which literally means a woman in "Red Clothes". This was
the name initially given to the Royal enclave at Cordoba,
Spain by the Muslim Arabs due to the fact that red bricks
were used to set up the palaces and other buildings constructed there.
The illustrious Pakistani Architect, Mr. Nayyar Ali Dada,
conceived the idea of the construction of an Arts Council
with such a style. Since the buildings in Spain were red in

34

color, the bricks used for Alhamra's building are also red in
color. The building has been awarded the "Agha Khan International Award" for excellent architecture.
During the last 20 years, Alhamra has emerged as the
hub of all cultural activities in Lahore. It not only revived
some of the dying arts but also added international dimensions. It has been rightly called the heart of Lahori culture.
The Lahore Arts Council has the best art facilities in the
country, which are as listed below:

The Complex
The Lahore Arts Council has two campuses - one on the
Mall, and the other on Ferozepur Road. The campus on the
Mall consists of four units viz. Hall-I (756 seats), Hall-II
(432 seats) and allied facilities and workshop, green rooms,
rehearsal areas and back stage facilities.
Hall-Ill is smaller, has a seating capacity of 220, and is
generally used for classical music, lectures and seminars
etc. There is a recording studio, music classroom facilities
with a committee room.

Permanent Art Gallery

The gallery in the Alhamra Cultural Complex Gaddafi
stadium is known as the Permanent Art Gallery and houses
the collection of paintings, prints sculptures and ceramics
owned by the Lahore Arts Council. A full time Curator
looks after the collection and other affairs pertaining to the
Permanent Art Gallery.
It has an area of over 12000 sqft., with sufficient wall

space for displaying artworks exhibits up to 200 at a time

both on the ground and first floor. Architecturally, it does
not go with surrounding buildings which are in circular
shape whereas the Gallery building is square shaped with
glass domes.
The provision of the gallery has fulfilled a long outstanding and an important demand of the artist. The city has a
permanent place where permanent exhibition of the Old
Master works is always on. Foreigners and tourists can always see the works of senior contemporary artists as well.

Alhamra Arts Gallery

The other gallery is known as the Alhamra Art Gallery
and is part of the Mall Complex. It extends over an area of
about 11,000 sqft and is used for the exhibition of solo as
well as group art shows. It is divided into four parts and provided to artists free of charges.
The Arts Gallery is really a remarkable facility for the
artist community and has gone a long way in the promotion
of fine arts. Quite a few artists from all over the country
have exhibited their work. It encourages the younger generation in art education and attracts public appreciation.
Consequently, there develops a market for the art works
and people interested in arts under international standards
exchange programs, with the help of the Federal Government. Many exhibitions of arts, sculpture, architecture and
handicrafts are held which provide ample opportunities to
the local artists to see standard of wok in the world.

Alhamra, Exterior, main Auditorium

With the creation of Pakistan, the multi-faceted cultural

environment of Lahore changed radically and a new
start had to be taken. Art lovers and artists thought of
creating a forum from where artistic activities could be
organized. It was when Alhamra was born.

35

Arts Gallary

Alhamra, interior - Assembly Hall

In addition, national exhibitions of paintings and groups

including solos help a lot in projecting and promoting the
discipline. Alhamra Art Gallery, located in the center of the
city and open to the public free of charge is a big credit to the
Punjab Government who finances the Arts Council for all
purposes.

hall there is waiting room and entrance generally used for

the entrance of chief guests.

Library
The Alhamra Arts Council has a library equipped with
books on art, music, theatre and much more. All leading
newspapers cuttings pertaining to art & culture can be seen
and read there. It is not a lending library however, it is there
for reference. A full time librarian is available for any assistance or help.

Alhamra Hall-I
The inauguration of Alhamra Hall-I ushered a new era of
performing arts in the history of Lahore as Alhamra has a
stage fitted with the latest facilities. The stage is 80 feet wide
with a depth of over 50 feet. There is an orchestra pit covered
with removable wooden planks. The orchestra pit is used
only in musical shows only and for other functions it remains
covered.
The hall, with its height about 50 feet, is carpeted and has
756 seats with cushioned steel chairs and the auditorium is
air-conditioned. Entry to the hall is from the Mall Road side
with a big foyer or waiting area. On the northern side of the

36

Alhamra Hall-II
This hall has a capacity of 432 seats with carpeting and
furnishing of the same standard as that of Hall-I. It is also
used for theatrical, artistic and public programs. The backstage of the hall is linked with the stage of Hall-I and the
artists and props can easily move from one stage to the other.
A waiting room, manager's office as well as rehearsal and
makeup rooms are attached to this Hall.

Music Block
This block was completed and inaugurated by the Chief
Minister, Punjab, on 23rd March, 1988. The accommodation
in the Music Block consists of a small auditorium with a capacity of 220 seats and a foyer area.
It has a conference room facility for about 40 people and
some of the accommodation on the ground floor for the administration section. In the basement a Recording Studio has
been provided with 12 channels recording equipment and
recording booths. In the basement there are classrooms for
music students also.

Puppet Theatre
For over 25 years, the Puppet Theatre has provided entertainment to a whole generation. Every Sunday morning children can see fairy and folk tales come alive on the stage.

Birds eye view of green space

Alhamra - Site Plan

Regular workshops are conducted for those interested in learning this art form. This theatre has a seating capacity of 150.

Open Air Theatre

The Open Air Theatre is an extension of Alhamra. It rests
in the midst of large green areas, at a stone's throw from Lahore's famous willow lined canal. Its imposing brick facade
set with local regional features such as handmade Multani
tiles is an interesting blend of the contemporary and the traditional classicism of the Roman coliseum. The multipurpose theatre is designed for catering drama, music, cultural
mles -and sports activities such as boxing, etc.
Apart from the open air facilities, maximum and effective
utilization of space has resulted it the provision of an elegant
auditorium (Hall-IIC.C.) with a seating capacity of 348. A
handsome wood paneled small (Hall-lIfC.C.) and a spacious
workshop has also been provided in addition to rehearsal
and storage space while the larger hall is generally used for
plays by students and amateur groups, the small hall is put
to use for lectures, seminars and discussions.

Alhamra Academy of Performing Arts

The Academy has been giving basic training in various
disciplines of art and music. Sunday mornings are dedicated
to children where apart from the puppet show, they can also
enroll into the art class designed specially for young children
from the ages of 4 to 12.

During the last 20 years, Alhamra has

emerged as the hub of all cultural activities in Lahore. It not only revived some of
the dying arts but also added international dimensions. It has been rightly
called the heart of Lahori culture.
These classes in various fields of art are regularly held in
the evening five days a week from Tuesday to Saturday in
custom made class rooms with all facilities: Fine Arts
(Drawing / Painting), Dance, Guitar, Violin, Flute, Tabla,
Harmonium, Sitar, Vocal, Child Art (4 to 12 years every Sunday only).
Timings: Summer: 4 to 6 evening, Winter: 3 to 5 evening

Alhamra Adabi Baithak

Adabi Baithak literally means "literary sittings". There
was a dire need felt among the literary circles for a place like
"Pak. Tea House" where they could sit and share their literary pursuits. Some of the writers, intellectuals and poets had
also mentioned their difficulty for not getting a proper place
in the city.
After renovation and furnishing, Alhamra Hal-III was inaugurated on 17.08.2006. There are about 400 members in
this Adabi Baithak. However, further membership has been
stopped due to shortage of space. Alhamra Adabi Baithak is
the perfect environment for discussions, poetry readings and
all such literary activities.
----------------------------------------------The information has been provided by the Alhamra Arts Council Lahore.

37

Floral detail - Gowharshad Mosque, (Mashhad, Iran)

A Monument
of Faith and Love
The Gowhar-Shad Mosque Mash'had
Sikandar Abbas Zaidi

Iranian history has witnessed many instances where the invaders

were so fascinated by Iranian culture and thoughts that gradually they were absorbed and integrated into it and then the next
generations of these invaders became patrons of art and culture
in this land, the demolshers became builders themselves.

38

he ancient civilization of Iran is

filled with glorious eras when
Iranian culture has made great
contributions to the progress of mankind,
through which Iran's deep rooted civilization has exercised deep influence on the cultural history of the world.
For centuries, Iranian nation have not
only defended their country against the aggressions and invasions of different warlords and conquerors, but also practiced the
influence of their rich culture and civilization on conquering invaders; hence Iranian
history has witnessed many instances where
the invaders were so fascinated by Iranian
culture and thoughts that gradually they
were absorbed and integrated into it and
then the next generations of these invaders
became patrons of art and culture in this
land, the demolishers became builders themselves, they built a new era in which poets
and philosophers, artists and scientists were
honored and respected and great works of
art and literature as well as the scientific
progress were prevailed across the nation.
After Turning to Islam, Iranian culture
gained a new perspective which made it
even more powerful and influential than be-

Gowharshad Mosque,
1418 and 20th century (Mashhad, Iran)

fore. Islam was a faith that nurtured and enriched both aspects of spiritual and moral
life of Iranian people. Iranian nation accepted Islam freely and developed strong
ties with this new faith, this great affection
and love for Islam is clearly manifested in
the love and respect that they have always
shown towards the Holy Prophet (Peace be
upon him) and his Progeny, the Ahlulbait
(A.S.).
If you visit different cities in Iran you
will hardly find a city where there is no sign
of this love and respect for the great
Prophet of Islam and his progeny. The manifestation of this love is presented in buildings of mosques, holy shrines and tombs of
his descendants all over the country.
The splendor and magic of Iranian religious buildings springs from the love to
truth and beauty to perfectionism and spirituality, these are main concepts in the Islamic-Iranian art that has produced
numerous art works in the history of Islamic art.
These artists so often merely worked for
the sheer love and devotion which they felt
towards their faith and the divine beauty of
their produced masterpieces - from monumental religious buildings to magnificent
and beautifully adorned Qurans written by
the hands of most gifted and crafted calligraphers of the time- owes to this selfless
love and devotion.

Mosque of Gowharshad,
1418 and 20th century
(Mashhad, Iran)

Golden Dome, Imam Reza Shrine (Mashhad, Iran)

The search for the beauty and perfection leads to the

love and unity with God. The examples of such monuments are quite rare in the world as Titus Borkhardt,
the famous scholar in Islamic art and philosophy as
well as one of the most prominent esoteric philosophers
counts some of the Islamic religious buildings among
the few monuments of faith that truly expresses the divine aspect of life and religion.
Iranian artisans have sought, through faith to create
buildings and monuments that survive time and elements. They represent an eternal beauty and solidity yet
looking at them; one has no choice but to wonder the
smoothness and elegance that they show in their
rhythm and decoration.
No wonder that the most ornamented pieces of artistic work have been applied in the body of a building.
Tiles with their colorful floral and arabesque motifs are
inseparable parts of the traditional Islamic architecture,

even in the absence of too many colors, the arrangements of tiles and bricks with different shapes and sizes
form a unique style of decoration.
The purity of spirit, devotion and dedication with
which these structures were built ensure their eternal
endurance. They are simply timeless. The minarets
against whose intricate designs the chant of muezzins
resounds to the heaven; the Shabestans which draw the
spirit and mind of the devotee towards their silence,
free him from "we" and "I" to direct him towards the
"one" who is the greatest of all and raise him closer to
heavens; the tall Ivans (verandas), set between the
minarets recalls the glowing face of the faithful with
the raised hands to heaven, praying, seeking forgiveness: all these examples of the achievements of Iranian
architects, whose spirits were imbued with great faith
and their hands with extraordinary skills.

41

Gowhar Shad's Mosque, next to

Imam Reza Shrine.
For some twelve centuries, the life-giving
radiance of the resting place of the eighth
Shiite Imam, Ali-Ibn Musa Al- Reza (a.s.),
has lighted the eyes of all those who have
paid visit to this extraordinary place. Around
year 200 (A.H 815-16 A.D) the soil of Khorasan was graced by his beloved footsteps.
Three years later, the same soil was privileged to become the resting place of his holy
physical body. Imam Reza was laid to rest in
Sanabad, one of the districts of then a prosperous city of Toos in the greater Khorasan.
So powerful was his presence that Sanbd
grew into a great center. It became one of the
most revered places of pilgrimage in the Islamic world and Toos fell in to oblivion and
the city of Sanabad came to be known as
Mashhad (the place of martyrdom).
The shrine of Imam Reza had been the
subject of some damages, until during the
reign of Sultan Muhammad Khodabandeh
(Oljeitu), one of the famous Mongol Il-Khans
of the Il-Khanid dynasty, where it was rebuilt. In the following centuries, rulers from
different dynasties contributed to shrine's
beautification and other buildings were constructed and added around the main structure
of the Shrine, among which stands the beautiful Gowhar Shad's Mosque.

Gowhar Shad: The Queen and the

Patron of Art
Gowhar Shad's Mosque is one of the finest
examples of Timurid architecture that was
Gowharshad Mosque,
1418 and 20th century
(Mashhad, Iran)

ordered to be built by Shahrukh's wife, Gowhar Shad,

whose husband was the son of Timur. Indeed these
royal couple and their sons played a key role in the
artistic history of Iran and the central Asia during the
last 15th century not to mention their impact which
they practiced on the artists and patrons in the centuries
to come.
Perhaps the most elegant and memorable structures
to be built by a women in the history of Islam are the
buildings commissioned by Gowhar Shad, the wife of
Shahrukh, Timur's youngest son and eventually his successor. As the wife of Shahrukh and the mother of culturally and artistically motivated princes, she wielded
great influence, at the court she became a powerful figure in her own right and one of the most influential art
patrons of her time.
She was the daughter of Ghiyathodin Tarkhan, one
of Timur's favorite amirs. Gowhar Shad is presumably
the mother of Shahrukh's three sons, Ulugh-Beig, Baysunghor and Muhammad Juki. She visited Samarkand
many times during her husband's reign and no doubt
she knew the buildings of Shah-i-Zinda. She was ultimately murdered by Abu Said, the grand son of Miranshah (Miranshah was Timur's other son, older than
Shahrukh) and the ruler of Samarkand.
The following year, Yadegar, the son of Sultan
Muhammad ibn Baysonghor took revenge of her great
grand mother and killed Abu Said in turn. Gowhar
Shad's most impressive project was the Masjid-i-Jami
built right next to the shrine of Imam Reza. It was built
in 1418-1419. Its grand Pishtaq and tile mosaique panels symbolically fuse all the elements of the Shah-iZinda in to a single structure.
Measuring 9,411 square meters, the building is one
of the most impressive four iwans mosques yet to be
known in Muslim world. On the forehead of the main
iwan these inscriptions had been carved by Gowhar

Perhaps the most elegant and

memorable structures to be
built by a women in the
history of Islam are the
buildings commissioned by
Gowhar Shad, the wife of
Shahrukh, Timur's youngest
son and eventually his
successor.

Shad's son Baysonghor who was himself an ardent

promoter of arts also a talented calligrapher. The
inscription says:
"The prophet, peace be upon him said, "he who
builds a mosque for God, for him God would build a
house in the Paradise. This great Masjid-i- jami and the
house of sanctity was built during the reign of great
Sultan, the most kind and just, the lord of the kings of
Arabs and non-Arabs, al-sultan-ibn al-sultan-ibn al-sultan Abu'l Muzaffar Shahrukh-ibn Timur Kuregan Bahadur khan by her majesty, the eminent and
illustrious Gowhar Shad, may her greatness last for
ever from her own wealth, for the restoration of her
soul on the day when everyone is separated by their
deeds in the year 821 (1418/19 A.D)."
For the plan and construction of the mosque, Gowhar
Shad appointed her favorite architect Ghavam-al-din
Shirazi, who was also responsible for some of the most
ambitious projects during the years of Timurid and
therefore he and his patron Gowhar Shad played a

43

significant role on the evolution

of Timurid architecture. The famous
mosque and her other buildings around
the Shrine of Imam Reza (A.S.) in MashhadSbear witness to Gowhar Shad's ambitious
building projects.
When in 1418/19, Sharukh and Gowhar
Shad saw the completed mosque, they
endowed the tomb with a candlestick
weighing three thousands mitghals
(a unit of weight) of gold.
Gowhar Shad was so impressed
by the work of her architect;
Ghavam-al-din Shirazi and for the
deep respect and great honor that
she felt towards Imam Reza
(A.S.), she ordered another building to be constructed next to the
mosque: the Dar-al-Siyada and Daral-Huffaz.
In 1426, Gowhar Shad endowed the
Masjid-i-Jami to ensure its financial security.
The endowment, confirming her patronage as
well as her wealth and power, defines the
boundaries of the mosque as they were
in 15th century. The endowment also
says that Mawlana Ala al-dawa
Ali Hamid al-mashhadi (died in
1432/33) was appointed as the
trustee of this endowment.
The trustee was to receive onetenth of the endowment's income, and
another tenth was to be used as salary for the workers
and architect of the building. Gowhar Shad also showed

44

her enormous generosity by the

granting of other endowments such
as a bath in the area of the stream Jasu
and sixty-one stores attached to the mosque,
near the bazaar and public thoroughfare.
With three stores in front, the bath was constructed of baked brick and consisted of
seven chambers. She also endowed orchards and garden with five hundred
sheep. In addition, the entire orchard
of Saadabad was dedicated to the
Mosque.
The mosque and its complex with
its elaborate endowments in Mashhad stands witness to the ambitious
projects initiated and completed
under the Gowhar Shad's patronage
and establish her as one of the most
important patrons in the history of
Timurid architecture.
This also shows the relative power and
wealth that Timurid court women enjoyed, one
must not forget that the Islamic laws allowing
women a measure of financial independence
and the ability to share in the property,
was another reason for women to
exercise such power and influence.
As the Koran says 4:8, "For men is
a share of that which parents and
near relations leave, and for women
is a share of that which parents or relations leave, whether it be little or
much- a determined share."

A Treasury
of Folk Art
The Kazakh Traditional Costumes*
The national dress of the Kazakhs has a rich history and an artistic tradition of many centuries. It is the dress of an
ancient nomad. The costumes must meet the most diverse situations of life, whether somebody was riding on horseback
over the steppe, sitting at home in his yurt (felt tent) or dancing at a national festival.
The different conditions of climate, too, influenced the kind of dresses worn; thus costumes were developed that were
intended for different seasons of the year.

45

Kazakhstan Historical Background

he history of the Kazakh state can be traced
back to 1470 when the Kazak Ordasy ("Kazakh
Khanate") emerged in Semirechye and the Chu
valley. This entity united a host of nomadic tribes who
thereafter became known as "the Kazakhs".
The Kazakhs, a numerous Turkic people, are believed
to be the product of three major ethnogenic forces: Iranian
(the Saakas), Turkic (the Huns and the Turkic) and Mongol (since the Kazakh Khanate was built on the ruins of the
Golden Horde). The Turkic component played a dominant
role and eventually absorbed the Iranian and Mongol influences.
In the 16th century the Kazakh Khanate achieved political and economic prosperity. Its territorial possessions
had expanded, its population was growing, and livestock
breeding, crop production and trade all flourished. A code
of common law, Zhety Zargy, was adopted which laid
down the principles of public order and state organization.
The main occupation of Kazakh tribes was nomadic
livestock breeding based on seasonal pasturing within assigned tracts of land.
These lifestyles gave birth to a complex system of clan
and tribe dependant social relations. Kazakh society was
divided into three Zhuzes (Kazakh for "hundred"): the
Elder Zhuz, the Middle Zhuz and the younger Zhuz. Affiliation to a Zhuz was determined by considerations of common production assets, genealogy and territory.
The division into Zhuzes existed among the Kazakhs
until early 20th century. Active Russian colonization and
rise of capitalist relations led to the extinction of tribalism,

46

adoption of settled lifestyles and class stratification in

Kazakh society. In addition, the tsarist migration policy
resulted in dramatic changes in the ethnic composition of
Kazakhstan.
World War I, the revolution of 1917 and the subsequent
collapse of the Russian Empire altered the course of Kazakhstan's development.
An attempt at self determination, a bloody civil war and
soviet victory in Kazakhstan carved the historical path of
the Kazakh state for the next 70 years. In 1936, Kazakhstan was granted status as a Union republic.
Being formally independent within the USSR, Kazakhstan, however, found itself completely under the dictates
of the omnipotent Communist Party.
In the mid 1920's, major social and economic changes
were initiated in Kazakhstan and this process continued
until its independence.
The reforms being enforced by Bolshevik methods dramatically altered the traditional lifestyles of Kazakh society. The disastrous agrarian reform program, where the
nomadic population was forcibly settled into collective
farms resulted in the mass perishing of livestock, famine
and the deaths of two million people. Hundreds of thousands of Kazakhs sought refuge abroad.
However, the most tragic began in 1949 when the
Semipalatinsk nuclear test area was established in eastern
region of the country.
During the 25 years of existence, 113 nuclear surface
explosions were detonated in the area, resulting in the radioactive contamination of vast territories and irreparable
adverse impact on people's health.
However, there were also glorious pages in the history

of Soviet Kazakhstan.
The launchings of
spacecraft
from
Baikonur, the oil
boom in Mangyshalk,
the commissioning of
the giant Karaganda
Metal Works and
many achievements all made Kazakhstan the third largest
economy in the USSR.
Special mention should be made of the progress in cultural life. Dozens of universities were founded, national
sciences were developed, and theatres, concert halls and
sport facilities were constructed throughout the country.
In the mid-1980s, the stagnant Soviet society was in
need of radical changes, and political activism in the population was increasing.
The collision of new and old ideologies was exemplified by mass disturbances during December 1986, when
crowds of young Kazakh people protested against the
Kremlin's policies, which neglected the national interests
of Kazakhstan.
On 25 October 1990, Kazakhstan declared supremacy
of its law over the law of the Union, and on 16 December
1991, after the failure of the hardliners coup in Moscow
and the disbandment of the communist party, was proclaimed an independent nation.

from
well-chosen
materials and fashioned to suit the conditions of nomadic
life and the ever-fluctuating weather conditions. It could stand
Kazakhstan national costumes**
hard frosts and the
weary heat. Durable, comfortable, simple and practical
best qualifies most of these clothes.
Apart from the general men's, women's and children's
wear, these costumes fall into different classifications according to the occasion for which it is meant, namely outer
garments and underclothes, occasional, seasonal and daily
wear.
Daily wear really differed from the occasional in its
simple design and fashion. Occasional, in contrast to daily
wear, were complexly designed and tailored from valuable
plush, velvet, crepe, broadcloth, satin, silk, brocade and
other expensive fabrics.
To make them more sophisticated, these clothes were
artistically embroidered with gold and silver thread, heads,
silk, and decorated with pearls, corals, and carnelian insertions. But the pains taken to do them are not in vain,
for these clothes are fashioned to accentuate the beauty of
these steppe inhabitants, give their natural appearance a
special charm and make them more attractive and graceful.

Kazakh Traditional Costumes

In Kazakh national dress, national skills and creativity
are clearly reflected. It possesses nomad influences in materials and style. Kazakh traditional costumes were made

Outer Garments
Hide and fur of domestic and wild animals processed
by a special ancient recipe were used to make traditional

47

Left to right: Women daily wear,

Youth informal wear, Modern Bride

outer garments.
The Shapan, a warm, long overcoat, is one of the ancient outer-garments of Kazakh traditional clothes. Shapans differed by the technique of manufacture and purpose
and fashioned either with a turndown or a stand-up collar.
From time immemorial, it was considered that what
made the shapan very convenient was its wrap-fasten. A
richer variety of it is the syrmaly, which is a quilted and
sewn in a denser material.
The Kaptal is another model with a warm lining. Another type is the shabu, which is trimmed with fur. The
Zhargak shapan is meant for occasions and fittingly decorated with ornamental patterns. It is the favorite overcoat
of dzhigits (young men).
The shekpen is a warm homespun coat made of camel
wool. Another property of this coat is that the fur from
which this coat is made is water-repellant making it withstand light showers.
The most beautiful shekpen, the Shide, is woven out of
a year-old camel's wool. This very soft and delicate wool
gives the shekpen its attractive look. Fur-coats for daily
wear and household work were mainly sewn from sheep
and goatskin.
Another type of winter outer-garment is the Ishik - a
fur coat sewn with special craftsmanship out of the fur of

48

the wolf, fox, sable, astrakhan or the like.

The Kupi is a light warm coat lined with camel or sheep
wool. The outer fabric is made from velvet or other coarse,
durable, soil-resistant fabrics. It is a popular wear for men,
women and children like.
Ladies' kupi came with ornamental embroidery on the
collar. The sleeve hems were furred with otter. The kupi is
an indispensable outer-garment during the mild frosts in
spring and autumn.

Dresses
Among the Kazakh traditional ladies' wear, girls and
young women's dresses called locally Koilek, takes a special place in terms of beauty. These ladies look very graceful in their long flimsy dresses, which seem air-filled along
the length, the sleeves and around the collar.
The most beautiful dresses are those with delicate silk
fringes. The decorations around the collar were made to
accentuate the delicate curves of the neck.
Kunikey koilek is made of light, fluffy material densely
gathered at the waist. The long sleeves are also gathered.
Usually, unmarried girls wear it. In them they seem like
enigmatic, fairy beauties, literary "sun-like", as the meaning of the Kazakh word 'kunikey'.

Kazakh traditional costumes

were made from well-chosen
materials and fashioned to suit
the conditions of nomadic life
and the ever-fluctuating weather
conditions. It could stand hard
frosts and the weary heat
Saukele: Bride's headgear

Head Gear
Wearing traditional headgear dates back to the 15th
century when Kazakh Khanate was formed. From the kind
of headgear a person wore, it was easy to determine to
which class of society he belonged.
For example, a bai (rich man), mapile (man of nobility)
or a biy (iteppe judge) wore the aiyr kalpak - a high
pointed cap with a divided turn-up. It was sewn from expensive fabric, richly decorated with ornamental patterns.
One part of the divided turn-up symbolized wealth, the
other - power.
Summer varieties of this cap were made from white
felt. The kalpak is elegant, convenient, and protective from
the heat in summer and keeps out the cold during the winter.
Another traditional men's headgear is the Borik - a
rounded warm cap, trimmed with astrakhan otter, marten
or raccoon fur. In the harsh winter cold, the men wear the
tymak, a fur cap with three flaps, a pair for the ears and a
longer and broader flap for the hind head down to the
back.
One of men's headgear models widespread since the ancient times is Kulapara, a type of hood, worn by hunters,
berkutchi (those who train and hunt with the golden eagle),
shepherds and herdsmen. The one with a pointed top is

worn when raining, while the winter variety has a rounded

top like the Takiya, and provides good protection against
the cold and strong wind.
To camouflage the animals, hunters wear a white kulapara in winter, a green one in summer and a yellow in the
autumn. The main distinction of the kulapara is that unlike
other headgears, it is attached to the collar of the outerwear.
Takiya is a light, rounded men's headgear made with a
lifted, flat or pointed top. Decorations on this cap are usually in the form of zoomorphic embroidery or floral patterns of complex compositions of 'horn' or 'bindweed'
shapes.
Women's headgears are much more complicated in
make and more richly decorated. Ladies' takiya, for example, is embroidered with gold and silver thread in addition
to the decorative coins, beads, beautiful buttons and precious stones.
Girls sport such festive headgear on occasions, but the
married women wear it under the Kimishek - a type of
head shawl, made from very light material, like the one
usually worn by Muslim women. The ends around the facial opening are hemmed with beads, pearls or coral.
The most beautiful traditional ladies' headgear, Saukele,
is worn by a bride on her wedding day and during the first

49

year of their marriage. Every pattern

on the saukele had its
significance. A quick
glance at a bride's
saukele is enough to
tell those who know
the significance of all
these symbols much
about the bride.
Saukele like the
takiya is richly
trimmed with embroidery, precious
stones, beads and
Mesi: Men's footware
valuable fur.
Ladies'
borik
much resembles the men's by shape, except that it carries
much more decorations. The type trimmed with otter's fur
is called Kamshat, the one decorated with gold galloon altyn, and that decorated with corals - kalmarzhan.

Footware
Shoemaking was a well-developed craft with the Kazakh
people. All the primary materials needed for making the
shoes like rawhide cords and straps, skin, sinew threads as
well as the professional devices and various lasts were made
by the shoemaker.
Ancient Kazakh footwear had one peculiarity: The soles
were cut square, which made them fit either foot.
Such footwear really didn't take a lot of time to wear and
did not need time to make out which one was meant for
which foot.
Summer boots were made from light leather in contrast
to the winter foot wear which were from much thicker
leather and tailored with exceptional craftsmanship.
There are a few types of men's footwear. Riding boots,
Kaykayma or Kayky have often had a pointed turn-up. Such
hoots were heelless with very thin soles. Young men used to
wear such boots at the weddings.
Saptama-boots is the ancient winter footwear made from
well-curried horse or ox hide, worn with special felt stockings that usually reached the knee protruding out of the
boots. For this reason the bootlegs were made long and
wide.
Men's working boots called Shokay, were made of rough
leather with hair. The wide bootlegs were fastened with
rawhide belts. These boots like the saptama-boots were

50

worn on felt stocking-boots Baypak, which might as well be

worn separately wrapped with velvet, skin or other material.
Another kind of felt boots is the Buiyk, a sort of valenki
that were worn over other boots to keep the feet warm during the most severe frosts, snowstorm or night watch.
There existed occasional boots of different style too. For
example, Taptautyn - the exquisite one with turned-up toes,
incrusted with silver that were mostly made out of horse
croup skin.
Another kind was the Shonkayma - the high-heeled
boots, usually worn at festivals by Kazakh sere (wandering
poets-musicians).
In making these boots, Kazakh shoemakers for the first
time began to use different lasts for the right and left foot.
Boots for daily wear were made of cattle skin. They were
of simple cut, stitched on the outside had a straight sole.
That was the footwear preferred by the cat tic-breeders,
shepherds and hunters.
The boots with soft sole were called zhumsak taban.
Those made of rawhide, kok, had no heels and were comfortable for walking on rocky grounds.
Masi are soft thin boots with thin soles. Galoshes - skin
(kebis) or rubber (lastyk) - were worn over the masi to protect it from dirt, dust and moisture. The galoshes had thick
sole and high heels. Besides the ordinary ones, Kebis were
made with short bootlegs like overshoes.
There also existed a diversity of ladies' and children's
footwear, which looked more smart and exquisite, They
were as usual specially decorated, The summer models, unlike the men's, were always made with short bootlegs or
without ones altogether making them resemble sandals.
Women's masi, for example, were made of chagrin
leather or some other delicate skin with the bootlegs
trimmed with fur or leather of another color.
Ornamental patterns usually served as decorations on
them. Kebis to be worn over ladies' masi were always made
high-heeled with pointed curved toes.
Kazakh traditional costumes are a treasury of folk art that
fades into antiquity and is strongly linked with nomadic traditions. From them, one can easily decipher all the familiar
shades of colors closely linked with the steppes.
It is a treasury that has not yet revealed all its secrets and
has much store to make wonder even the modern masters of
fashion in search of new ideas.
-------------------------------* The article is summary of several publications provided by the Government of Rep. Kazakhstan
** Photos by: Asghar Esmakhanov

Esfandiyar responds to Rostam

Baysonqori Shahnameh
Herat School, 15th century
Golestan Palace Library, No. 716

51

The most important function of

miniature was illustration of the
classics of Persian literature. It gave
a visual image to the literary plot,
making it more enjoyable, and easier
to understand.

The themes of Persian miniature are mostly related to

Persian mythology and poetry. Western artists discovered
the Persian miniature around the beginning of the 20th century. A Persian miniature uses pure geometry and a vivid
palette.

History

Nezami's "Khamseh"
16th century
Iran National Museum,
No. 4363

t is difficult to trace the origins of the art of Persian

miniature, as it reached its peak mainly during the
Mongol and Timurid periods (13th - 16th Century).
Although the Mongolian rulers of Iran brought with them
a great number of Chinese artisans and instilled the cult of
Chinese painting there, nevertheless it was the great artistic
ingenuity and fantastic innovation of Persian painters themselves which opened a new chapter in the history of human
artistry by creating several schools of miniature painting
which were original as well as inventive.
The allure of Persian miniature painting lies in its absorbing complexities and in the surprising way it speaks to
large questions about the nature of art and the perception of
its masterpieces.
Also known as manuscript illumination, it brought
together the art of brilliant colors, masterful brushwork and
graceful calligraphy all under one roof.

52

The most important function of miniature was illustration of the classics of Persian literature. It gave a visual
image to the literary plot, making it more enjoyable, and
easier to understand. Miniature developed into a marriage
of artistic and poetic languages and obtained a deep and
sincere harmony with poetry.
During the last ten centuries, there have been many great
literary works to inspire the great artists of their day.
At the end of the 10th century, Ferdowsi created his immortal epic poem "Shahnameh" (The Book of Kings),
which at some 60 thousand couplets, relates through fact
and legend, the history of the country from the creation of
the world to the Arab conquests in the 7th century.
In the 12th century, the poet Nezami created his romantic "Khamseh" (five stories in verse), which was very popular, and was imitated several times by Indian poets writing
in Persian.
The 13th century saw the creation of great works by
Saadi, the author of the famous "Bustan" and "Golestan".
Golestan is a collection of moralizing and entertaining anecdotes and proverbs written in elegant rhymed prose, and
at intervals, with fitting lines of verse.
Bustan is a didactic poem, lyrical in tone and anecdotal
in composition. It is considered to be one of the masterpieces of Persian literature.
In Ilkhanid and Timurid Mongol-Persian mythological
miniatures, the mythical animals Buraq and dragon were

portrayed in a style reminiscent of the Chinese qilin and

Chinese dragon, reflecting the Chinese background of
painters who introduced watercolor techniques to Iran and
initiated several medieval schools of Persian miniature
painting.
In fact, many religious paintings, including a famous
one portraying the Prophet Muhammad's(pbuh) Miraj
from the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem into the heavens,
displays stylistic elements of undoubtedly Chinese origins. Islamic angels are depicted as wearing the tight
robes of northern Chinese style (see Khitan and Jurchen
and having East Asian features).
Persian miniature paintings of the Ilkhanid and
Timurid periods, especially the ones related to the Shahnameh stories, usually borrow landscape painting techniques from contemporary Chinese schools, developed
during the Song and Yuan Dynasties.
In the 14th century, there were enlightening and romantic works by Amir Khosrow Dehlavi, Khajoo Kermani, Hafez, and Kamal Khodjandi. While the 15th
century was the time for the multi-faceted poet Jami, who
wrote the seven epic poems called "Haft Owrang"(The
Seven Thrones). His poetry embraced all the different categories of preceding literature.
This great wealth of inspiring literature gave rise to the
emergence of many important miniature schools, each
with its own unique style, creating a great diversity of
paintings.
It was through these schools that miniature painting
achieved its splendid development both in Iran and Central Asia. Three of the most influential schools were in
Shiraz, Tabriz, and Herat.

School of Shiraz
In the 13th and 14th centuries Shiraz, the capital of Fars

Nezami's "Khamseh"

witnessed a new rise in the development of its cultural life.

This was the time of Saadi, Kermani, and Hafez. Poetry
flourished and so did miniature.
One of the most important works for the illustrators of
the period was "Shahnameh", and in Shiraz there were a
large staff of painters dedicated to it.
In the Shiraz miniatures of the 14th century, symmetry
of construction was predominant, and for the most part
composition was frieze-like, straightforward and monotonous.
Nevertheless, the Shiraz school was to have great influence throughout Iran and by the end of the 15th century, it
was producing miniatures of highest quality. The illustrations for "Khamseh" by Nezami serve as an example of
Shiraz art at its peak. All is complete and clear, both in
composition and the distribution of detail and in the outline
of the silhouettes. The lines are firm and confident.

16th century
Golestan Palace Library,
No. 1914

53

The combat of Changash and Rostam

Attributed to: Abd ol-Aziz
Shah Tahmasb's Shahnameh
First half of 16th century
Tehran Museum of Contemporary Arts

School of Tabriz
At the close of the 13th century, the Tabriz school
of art had been established. The early artistic development of the Tabriz school differed from that of Shiraz, as their illustrations tended to combine Far
Eastern traits with the Armeno-Byzantine style of
painting.
This latter influence can be explained by the geographical situation of Tabriz, which is on the frontier
of the Armenian region.
Closer relations sprung up between different artistic styles of Shiraz and Tabriz art schools at the beginning of the 15th century. This time is connected with
a great migration of painters which begun after Timur
had conquered Baghdad (1393-1401) and Tabriz.
Many of them were brought to Samarkand, the
capital of the conqueror, as well as to the court of his
grandson, Iskandar Sultan, the ruler of Shiraz.
In the new studios, they adapted to the already existing ideas and tastes, but at the same time they introduced much of the traditions they had followed
long before the migration.
In the 16th century, on the vast territories of Iran
and Central Asia, poetry by Jami was extremely popular and it enriched the art of painting with new
themes. This was the start of great development
throughout the various schools of art in Iran.
In Tabriz miniatures of the period, there appeared
a magnificent ability to create within a limited space,
a full illusion of a particular scene or landscape; for
example, a picture of a palace building, including part
of its yard, inner garden and the palace interior.
Architecture and landscape from now on were included as fully as possible. The figures within the
composition were no longer constrained and static,
and were painted in a more lively and natural way.

Monzar learns chess game in the presence of

Anoushiravan
Baysonqori Shahnameh
Heart School, 15th century
Golestan Palace Library, No. 1429

The themes of Persian

miniature are mostly
related to Persian
mythology and poetry.
Western artists
discovered the Persian
miniature around the
beginning of the 20th
century. A Persian miniature uses pure geometry
and a vivid palette

School of Herat
In the first half of the 15th century, an art school was
established in Herat. The very best of the artists in the
Tabriz and Shiraz schools moved there. In the early Herat
miniatures, figure painting became much more skilful and
drawing gained greater accuracy.
As the skill of the painters increased, the figures were
placed more confidently and the rhythmic structure of the
composition became more complicated. The Herat artists
were exceptional at portraying people, making the sur-

rounding a mere accompaniment.

One of the best known and most
influential painters from the Herat
school was Kamal ud-Din Behzad,
whose creative art was greatly influenced by the works of the poets
Jami and Nava'i. In his own works
there appeared a unique attention to
portraying not just people but what
surrounded them in their daily
lives.
Behzad's paintings brought
miniature to its genuine bloom. He
shared the fame of Herat painting
with other outstanding miniature painters of the time: his
teacher and the head of the court studio, Mirak Nagghash,
Kasim Ali, Khoja Muhammad Nagghash, and Shah
Muzaffar.
The themes of miniatures became more limited as time
went by and the number of independent paintings, as opposed to illustrations, increased.
In the 17th century these were mainly love scenes, portraits and some even copied European pictures.
In the 18th century there appeared a new genre of flowers and birds.

55

Back on the Stage

Performing Arts
in

Turkmenistan
Atieh Naeemi*

Historical Background
hile looking for the sources of the national
traditions, one can find out hardly perceptible signs of their traces at the earliest
stages of birth of civilizations. The ancient ancestors of
Turkmen nation used to perform ritual scenes, the testimonials of which are petro-glyphs monuments of archaic iso-art (from Greek: isos equal) that had
portrayed people reproducing the key episodes of forthcoming hunting.
One group of fellow tribesmen played the role of
hunters, and the other one imitated animals (it becomes clear from the fact that actors put on beast-like
masks). Perhaps, these plots made by primitive humans
represented initial attempts of Turkmen's forefathers reembody other images.
In later historical epochs (for instance, the Bronze Age)
the established elements of stage adaptation in the form of
cult rites were observed in the country of Margush (or
Margiana, as it was called in the Greek-Roman historical
documents).
Russian archaeologist Viktor Ivanovich Sarianidi
found the capital of this ancient civilization during the excavations in the Central Karakum desert. Relying on the
documentary evidence that has reached our days, it can be
assumed that ritual ceremonies of followers of the
Zoroastrian religion that had inhabited these areas in the
ancient past represented performances that included in its
program the recitation of religious poems, psalms to the
glory of God and rhythmic dances accompanied them.

Turkmenistan Puppet Theatre, Ashgabat

57

One group of fellow tribesmen played the role of hunters, and the other one
imitated animals (it becomes clear from the fact that actors put on beast-like
masks). Perhaps, these plots made by primitive humans represented initial attempts of Turkmen's forefathers re-embody other images.

Pushkin Drama Theatre

of Ashgabat Theater

To support such multi-hour theatrical and religious

actions the performing priests, certainly, underwent a
special training that presupposed the existence of a more
or less established school.
Thousands of years later, not far from the present capital of Turkmenistan, there prospered a city of Nissa, the
capital of the Parthian State, one of the main rivals of the
Ancient Rome in the struggle for the world rule.

58

By this time, the stage art more reminding of modern

theater than in previous years had already been developed here. Actors in masks playing comic, tragic, sad or
happy characters performed plays on the open stages.
One can judge about it by the material evidence found
by archaeologists, or refrences in Chinese chronicles and
works by Greek and Roman authors.
In the later period, during the developed mediaeval

Relying on the documentary evidence that has reached our days, it can be assumed that ritual ceremonies of followers of the Zoroastrian religion that had
inhabited these areas in the ancient past represented performances that included in its program a recitation of religious poems, psalms to the glory of
God and rhythmic dances accompanying them.

ages, migrating companies of actors became wide-spread

in Turkmenistan. They composed, staged and performed
plays with a critical satirical content.
Wandering theaters with the repertoire representing a
funny mixture of circus tricks and unpretentious miniatures performed at bazaars and city squares gathering
crowds of idlers. Such theaters with no borders between
a conventional stage and hall were popular among
common people, whose reaction to the performances was
open and sincere, which was not hidden behind the guise
of external decency.
There is no need to possess exuberant imagination to
see what atmosphere ruled during the performances in the
open air: the spectators Homeric laughter spread all over
the neighborhood, peoples approving shouts and comments were addressed to actors almost after each remark.
In turn, the actors, feeling the feedback from the audience, entertained the gods with more passion.
Speaking about the second line that formed the Turkmen theatrical school, it should be noted that the European art started to influence the formation of the national
theater in the end of the XIX century when Russian
Theater Company began touring with performances in the
East Caspian region of the Tsarist Russia.
In 1920-s, the first Turkmen drama theater group with
only male actors began to operate. They performed both
mens and womens parts as the eastern women did not
dare to learn the art of acting in that period.
In 1926, the Russian Drama Theater opened
its first season with the first night play
Windfall Money by A.N.Ostrovskiy, and in the spring 1929 the
first night of the first Turkmen

Turkmenistan Petro glyphs

theater took place.

After removing the ban on certain types of performing
arts like Opera, ballet and circus in Turkmenistan, a new
perspective in this category of art has emerged that could
bear seeds of new hopes for performing arts to play a
more active role in the cultural stage of Turkmen society.
For many years the Central Asian states of former Soviet Union were strongly influenced by Russian theater.
Therefore the people who had experienced the Russian
school of drama and theater had the chance to access to
one of the richest treasures of theater and performing arts
in world's literature but one could deduce that less emphasis were put on traditional and folk plays which had
deep roots in the oral heritage of Turkmen society.
But after the countrys independence, much attention
was given to Turkmen folklore oriented theater which
could be understandable due to the fact that the country
needed to revive the old traditions of the nation that could
reflect national identity of Turkmen.
In between the one missing ingredient in the artistic
environment (here from the performing arts' perspective) was the experimental context
that is necessary for the growth
of performing arts and
the
related
fields.

The European art started to influence the formation of the national theater
in the end of the XIX century when Russian Theater Company began touring with performances in the East Caspian region of the Tsarist Russia.

Turkmenistan has surely nurtured many talented

actors/directors who can contribute to the progress and
development of theater and now with President Berdymuhammedov's announcement that foreign culture is welcomed again in Turkmenistan, one can hope that
president's decision will bring performing artists back to
Turkmenistan.
Back on Today's Stage
Recently, the head of state, president Berdymuhammedov lifted the ban on foreign opera and ballet, announcing
that, "I propose to breathe life back into the lyrical arts in

60

this country."
The announcement of the return of the performing arts
was good news to many artists such as Akmukhammet
Saparov, a well-known singer and composer, who stayed in
Turkmenistan despite the fact he was unable to perform.
"Like other artistic workers, I continued my work as a
singer and composer" Saparov says. "I have been giving
concerts to the people, creating songs, and composing
music; helping the (young) singers and musicians who
need my assistance."
In between some of the theater performers left the country but many stayed and somehow survived the tragic

event. Though traditional Turkmen theater and folklore theatrical performances continued to be staged but as mentioned before actors who tended to work in other fields
rather than traditional Turkmen theater had fewer opportunities to perform.
The return of circus also should showcase a source of
Turkmen national pride. President Berdymuhammedov
noted that bringing back the circus will include "national
equestrian shows" because -- as for many Central Asians - the horse enjoys a prominent place in Turkmen history
and culture.
Much work still needs to be done to prepare for the return
of the performing arts to Turkmenistan. The state opera
house was torn down after opera was banned and in its place
stands a shopping center. Berdymuhammedov acknowledged this by saying that it is "time to rebuild and reopen."
In Ashgabat there are several structures where it is possible to watch a theatrical performance. One of them is the
National Theatre Mag-tumguly, in the centre of the city.
Here interesting performances inspired by the rich Turkmen
musical tradition are staged.
If instead you prefer prose, you can choose the Theatre
Mollapenes, where prose works are staged in Turkmen, and
the Russian Dramatic Theatre, where instead the repertory
concerns the rich Russian theatrical tradition and the prose
is staged in Russian.
Due to the good knowledge of Russian by the capital citizens the audience of the theater is still quite multinational
in composition.
Perhaps the most famous theater in Ashgabat is the Ashgabat State Russian Drama Theater named after A.S.
Pushkin which has a history of eighty years for being a center of professional theatrical performances.
Several years ago the theater moved to a new place. In
connection with the reconstruction of the historical city center, a new theater building was constructed soon after the
destructive 1948 Ashgabat earthquake.
The Ashgabat theater goers were anxious about this
news. The theater was experiencing tough times with the

honored veterans leaving the stage and limited inflow of

new and young actors.
Add to it the fact that the company was losing the theater's walls which have absorbed, in the direct sense of this
word, the sounds of tremendous ovation and warmth of audience's recognition over many years.
Recently the first night of the play based on N.Gogols
Marriage which received much attention, was held in the
State Russian Drama Theater.
The new building allocated to the theater by the decree
of the Turkmen President turned out no less comfortable
and cozy than former one. Moreover, the new building underwent serious reconstruction. The Pushkin Theater has
lost nothing in terms of its attractiveness to the audience.
And as before, the "sold out" notice is an ordinary thing for
this theater.
At the same time in the other end of the city in Alp
Arslan Theater, thoughtful and very flexible director Khandurdy Berdiev works on the play Ecumenical Love written
by motives of eastern legends.
This shows another side of the Turkmen theatrical activity, a more traditional trend which manifests the values, beliefs and folkloric tradition of performing art in
Turkmenistan. The main idea of the staged parable is that
Gods love is bestowed on the one who despite the hardest
tests fallen on his fate preserves Purity, Faith and Inspiration
in his sole.
In addition to that, the actors of this theater are working
on perfecting Nisaian Love play they will take to Kazakhstan, where the Days of Turkmen Culture will be held.
As is known, this play was a great success at the Istanbul International Festival of theatrical groups in 2005.
It seems that tradition and modernism seek ways and solutions to conform to each other. Surely an intellectual interpretation of both would escalate the pace of cultural
developments in a modern context fit to the traditional values of Turkmen people and that is what most artists in every
country are trying to accomplish: to show a thorough cultural image of their society.
* The article has been compiled from relevant sources on the subject. Sections of the material have been reproduced from "The world encyclopedia
of contemporary theater".

61

Phases of Life
in

Turkish Oral Culture

Suat aglayan
Oral culture is a fascinating world transmitted from one generation to the next. This culture comprises of
words and narratives which complement one another, making life meaningful, showing the truth and the good,
and presenting the secret power of language. It is a valuable heritage which survives in everyday life in
lullabies, tales, legends, epics, stories, games, folk songs, beliefs, and elegies.
Having created a vast cultural complex in Central Asia, the Turkish communities migrating to the West
enjoyed cultural interaction with communities on their way. When they settled in Anatolia, they learned the
culture of those lands and enriched their own by adapting the Anatolian culture to their own beliefs.
Today this cultural richness continues in oral, written, and material products. Often a lullaby, a folk
song, a proverb, a game riddle, or a legend will reflect the diversity of our cultural world, and will pass on
an age-old cultural heritage to our day.
What follows are some examples of the heritage preserved in families, passed on from one generation to the
next. They represent the good and the beautiful in us, and they enable us to cherish life and happiness.

62

Customs about Birth

he first phase of passage (birth) is a happy event throughout the world and in Anatolia.
Every child not only pleases his/her parents but also relatives and neighbors, because every birth adds to the number of family members. From another perspective, it increases respect for the woman and ensures her status in the family.
The father feels secure about the future because of an offspring and gains respect
among relatives and close friends. Birth is in a way guided by many religious and enchanting customs, starting with the mother's wish to conceive. Certain rites of passage,
ceremonies and traditions are done before, during and after birth.

Before Birth
Customs involve treatment for infertility, conceiving, longing in pregnancy,
learning the sex of the baby, behavior of the mother and/or what she avoids. In
times when parents could not have children, they used to employ religious and
magical practices, practices related to family medicine and treatment.
Today medical treatment is more common than other practices. In Anatolia a
pregnant woman is defined with words and phrases, such as heavy with child, carrying two lives, heavy feet, heavy breast, heavy chest, and "uzlac" (mother waiting to deliver). The first important phase of pregnancy comprises "longing". When
the pregnant woman enters this phase, she shuns looking at some objects or eating certain types of food, or conversely she takes special food.
People are almost always curious about the sex of the fetus. In olden times the sex
of the baby in the womb would be guessed from the mother's expression and by considering the food she preferred, how she behaved, and the weeks when the fetus
started moving.
During Birth
In the past, delivery was normally at home in the villages in Anatolia with
the help of a midwife. The practices during delivery mostly involved methods
that would help a smooth delivery. For example, the mother's hair was let
loose, locked doors, chests and windows were opened, the birds were fed, a
woman who had had easy delivery caressed the expecting mother's back,
shots were fired, or the mother was taken on one's back and shaken.

63

Child in Cradle (Tokat/ Zile/

Yildiztepe village)

After Birth
Customs centered on
the umbilical cord and placenta, "Lousalk" (the mother
kept in confinement for 40 days), "Al karas" (a sort of goblin
who frightens the mother) belief, "Krk basmas" (mother
confined for 40 days after the delivery is frightened) belief
and "Krklama" (washing the baby and the mother after 40
days).
Apart from the belief that what the pregnant woman eats,
drinks and looks at will affect the appearance of the fetus,
there is a belief also about the umbilical cord and placenta.
According to this belief the umbilical cord and placenta affects a child's future life and career, so they are not discarded.
Previously if parents wanted their child to be a strong believer, they would bury the umbilical cord near the wall of
the mosque; if they wanted their child to be highly educated,
they would bury it in the schoolyard and so on. Such customs
are still followed.
The mother's rest after delivery depends on her physical
condition, the ease or otherwise of the delivery, climate, environmental conditions, economic health of the family and
finally, how much the woman is liked by the family members.
During the resting weeks, the woman was believed to be
under the influence of supernatural powers. The saying that
the grave of the woman, who lies in bed for 40 days, is left
open for 40 days" supports this belief.
People in Anatolia use certain methods to protect themselves from this supernatural power. For example, they put
a broom, breadcrumbs and water in the room where the
mother and baby stay. They also place the Koran, onion, gar-

64

lic, or other objects in the room to neutralize the evil eye, or

place a needle under the pillow of the mother or baby.
It was then widely believed that during the 40 days certain
living beings and objects could bring harm to the mother or
her baby. To avoid any perceived calamity, the mother and
baby were not allowed to go out, and the mother was not allowed to see a 40-day-old baby.
To prevent the mother and the baby from any possible
harm, both are washed within 40 days, which is known as
"Krklama", "Krk dkme " or "Krk karma". Most often
the practice is done on the fortieth day, but this varies from
region to region. It could also be done on the 7th, 20th, 30th,
37th, 39th, or 41st day. This custom is still popular.
Lullabies
A lullaby is sung to lull the baby to sleep. It reflects certain
emotions, ideas, beliefs, expectations, dreams, happiness and
sorrow. It usually has stanzas each of with repetitious words
that are sung melodiously.
The woman who sings the lullaby either uses a ready lullaby format or creates her own. The mother identifies herself
with the lullaby she sings for her baby, and shares her joy,
sorrow, hope and dreams with the baby. The melody and the
lullaby form a unity.
Childhood
There are a series of rules, customs, ceremonies and practices that form a child's development and that establish the
child's relationship with his/her parents, relatives and the environment. For the childs protection, and development, and
for his/her adaptation to the norms of the culture in which
s/he is brought up, she has to undergo many phases.
The first one is naming. Traditionally, naming is done in
a religious ceremony. Although such practices have lost their
importance, they are still done. A religious person, invited
to this celebration, calls for prayer and tells the name of the
baby in his/her ear three times.
This can also be performed by the father or the grandfather. Giving a middle name is very common in public. This

The woman who sings the lullaby either uses a ready lullaby format or creates her own. The mother identifies herself with the lullaby she sings for
her baby, and shares her joy, sorrow, hope and dreams with the baby. The
melody and the lullaby form a unity.

name is given when the umbilical cord is cut. It is believed

that the child will be called by the middle name in the other
world.
Traditionally the first milk is given to the baby after three
calls to prayer to make the baby patient. The first milk of the
mother is called "Az" (mouth), and the baby sucks this
milk.
The boys are breast-fed more than the girls, to make them
more powerful and strong. Having teeth, an important biological development of the baby, is usually celebrated. This
custom continues today.
The most important phases of the development of the
child are walking and speaking. To make the child walk
quickly, people put an egg under the baby's heels, they wash
the baby in salty water or water with walnut leaves, or they
take the baby to visits.
To make the baby speak, people open the mouth of the
baby with a key, they cut the ligament of the tongue, or a
good imam prays for the baby.
In Anatolia there are various practices about cutting the
baby's nails for the first time. For example, after cutting the
nails, people put the baby's hand in a moneybag. The
money the boy gets is saved for the capital of his work in
the future. The money the girl gets is saved for her trousseau.
Evil eye, which threatens both animate and inanimate objects, especially afflicts children. Thus, customs to protect
children from evil eye continue today. To avoid evil eye
mothers make their children go out dirty, a religious person
prays for the child, or people put amulets on the clothes of
the children.
Circumcision
In Anatolia a very important tradition about children is
circumcision. It is the strictest and widespread tradition
among religious and ethical ceremonies. None of the parents
would like to remain outside this old tradition. It is such a
powerful tradition that no one can disobey.
A person who is not circumcised is scorned and belittled
in society. Thus, today this tradition is strictly applied.

Circumcised Boy
(Kuetahya/ Koer village)

65

Bride & Groom

(Konya/Gueneysinir
/Sarihaci village)

relative, and his legs are set apart. Before and during cutting,
people say "Allahu akber Allahu akber", and "oldu da bitti
maallah" (done and finished). The person who does the circumcision is called a circumciser. Today it is done by health
officials and they are called "Fenni snneti" (circumciser,
who does scientific circumcision).
This ceremony also involves giving presents, such as
money, gold, clothing and furniture to the child. This practice
of giving presents still continues today.

There
is no rule about the age of the child or the season
of the ceremony. Most often circumcision is done before during primary school years before the child enters puberty.
Recently, some parents have their babies circumcised
right after birth at the hospital so that the child will not have
pain in the future. Also the circumcision ceremony increases
the respect of the family, and the family sees their child grow
up and do well.
The circumcision of poor children is paid by rich people,
relatives or by charity organizations. Previously, since Friday
was considered a sacred day, circumcision was done on
Thursday but today in the cities it is generally done on Saturday or Sunday.
The family determines the date two months in advance
by considering the age of the child and the economic conditions and starts preparations.
Then the guests are invited approximately ten days before
the ceremony by sending a messenger with an invitation.
The parents prepare the child two days before the ceremony.
Circumcision costume is a very important aspect of the
preparations. In the cities, the rich families buy clothes ornamented with jewelry, and a blue cap on which is embroidered
"Maallah" (whatever Allah wishes).
In the villages, the children wear new clothes; they put
on embroidered napkins and handkerchiefs and put silver
wire used as an ornament by the bride on their caps. Before
or on the day of the circumcision the child is taken for a ride
on the horse or for a drive to announce his circumcision.
On the day, the child sits on the lap of a Kirve (man who
acts as a sort of godfather to a boy at his circumcision) or a

66

Marriage Customs
Marriage, a turning point in one's life, has both an individual function in respect to the unification of a man and
woman's life and a social function in that families become
relatives.
Since wedding involves the whole people in the village,
it serves as a "Bayram" (national holiday) for the villagers.
Some of the phases of the ceremony involve festivities, such
as eating and drinking, whereas some are sorrowful. The
phases of marriage are:
A. Before the Wedding
I. Matchmaking, seeing the prospective bride, asking a
family to give their daughter as bride
II. a. Agreeing to give the daughter
b. Sherbet
c. Engagement
III. Wedding invitation
IV. Taking trousseau to the husband's house and its
display
V. Bride's bath
B. Wedding
I. Henna party
a. Women's party
b. Men's party
II. Getting the bride
Ill. Official marriage
IV. Wedding night
V. After the wedding night
C. Practices after the Wedding
After the family decides to marry their son, they look for
a bride. Especially in rural areas the parents undertook this
responsibility.
Recently, this has changed. Either young people find their
partners or they ask their parents' decisions. In matchmaking
the son's mother and women relatives visit the bride's family

and see her. If they like her, they show her to the groom, and
if he likes her, they decide to ask the permission of the bride's
parents.
Asking the daughter from her father by visiting their
home is known as "Dnrlk", going to "Dnr" (in laws)
or being a messenger. The prominent people of the family
visit the bride's family on a determined date (usually on a
Thursday or Sunday, which are considered to be lucky) to
ask the father's permission according to the command of God
and the word of the Prophet (peace be upon him).
After the family decides to give their daughter in marriage, sometimes the engagement is done on the same day
and couples wear engagement rings.
Then sherbet is served to have a sweet relationship.
Drinking sherbet means giving the daughter and determining
the marriage decision. Also during this visit the families decide upon the engagement and wedding dates, the furniture
and the amount of dowry.
After both families finish preparations, engagement is

Marriage, a turning point in one's

life, has both an individual function in
respect to the unification of a man and
woman's life and a social function in
that families become relatives. Since
wedding involves the whole people in
the village, it serves as a "bayram"
(national holiday) for the villagers.

done at the bride's home with especially women guests. The

men's family gives the bride jewelry and other presents, the
bride's family gives presents in return.
Engagement is usually done at a dinner party. It is both a
step to marriage and an adaptation period. If a disagreement
appears, then engagement is broken.
One day before the wedding, a henna party is organized
at the bride and groom's houses, mostly attended by women.
After enjoying for a while, women gather at the bride's
house try to make the bride cry by singing sorrowful songs.
Henna kneaded with water is brought in a tray with candles.
In some regions after the bride is hennaed, the other
guests are given henna; in other regions first guests are given
henna and after people leave the party the bride is hennaed.
Usually a woman who has a happy marriage kneads, distributes henna, and makes henna for the bride. A woman puts
henna on one hand of the bride and a young girl on the other.
Before putting henna either a coin or gold is put in the bride's
palm. The day after the henna party is the day of getting the
bride and wedding. Each family serves food to guests and
people enjoy with music, especially with a drum and Zurna
(an instrument like oboe).
On this day early in the morning the groom is shaved and

Bride's Head
(Konya/Beyshehir/ Karaali village)

67

gets dressed. The guests gathered at the groom's house come and groom to share them. In this way it is believed that they
to take the bride. After the bride says farewell to her family, would get used to each other very soon.
people sometimes pray or drums and zurna play while she
Trousseau
leaves home.
A trousseau means all the things prepared or bought by
When the bride leaves her father's house and when she
enters the groom's house some religious practices are done the bride's family, the possessions, property and money to
to enable happiness in marriage. For example, while she support the new family.
The most important thing of trousseau is the chest. Alleaves home people show a mirror to enlighten her life. Similarly, when she enters the groom's house people put butter, though the content of the chest changes from region to reor honey on the threshold and the ceiling to make the bride gion, usually people put underwear in the chest to make it
full, a shirt to prosper, a tablecloth to entertain many guests,
get on well with people in her new home.
People throw candies, coins or nuts over the bride's head and a gold coin to protect people against the evil eye.
to bring fertility. On the wedding evening guests are served Through time there might appear stains on the materials in
the chest, and this means that the devil
food and the imam performs the relihas entered the chest and spoiled the magious wedding.
terial.
Although previously an official
To prevent this, when people put
wedding would take place after the
things into the chest, they pray or they put
wedding, nowadays it must be done
seeds, like black cumin, or metal objects,
before the wedding. Generally when
such as scissors, a knife, or a needle,
families go out to do the shopping for
which are thought to keep the devil away.
the wedding, they arrange the official
A Trousseau Chest (Denizli/ Buldan)
The preparation of the trousseau is a
wedding.
After the religious wedding the bride and the groom come long and expensive task, which needs patience. For this reatogether in their room. To make their relationship happy var- son, these preparations start when the girl is still very young
and it is expressed as the "girl is in the cradle, the trousseau
ious traditional practices are undertaken.
For example, people put a knife on the door of the room, is in the chest".
The bride's expectations and the
or open a lock in front of the room. Also people are asked not
mother's work and patience are kept
to tie their hands and arms.
The food the bride brings from home in a chest and other in this chest. The display of the
food is brought to the room on a tray. In some regions one trousseau at the bride's house
fork, spoon and glass are put on the tray to force the bride or the new house before the

wedding demonstrates how much work and patience has

been spent by those who prepared it. During the display various amulets such as beads or oleaster branches are hung to
protect a person from the evil eye.
The display could last from three to sixty days. The things
on the display are evaluated both in terms of quality and
quantity.
If the trousseau is liked people show their admiration by
saying "the girl has studied, the mother wove", or "how
much trousseau, stars in the sky, ice on land". If it is not liked,
they say "the mother slept, the girl grew up".
The bride carries both the labor and patience of the past
in the chest and also her expectations and hope. For this reason, people put things related to light, such as wood, or a
match in the chest for the bride to light the stove.
Also, people may put yeast so that the bride will not return
and will have children. There are many practices done during
the preparations of the trousseau.
One of these is taking the trousseau from the bride's house
to her new home. This is called as Alg" (taking), "Ayar" (adjustment), "Ceyizat" (horse that carries the trousseau),
"Ceyiz gtrme" (carrying the trousseau), or "Ceyiz alma"
(taking the trousseau).A trousseau determines social status
with its quality and quantity and serves as a small museum
where ethnographic material is transmitted from one generation to the next.

Customs and Beliefs about Death

Cooperation and solidarity are very intense when somebody dies especially in rural areas, where traditions and beliefs are strict. People try to make the dying person's death
easy by taking the pillow under his head, and by giving water
to him.
People do not cry loudly near him, relatives living in far
away places are called, and if they cannot come, possessions
or photos of these people are put on the dying person, and the
religious official is called.
After the death, the body is moved to bed on the ground,
which is called his comfortable bed. The jaw is tied, and the
feet are tied from the toes.
The funeral takes place in 15 to 16 hours (if
he dies at night, the funeral is done at noon
the next day, if death occurs in the morning, then the funeral is in the afternoon
of the next day). Until the funeral an
iron piece is put on the deceased to
prevent swelling. A person's death is
announced to the environment via

communication devices and the muezzin's prayer.

Before the funeral, the deceased body is washed according to certain rules and shrouded. This process is done at
home or in the garden in the villages, and at cemetery
bathing areas in the cities. A white cloth is usually used for
shrouding.
A woman's shroud has more pieces than that of a man.
When a woman is being shrouded, things like henna, rose
water, black cumin, or water from Zamzam (from the well
in Makkah) are generally put into the shroud.
Sometimes while waiting for the funeral or while shrouding, incense is burned. The shroud is then put in a coffin and
taken to the place where the prayer will be performed.
After the funeral prayer, the coffin is taken to the cemetery
and usually it is placed in a cavity. Sometimes the deceased
is buried without a coffin, sometimes with it. After the burial,
a religious official prays for the deceased to help him in the
other world. After the funeral, people visit the family of the
deceased to console them. Religious ceremonies and dinners
are arranged on the third, seventh, fortieth, and fifty-second
days and on the anniversary, and alms are given on behalf of
the deceased to compensate for his neglected religious duties
and debts.
During mourning the relatives of the deceased do not
enjoy, they do not wear new
clothes, and in some regions Earthenware water jug and flower put on the grave
men do not shave for 1 to 2 (Balikesir, Edremit/ Aritashi village)
weeks, they wail.
It is believed that the spirit of
the deceased wanders around,
visits his home, becomes
pleased if people are doing
something for his soul, and gets
upset if they are not doing anything.
His tomb is visited mostly on
national and religious holidays
and on the day before the religious holiday. Despite rapid
changes and important technological developments, death is
still indispensable. Such practices and beliefs help people to
accept this fact.
Source: "The Intangible Cultural Heritage
of Anatolia", a publication of the Turkey
Ministry of Culture and Tourism

69

70

Alley leading to Maiden Tower

Bakus Old Quarter
Photo s: A. Nasrollahi

Baku's
Maiden Tower

Legendary
Monument
of Mystery
Dr. Seyran Valiyev

n Paris, it's the Eiffel Tower; In Moscow, St.

Basil's Cathedral. Rome has its Parthenon;
Athens, its Acropolis. And in Baku-the distinguishable architectural landmark is none other than the
Maiden Tower. Azerbaijanis are incredibly proud of
this monument that is shrouded in mystery and legend
even though scholars and historians are unable to speak
with absolute authority about its origins.
The heavy structure of the Maiden Tower is anchored to a rock that slopes into the sea. The structure
is 16-16.5 meters in diameter and rises eight levels to
tower above all the buildings of the old "Inner City" of
Baku. Its architectural plan, seemingly so simple, consists of walls that at the base are extraordinarily thick,
beginning at five meters in depth and gradually narrowing to four meters at the top.
On the southern side of the cylindrical-shaped tower
are relatively narrow niches about the height of a man
through which the sun enters to illuminate the inner
chambers. Rather curiously, there appears to be an external door that opens out to nowhere from the fourth
floor. There is even a slot for a wooden spar, which
seems to have served as a door-lock. But why on the
fourth floor?

71

New discovery:
What is this door all about?
Ever wonder what that door is all about - the one that faces out to the sea
about halfway up Maiden Tower? Obviously, one step out that Tower door
would be fatal as it leads to nowhere - at least in the scheme of things as it
exists today.
However, Abbas Islamov and Ronnie Gallagher have observed that at
Winter Solstice (December 21st/22nd), the sun, rising in the southeastern
sky, is framed precisely in this mysterious doorway when viewed from inside Maiden's Tower.
Solstice is when the sun arcs from its lowest position in the sky during
its annual ellipse. The shortest day of the year in terms of daylight, called
by Azerbaijanis "chila", marks the reversal of the sun's path and the beginning of the New Year, especially important for agriculturalists whose very
survival depends upon understanding and appreciating nature's laws.
In addition, the Spring Equinox (March 20-21), which is celebrated as
Novruz in Azerbaijan, is also marked in the design of Maiden Tower according to Islamov and Gallagher. Again, the sunrise marks the event, exactly aligning itself to the inner side of the buttress of Maiden Tower, which
has been built in an easterly direction.
Many early constructions, the remains of which still exist today, have
been found to mark the solar calendar very consciously and deliberately in
their design. Passageways were calculated to capture the annual event of the
winter. May be this door in the Maiden Tower has been created with the
same purpose.

Diagram showing the sun's path in relationship to the Earth at Summer and Winter Solstice
and Spring and Autumnal Equinox

Year
2008
2009
2010

Dec.
21
21
22

Time* Sunrise
16:04 8:00 am
21:47 8:00 am
3:38 8:00 am

*Time indicates when solstice occurs. All times are for Baku, Azerbaijan.

72

Attached on the eastern side, jutting out towards the sea is a narrow
trapezoidal-shaped
construction
whose function is not quite known. It
is obvious that this projection does
not serve to provide additional stability, nor as a breakwater, nor as resistance to thrusts of battering-rams and
stone shots.
Another mystery concerns the
stone surface of the tower. Why is it
hewn smoothly on the lower part of
the tower and more roughly on the
upper levels?
Usually, scientists try to determine
a structure's age by its calligraphy.
On the Maiden Tower there is an inscription in Arabic which reads,
"Tower of Masud, son of Davud."
According to paleographic experts,
the stone dates to12 A.D. However,
according to A. Alaskarzade, a
prominent expert in Arabic, the
tower itself is much older and the
writing itself dates to the 12th century, not 12 AD.
The stones of the Tower are much
darker than those of the inscription,
which would support the view that
the building, indeed, is older. Could
the Tower have been repaired at
some time and the inscription stone
been introduced then? And if so,
when and how was it ever damaged?
Who knows?

Legends
Many legends surround the Maiden Tower. Most of
them center on the word-"Maiden." A young girl, according to most versions, ordered the tower to be built and then
either locked herself in, or threw herself from its heights
into the sea below.
As the level of the Caspian Sea has experienced cycles
of fluctuation-rising and falling-over the centuries, there is
a strong possibility that at one time, the waves did lap at
the Tower. Although today the sea is about a block away,
it is getting closer again.
According to one of the most popular legends, it was a
king, himself the girl's father, who fell in love with her and
wanted to marry her. But the girl tried to delay her father's
advances by begging him to build the tower and wait until
it was completed. When he completed it, he had still not
changed his mind. That's when she leaped into the sea.
One variant even has a happy ending. After the Maiden
casts herself into the sea, her lover avenges her death by
killing the father only to discover that mermaids have rescued his maiden. Naturally, he manages to find her and
get married.
Culturally speaking, specialists believe that the fact that
the story depicts a father wanting to marry his daughter
probably indicates that the legend predates Islam. Prior to
the occupation of Islamic rule in the 7th and 8th century,
experts believe that power was transferred via female lineage in the region that now is known as Azerbaijan. To
maintain these dynasties, it is believed that sometimes ritualistic marriages were arranged between brothers and sisters, and even fathers and daughters. It is this practice that
may be reflected in these legends that surrounds the
Maiden Tower.
While the attention of artistic people has mostly focused on the "Maiden" part of the name, archeologists
have concentrated on the "Tower" aspect. In Azerbaijani,

Alley adjacent to Maiden Tower

Baku, Azerbaijan

73

Maiden Tower is known as "Gyz Galasy" (gyz ga-LA-sy).

The root, "gala" means "fortress." Some scientists have
suggested that Maiden Tower belongs to the type of constructions that were erected for passive, not active, defense
which enabled a segment of the population of the city, usually women, to hide themselves in times of dire emergency, thus the name, "Maiden" Tower.
It's estimated that 200-250 people could secure themselves inside the tower and withstand sieges, because of
the thick walls, "canalization" (meaning pottery pipes),
and a well that could be accessed from the third floor.
Even when the ground floor was occupied by the enemy,
entry to the first floor could be blocked as there was no
permanent stairway to it.
Presently, the opinion that the Maiden Tower was built
primarily as a defensive construction is not popular though
one should not completely deny its defensive role as the remains of the fortress walls indicate that the Tower was built
into the fortress wall when it was originally erected.
"Fortress" is not the only clue one can gain from
the linguistic root "gal." According to Vagif
Aslanov, it often means "to build a fire" in
Azerbaijani folklore. Thus it may be that the
Maiden Tower was once a Zoroastrian
Temple.
According to lore, there were several
Fire worshippers' Temples in Baku. The
most popular theory to explain the existence of the Maiden Tower is that it was
a sacred place for the Zoroastrians for
their religious celebrations and sacrifices.
According to the hypothesis of architect, Davud Akhundov, who dates the
Tower to about 7-6 BC, seven floors of
the Tower (excluding ground floor) symbolized seven main deities. The fire worshippers burnt fires in their honor in
niches inside the Tower, at the entrance
as well as on the top. The eternal fires

74

Maiden Tower
Baku, Azerbaijan

were supported by natural gas which reached each floor

through potter's pipes.
Historian M. Nabiyev has another twist to the theory.
He believes Maiden Tower was a Zoroastrian "Tower of
Silence," where the dead were taken and placed on the
roof to be devoured by ravenous birds. Zoroastrians did
not bury their dead in the ground for fear of contaminating the earth.
This theory suggests that priests would fasten the
corpse, wrapped in rug, with ropes and lift it up to
the roof of the Tower. However, bones of priests
and nobles were carried to the fourth floor, which
would explain that the architectural projection really served as an "astadan", a place where the
bones of noble Zoroastrians were kept.
In addition to these hypotheses, Iranian researcher Bastani Parisi associates the Tower
with Anahit, an ancient Goddess of Water and
Fruitfulness, who was revered by many people in the region. Historian Gara Akhmadov
claims the Tower was an observatory.
Despite how many theories there are to
explain the Tower, no one has been
able to say with absolute authority why
it was built. Even the date of the construction of the Tower's age has been
estimated to range between 7th century
BC to 12th century AD-a range of time
separated by nearly two millennia!
There may be many mysterious
towers on earth, but none quite compares to the Maiden Tower. Despite the
fact that it has become the symbol of
Baku and favorite place of tourists who
like to climb to its roof to view the entire city, the building remains stubbornly silent, hiding its history, and
thus the ancient past of Baku. Indeed,
it is a real "tower of silence."

75

Mysticism Through Colors

Ali Khan Sajjad
The Mystic Painter &
Poet of Pakistan

.K. Sajjad, (1923-1998), a mystic painter and

poet, blessed with multiple dimensions, having command and an in-depth knowledge of
art, history, philosophy, theology, literature and classical
music held an extremely unique position in artistic and
literary circles.
He was a thinker and a scholar embedded with human
concerns and moral values. The quest for truth and human
existence motivated him to venture into world literature,
philosophy, religion and arts. The mysteries he unearthed
and the knowledge he gained in the process are all incorporated in his transcriptions and paintings.
His achievements are vast and varied. He is the first
Pakistani artist to qualify for the Academy of Fine Arts at
Rome, the first artist from the Indo-Pakistan sub-Continent to win prizes and accolades in international exhibitions held in Rome, Italy and the first Asian to be elected
as a Counselor of the International Art Association.
These are the achievements that call for notice. It may
be easy to make a name in one's own country, but to do so
in a foreign land, and that too in Rome which has been the
home of art for 2,500 years, is something to be proud of.
Pakistan, in turn, is proud of the artist, to whom she gave
birth.
Mysticism Through Colors is a posthumous compilation by this artist which appeared 5 years after the
artist's death. The book is 4th in the series of "The Sufi"
signifying the mystic concepts of the author.

76

Seeking of God's Help

and Mercy
Fudyal Bin Iyad was a great Sufi saint, who lived during the period of Caliph Harun Al-Rasheed. He was
looked upon by Harun Al-Rasheed and the people with
great reverence, and he had a very unusual personality.
Perhaps, due to bad company or unfavorable circumstances during his youth, he had become the ring leader of
a group of robbers. With a coarse canvas robe, a big

Fudyal Widow & Her Daughters Seeking God's Help & Mercy,

woolen cap and a long rosary for prayers around his neck,
he used to attack caravans in the desert.
At the same time, he would say five times daily prayers
and punish and expel any member of his gang, who did
not offer regular prayers.
When he looted a caravan, he would take nothing from
women and poor travelers. And he saw to it that those
who were robbed, some part of their possessions and
money was left with them.
He used to fast all the year round and even after the
month of Ramadan and prayed the whole night after robbery.

One dark night, when a caravan of rich merchants was

encircled by his gang, one of the travelers had a large
amount of money and gold. In order to save his money
from the robbers, he took it with him and looked for a
safe place in the desert to hide, when in the darkness, he
saw a lonely Dervish sitting on a mat and praying in the
solitude.
He explained the problem to the Dervish and asked
him if he would do him the favor of keeping his money
with him, as a trust in the name of God. The Dervish assured the traveler and asked him to hide his money under
one corner of his mat.
Having left the money, the traveler went back to his
place in the caravan. The robbers had plundered the caravan in the meantime and had gone away, carrying away
everything.
Having lost all his other possessions, the traveler returned to the Dervish to get back his money. To his bewilderment, he came to know that the very Dervish was the
ring leader of the robbers.
He was sitting amidst the robbers with the spoils of the
robbery arranged around him, and was distributing them
to the members of his gang, according to the merit of each
one of them.
Seeing this, in a fit of regret, the traveler shouted hysterically: "What a fool I am, that with my own hands, I
have left all my money with the leader of the robbers."
Hearing this, Fudyal called the traveler near him and
told him to take his money back from under the mat,
where he had left it. Other robbers objected to this, but
Fudyal said: "Look fellows, the money was kept with me,
as a trust in the name of God. I would not break that
trust." The traveler thanked him and took away his
money.
On another occasion, one night as Fudyal was sitting
alone and praying in the silence of the desert, he heard
someone reciting a beautiful verse from the Holy Quran
with a melodious voice warning about the sins and follies
of the transient earthy life. This touched his soul deeply
and he felt as if God was Himself speaking to him, in his

77

heart with a heavy voice.

"Fudyal; Fudyal;" said the voice. "You have passed
your life in plundering the caravans and robbing the innocent people. Too heavy is the list of your sins and your
prayers and fasting have all gone to waste. Now you have
to choose between Me and the Devil, and between Good
and Evil. Will you put Hypocrisy aside now and give up
the path of sin and wickedness? Will you, now, take to
the way of abstinence and virtue? Remember that with
nothing good at your credit, too difficult shall be your forgiveness on the Day of Last Judgment. Prayers and fasting alone do not condone the Evil Deeds."
Having heard what was said, Fudyal began to tremble
in his feet with the fear of God. Remembering, all the
plundering he had done, one by one, he felt terribly guilty.
He fell on his knees before the Lord and wept bitterly for
a long time with inner pain.
He gave up robbery there and then, disbanded his gang
and distributed all his money and possessions amongst
the poor, and spent the rest of his life in utter poverty,
piety, fasting, prayers, penitence and serving people in
need.
While Fudyal Bin Iyad was dying, he called his wife
and two daughters near him and said to his wife:"Look
my wife, when I am dead, go to the Mount Abu Qubays
with my daughters. Bow down yourself before the Lord
and tell Him: 0 God, Thou King of Earth and Heavens,
now my husband has gone to his grave. He has not left
anything for us. We are now only at your mercy and protection. Please have mercy on us."
After Fudyal died, his wife did what he had advised
her to do. She went to the Mount Abu Qubays with her
two daughters and fell on her knees before God. And
weeping, she repeated the words her husband had advised
her to say.
While she was weeping and praying, it happened that
the Sultan of Yemen was passing that way with his retinue. When he heard the weeping of a woman with her
two daughters, he went near them to console.
Hearing their story, the heart of the Sultan was filled
with compassion. He put them under his care and took
them away with him. And reaching Yemen, he married
the two daughters of the great Sufi Saint Fudyal Bin Iyad
to his own two sons.

78

Ecstasy and Man's

Link with the Divine
As is the case with every living creature, every human
being has a link with his Divine Creator. It is an invisible
Silver Cord, with which each being is tied with his Mysterious Maker.
Some men, such as prophets have this link at a very high
level of intensity, while other human beings in general have
this at a lower level.
The babes too, in their infancy, have this link at an intensive level, but then as they grow and their contact with the
material world increases, there starts the interference, and
they begin to distance from their Creator.
Although, God never distances Himself from His creatures even for a moment, right from their birth to death, but
the contact, if not strengthened over time, can become
loose and get weaker and weaker as the man gets involved
in the problems of the physical world.
Just as mother-child relation is never broken, even after
the child is born and the umbilical cord is cloven, so is the
Creator-creature relationship, which is never broken. God
loves, His creatures, just as a mother loves her children.

The Holy Man inquiring from the young Dervish

When a man is in the intensity of this link, he is very

near to his Creator and to be in such a state, is called Ecstasy Kundalini or Divine Spark where he feels the companionship of God so strongly that he is no more aware of
his own existence.
It is when the past, present and future do not exist for
him and he has no feelings of hunger, thirst, pain, suffering and sorrow.
The greatest joy for him is the feeling of being near to
his Creator. He is, then, desirous of having nothing else,
for he is happy in admiring the creations of the Divine
Being.
These are the moments of great elevation for the soul,
which the Sufis in their technical terms call Waqt These
are the moments of direct communion with God, when
the Wise and Men of God say wondrous things, the great
poets write beautiful poems, the musicians compose
Supreme Sacred Music and the great artists produce master pieces of Excellence.
Some men of higher vision permanently live in such
elevated state and their souls are in never ending communion with the Almighty God.
Many centuries ago, a renowned holy man was travelling on his way to the Holy Land for his annual pilgrim-

age. When he came to a desolate place at the beginning of

a vast rocky desert, he saw a young Dervish sitting in a
very awkward position under a Mimosa tree, at a very uncomfortable spot. He looked worried and worn out.
The Holy Man felt deep concern for the young Dervish
and going near, he told him: "O dear one, what has happened to you? Why are you sitting in such a desolate
place? Have you lost something?"
"Yes Sir, I have lost something very precious. I have
lost my Waqt - that is my link with the Divine Being. And
it is exactly at this place, that I lost it some twelve years
ago. And it is now twelve years, that I have been sitting
here, repenting and moaning.
So will you be so kind as to pray for me to the
Almighty God, that He in the multitude of His mercies
be so kind to me, that I may find back my Waqt again?"
said the young Dervish.
Hearing the story of the young Dervish, the Holy Man
was greatly moved and he went to perform pilgrimage
and he prayed in the Holy Land for the young Dervish.
His prayers were granted and the young Dervish got
back his lost supreme linkage Waqt with the Divine
Being.
But when the Holy Man was on his way back, he found
the Dervish still sitting in the same place and told him:
"Why? O my son, are you still sitting here? Why have
you not gone back to your home? God the Merciful has
already accepted our prayers and given you back, what
you had lost."
The young Dervish replied: "It is true, O Master, what
you say. I have got back, what I had lost. But, it is in this
place that I had lost it and it is at this place that I got it
back. How can I leave this blessed place now?
I am now permanently settled here, for it is here now,
that I shall enjoy the companionship of the Supreme
Being, lest I live in fear of losing it again, if I go away
from here.
Now I shall mingle my dust with the dust of this place,
so that I may rise up on the Day of Resurrection from this
very sacred place."
Verily, those who seek God with patience and devotion
shall find Him Back.
They shall have the joys of both the worlds and there
is nothing, which they shall Lack.

79

Holy Man Performing Miracle in Wilderness

Miracle in the Wilderness

Many centuries ago, there lived a Holy Man, whose
abode was in a deserted rocky place. For his livelihood and
companionship, he used to keep a flock of sheep.
His religious path being retirement from the world, he
kept himself aloof from human beings. But because of abstinence and prayers, he had become so close to God that
at times, he performed miracles. So much so, they say, that
when he busied himself in prayers, wolves used to look
after his sheep.
One noon in the middle of summer, when it was very
hot, he was sitting and meditating under a tree, a stranger
came to pay him a visit. As he was weary of travelling and
very thirsty, he asked for some water to drink.
The Holy Man took out his wooden bowl and struck it
onto a rock. Then holding it up with his hand, he turned it
down on the spot. With the miracle of God, the Lord of
earth and heavens, as the liquid poured from the bowl, two
fountains gushed out from the rock, one of milk and the
other of honey.
Having mixed the two, he offered one full bowl to the

80

stranger to drink. It was so delicious and nourishing that

all the weariness and thirst of the traveler was gone, and
he was bewildered with such a miracle.
Although, miracles occur very rare nowadays, in the age
of materialism and spiritual degeneration, but they do happen even now in remote corners of the world un-noticed.
Perhaps, a time shall come when men shall be able to
discover, scientifically the phenomena of miracles and the
hidden powers that lie dormant in human beings, when
man shall be able to trace back his lost link with the
Supreme Being, the source of all miracles and wondrous
things of this world.
But to do that, first man shall have to develop the science of Spirituality, which has been completely abandoned
in recent times, on account of excessive dependence on
materialism by severing of human relationship with nature,
which hides countless of mysteries from our eyes and soul.
Many scientific inventions of our times were regarded
impossible or miraculous only about two or three centuries
ago, isn't it so?
All that man has ever imagined or imagines today is
achievable. It does exist somewhere. That is why it reflects in
the human mind and soul. All one needs is to discover it!

Afghan film crew preparing the shooting scene

Post-Taliban

Cinema
in Afghanistan

Challenges & Hopes

ECO region rich in many forms of art has now found a distinctive and prominent position in world cinematography.
Despite limitations of production resources, we witness examples of great films produced in this region which surprisingly inspire the world public opinion and above all the world's cinema industry. Today wining top prizes at international
film festivals by some countries of ECO region is becoming a norm and not an exception.
Despite years of war, technical and economical challenges that the Afghan cinema has been facing, still the Afghan
film directors have managed to produce a number of remarkable films which has caught the attention of world cinema
industry.
Though this article is meant to serve as an introductory report, it is our sincere wishes to cover the success stories
of other ECO countries in the world of cinematography in the future.

Marina Gulbahari, the young Afghan actress as

Osama; the story of an Afghan girl who had to
disguise her gender identity in order to provide a
living for her family during Taliban regime.

Introduction
For many years, speaking of a concept as Afghan
cinema was merely a historical
definition, without any roots in the
deep layers of socio-cultural life of
Afghan people. It lacked the basic connection to the realities of the related society.
Obviously, any cultural and artistic creation
needs the proper ground and the most essential factor
in providing such ground is peace and socio-economical
stability. Years of war with the former Soviet Union and
subsequently Afghanistan occupation by Soviet army had
a deep impact on the body of Afghanistan social structure
in general and its various cultural fields in particular.
The Soviet invasion in 1979 delivered a severe blow to
the Afghan film industry by imposing censorship and the
production of propaganda films. Though during 1980s
some positive changes took place and Afghan cinema experienced visible developments.
Following the withdrawal of Soviet army, the civil war
broke out and with the Taliban forces establishing themselves as the new government of Kabul in 1996, a dark
era began. During Taliban's regime the body of cinema
along with the whole infrastructure of the country were
scorched and destroyed.
When the Taliban extremist force came into power in
Afghanistan in 1996, they wrecked movie theaters and almost eradicated the art of cinema from Afghanistan by
burning a part of Afghan films archive (though a big part
of them were hidden by some of the staff), prohibiting

82

filmmaking strictly and charging punishment for filmmaking. That was the fiercest behavior with cinema in the
history of Afghanistan.
With the fall of Taliban in 2001, Afghan society gradually came out of the darkness and silence of decades of
war, political and social suppression and censorship. The
dawn of a new era has brought many hopes and changes
in different areas of culture including media and cinema.
Certainly, Afghan cinema is in early phases of finding
and establishing its own place on the international stage
but the development of media and subsequently cinema
has been quite promising considering the relative short
period of peace brought to Afghanistan by the new government.
The most significant changes brought to Afghanistan
through transitional peace process during the last five
years; are undoubtedly the relative freedom of speech and
free environment for emerging of private radio - television channels and private productions.
In renovation of the country, among all, the trend to
give more freedom to media as the fourth pillar of government powers has been visible to some extend, although
there were challenges and obstacles on the way of this
process.

Afghan Cinema- The History

Amir Habibullah (1901-1919) introduced film to
Afghanistan, but in the royal court only. In 1923-24, the
first projector - "magic box" or "mageek lantan" (magic
lantern) - showed the first silent film in Paghman to the
public. The first Afghan film, "Love and Friendship" was
produced in 1946. In 1968, the Afghan Film Organization
was established.
The history shows that the first idea of using cinema as
an entertainment and as a tool used for the explanation of
the governments program to the people in Afghanistan
was raised when the progressive king Ghazi Amanullah

Khan initiated to build cinema theaters and encouraged

production of theatre plays and film making, beginning
with participation of the royal family itself in the events
as part of his social progression programs in picnic places
and newly built cinema theaters in the 1920s.
That is why the early generations of Afghan filmmakers and cinema activists started their work with theatre
and then have came to cinema. The most thriving period
cinematically, in the last century, started in late 1960s,
with the founding of the Afghan Film by King Mohammad Zahir Shah, which, as well as making newsreels and
documentaries, produced a number of full length films,
such as Escape, The Criminals and Migratory
Birds.
In the late 1970s some foreign films including Indian
and American films such as Horsemen (1971) found their
ways into Afghanistan, a good opportunity indeed for the
unskilled Afghan cinema activists to gain new experiences and establish further contacts with the outside
world.
But the government still continued to have cinema in
its grasp and only supported the films that were in their
favor; therefore, a dependant cinema was born. As a result, any challenges or problems that the government
faced, directly affected the cinema and film industry.
The Afghan Films also triggered the emergence of new
film studios in Afghanistan, such as the Nazir Films,
Ariana Films and Shafaq Films, whose movies drew applause at film festivals in the former Soviet Union and
Eastern Europe.
On the other hand the cultural and political relations
with India opened a path for their films to come to
Afghanistan. In these years many youth showed interest
in cinema and a few more films were produced through
government supports which are still popular among the
Afghan people.
The 1980s are known as the golden years of

Afghanistan cinema when the government found a new

recognition of the importance of cinema and took advantages of film industry for its political aims and objectives.
On the other hand a few more Indian and western films
reached Afghanistan while at the same time some short
term and long term scholarships were offered to Afghans
by cinema schools at India, Russia and some eastern European countries.
As a result more films were made in the 1980s and it
was hoped that Afghan film industry was going to boost
thereafter. However the Soviet invasion followed by the
civil war and the emergence of the disastrous Taliban
regime hampered the Afghan cinema from further developments, causing a long gap in the history of film making
in Afghanistan.

Post-Taliban Situation of Film Industry

in Afghanistan
Since 2000, the cinema of Afghanistan has slowly
started to emerge from a lengthy period of silence. Before
that, the Iranian director Mohsen Makhmalbaf attracted
world attention to Afghanistan with his celebrated movie,
Kandahar.
It was an attempt to tell the world about a forgotten
country. The film brought the cinema of Afghanistan to
the Cannes Film Festival for the first time in history. Later
Samira Makhmalbaf, Siddiq Barmak, Horace (Hares)
Shansab, Yassamin Maleknasr and Abolfazl Jalili made a
significant contribution to Dari cinema (cinema of Farsi
language) in Afghanistan.

83

With the fall of Taliban in 2001, Afghan society gradually came out of the
darkness and silence of decades of war, political and social suppression and
censorship. The dawn of a new era has brought many hopes and changes in
different areas of culture including media and cinema.

Barmak's first Dari/Pashtu film Osama (2003) won

several awards at film festivals in Cannes and London.
Siddiq Barmak is also director of the Afghan Children
Education Movement (ACEM), an association that promotes literacy, culture and the arts, founded by Iranian
film director Mohsen Makhmalbaf.
The school trains actors and directors for the emerging
cinema of Afghanistan. In 2006 Afghanistan joined the
"Central Asian and Southern Caucasus Film Festivals
Confederation."
Zolykha's Secret (2007), (Raze Zolykha in Dari) is also
among the first feature films from post-Taliban
Afghanistan. Lyrical and tragic, the film has played to full
houses at major film festivals. The film's director, Horace
Ahmad Shansab, trained young Afghan filmmakers and
made the film entirely on location in Afghanistan.
Along with Dari cinema, Pashto cinema is also flourishing in Afghanistan. Several Pashto language films have
been made since the fall of the Taliban. Also several
Pashto films have been made by foreigners like "Good
Morning Afghanistan" (2003) by Camilla Nielsson.
Today, the political situation in Afghanistan reveals a
tone unique for this part of the world. The new political
establishment demonstrates enthusiasm for the Afghan
film industry as well as the determination to support it.
The Ministry of Information and Culture although in a
severe financial situation itself, provides as much financial aid as possible to local filmmakers. It is not only the
backing of the Afghan government that gives momentum
to the Afghan cinema; the credit also goes to the Afghan
filmmakers themselves who have shown a remarkable
maturity while approaching filmmaking in the new sociopolitical setting.
In order to reconstruct the infrastructure of Afghan film
industry, Afghan filmmakers also have been receiving

84

supports from foreign producers and investors. For example in the last two years a major cinematic event such
as the International Documentary and Short Film Festival
in Kabul has been co-sponsored by Tolo TV channelAfghanistan's private media channel, the center of art and
culture (currently named Afghanistan Cinema Union),
Afghan film, Educational University of Kabul and foreign
institutes such as Goethe Institute and French Culture
center in Afghanistan (who were the primary initiators of
this event).
After six years of total repression of any social affair
which could be sniffed as sinful manifestation of evil (defined by Taliban forces), it was hard to imagine the flourishing of any kind of cultural-artistic activities let alone
the cinema but the further events proved this has been a
wrong idea.
Life went on and along came a young enthusiastic generation of Afghan youth who were eager to experience
and express their experiences. Sediq Barmak, the acclaimed Afghan director, (he belongs to the former generation of Afghan filmmakers) whose film "Osama"
brought the serious international attention to Afghan cinema says about his first days of return to Kabul after the
Taliban:" When I came back, it was like being in another
world.
My friends had broken down; they had forgotten that
they were filmmakers. It was terrible. From all that had
happened to my country and my friends, I thought that it
was very important to renew the things that had been left
to waste, not only physical things like equipments and
buildings, but also the rehabilitation of the soul. But for
this to happen, we have to make a very strong effort to
create a new beginning for Afghan cinema."
This important remark of the famous Afghan film
director brings us to another issue, the connection be-

tween the Cinema and its audiences in Afghanistan.

Cinema has not become as much popular as TV.
In recent years there has been a rapid flourishing of
private TV channels in Afghanistan. One can find small
Radio stations in provincial small towns, which have been
established by members of a family even at their own
residence.
Along with music and some entertaining programs
these Radio stations broadcast local news and information
which are of particular interest of locals. You can find in
theses private Radio stations, the father of the family as
the producer, the son as the voice behind the commercials
and the daughter as the Radio host.
Odd as it may seem, yet it shows the level of people's
interest for expressing their views and to have their own
share in the new atmosphere after years of war and political suppression. But cinema is a different story, Indian
cinema, as pointed out earlier, has had a deep impact on
Afghans' view of movies.
The typical Afghan movie goers are attracted to Bollywood productions and the general opinion regarding the
movie theater is a place for sheer entertainment; they do
not consider it as a strong cultural medium for representation of Afghan people on the international level.
In fact few audiences who go to the theaters are

familiar with such idea, their ideal movies are Hollywood

trash movies or Indian movies which involved a lot of
parties, singing and dancing.
Participation of women's in cinema, whether as the
audience or as one of the crew members in a film production, has been a major problem since 1990's, since when
theaters are not considered proper places for ladies to go
or spend time.
Working in crew is another issue, since it involves
working of men and women together which has not been
an acceptable issue in some parts of the country. Talking
about the Afghan movie audiences, the well-known
Afghan film producer and director, Shoresh Kalantari
says: "There are some 23 cinemas still active in
Afghanistan. About 85% of them are government owned.
These are showing mainly Bollywood films and some
Hollywood action trash.
Youth and children are the main public of these
cinemas Bollywood is the main entertainment in
Afghan theatres. And most of them are Bollywood copy
of Hollywood action films.
What would youth gain from it, well you see, there is
no electricity in most part of the country and a big majority of the Afghans have neither electricity nor TV at home

85

Barmak's first Dari/Pashtu film Osama

(2003) won several awards at film festivals in
Cannes and London. Siddiq Barmak is also
director of the Afghan Children Education
Movement (ACEM), an association that
promotes literacy, culture and the arts, founded
by Iranian film director Mohsen Makhmalbaf.

and most theatres are

run on generators.
These theatres with
their Bollywood trash
are the only source of
entertainment for these
kids. What will come out
of it, well as an Afghan
would say; only God knows!"
In order to bring larger audiences to movie theaters, Mr. Shoresh believes that it requires security and enough economic
development. Meanwhile, as he says: "Funding and good
training would be a good start. It would allow film production companies to produce regularly low budget films
that will be shown to festival goers around the world.
There is a potential to produce very low budget films
in Afghanistan. I think Afghan filmmakers understand
very well that there is a market for these films. Also
Afghanistan is a beautiful place with astonishing landscape and is absolutely unknown cinematically by the
outside world.
So, I think it will be very interesting for small producers to come and invest in a new generation of Afghan
filmmakers and be the one to introduce them and help
them to be the cultural ambassador of their country to the
world. And at the same time see their investment grows.
This will help Afghanistan get its cultural life back."
Many Afghan filmmakers say proudly that they are
everything rolled into one screenwriter, director, cam-

86

eraman, editor, and producer. What is lacking is a film

school that teaches the fundamentals.
But the search for identity and raising their own voices
has made many Afghan youth to form their own experimental way of expression. Today there are young Afghan
filmmakers inside the Afghanistan who do not have an
academic cinematic background but their enthusiasm and
passion inspires them to continue their efforts and establish their unique cinematic language.
Young directors like 25 year old Roya Sadat, have witnessed the rise and fall of Taliban and actually survived
the cultural destruction imposed to Afghanistan by them.
For example, Roya Sadat, now a student of law at the
Kabul University acquired her cinematic skills through
"learning by doing." Since her puberty she has been grappling with the theoretical imperatives of the seventh art.
She sat alone in a small room in Herat and read handbooks on filmmaking, by American author Syd Field,
among others the books were translated into Persian by
Iranian translators while the Taliban tried with all their
might to make her country into a zone free of film and
art.
Just like the meaning of her name "Dream" which
means Roya in Farsi, she managed to make her dream
come true, her debut film as director, "Three Dots," was
screened at the first Afghanistan Film Festival at the
Cologne Filmhaus that took place in April 14-24, 2005.
Sadat believes that it is too early to speak of Afghan cinema."
It will take a while until such a thing can be discovered

and defined. But if you are talking about the objective

content of a film, then perhaps you can speak of Afghan
cinema. That is, films that grapples with the realities in
our society and offer an unsparing description of it, for
example the film "Osama." The fact is, however, that
"Afghan cinema" at the moment is trying to show reality
rather than create it on film. Because at the moment we
are in a phase of working through things. We are busy
dealing with reality, which is unfortunately composed of
misery, poverty and injustice."
Afghan filmmakers in abroad is another category of
young generation of filmmakers who have had a serious
contribution in introducing Afghan films to the international audiences. The Afghan film festival in CologneGermany is the manifestation of such efforts. In 2008, this
festival screened many Afghan films from inside and outside of Afghanistan, which introduced some of the realities of Afghanistan to the foreign audiences.

Kabul Film Festival- New Hopes for the

Young Generation
Kabul festival of short and documentary films which
has been held for the third year in a row is another major
cinematic event with focus on young talents (particularly
Afghans) inside and outside Afghanistan.
Since its first event in 2005, it has expanded steadily to
become a source of attraction for young filmmakers in
the region. The festival focuses not only on finding and
supporting new talents in Afghan cinema but also on encouraging the creation of a regional cooperation between
Afghanistan and its neighboring countries.
In first year, the total number of screened films from
Afghanistan was 23 and some foreign films from Germany and France were shown also. The second festival
held in 2007, was with the motto of "Sniffing out new talent in Afghanistan cinema.
In this period, besides Afghanistans films, there were

several other
countries who participated like Germany,
France, Iran, Pakistan, and Tajikistan. 41 films were shown in two separate places: the French cultural center and
Kabul Educational University institute.
Out of those 41 films, only 3 films were selected by
the audience for a prize. There was also a cash prize by
Afghanistans Independent Human Rights Commission
for a film about human rights. All films in this festival
were broadcasted by Tolo TV and finally based on audience choice and votes, the best film became the prize
winner.
This festival has turned into a very important cultural
and artistic event in the region. This year the international
film festival of Kabul had two new additions which were
India and Uzbekistan.
The first step towards making the third film festival of
Kabul a very important cultural and art event in the region
was acquiring an active young team. The center of art and
culture (currently named Afghanistan Cinema club) took
this initiative.
Finally with help from the Goethe institute and French
cultural center the festival was held. This time it was held
with an independent executive board while the Goethe institute and French cultural center were still the sponsors.
There were also some non profit organizations such as
Afghan film, Arte TV, AICHR, HBF, Afghanistan filmmakers union which helped this festival and participation
of these organizations brought the international recognition to this event. With contributions from the GermanFrench TV channel ARTE, the festival has a partner that
symbolizes not only a model of a bilateral TV cooperation
leading to the most important cultural TV channels in Europe, but also a German-French initiative that cooperated
with other European TV channels in Belgium, Spain and

87

Kabul festival of short and documentary films which has been held for the
third year in a row is another major cinematic event with focus on young talents
(particularly Afghans) inside and outside Afghanistan.

Poland.
Apart from Afghan film experts, the festival committee
invited representatives from the Iranian Short Film News
network, the Pakistani Kara Film Festival and the Tajik
Filmmakers Union, together with a German and a French
representative from ARTE to discuss possibilities for a
future regional cooperation.
In the third festival which was held from July 5-10,
2008 in Kabul, during 6 days, 40 films from Afghanistan,
Iran, India, Tajikistan, Pakistan, France and Germany
were screened, 16 of which were the locally produced
films in Afghanistan.
The crystal trophy (an image of Shah-nameh and
Bamian Buda) of the festival with the diploma of Honor
presented to all the winners. A cash prize of 1000 USD
granted to the winners in four categories.
"The Bone trade" was recognized as the best local documentary film. "The joy of desire" for the best local feature film, "Boomerang" from Iran for best foreign
documentary film, "Roshanan" from Iran for the best foreign feature film.
Afghan films have shown the potential of moving pictures to depict historical developments in a way that no
other medium can do at the present time, with the same
ingenuity and charm seen in movies made by their neighbors.
And as much as the movies from the region have been
an inspiration for the Afghan filmmakers, Afghan films,
in turn, have become an inspiration for film lovers
throughout the world.

88

Siddiq Barmaks Osama was bestowed with a number of awards, including an ecumenical prize at the
Cannes Film festival, the Sutherland Trophy at the London Film Festival, and UNESCOs Fellini Silver Medal.
Jawed Wassels Fire Dancer, a powerful story about the
Afghan Diaspora in America, was the first Afghan film
candidate for the Best Foreign Language Film at the
Oscar.
The awards to Barmak, Wassel, and other Afghan filmmakers, not only show a profound admiration of their effort, enthusiasm, and vision by the world audience, but
also a recognition that their work marks the beginnings
of a powerful and fruitful Afghan cinema in the years to
come.
Moreover, immigration of Afghans during more than 2
decades familiarized Afghan artists and filmmakers with
the modern techniques of this art and provided the ground
for this young generation to learn the modern techniques
in cinema and theater.
The role and activity of different Afghan cultural associations in Iran and their cooperation in various theaters
and artistic events in this country is a sample of the formation of a new generation of young Afghan cinematographers.
----------------------------------------------------------*The article has been compiled from relevant sources on the
subject. Sections of the material have been reproduced from: International film guide by Peter Cowie, Afghanistan in pictures- by
Alison Behnke, Learner Publications Company, World communications, press, Radio, film, television.

Development of

Islamic Art
AS SYMBOL OF TOLERENCE & A
MEANS FOR COMMUNICATION
Ali Sabzalian
89

he incredible pace with which Islam spread

throughout the Near East and North Africa remains
one of the most astonishing phenomena in world
history. In two generations, the new faith conquered a larger
territory and greater numbers of believers than Christianity
had in many centuries.
How was it possible for a group of "semi-civilized" desert
tribes suddenly to burst forth from the Arab peninsula and to
cast their political and religious dominance on populations far
superior to them in numbers and wealth? And how did the
principle of Islamic art which had no scriptural foundations,
in a short span of time possess its profoundly magnificent
character?
What had gotten underway as a "triumph of force" soon
turned into a spiritual triumph as Islam gained the allegiance
of millions of converts. The early Muslims, though few in
numbers, were never in danger of being absorbed by the inhabitants of the regions they ruled. Instead, they absorbed the
conquered populations with their spirituality, goodwill and
benevolence.
The Islamic art born soon after the advent of Islam, during
its infancy period displayed a complete unity of configuration
that would sustain itself over the centuries. The time it took
the Islamic art to develop its own personality was relatively
short.
It extended over approximately the first 150 years after the
death of the Prophet (may peace and blessing of Allah be upon
him) and concurred with the lightning-like expansion of Islam
into Asia and Africa.
Although the Arab traders, before the advent of Islam, were
in touch with Byzantine, Persian and even Indian and Chinese
art, but the early Islamic conquests placed the Muslims more
into contact with other cultures.
Soon the Muslims found at their disposal artistic traditions
and techniques practiced by various civilizations, such as the
Hellenistic and Romano-Byzantine of Syria, the Sasanian of
Iran, the Mesopotamia and the Coptic of Egypt. They also
met native artistic traditions that belonged to various cultures
and societies such as the Berbers, African peoples, Slavs,
Turks and Goths among others.

90

Pre-Islamic Arabia had no monumental architecture; and

its sculptured images of local deities fell under Islam's ban
against idolatry. Since its outset, Islamic art followed a selective process that favored certain motifs and styles to others.
This process was undertaken by the artists themselves
many of whom were converts to the new religion and thus,
compliant with the ethical and aesthetic criteria of the new
patrons needs to which art, hence forward, had to abide.
During the first fifty years after the death of the Prophet
(PBUH), the Moslem place of prayer could be a church taken
over for the purpose, a Persian columned hall, or even a rectangular field surrounded by a fence or a ditch.
The one element these improvised mosques had in common was the marking of the Qibla, the side facing toward
Mecca which had to be emphasized by a colonnade or merely
by placing the entrance on the opposite side. At the end of
seventh century, however, the Muslim rulers, now firmly
established in the conquered domains, began to erect mosques
on a large scale as visible symbols of their power, intended to
outdo all pre-Islamic structures in size and splendor.
Among other requirements those of worship played a dominant role. Therefore it was in religious architecture that
Islamic art first expressed its genius for pre-existing artistic
traditions and adapting them to its own scope and demands.
These early monuments of Muslim architecture have not,
for the most part, survived in their original form. What we
know of their design and decoration shows that they were produced by craftsmen gathered from Egypt, Syria, Persia and
even Byzantium, who continued to practice the styles in
which they had been trained.
A distinctive Islamic tradition crystallized only in the
course of the eighth century. The best examples of this kind
of early integration are the Dome of the Rock (688-692 AD)
in Jerusalem, the Umayyad Great Mosque in Damascus (706716 AD) and The Great Mosque of Samarra located in the
Iraqi city of Samarra built in the 9th century.

The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem

Since the rise of the monotheistic Abrahamic religions,
Jerusalem had been an important religious center for both
Jews and Christians, housing monuments such as the Church

of the Holy Sepulcher and other churches and temples.

When the Muslims came to Jerusalem they sought after a
designated location for group prayer. More specifically, they
wanted a mosque that would display the magnificence of
Islam, a monument that would testify to the glory of the new
faith and witness the start of a new age. Caliph Abdol- Malik
Ibn Marwan (685-705) selected a site that had a religious significance for the faithful.
A vast congregational mosque rose up, accommodating
more than five thousand worshippers on the noble sanctuary
of the Masjid -Al-Aqsa where the beloved Prophet (PBUH) is
believed to have ascended to Heaven and also designated as
the first Qibla.
"Glory to (Allah) Who did take His Servant for a Journey
by night from the Sacred Mosque to the Farthest Mosque
(Masjid Al Aqsa), whose precincts We did bless, in order that
We might show him some of Our Signs: for He is the One
Who heareth and seeth (all things)." (Qur'an 17:1).
It is upon this historical sight in Jerusalem (al-Quds), which
has no reminisce of former habitation that the Dome of the
Rock Mosque the first monument in Islam at the
sight of the third holiest Shrine after Mecca and
Medina (Masjid-Al-Aqsa) was constructed.
The Dome of the Rock brought together both elements of Islams past
and future. The mosque built by a
diverse group of Byzantine and
Muslim architects and workers
formed an amalgamation of the
regions classical Greek influence and the rising ingenuity
and fervor of Islamic art.
The Byzantine style, favored in Palestine, Jordan and

Masjid-Al-Aqsa Jerusalem, Palestine

Syria, also drew inspiration from the Persian Sassanid and the
Egyptian Coptic styles. The usage of the various artistic traditions in a religious building attests to the tolerance of Islam
not only in embracing many peoples with diverse cultures and
artistic traditions within one civilization, but more important,
i
n
accepting their cultures without undermining nor belittling
them.
Through the construction of the historical mosque, these
admirable virtues are given physical life. In addition to being
a symbol of the forbearance of Islam, the Dome of the Rock indicates the beginning of a new cultural age representing in a
most impressive and grand manner the dawn of an all-encompassing new civilization.

The Great Mosque of Damascus

When Alexander the Great swept through Syria,
Damascus became an important center and remained
so during the Roman and Byzantine periods. When
the first Umayyad caliph, Muawiya Ibn Abu
Sufyan (661-680), moved the capital
from Kufa in Iraq to Damascus,
made Damascus the center of
political power.
To underscore the significance of the new
regime and emphasize the permanence
of the new faith
caliph al-Walid
ibn
Abd-alMalik
(705-715)
constructed the

The Great Mosque of Damascus, Syria

Great Mosque of Damascus on the site of the Christian

church, following the model of the Prophets Mosque in
Medina The Greek inscriptions, still intact on the central, eastern and western doors of the mosque, which go back to
Byzantine times.
In the Great mosque of Damascus, four new elements
were introduced to mosque architecture they are: the mihrab,
the minbar, the minara (minaret) and the maqsura.
Because the Umayyads were influenced by Greek and
Byzantine artistic traditions that paid equal attention to the
decoration of a building as to its architecture, they utilized
glass mosaics to decorate their mosques walls, facades and
the columns. Thus the Great Mosque at Damascus built
within the enclosure of a Roman sanctuary, had its walls covered with wonderful glass mosaics of Byzantine origin.
Following Alexander the Greats conquest through Asia,
Damascus, with its geographically advantageous location for
the Greeks, became an important hub that bridged Europe
with Asia. After the spread of Islam and the Umayyad Caliph
Muawiya Ibn Abu Sufyans (661-680) decision to move the
capital from Kufa, Iraq to Damascus, Syria, he made the city
as the center of his political power.
To demonstrate the power and superiority of Islam, Caliph
al-Walid Ibn Adb-al-Malik (705-715) built the Great Mosque

92

of Damascus (706-716) on the site of a church that was for

Saint John the Baptist, and whose location was previously a
place of worship for Roman and Byzantine pagan gods.
To further emphasize the Islamic ingenuity, the Umayyads
introduced four new additions to the structure of mosque architecture: the mihrab, the minbar, the minara (minaret) and
the maqsura. Taking influences from its predecessors, the
Umayyads installed Byzantine styled glass mosaics within
the Great Mosque of Damascus, which was formerly a
Roman sanctuary.
When the Byzantium artists along with Muslim craftsmen
were hired to execute intricate and beautiful mosaic patterns
and complicated compositions for the Great Umayyad
Mosque, a new concept developed in the decorations of the
Mosque, whereby architectural forms and the world of plants
became the main subject of the composition.
The excellent workmanship quality of these early Islamic
glass mosaics surpassed any similar Roman, Hellenistic or
Byzantine works; and is consider among the greatest mosaics
to survive. The appearance of calligraphic inscription in the
Great Umayyad Mosque for a decorative purpose represented
continuity from the Dome of the Rock that was later passed
on to all Muslim monuments.

The usage of the various artistic traditions in a religious building attests to the
tolerance of Islam not only in embracing many peoples with diverse cultures
and artistic traditions within one civilization, but more important, in accepting
their cultures without undermining nor belittling them

The Great Mosque of Samarra

A striking example of the architectural enterprises of the
early caliphs, which were built on an immense scale at incredible speed, is the Great Mosque at Samarra located in the
Iraqi city of Samarra.
The mosque was commissioned in 848 and completed in
852 by the Abbasid caliph Al-Mutawakkil who reigned in
Samarra from 847 until 861. The Great Mosque of Samarra
was at one time the largest mosque in the world; its minaret,
the Malwiya Tower, is a vast spiralling cone (snail shaped) 52
meters high and 33 meters wide with a spiral ramp.
The basic features of the plan are typical of the mosques
of this period: a rectangle, with its main axis pointing south
to Mecca, encloses a court surrounded by aisles that run toward the qibla side, the center of which is marked by a small
niche, the mihrab, the opposite side we see the minaret, a
tower from which the faithful were summoned to prayer by
muezzin.
The floor area of the Great Mosque at Samarra was measured to be more than 45,000 square yards, almost ten acres,
of which five and a half were covered by a wooden roof resting on 464 supports. The mosque had 17 aisles and its walls
were panelled with mosaics of dark blue glass. It was just part
of an extension of Samarra eastwards that built upon part of
the walled royal hunting park inherited from the conquered
Sassanians.
These have all disappeared now, along with the mosaics
that once covered the walls. The most spectacular aspect of
the building is the minaret, linked with the mosque by a ramp.
Its bold and unusual design, with a spiral staircase leading to
the platform at the top, reflects the ziggurats of ancient
Mesopotamia, such as the famed Tower of Babel.
The first three religious monuments the Muslims built in
Jerusalem, Damascus and Samarra were meant to serve as
means of communication intended to propagate the new faith
showing tolerance towards and acceptance of the other religions of the Book and traditions, as well as assert the power
of the new state that was based on the new religion and depended on it in exerting authority and practicing supremacy

over the newly acquired peoples and territories. Their message was clear: There is a new religion and a new political
regime and both are here to stay.
As the influence of Islam spread from Spain to the Philippines, the newly developed modes of artistic expression were
adopted in various parts of the world. The new styles provided a basic aesthetic unity within the Muslim world, without suppressing, prohibiting or undermining regional
variations.
The meeting of the Muslim-Islamic mind with classical
and local traditions spawned new artistic modes and styles in
Islamic art. However, this type of kinship did not last long
and soon Islamic art shed its borrowed norms to create its
own, based on its inner conceptions and values.
With the passage of time, definite patterns and styles developed and eventually distinctive art forms were created, all
foreign influences were discarded and Islamic art emerged
with its own individual characteristics.

The Great Mosque of Cordoba

A hundred and fifty years after the coming of Islam, Islamic art had formed its own language and aesthetics. For example, the Great Mosque of Cordoba (785 AD) in al-Andalus
and Ibn Tulun Mosque (879 AD) in Egypt no longer represented phases in a tentative evolution, but were in their own
right unsurpassable masterpieces, brandishing their very own
rules and aesthetics.
The Great Mosque of Cordoba was considered a wonder
of the medieval world by both Muslims and Christians. Built
on a Visi-gothic site, which was probably the site of an earlier
Roman temple, the Great Mosque of Cordoba was begun
between 784 and 786 during the reign of 'Abdol-Rahman I.
The mosque's hypostyle plan (a classical building with a
roof or ceiling that rests on many columns) consisting of a
rectangular prayer hall and an enclosed courtyard, followed
a tradition established in the Umayyad and Abbasid mosques
of Syria and Iraq.
However, the dramatic articulation of the interior of the
prayer hall was unprecedented. The system of columns sup-

93

The Great Mosque of Samarra, Iraq

porting double arcades of piers and arches with alternating

red and white stone is an unusual treatment that, structurally,
combined striking visual effect with the practical advantage
of providing greater height within the hall.
Alternating red and white beveled stone arches are associated with Umayyad monuments such as the Great Mosque
of Damascus and the Dome of the Rock. Their use in the
Great Mosque of Cordoba manages to create a stunningly
original visual composition.
Within 150 years only, Islam was accepted in Syria, Egypt,
Persia and North Africa as a religion and as a culture. In fact
any nation the Muslims came in contact with, even briefly
such as China and India, accepted their civilization.
The different cultural encounters that were synthesized inside the Muslim consciousness left their mark on Islamic art
and created its most distinctive trait. The ease of mobility between most Muslim regions was instrumental in the spread of
early artistic modes.
Architectural units such as the Iranian iwan were transported to Syria, Sassanid decorative designs such as the
muqarnas surfaced in North Africa, while the use of stucco
became a universal decorative technique.
This mobility was sustained in later periods and can be

94

regarded as a first and lasting step towards the universality

o
f
Islamic art. The mobility of people within and without the
Islamic Empire made the middle classes often geographically
transitory, so that the migration of artists and artisans helped
in spreading and circulating artistic ideas and styles.
Besides the voluntary movement of people, there was also
the involuntary migration of refugees, conscripts, craftsmen
and artists, who were taken to foreign capitals by coercion, an
example of which was the Timur (Tamerlane) (13701405)
who during his invasions, took back to his capital in
Samarkand the best artists from Iran and elsewhere in the region.
Rulers who went into exile also helped in dispersing artistic propensities and norms through their interest in, and patronage of the arts. Among such examples are the Umayyad
Abdal-Rahman I ( 756-788 AD), who took flight from Syria
to establish a dynasty in al-Andalus, and the Mughal Emperor
Humayun (1530-1556), who was exiled from India to Persia.
Widespread commercial activities within the Islamic Empire and travel to Mecca for hajj from all over the Muslim
world facilitated the widest artistic interaction and made possible the exchange and introduction of goods as well as the

One has only to look at a Gothic cathedral or go to Venice to realize the effect
Islamic architecture had on Europe even before the Age of Renaissance. Yet the
question persists: If there was so much intellectual borrowing and so many artistic
exchanges, why then the animosity between Western culture and Islamic culture?

spread of ideas, styles and techniques belonging to diverse

crafts.
The Muslim world, over the ensuing centuries, maintained
this symbiotic relationship with the cultures preceding or surrounding it. Until the 18th century, Islam remained the only
major culture that was in physical contact with nearly every
other center of civilization and life in Asia, Africa and Europe,
with the intensity of the contacts varying from place to place
and century to century. Islamic civilization in general and Islamic art in particular played an important role in advocating
Islam and Muslim rulers.

Islam & the West

If Islamic art was able to act as a means of communication
for the Muslims all through history why it has not been able
to continue this task with the West? To answer such a polemic
one has to go back into history.
In the 9th and 10th centuries when the Muslim centers of

Baghdad, Cairo and Cordoba were at their apogee, the only

intellectual centers in the West were massive bastions, inhabited by semi barbaric lords who prided themselves their inability to read. When a few enlightened minds in Europe felt
the need to shake off the oppressive mantle of ignorance that
weight down upon them, they reverted to the Muslims who
were the only erudite masters of their day.
Knowledge in all its branches penetrated into Europe
through al-Andalus and Sicily in southern Italy which were
all under Muslim jurisdiction. Outside the Eastern Islamic
world and North Africa the part of Spain occupied by the
Muslims was the only place where study was then possible at
all. Until the 15th century it is hard to quote the name of an
author whose work consisted of anything but copying the
Muslims.
Roger Bacon, Leonard of Pisa, Arnaud de Villeneuve,
Saint Thomas, Albert the Great, Alfonso of Castile, etc. were

The Great Mosque of Cordoba, Spain

95

Crusaders waging "Holy War" against Muslims

either disciples or copiers of Muslim and Muslim savants.

The effect of various Islamic arts on Western art, starting with
the innovations in textiles, ceramics, glass, woodwork, metalwork, is too well known to be recounted here, the same is
with with the Islamic architecture.
One has only to look at a Gothic cathedral or go to Venice
to realize the effect Islamic architecture had on Europe even
before the Age of Renaissance. Yet the question persists: If
there was so much intellectual borrowing and so many artistic
exchanges, why then the animosity between Western culture
and Islamic culture? What is the reason that Islamic arts
failed in creating a cultural and intellectual dialogue between
the two civilizations?
During the middle Ages, the Islamic state was "the monster that endangered not only Europe but also Christendom as
a religion and civilization". It was considered "anti- Europe"
posing a cultural, religious, political and military confrontation to the West. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) was ridiculed
in the most deleterious manner.
Gerald of Wales wrote in the 12th century that the
Prophets teachings were concentrated on lust, thus particularly suitable for Orientals since they lived in a naturally hot
climate. Such concepts whose popularity was transmitted
from one generation to the other were the consequence of the

96

projection of evil onto an alien culture that was a characteristic feature of medieval Europes prejudice, due to its ignorance of such cultures.
The first face-to-face encounter between Islam and the
West on a grand scale was when the Muslim armies crossed
to Spain in 711, fought the Goths and conquered the Iberian
Peninsula (al-Andalus). The second grand encounter was during the First Crusade, launched in 1095 by Pope Urban II
who declared war against Islam, the altruistic aim of the Crusades was to save Eastern Christendom from the Muslims.
However, when the Mamluks defeated the Crusaders in
1291 all Eastern Christians came under Muslim rule while
ironically many had already converted to Islam because of
the persecution they had faced at the hand of their fellow
Catholic Christians.
In the 14th and 15th centuries a new phase began in relations between the two sides. Islam was better accepted in Europe: the religious wars had ended; trade relations increased
between the two sides, mostly with the Venetians and the Genoese; the Quran for the first time was interpreted in the
West; finally with the coming of the Age of Reformation, for
the majority of Protestants the Pope replaced Prophet
Muhammad (PBUH) as Anti-Christ. At the same time, the
military power of the Ottoman Empire forced the West to re-

Although when the Muslims were in al-Andalus they were next door neighbors to Europe and had contacts with them on different levels yet they studied
Greek and Roman classical thought but not French or German literature.

view its attitude towards the Muslims and though the animosity did not diminish between the two sides, there was a sort
of admiration towards the Ottomans born out of fear as well
as respect for their feats.
The attitude of Europe towards the three great empires of
the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman (1281-1924), the
Safavid (1501-1732) and the Mughal (1526- 1858), was
based on equality and both sides enjoyed peaceful diplomatic
and trade relations with each other.
Eventually the three empires showed visible signs of decline in the 18th century thus causing Europe to lose a great
deal of its fear and interim respect towards the Muslims and
their civilization. The Industrial Revolution in the 19th century marked the rise of Western technological superiority followed by the engulfing wave of colonialism.
This superiority brought about the unwavering belief in
the supremacy of Western civilization over Islamic civilization. Thus England took on the white mans burden and
France the mission civilisatrice that would confer on the east
some of the advantages of their civilization, including good
governments, as well as demonstrate the superiority of the
Christian religion.
Consequently, the West invaded the East with its armies,
missionaries, civil servants, mining and trading companies.
Accordingly, colonial peoples refused to accept the dominance of the West and the rest is too well known to delve into.
Having summarized relations between Islam and the West
from a western angle one should go through such relations
from the Muslim position. Because of the superiority of Islamic civilization from the 9th to the 16th centuries, the Muslims did not deem it worthwhile to study Europe and all
Europeans were lumped together as Franks!
Although when the Muslims were in al-Andalus they were
next door neighbors to Europe and had contacts with them
on different levels yet they studied Greek and Roman classical thought but not French or German literature.
When the Ottomans occupied countries in the Balkans and
Central Europe, they transmitted their architecture and art to
them yet did not bother to properly study the culture of their

new subjects. This indifference cannot be related to ignorance

on the part of the Muslims.
Most probably it was due to the inferiority of Western culture that the Muslims did not find it useful to study its art and
literature. As the picture changed in the 18th and 19th centuries, Western culture was imposed by the civilizing colonial powers on the east, especially in countries that came
under French rule.
Thus the Islamic world changed places with the West and
took the position of the receiver instead of the giver. This
time the West believed of possessing the superior culture and
thus did not deem it worthwhile to get to know better the culture of the peoples under its rule.
When Europe first became aware of Islamic civilization
after Napoleons invasion of Egypt in 1798, it treated the various forms of Islamic art (with the exception of architecture)
as indigenous "folk craft", for the simple reason that it could
not accept an art that did not conform to its own criteria and
aesthetics.
Until today, pieces of Iznik and Nishapur ceramics and
other masterpieces are part of the collections of the "Folk Art"
Museum in Frankfurt, the Museum of Arts and Crafts in
Hamburg, the Union centrale des arts dcoratifs in Paris, the
Victoria and Albert Museum in London and the Museum of
Applied Art in Belgrade.
As the West became more exposed to, and better acquainted with Islamic culture, it no longer categorized Islamic
pieces as folk and applied art. Eventually, special wings were
designated for them in institutions such as the British Museum in London, the Louvre in Paris and the Metropolitan
Museum of Art in New York.
Bibliography:
-Wijdan Ali :"The Role of Arts in the Inter-Cultural Dialogue"
International Congress on Islamic Arts and Crafts
Isfahan, Islamic Republic of Iran, October 2002.
- AI-Faruqi, I. and Faruqi, L.L: "The Cultural Atlas of Islam" New
York, 1986.
- Anthony F. Janson, H. W. Janson: A Basic History of Western Art,
7th Edition, 2005.

97

On 17 May 2008, the ceremony of opening the Turkmenistan and Masterpieces of World Art International Exhibition was held at Ashgabat Exhibition Centre. The artistic forum brought together
painters, sculptors, jewelers and experts in arts from 14 countries worldwide.
Among the art works displayed were the paintings by Turkmenistan's "First National Painter":
Byashim Nurali (1900-1965).
In the greeting address to participants of the international exhibition, President Gurbanguly
Berdimuhamedov focused on its paramount significance for consistent development of diverse cultures
of the peoples of the world and propagation of classical and modern Turkmen art.

Byashim Nurali

(1900-1965)

Turkmenistan's "First National Painter"

"Festival of Victory"

98

"people's artist of Turkmenistan" and an "honored art teacher" of the country, Byashim Nurali was born in Ashgabat. He studied at the
School of Art of the East in Ashgabat (1921-25) and at
the Art and Industry Institute in Moscow (1926-30). Later
Nurali taught at the Shota Rustameli Art School in Ash-

gabat (1942-48).
Nurali is considered the "national master of painting"
in Turkmenistan. A farmer in his youth, he had not
touched a pencil or a brush until he was twenty. His
highly decorative works, dwelling on the old and the new
Turkmenistan, are life itself - simple and artless, full of
kindness with mutual understanding of people. He was
later called a "symbol of the cultural progress and art of
Turkmenistan".
From early childhood, Byashim loved to communicate
with nature. The dunes, deserts, mountains and all the
beauty of his surrounding environment were all familiar
to the young romanticist.
In order to express his feelings he wrote poems, picked
out a tune and sang. The fellow villagers were impressed
by his songs about the beauty of the native lands nature
and love.
However, the future artist was not yet familiar with the
art of painting. He did not realize that the natural beauty
of his surrounding could be reflected on a canvas with the
help of a brush.
Only at the age of twenty was he familiarized with the
fundamentals of painting in the Exemplary Art School of

East. Acquaintance with the world of painters became a

dazzling outbreak of enlightenment for him, and, despite
the width of creative interests, Byashim Nurali decided
to devote his life to painting.
From the first days of studies, he was in a hurry; he
wanted to express himself as quickly as possible. In 1921,
as a result of his ardent urge toward self-expression, he
produced his first work "Kurban Bairam".
The artist succeeded in depicting a surprisingly poetic
landscape, achieve completeness of the plot and convey
a sensitive perception of nature.
By the early 1930's, Byashim Nurali gained his rich
creative experience. He learned how to feel new about
everything, and how to see and portray it on the canvases.
The notion of "the first painter" became more than a serial
number; it turned out to be an honorary title for him.
Byashim Nurali devoted a great deal of his time to
teaching drawing and painting skills. He spent more than
ten years teaching young Turkmen artists, many of whom
are now well-known. By doing so, he made a great contribution towards the formation and development of Turkmen visual culture.
Byashim Nuralis "Festival of Victory" is considered
to be among his best paintings. Unique in style, ingenuous

by the expression of feelings, the work is imbued with the

state of peace and joy, easily perceived as spring and
transparent in the color.
"Vintage" is another masterpiece painted by the artist.
It is pervaded with a warm feeling and characterized by

99

"Like any truly talented man, Byashim Nurali was a true genius in many
disciplines. He was a brilliant musician, composer, musical instruments master,
and a poet. He was a splendid actor and played a number of roles; and only the
love and devotion to painting did not allow him to change his occupation."

a highly original artistic manner. Its charm lies in its sincerity, spiritual purity and poetical lyricism. Its intense
brushwork seems to have absorbed the harmony of colors
from the beautiful Turkmen carpets.
The late period of Byashim Nuralis creative work was
marked by a new trend. The compositions depicted by
him embodied his aspiration to do something eternal that
will remain in the memory of many people. The genre
painting "A folk singer among shepherds" is one of his
best works.
The painter finished it shortly before his tragic death in
an airplane crash in 1965. The painting is written in a
burst of inspiration, as though a soft lyrical song is played
in it. Its tune is caught up almost physically, and the painting expresses a kind humor. It is like a song written by
Byashim Nurali himself, who leaves this wonderful
world, in which each of us is an unknown stranger.
The fellow artists, actors, writers, composers, directors,
and those who knew Byashim Nurali are convinced that
his creative work has not been fully studied yet; his multiform talent has not been disclosed to its full extent.
Like any truly talented man, Byashim Nurali was a
true genius in many disciplines. He was a brilliant musician, composer, musical instruments master, and a poet.
He was a splendid actor and played a number of roles;
and only the love and devotion to painting did not allow
him to change his occupation.
Byashim Nuralis numerous works that guests and residents of the capital can always get acquainted with occupy a deserving place in the Saparmurat Turkmenbashi
Fine Arts Museum in Ashgabat.
In order to rightly comprehend the creative heritage
and the importance of Byashim Nurali, The First National
Turkmenistan Painter, one may discern centuries-old folk
traditions underlay his creative works. All his creations,
where new features of the figurative structure of his paint-

100

"Vintage"

ings can be called popular-poetic, testify to it.

It is the creative works of Byashim Nurali that facilitated the establishment of Turkmenistans National
School, in which the integrity of world perception and
spiritual unification of man are expressed.
-----------------------------------------------------------The article is the courtesy of the Government of Turkmenistan.

Hidden Treasures of
Afghanistan
Faramarz Tamanna

In collaboration with some foreign NGOs the Government of Afghanistan, has organized a traveling exhibition of the
rediscovered treasures from the Kabul Museum extraordinary collections long thought to have been destroyed or stolen.

idden Treasures of the National Museum, Kabul,

consisting of 228 artifacts complemented with a
series of developed humanities programming, didactic and educational materials, and integrated technology,,
will travel to four major cities within the United States in a 17month period.
This unique exhibition will explore the art and cultural
themes of ancient Afghanistan a critical area of the ancient
and modern world that is virtually unknown to the general public. World class scholarship and innovative interpretive exhibition design will explore the rich cultural heritage of ancient
Afghanistan at the height of Silk Road trade from the third century BCE through the second century CE.
The exhibition will highlight important and beautiful objects saved from the National Museum of Afghanistan (known
as the Kabul Museum.) This museum held the primary collections from archaeological excavations in Afghanistan. These
artifacts, which document ancient cultural influences from as
far as China and the Mediterranean and the unique and sophisticated local artistic and cultural traditions, are an exemplary
collection for understanding the history of this region.
The Kabul Museum building was severely damaged in the
internecine fighting in Kabul from 1982-1986, and most, if not
all of its collections were considered lost or stolen until their
recent re-discovery in 2003. Their re-discovery and new inventory allows them to be viewed by the general public once
again.

Exhibition Description
Organized geographically and chronologically within an
approximately 7,000 -10,000 square-foot exhibition space,
AFGHANISTAN- Hidden Treasures will introduce the audience to the Silk Road: a metaphor for the exchange of goods
and ideas across Asia which peaked in the first century CE.
This exhibition introduces visitors to Afghanistan one of the
centers, and we hope to demonstrate, engines of Silk Road
trade. Vivid narrative and stunning artifacts in each of three
major galleries will illustrate this nexus of ancient trade; film
and artifacts will portray the angst and agony of the modern destruction and attempted destruction of the physical remains of
the regions cultural heritage; and narrative panels and artifacts
will bring to life the perseverance of those who saved these
treasures.
The presentation begins with the story of the modern archaeological discovery of the ancient cultures of Afghanistan,
the tragedy of Afghanistans recent extended chaos and warfare
and the heroic safeguarding of the fabled storehouse of the
treasured artworks and artifacts, the small but gem-like Kabul
Museum.
It will continue with a gallery highlighting the indigenous
origins of Afghanistans culture and its mix of local, other
Afghanistan gold treasures found at the archaeological site of Tillya Tepe in northern
Afghanistan where the graves of six ancient nomads were discovered in 1978, on display in
Kabul Museum.

102

Asian and Hellenistic elements prior to the apogee of the Silk

Road. The final two galleries, which will be the highlight of the
exhibition for most visitors, display artworks from a period
when the Silk Road was in full use. These galleries will
demonstrate that the important center of ancient trade located
in what is today modern Afghanistan was a nucleus of cultural,
artistic and economic activity of its own. Thus the exhibition
is at once a story of shared ancient cultural heritage and one of
modern courage and resourcefulness.

The highlight of the exhibition is a selection of some 100 gold objects from among
the 20,000 objects discovered in 1978 by a
Russian archaeologist, Viktor Sarianidi,
at a site called Tillya Tepe in northern
Afghanistan near the Oxus River.

Major Exhibition Components

The artifacts in AFGHANISTAN- Hidden Treasures are
drawn from four archaeological sites and are all part of the collections of the Kabul Museum:
The first site features a small group of Bronze Age artifacts
that includes the fragments of golden vases from Tepe Fullol,
dated between 2200 and 1900 BCE
The second collection was found at the site of the former
Greek city of A Khanum by French archaeologists between
1964 and 1978. This collection highlights the Mediterranean
influence in the region between the third and second centuries
BCE and includes ceramics, ivory and bronze objects and
stone statues of Central Asian figures carved in a Hellenistic
style.
The Begram treasures, dating from the first to second centuries CE, include sensuous ivory statues and reliefs that are
undeniably Indian in style, but the place of manufacture of
some of which is controversial. Also included in the Begram
treasure are beautifully restored bronzes and painted glassware
many imported from Roman, Indian, Chinese and East Asian
markets.
The highlight of the exhibition is a selection of some 100
gold objects from among the 20,000 objects discovered in
1978 by a Russian archaeologist, Viktor Sarianidi, at a site
called Tillya Tepe in northern Afghanistan near the Oxus River.

103

On August 28, 2003, President Karzai of Afghanistan announced that

purportedly lost or stolen archaeological treasures from the National Museum
had been discovered intact in the presidential bank vault in Kabul more than
25 years after they were hidden and presumably lost to the world during the
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.

The site, a series of tombs, contained jewelry and gold ornaments from the burial robes of six Bactrian nomads, five
women and one man. The Tillya Tepe artifacts include necklaces, belts, buttons, appliqus, and headdresses most made
of solid gold, with insets of local turquoise and garnets. The sophisticated design of the artifacts is further evidence of
Afghanistans history at the crossroads of ancient civilizations.
All of these objects are believed to have been made by local
artisans. Their design shows a fascinating combination of outside and local Bactrian components.
AFGHANISTAN- Hidden Treasures offers an opportunity
to educate the general public about the importance of this region
in history. This exhibition is a window into the history and
legacy of Afghanistan- a nation of diverse peoples who have
faced extraordinary challenges- and also a means to engage
Americans in thinking about the perseverance and present-day
circumstances of this nation.

Brief History of the Project

On August 28, 2003, President Karzai of Afghanistan announced that purportedly lost or stolen archaeological treasures
from the National Museum had been discovered intact in the
presidential bank vault in Kabul more than 25 years after they
were hidden and presumably lost to the world during the Soviet
invasion of Afghanistan.
Since that time, Afghanistans government has been actively

104

engaged in assessing and cataloging these artifacts. In October

2003, the Ministry of Information and Culture of Afghanistan
requested that Dr. Fredrik Hiebert, a National Geographic Society Fellow in Archaeology, lead this inventory. Given the extraordinary circumstances surrounding the rediscovery of
Afghanistans
museum
objects,
National
Geographic received three Chairmans Discretionary Grants
from the National Endowment for the Humanities, allowing
Dr. Hieberts inventory team to assess Afghanistans preserved
cultural patrimony through a detailed, computerized inventory
of the museum collections. Further, the Afghan request was
broadly stated that the inventory would lead to international exhibition and eventually to a permanent public display in
Afghanistan.
The inventory was completed in December 2005. In April
2006, the first exhibition of these rediscovered finds was made
in Kabul, Afghanistan jointly by the Afghanistan Ministry of
Culture and the National Geographic inventory team.
Later in 2006, the government of France offered assistance
in cleaning and conserving the objects under expert supervision
in Paris. Following the completion of the conservation, these artifacts belonging to the Kabul Museum were displayed at the
Muse Guimet in Paris through April 30, 2007.
A Letter of Intent was signed between the government of
Afghanistan and the National Geographic Society on March 5,
2007 (no. 3190) which permits these objects to be exhibited in
the U.S.
National Geographic intends that a large portion of the loan
fees go back to Afghanistan for the rebuilding of the Kabul Museum. Integrated assistance to the Ministry of Culture also includes continued assistance in the Kabul Museum inventory,
repatriation of confiscated Afghan antiquities around the world,
development of crafts and craft sales, and support of a catalogue
in Dari and Pashtun languages.
Additional support for the Afghan museums includes supporting training and collections research that will help
Afghanistan Hidden Treasures to be once again on display in
Afghanistan following the world tour exhibition.

Kazakh Music
Touches the Heart!
Brief Survey of
Kazakhstan Folk Musical Instruments
Introduction
he role of folk music in Kazakh society is a
great one. Kazakhstan is a country of highly developed cultures and has a lively musical life,
diverse and rich in oral traditions as well as musical.
In addition to classical genres and modern music, folk
music occupies a distinguished place. Songs and kuyis
are heard everywhere. Amateurs and recognized masters
of the stage both sing them.
Kazakh folk music is popular across the generations.
Younger people take pleasure in learning how to play folk
instruments, learning secrets of folk singing and they express strong interest and excitement in traditions of aitys

and tartys (a competition of instrumentalists).

The Kazakh musical tradition is supported by a wide
range of uniquely Kazakh musical instruments.
Although these musical instruments resemble those belonging to other tribes of the Central Asian ethnic groups,
they have their peculiarities dictated by national traditions.
Firstly, the instruments were made from local materials, mostly natural or produced by nomadic craftsmanship, Clay, reeds, horns, bone and different kinds of wood
form the initial materials from which these instruments
were made.
Membranes, bowstrings and strings were obtained

105

The Kazakh musical tradition is supported by a wide

range of uniquely Kazakh musical instruments.
Although these musical instruments resemble those
belonging to other tribes of the Central Asian ethnic
groups, they have their peculiarities dictated by national traditions.

from animal skin, intestines and horsehair respectively.

Their knowledge of blacksmith, a trade developed since
old times, permitted the manufacture of some of the metal
parts required for construction of these instruments.
Nowadays production of the folk musical instruments
as one of the most interesting directions of the revived
crafts and decorative production is developing because
the further development of the concert activity of various
professional ensembles continues. They have large demand not only amongst the specialists but also amongst
the collectors.
The brightness and distinctive sound of Kazakh music
interests everyone. A nations folk music is its best ambassador. It develops a feeling of adoration for the infinite
diversity and beauty of the folk genre and the very sound
of folk instruments. It will open a new unexplored world.
Kazakh music will touch the heart!

Kobyz
Kobyz is an ancient string instrument played with a bow with
two strings made with hair.
Kobyzes traditionally were sacred
instruments, owned by shamans
and bakses (traditional spiritual
medics). According to legends, the
kobyz and its music could banish
evil spirits, sicknesses and death.
In the 1930s, upon the establishment of the first folk instrument orchestras a new kind of
kobyz appeared. The new instrument has four metallic
strings and has become closer to a violin. A modernized
kobyz can be used to play both Kazakh music and the

106

most complicated works of violin literature.

Until today, the tradition of playing the ancient kylkobyz is preserved. Its sound projects a unique almost
magical force.

Dombra
Dombra is a two stringed instrument and the most commonly
played Kazakh folk instrument. Its
history reaches back at least 2,000
years according to archeological
evidence.
During archeological excavations at the ancient city of
Khorezm, archeologists found little terracotta statues of musicians
playing two stringed instruments
played by plucking which have
evolved in todays dombra.
There are two traditions of playing the dombra which
have influenced its form.
Dombras with long thin necks are made for playing
fast virtuoso kuyis of the Tokpe tradition. The other tradition, Shertpe, teaches soft plucking of strings with the
fingers. So necks for dombras in that tradition are wide
and shorter.

Sybyzgy
The sybyzgy is a wind instrument. It is widely used in
Kazakhstan and is particularly among rural peoples such
as chabans (shepherds). It is easy to make and was traditionally created from a hollow cane tube where holes
were drilled.

Dabyl
Dabyl is a percussion instrument, the rim with a handle
covered from both sides with leather. Usually the warriors
were using dabyl (during the attack). It was the instrument with a very strong and loud sound, which served for
making signals.
In ancient times percussion instruments (dabyl, dauylpaz
and shyndauyl) were widely
used in the life of Kazakhs.
Loud sounds of percussion
instruments were calling the
aul residents for hunting, for
conducting religious rituals; and
they were also informing about the
forthcoming migration.

Zhetygen
Zhetygen is an ancient seven-stringed plucking instrument, which reminds of gusli or lying harp. The most ancient type of zhetygen looked like the prolonged box
hollowed out of the wooden piece. Such zhetygen did not
have the upper sounding board and pins. The strings were
stretched by hand from the outer side of the instrument.
Later the upper part of zhetygen was covered with the
wooden sounding board. Assyks were out under each
string from two sides. By moving them, it was possible to
tune the string. If assyks were drawn closer to each other
the tune was rising, and if drawn apart the tune was
falling. String tuning was made by the pins and by moving the supports.

both strings were put through the head, then one of them
was attached to the pin and the other string was attached
to the head itself. Tuning of strings was related to the long
shape of the instrument.
The string fixed on the sherter head was stretched by
hand and the second string fixed on the pin was tuned corresponding to the pitch of the first string. Sherter was
mainly used for accompanying songs, tales and legends.
It was popular amongst the shepherds.

Asatayak
Asatayak is a percussion instrument. It
looked like a baton a stick with the
flat head decorated with ornament
and metal rings, pendants. It had open
and acute sound. In order to make
the sound louder, baksy were using
konyrau small bells fixed to the
head of Asatayak.
When shaking the instrument,
konyrau were amplifying the
melody with the metal ring. Asatayak and dangyra (tambourine)
were the attributes of shaman rituals. That was why they were not widely used amongst the
people.
Already in the last century both instruments started to
be forgotten gradually and they were replaced with kobyz,
which took the role of these percussive instruments.

Dangyra
Sherter
Sherter is an ancient stringed plucking
instrument. Sherter is played the same
way as the dombra. But sherter is much
smaller than dombra, it had a short neck
without the frets, it had different, stronger
sound than dombra. Sherter resembled
kobyz because it was also hollowed out of
the whole wooden piece, it had the bent
shape and the base was covered with
leather.
Two strings were made of horsehair.
The instrument had just one pin; therefore

Dangyra is a percussion musical instrument. It represented a tambourine: the rim covered from one side with
leather, inside of which there were small metal chains,
rings and plates, sounding when the leather is stricken and
during the movement there was an additional noise effect.
Dangyra was an attribute of shaman rituals.

Saz Syrnai, Uskirik, Tastauyk

Saz Syrnai is an ocarina-type
flute made of fired clay. Uskirik
and tastauyk ('tas' tone, 'tauyk'
- a bird in Kazakh) are similarly

107

made. These are children's instruments used to imitate the

voices of birds and animals in addition to playing simple
tunes.
Improved types are very popular nowadays due to their
fascinating mild timbre and used to provide a kind of coloring to the modern ensemble music.

Konyrau
They are the bells
used to accompany songs
and kyui. It was hung on
the head of the dombra,
kylkobyz, asatayak or
put inside the frame of
the instrument body
where it clattered upon
shaking. Women also
hung them on their fingers when playing the

shankobyz.

Shankobyz
It is a metallic, tongueplayed instrument made of
silver and other precious
metals. To play it, it is held
by the teeth and the mouth
cavity serves as a resonator. Real polyphony is
achieved owing to the easily achieved overtones and
their distinctiveness.
Its chamber sound is most suitable for the lyrical songs.
The shankobyz is a favorite instrument for children and
women alike.
--------------------------*The article has been provided by the Ministry of Tourism and
Sport- Republic of Kazakhstan.

Photo: Asghar Esmakhanov

108

The City of Mystics

Herat
Ruby of Ancient Khorasan
Parisa Firouzkouhi

Ceramic Tiles- Jami Mosque

Herat, Afghanistan
Photos: Ali Sabzalian

erat is perhaps the most beautiful of

Afghanistan's ancient cities. It has been a settlement for over 2,500 years and was fought
over by successive rulers from Alexander the Great in 330
B.C. to Ahmad Shah Durrani in 1749.
In 7th century AD, the people of Herat submitted to the
message of Islam and the city surrendered to Muslims.
Mongol invaders devastated the city and Tamerlane made
it his capital in 1381. Subsequently it became a center of
Persian art and learning. The Afghans captured Herat in
1749.
The city lies in the west of the modern-day Afghanistan,
in the fertile valley of the Hari- Rud River. It owes its existence to the cultivation made possible by a benign climate, ample supply of water, and its location.
In earlier times Herat was both a resting place on the
journey between the western and eastern halves of the Persian Empire, and a point of convergence for routes between
Balkh, Bamiyan, Khiva, Bokhara, and by way of Kandahar
and the Bolan Pass, to northwestern India.
Due to its geographical proximity, it has always been
one of Central Asia's leading centers of trade. There is no
certainty as to the age of the city. It is mentioned as
'Haraewa' in the Avesta, from which is derived the classical
'Aria' or 'Ariana' and the modern 'Herat'.
Scholars generally argue that this name is cognitive with
the word 'Aryan', and assert although not with universal
acceptance that the Aryan tribes who are thought to have
sojourned there around 1500 BC left behind the echo of
their presence in the names of the city and the river.

Legends Abound
However the name Ariana emerges with clarity in the

110

6th century BC as a satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire -an area irrigated with underground water canals, and paying, according to Herodotus, 390 talents annually to the
treasury of Darius the Great.
Like all cities in Afghanistan, Herat possesses a plethora
of legends to account for its foundation. One often quoted
is in a simple Persian quatrain, attributing its establishment
and subsequent development to the mythical Iranian kings
Lohrasp, Gushtasp, Bahman, and finally Alexander the
Great.
Other less well known accounts link different characters
from eastern antiquity to the appearance of the city. For
instance, Ardashir- i-Babakan, founder of the Sassanid Empire, or Zohhak, an early ruler of Iran, and give more elaborate detail, albeit without any basis in fact, about the
process of construction.
Sayf-ibn Muhammad Harawi, a Herati historian writing
around AD 1300, says the city was built by colonists who
had left Kandahar in the time of King Bahman, seeking to
build a larger settlement elsewhere. Another account of the
city dates back to the 10th century by the Arab traveler, Ibn
Hawqal, bearing witness both to the early prosperity and
lingering religious diversity in Herat:
"The city of Herat has a castle with ditches. This castle
is situated in the center of the town, and is fortified with
very strong walls. Kehendiz, with its mosque, belongs to
this city. The governor's palace is situated in the suburb
called Khorasan Abad."
Herat passed into the hands of the Ghaznavid Empire at
the end of the 10th century, and later the Seljuk Turks took
control under Toghrul Beig in 1038. Despite these changes

Khowje Abdullah Ansari believed that by meditation on the words of the Koran and the Hadiths,
traditions of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), one
could accomplish an inner knowledge of the
essence of faith, unity of the divine, and a personal experience of God Himself. Unlike others
he believed that strict adherence to the external
laws and customs of the religion complemented
rather than hindered this process.

in government, the city continued to flourish.

The Arab geographer, Yaqut al-Hamawi, wrote that during this time,
Herat was pre-eminent for "its grandeur and prosperity, fertility of its soil,
large population, magnificent gardens, abundance of water, and most importantly the large number of scholars and men of learning it had produced."

Land of Khowje Ansari

The most distinguished among the respected figures was the religious
scholar and ascetic Abu-Ismail Abdullah Ansari, better known as Khowje
Abdullah Ansari. He was born in Herat in 1006, where, aside from various
short periods of study in Nishabur, he spent virtually all his life in Herat.
He was renowned for his learning and erudition, but nevertheless spent
long periods under suspicion from both the Ghaznavid and the Seljuk rulers,
As an adherent of the Hanbalite legal school of Islam, which advocated a
strong literal understanding of the Holy Koran, he was often in conflict with
the state, which promoted the Asharite school and a more metaphorical
reading of the Holy Koran.
He was briefly sent into exile because of his beliefs in 1066. A change
of heart among the ruling elite resulted in his rehabilitation and he was recalled, and in 1070 given the title of 'Sheykh-ol-Islam' by the Abbasid
Caliph in Baghdad.
Ansari spent much of his time teaching and pursuing his own higher
learning and contemplations of mysticism. He believed that by meditation
on the words of the Koran and the Hadiths, traditions of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), one could accomplish an inner knowledge of the essence of
faith, unity of the divine, and a personal experience of God Himself. Unlike
others, he believed that strict adherence to the external laws and customs
of the religion complemented rather than hindered this process.
He stressed the danger of pride and warned that self-abasement itself
could lead to vanity, leading ascetics easily astray from the inner knowledge of God.
The great teacher is perhaps best known for his Munajat, or Intimate
Conversations -- a compilation of mystical utterances from all his other
Jami Mosque
Herat, Afghanistan

works put together by his students.

The following extracts are from one of his works translated by W. M, Thackston:
In the agony suffered for You,
The wounded find the scent of balm:
The memory of You consoles the souls of lovers.
Thousands in every corner, seeking a glimpse of You,
Cry out like Moses, 'Lord, Show me Yourself!'
I see thousands of lovers lost in a desert of grief,
Wandering aimlessly and saying hopefully,
'0 God! 0 God!'
Ansari died in 1089. Legend has it that he was killed by
unruly boys pelting him with stones while in worship. He
was interred at the burial-ground of Gazargah, which since
then has been a major pilgrimage site.

Calamity
The greatest catastrophe to befall Herat was beyond
doubt the Mongol invasion in the 13th century. The city
was besieged twice; first, in 1219 by Tolui Khan, the son
of Genghis, and later in 1222 by Eljigidai Noyan, another
of the Mongol commanders.
Herat had become, not long before, a possession of the
expanding empire of the Khwarazm Shahs under Sultan
Jalal-ud-Din Muhammad, and was administered by his
governor, Malik Shams-ud-Din Muhammad Jurjani.
Despite the scale and scope of the devastation, the city
recovered. Aided by its natural advantages -- fertile lands,
ready supply of water, and its key influence on trade routes
-- Herat in a short period was able to regain its former eminence.
Under the capable government of the Kurt dynasty,
which had come to rule Herat by the middle of the 14th
century, the walls of the city were rebuilt, commerce was
encouraged and protected, and Herat regained the high levels of luxury and wealth Yaqut al-Hamawi had referred to
a century earlier.
However, the city was to fall again. In 1381 Emperor
Timur (Tamerlane) seized power in the regions beyond the
River Oxus and moved southwards with the intention of
capturing Persia.
Ghiyas-ud-Din, the Kurt leader in charge of Heart, initially tried to resist the new invaders but surrendered realizing that he would be overwhelmed by Timurs army.

Timurid Rule
Timur hardly waited to ransack the city. Treasuries were
looted, the city walls were destroyed and the gates carried
away and installed in the town of Kesh, Timur's birthplace.

112

Yet, within a few years he came to realize the strategic importance of Herat, and consequently his son, Miran Shah,
was sent with orders to restore it.
In 1396, Timur appointed his fourth son, Shah Rukh, to
the governorship of Khorasan. It was a decision that was to
mark the beginning of an extended period of cultural and
artistic endeavor, indeed a renaissance,throughout the
whole Timurid Empire.
In 1405, Shah Rukh acceded his father's throne. Setting
up his brilliant son Ulugh Beg, one of the foremost astronomers of his time, as viceroy in Samarkand, he moved
the capital to Herat.
There, along with his formidable wife, Gowhar Shad,
he presided over a blossoming era of the arts, architecture,
painting, learning and literature, that despite a period of instability in the middle of the l400s was to last for 100 years.
After the death of Shah Rukh, and the short reign of his
son Ulugh Beg as emperor in Herat (1447-49), the
Timurids plunged into a period of internecine strife.
The chaos ended almost 20 years later with the accession of Sultan Husayn Bayqara (1468-1506) to the imperial
throne.

Luminaries Emerge
Sultan Husayn is generally acknowledged to have been
one of the greatest princes of the dynasty; he was not only
a capable writer and poet, but also an enlightened and discerning patron.
With the help of his Vizier, Mir Alishir Nawai (recognized as a pioneering author in Turkish), he invited the
company of luminaries such as Bihzad, the miniaturist,
Mirkhwond, the historian, and Jami, one of the greatest
Sufi mystic poets produced by Herat, and perhaps the
whole Islamic world.
Jami, however, is also known as a writer of prose. In the
Lawaih, he describes -- with distinct echoes of Plato -- the
path that mystics must take in their divine meditation:
"God has not made man with two hearts within him, The
Incomparable Majesty who has conferred the boon of existence upon you has placed within you but one heart, to
the end that with a single heart you may love Him alone,
and may turn your back on all besides, devoting yourself to
Him alone, and refrain from dividing your heart into a hundred portions, each portion devoted to a different object."
"The Absolute beauty is the Divine Majesty endued with
the attributes of power and bounty. Every beauty and perfection manifested in the theatre of the various grades of
beings is a ray of His perfect beauty reflected therein. It is
from these rays that exalted souls have received their im-

press of beauty and their quality of perfection. Whosoever

is wise derives his wisdom from the Divine wisdom. Wherever intelligence is found it is the fruit of the divine intelligence. In a word, all are attributes of Deity which have
descended from the zenith of the Universal and Absolute
to the nadir of the particular and relative. They have descended to the end that you may direct your course from the
part towards the Whole, and from the relative deduce the
Absolute, and not imagine the part to be distinct from the
Whole, nor be so engrossed with what is merely relative as
to cut thyself off from the Absolute..."
"Man, in regard to his corporeal nature, stands at the
lowest point of degradation; nevertheless, in regard to his
spiritual nature, he is at the summit of nobility. He takes
the impress of everything to which he directs his attention,
and assumes the color of everything to which he approaches. Hence, philosophers say that when the reasonable soul adorns itself with exact and faithful impressions
of realities, and appropriates to itself the true character of
such realities, it becomes such as if it were itself altogether
essential Being. In like manner, the vulgar, by the force of
their conjunction with these material forms and extreme
preoccupation with these corporeal bonds, come to be such
that they cannot distinguish themselves from these forms
or perceive any difference between the two ... Therefore, it
behooves you to strive and hide your self from yourself,
and occupy yourself with Very Being, and concern yourself
with the 'Truth'. For the various grades of created things
are theaters of His revealed beauty, and all things that exist
are mirrors of his perfections."

Sultan Huseyn's last claim, perhaps, was not entirely accurate. Shortly after his death in 1506, Emperor Babur visited Herat, which was by then on the verge of capture by
the approaching Uzbeks. Not only did he find Huseyn's
sons and successors sunk in decadence, entirely incapable
of leading a defense of the city, he himself was sucked into
their sin.
Herat was captured by the Uzbeks in 1507, bringing to
an end the great period in its history. According to Khwandamir, "So many lustrous pearls, emeralds, Badakhshan rubies and other gems and gold vessels were obtained that
not a decimal of a tenth could be contained in the imagination of any emperor." Only three years later, the city was
taken over by the Persians, who held it with only occasional interruptions until the establishment of the Afghan
Empire in the 18th century.
Jami Mosque
Herat, Afghanistan

Apologetic
Towards the end of his life, Sultan Huseyn wrote an
apologia for his reign, elucidating and surveying his
achievements:
" ... During the time of some past authorities there has
been endless tyranny and innumerable acts of aggression
against the poor, miserable peasantry on the part of the
self-willed, highly positioned princes and mighty ministers
of state. In my time, however, the poor have been delivered
of these sorrows and the unlucky peasantry freed of these
bonds.
"If, during the time of some, mosques were allowed to go
to wrack and ruin, and the congregations were held captive
by brutes, in my time the amount spent on mosques would
be beyond the reckoning of accountants, and the congregations can scarcely fit inside, every spot therein being as resplendent as the sanctuary at the glorious Ka'ba."

113

Although the modern day Uzbekistan may seem like a new country, gaining its independence after the dissolution of the
ex-Soviet Union in 1991, but in fact its culture and history are one of the most refined and ancient one in the world.
There are numerous tasty meals in the dietary tradition of the Uzbek people, such as palov, chuchvara, lagman, samsa,
jizza and many others which can not be summarized here and need detaile assessment and appraisal but
generally speaking, the people of Uzbekistan like to eat rice, meat and flour meal, which are usually calorie oriented food.
Every meal has its own taste, and these meals are very famous among the tourists and the countries in contact with
Uzbekistan. Uzbek meals make you strong and have such a good taste that you should try them even for once!

Uzbek National Cuisine

he Uzbeks have had a settled civilization for

centuries. Between the deserts and mountains,
in the oasis and fertile valleys, they cultivated
grain and domesticated livestock. The resulting abundance of produce allowed them to express their strong tradition of hospitality, which in turn enriched their cuisine.
The seasons, specifically winter and summer, greatly
influence the composition of the basic menu. In the summer, fruits, vegetables, and nuts are ubiquitous. Fruits
grow in abundance in Uzbekistan - grapes, melons, apricots, pears, apples, cherries, pomegranates, lemons, figs
and dates.
Vegetables are no less plentiful, including some lesser
known species such as green radishes, yellow carrots,
dozen of pumpkin and squash varieties, in addition to the
usual eggplants, peppers, turnips, cucumbers
and luscious tomatoes.
The winter diet traditionally
consists of dried fruits, vegetables and preserves. Hearty
noodle or pasta-type dishes
are also common chillyweather fare.
In general, mutton is the
preferred source of protein in
the Uzbek diet. Fatty-filled
sheep are prized not only for their
meat and fat as a source of cooking oil,
but for their wool as well. Beef and horsemeat
are also consumed in substantial quantities. Camel and
goat meat are less common.
The wide array of breads, leavened and unleavened,
are a staple for the majority of the population. Flat bread,
or Nan, is usually baked in Tandoor ovens, and served
with tea, not to mention at every meal. Some varieties are
prepared with onions or meat in the dough, others topped
with sesame seeds or kalonji.
Central Asia has a reputation for the richness and delicacy of their fermented dairy products. The most predominant - katyk, or yoghurt made from sour milk, and
suzma, strained clotted milk similar to cottage cheese, are
eaten plain, in salads, or added to soups and main prod-

ucts, resulting in a unique and delicious flavor.

Palov, the Uzbek version of "pilaff", is the flagship of
their cookery. It consists mainly of fried and boiled meat,
onions, carrots and rice; with raisins, barberries, chickpeas, or fruit added for variation. Uzbek men pride themselves on their ability to prepare the most unique and
sumptuous palov.
The oshpaz, or master chef, often cooks palov over an
open flame, sometimes serving up to 1000 people from a
single cauldron on holidays or occasions such as weddings. It certainly takes years of practice with no room
for failure to prepare a dish, at times, containing up to 100
kilograms of rice.
Uzbek dishes are not notably hot and fiery, though certainly flavorful. Some of their principle spices are black
cumin, red and black peppers, barberries, coriander, and sesame seeds. The more
common herbs are cilantro (fresh
coriander), dill, parsley, celeriac, and basil. Other seasonings include wine vinegar,
liberally applied to salads
and marinades, and fermented milk products.
Tea is revered in the finest
oriental traditions. It is offered
first to any guest and there exists a
whole subset of norms surrounding the
preparation, offering and consuming of tea.
Green tea is predominantly the drink of hospitality.
Black tea is preferred in Tashkent, though both teas are
seldom taken with milk or sugar. An entire portion of their
cuisine is dedicated solely to tea drinking. Some of these
include samsa, bread, halva, and various fried foods.
The "choyhona" (teahouse) is a cornerstone of traditional Uzbek society. Always shaded, preferably situated
near a cool stream, the choyhona is the gathering place
for social interaction and fraternity. Robed Uzbek men
congregate around low tables centered on beds adorned
with ancient carpets, enjoying delicious palov, kebab and
endless cups of green tea.

115

Palov, the Uzbek version of "pilaff", is the flagship

of their cookery. It consists mainly of fried and boiled
meat, onions, carrots and rice; with raisins, barberries,
chickpeas, or fruit added for variation. Uzbek men
pride themselves on their ability to prepare the most
unique and sumptuous palov.

Shurpa, Mastava
Among liquid dishes, various kinds of
Shurpa and Mastava take an important
place in Uzbek national cuisine. The
basis of these dishes is the bouillon of
fat meat. Shurpa and Mastava are prepared from fresh or preliminary fried
meat, more often from fresh mutton. Important components are sliced carrot and onion
rings, which are added fresh. Sometimes Shurpa is prepared with turnip or peas.
In several areas potato, fresh tomatoes and sweet pepper are added. Shurpa is subdivided in Kaytnama (shurpa
from fresh meat) and Kovurma (shurpa from fried meat).
Kaytnama - shurpa is the most popular and has gentle
taste and aroma. Meat is cooked in large pieces, vegetables - entirely or in large pieces. Cooking should be done
on a slow fire and it is impossible to allow vigorous boil.
Mastava can be attributed to a version of Shurpa. It is
prepared, as a rule, from the fried meat. The basic components are rice (preliminary washed), which is put in a
bouillon 25-30 minutes before readiness. In some areas,
caraway seeds are added to Shurpa 50-60 minutes before
readiness, for better taste.

Soups Ugra
Homemade noodle soups are also very popular in
Uzbek national cuisine. Ugra is prepared on the basis of
bouillon, milk or sour milk. This kind of soup
is often prepared in Bukhara,
Kashkadarya, Samarkand and Tashkent
regions and in Ferghana valley.
Dough with water or milk, with
added butter or eggs is mixed together. In 30-40 minutes dough should

116

be unrolled in thin layers which are cut on strips in width

of 8-10 cm, poured with flour, put in a pile and cut for
noodles.
The meat cut into small cubes, potato, carrot and onion
are fried in small quantity of fat with addition of fresh
tomatoes. Fried vegetables are soaked in cold water,
boiled, foam should be removed, up to your desire, kidney beans and salt should be added. 12-15 minutes prior
to readiness add the fire and put small portions of noodles.

Chuchvara
Chuchvara is the most widespread national dish, sometimes met under different names such as Varak-chuchvara
(pel'meni). In all areas Chuchvara is prepared with the
same method. Ingredients are flour, eggs, water and salt.
Dough is mixed up and left for 40-50 minutes for
swelling. For stuffing, beef or mutton is cut in slices and
finely cut with onions or passed through the meat grinder;
cold water, pepper, salt, thyme should be added and carefully mixed.
The dough is unrolled in a layer of 1-1, 5 mm thickness
and cut in squares of 4x4 cm. stuffing put on a slice of
dough. Then corners are pinched and curtailed. When
ends are connected, form a half moon with an aperture in
the middle.
Chuchvara should be boiled in salt water or bouillon
and served with "suzma" (sour milk), seasoned with pepper, passed onion and tomato, with black pepper
or sour cream.

Manty
After Plov, Manty is the most popular
and favorite Uzbek dish. That is why in
many regions Manty is served at the end of

the meal. In Ferghana

Valley,
Samarkand,
Tashkent and Bukhara,
Manty is one of the major
components of ration for the local
population.
In other places, it is prepared less often. Manty is prepared from dough on water basis, which is unrolled in
layers by thickness of 4-5 mm and cut in squares of 12*12
cm. Meat, vegetables or greens can be used as a stuffing.
Manty is cooked on steam for 35-45 minutes in a special
pot (kaskan). Manty is served with sour milk or with sour
cream.

Samsa
Samsa is prepared in all
areas of Uzbekistan
with various forcemeats: meat, pumpkin, greens, etc.
Samsa is baked in a
tandoor oven, and
also in gas ovens and
electric plates. For
samsa, average stiff dough is
mixed, left for 20-30 minutes, then unrolled in plaits and
cut to pieces of 10-15 grams.
It should not be thicker than 2-2, 5 mm. Edges are thinner than the middle. Forcemeat is put in the center,
formed in dough and baked in high temperature. For the
dough the following ingredients are required: flour - 25 g,
water - 105 g, salt - 6 g; for forcemeat - mutton or beef fillet - 150 g, fat - 35 g, onion- 250 g, caraway - 1 g, salt and
pepper.

Lagman
There are two distinguished kinds of Lagman:
Kesma-lagman and Chuzmalagman (prepared more
often). Kesma-lagman
has more ancient history than
chuzma-lagman. Stiff dough is
mixed up from flour, eggs,
water and salt; left for
swelling for 30-40 minutes
under a napkin.
Then, the dough is unrolled on layers of 1, 5-2 mm
thickness and diameter not less
than 10-15 cm.
Layers of dough are put in a pile,
covered with flour and cut in noodles with a
sharp knife. Slightly stir up the noodles and boil in salt
water.
Before serving, a special sauce, prepared from meat,
potato, carrots, onions and tomatoes will be added. These
ingredients should be fried, with adding some water and
stewed to readiness. In Ferghana and Tashkent areas, Lagman is prepared with the addition of radish and red bitter
pepper.

Naryn
Naryn is a rather widespread Uzbek dish that is prepared in all areas of the Republic. Stiff dough is mixed
up from flour, eggs, salt and water, then left covered with
wet towel for 30-40 minutes. Then the dough is unrolled
in a thin layer and cut in strips in width of 5-7 mm.

117

The "Lahore Fort", locally referred to as "Shahi Qila" is the citadel of Lahore city, Punjab, Pakistan. It is located in
the northwestern corner of the Walled City of Lahore.
The trapezoidal composition is spread over 20 hectares. Origins of the fort go as far back as antiquity; however, the
existing base structure was built during the reign of Mughal Emperor Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar (1556-1605), and
was regularly upgraded by subsequent rulers. Thus the fort manifests the rich traditions of the entire Mughal architecture.
Some of the famous sites inside the fort include: Sheesh Mahal, Alamgiri Gate, Naulakha pavilion, and Moti Masjid.
In 1981, the fort was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site along with the Shalimar Gardens (Lahore).

118

Lahore Fort
The Grand Resort of All Nations
Nazir Ahmad Chaudhry

he history both of the city of Lahore and its Fort

is lost in hazy mist. The Hindu tradition and
chronicles trace its origin as a capital of Rajput
Hindu State with some sort of fort since ancient times. No
authentic evidence has so far been available to prove the
existence of a Hindu fort.
They also associate the name of the city with the age of
chivalry of Hindu legends, of martial prowess of the remote ancestors and traditions of their ancient civilization.
The only mention of such a Hindu city is referred to in the
old annals of Kashmir and Rajputana and nothing more.

History
At the earliest conquest by the Muslims, we find Lahore
in possession of Chohan princes of the family of Ajmer
who were later succeeded by some Brahmins. In any case,
by virtue of its location, the city and palace has been of interest and importance to all. It has been a focal point of earliest Hindu Muslim struggle and a classical ground and a
stop over the invaders from North, whether these were
Greeks or Central Asian hordes led by Mongols.
Alamgiri Gate
Lahore Fort

119

The recorded history, however, became available when

the city was taken over by Mahmood Ghaznavi who left
Malik Ayyaz as his first Governor of the State of Lahore.
Since then, the name of the city is associated with every
Muslim dynasty from the Ghaznavids to Mughals.
It was sometime a capital of Indian Empire, sometime
a capital of the Kingdom of Lahore and all along a Provincial seat and place of importance. Historians and poets
have always united in celebrating and eulogizing the splendor of the city. It was termed as a city of great importance
amongst the cities of India. Abul-Fazal described it as
"Grand resort of people of all nations".
The Western travelers found the city well populated,
nicely built with magnificent palaces in the Fort and people, happy, hospitable and prosperous. As in the history of
development of cities, it happened to be on the banks of
the river Ravi and with a Fort which was a necessity of the
people and Government of the time since ancient times.
Which appeared first, the city or the fort, is not known
but the existence of both was complimentary to each other
to the extent of necessity. Traditions prove that there existed the Kacha Fort on the north-west corner of the city,
which was strengthened by Malik Ayyaz who also rehabilitated and re-settled the city which happened to have been
de-populated due to earlier Hindu-Muslim Wars.
The Ghaznavids, the Ghauris and the Slave dynasties
always treated Lahore as an important city of reinforcements to advance towards Central India and thus contributed in every way to the strengthening of the Fort.
Balban, Ala-ud-Din Khilji, Mubarik Shah and Lodhis all
took care of its maintenance and development throughout.
The invitation extended by Lodhi dynasty to Babur for
attacking India marked the beginning of a new era in Indian history after which the Mughals gave a fresh and
grand dimension to the city and the Fort, according to their
tastes which were quite different from Indian living, culture
and architecture.
The first Mughal who happened to be in charge of
Lahore State was Mirza Kamran (son of Emperor Babur)
who built palaces and gardens in the suburbs of the city

120
Naulakha
Lahore Fort

The British converted the neglect, which

followed Ranjit Singh's death, into a
partial ruin. It first fell into disrepair. The
British Military authorities wrought havoc
without thought or scruple, though it was
allowed to exist. The present buildings
are not more than a mere shadow of
what these might have been in the
days of Shah Jahan.

especially in the Naulakha area and his Baradari on the

bank of river Ravi. It is still the first and the oldest available
Mughal relic of architecture in the city. Lahore, from
architectural point of view, is essentially a Mughal city and
its Muslim remains are in Mughal style.

Emperor Akbar's Period

It is said that when Emperor Akbar took over the city, he
ordered the building of wall around it and also built the
Pucca Fort in Lahori bricks. Of course, nothing remains
now from Akbar's period in the Fort except the walls of the
Fort.
The Akbari Mahal is a matter of history. The Archaeology Department excavated the foundations of Akbari
Mahal in the Fort which happened to be in the east and
north-east corner of the Fort near Masjidi Gate in 1935.
Emperor Akbar lived and used Lahore as Capital of Indian Empire from 1583 to 1598. Thus the Fort housed the
Court, Palaces and other offices of the empire and concurring royalty, nobility and army. We can only imagine the
dignity the Fort must have enjoyed and the prosperity the
city must have received as the capital of India.
Many historic incidents took place at the Fort. In fact
the Court of Akbar was a centre of learning where the Em-

121

Shish Mahal (shah Burj), Lahore Fort

peror patronized the poets, historians, mathematicians, financers and great people who laid revenue and financial
laws for the future Indian Government.
It is really a matter of pride for Lahore where law revenue givers like Todarmal, historians like Abul-Fazal and
poets like Urfi made their mark on the scene of Indian history. There was religious freedom, economic prosperity
and social security for the common man who enjoyed the
privilege of protection of the king, right of living in the
neighborhood of the Fort.

Construction
Extending over an Area of 42 Acres measuring 1400
feet east-west and 1100 feet North-south excluding west
and north fortification, the Lahore Fort as it now stands, is
not the work of one monarch. It has undergone changes
since Hindu times and a lot must have remained buried in
debris before the present walls and palaces came up in their
existing shape.
Lahore Fort was designed and executed by different
hands. Its structure hardly represents any architectural
unity of composition but contains proud and distinct architectural features of individual character stretching on a period of over three centuries.
The "Master Builder" of the Fort, the person who su-

122

pervised and executed the major portion of the construction

works in the fort, was Abdul Karim Ma'mur. Evidence to
his being architect is inscribed on marble slabs in Maktab
Khana and on the Hathi Pol or Shah Burj Gate of the Fort.
The Fort, as is now to be seen, was founded by Malik
Ayyaz on a mound where "Kacha Qilla" existed, since at
that time Lahore happened to be under Rajputs.
Emperor Akbar replaced it with "Pucca" fort with proper
Lahori (burnt) bricks. Building such constructions using
burnt bricks by Mughals, especially Emperor Akbar, was
continued by Jahangir and completed by Shah Jahan.
Later, Aurangzeb added the "Hazoori Bagh Gateway"
commonly called "Alamgiri Gate".

Next Stage
After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, and during later
Mughal period, the Fort suffered a dire neglect at the hands
of his weak successors, until the Sikhs rose and occupied
it during the latter half of the 18th century.
Wresting it from the inefficient and unstable Governor
of the nominal Durrani Suzerains, the earlier Sikh Sardars
of the Bhangi Misl who appear to have been the first
among the Sikhs to occupy the Fort in 1765, treated it as a
merely military stronghold of offence or defense, adding
little or nothing to its architectural appearance.

Site Plan, Lahore Fort

Nor did Ranjit Singh appear to have made any changes

in the structure as a whole, though it is mentioned that he
strengthened the ramparts, deepened the moat and must
have improved and embellished, according to his untutored
and barbaric notions, that portion of the fortress which
formed his residence i.e the Summan Burj, for the next 40
years.
The British converted the neglect, which followed Ranjit Singh's death, into a partial ruin. It first fell into disrepair. The British Military authorities wrought havoc
without thought or scruple, though it was allowed to exist.
Lord Curzon generated a new interest in all historical
buildings of India through the institution of Archaeological
Department, for the preservation of all such monuments. It
took twenty-one years (1903-24) to rescue the Fort from
vandalism. The present buildings are not more than a mere
shadow of what these might have been in the days of Shah
Jahan.

counter and an ill-organized handicraft stall. Crossing the

lobby on the left and right are circuitous stairs to climb up
the first floor of the Gateway where there are a number of
rooms; some used by Chaukidars and guards and all in a
poor condition.

Inside the Fort

Precisely the entire Fort has been divided into five enclosures. These are: Diwan-i-Aam, Jahangir's Quadrangle,
Moti Masjid, Diwan-i-Khas and Shish Mahal.
Entering through the Alamgiri Gate (which was bricked
during British period and is now open), one finds a ticket
The original 450 year old brick paths, Lahore Fort

123

Many historic incidents took place

at the Fort. In fact the Court of
Akbar was a centre of learning
where the Emperor patronized the
poets, historians, mathematicians,
financers and great people who
laid revenue and financial laws
for the future Indian Government.
The entry from Alamgiri Gate
to the main road is all brick-paved. There are rooms and
barracks on the right side of the approach road. On the left,
there are about 15 steps flight and a damaged doorway
standing all alone in an archway.
If one steps up and stands under the arch (facing north),
s/he finds it located exactly in straight line with the entrance door of Shish Mahal building. Nowadays, this spot
is used as a stage for musical performances during dinners
and parties for VIPs at the Lahore Fort.
After coming through the postern or through Alamgiri
Gate and stepping up the sloping ramp, you will also arrive
at the open space in the centre of the citadel walking into
the garden (joining those coming from Alamgiri Gate) and
reaching the centre you turn your back towards the city and
you will be facing the Diwan-i-Aam garden, the forty pillared hall of Shah Jahan. This is where that Emperor and
his successors afforded audience to one and all who sought
it.
Immediately behind this building is Jahangir's Quadrangle. To the left-front is the Diwan-i-Sang-i-Surkh, or part
of Shah Jahan's Khabgah (sleeping apartment), on which
Ranjit Singh raised his Rani's (Jindan) Haveli, and Moti
Masjid (Moti Mosque) towards south. Opposite the Pearl
Mosque, there was the Shah Burj or the Royal Tower and
State Rooms of Shah Jahan.
At the further end of the quadrangle, towards the riverfront, is a building known as the Bari Khabgah or the main
sleeping apartment, while on the left is the Chhoti Khabgah
of Shah Jahan.
Still further to the left is a courtyard called the Khilwat

124

Khana. On the south of this court

stood the royal baths while on the south-west was the private mosque of the court ladies. A little ahead stood the
Shah Burj. On the north side of the building there is the
semi -octagonal Shish Mahal or Palace of Mirrors. Next to
the Shish Mahal, on the west, is an open pavilion, known
as the Naulakha.
Coming back to the court next to the Shish Mahal, we
find steps leading downwards past a row of rooms once
occupied by the inmates of the Haram. It leads to the ornate
Hathi Paon or Elephant Gate.
Pass the gate, turn right and straight on, here is the pictured wall of Lahore Fort. It is a special feature of this Fort
which is non-existent anywhere in the world.
It is truly oriental in the brilliant variety of its colors and
is rich in geometrical and foliated designs. The figured
panels are worth looking at.
The wall is on the north-west with an area of 8000 sq.
yards and has been decorated with pictures in Kashi (tile)
work or porcelain. Starting from Hathi Pol Gate up to the
end of Jahangrir's Quadrangle, the wall is divided into different spandrels and panels where various subjects have
been depicted and painted.
These elaborately describe various events, amusements,
sports, cultural events, figures and misc. designs which
give a vivid and complete history of the Kashi work, painting and status of the art during Mughal period.
Although it has always engaged the attention of historians and scholars on the nature of subjects and description,
the common visitor looks at it from that angle of the Fort.
One also enjoys its beauty and grandeur.

Diwan-e-Aam or Hall of Public Audience

Lahore Fort

125

In the twenty first century, Kyrgyz artists are in search of creating their own identity, an identity which expresses the essence of
Kyrgyz art in a modern language which is universal, after all art is a universal language which speaks for itself.
It is without boundaries and the struggle for exploring new ways for artistic expressions is the main concept of every nation
with enormous cultural visual heritage such as Kyrgyz people and that is what makes this challenge complicated yet fascinating,
difficult yet valuable.
It is worth every single effort taking by gifted and talented artists who want to draw international attention to the great wealth
and richness of the cultural heritage of their country and their new ventures in creative achievements. The search for identity
has led to fresh ideas for the artistic creations of Kyrgyz artists.

The Modern Approach in

Kyrgyz Visual Arts

126
Exteiror facade
Kyrgyz Yurt

yrgyzstan is by definition a newly formed country but this is not applied to the richness of cultural heritage of Kyrgyz people. For thousands
of years, Kyrgyzstan was a meeting place of many cultures
despite its challenging geography.
The Kyrgyz people were originally natives of the Yenisei
River Valley in Siberia where archeologists have found
Bronze Age weapons and tools bearing their distinctive geometrical designs. Around 800 A.D. the Kyrgyz nomads began
migrating across the Siberian steppes to mountainous Central
Asia.
For their creations, Kyrgyz artisans have a great wealth of
motifs, themes and customs at their hand. Since its independence in 1991, visual arts have gone through remarkable
changes, either in respect of their approaches to modernism
or the new market which has brought some new expectations
from Kyrgyz artists and artisans.

History and the Sources of Artistic

Inspiration
The Kyrgyz republic is a country remarkable for its natural
beauty. Majestic mountain give way to rolling sites soaring up
to 4000 meter above sea level. Wide valleys and vast lake
basins are framed by eternally snow-covered peaks, ridges
and mountain ranges, images of animals and people from
3000 to 5000 years before present time.
From 900 to 1200 A.D. the Kyrgyz were ruled by the cultured Turkic Karakhanids who brought Islam to Central Asia.
Conquests by the Mongols, the Manchus, and the Russians
followed but throughout the ages, the Kyrgyz have remained
Muslim.
Thus the Islamic artistic heritage including Arabic calligraphy, ornate leather bookbinding and mosque architecture
and design became a part of the Kyrgyz tradition.
The territory of Kyrgyzstan and the vast lands of central
Asia is one of the most ancient centers of human civilization
in the world. Archeological researches have shown that prehistoric man lived in the area during the Stone Age. The cliff
paintings of Saimaluu-Tash are a widely known monument
of antiquity.

These unique paintings depict various animals, hunting

scenes, religious ceremonies and aspects of farming. Even
the best connoisseurs of ancient fine arts are delighted with
this grand sanctuary of ancient nomadic tribes.
There are both a lot of single petro-glyphs and multi-image
compositions. Saimaluu-Tash first of all is unique with its
style's richness and many different ages of paintings, the oldest of which are from the Bronze Age.
Within the multiplicity of the Saimaluu-Tash, scholars
have identified a number of essentially distinct styles. The
most ancient of these being the subtle geometric representations of animals in linked triangles or rectangles - analogous
to the Middle Eastern ceramics from the third to first millennium B.C. It is an exhibition locked in time. These petroglyphs are geometric signposts in skeletal technique, with
simple lines, static symbol and lonely figures.
Such wide range of ages shows the best correlation with
richness of subjects, characters and symbols. Animal world is
widely represented in the place, there are elephants, lions,
snow-leopards, wolfs, ibexes, red deer, birds and reptiles.
Domestic animals are shown as horses, bulls and yaks.
Multi-image compositions depict scenes of hunting, domestication of wild animals, migrating along mountain paths, ritual dances of masked people, sun- and moon-shaped men
and their taking drive on harnessed chariots and carriages,
dances of demonic, resembling a human creatures with canine heads and hypertrophied huge arms. Authors of earnest

petroglyphs

127

scientific articles regard Saimaluu-Tash as monument of culture with universal importance.

Another great source of the cultural heritage of Kyrgyz
people is Perhaps "Manas", this great epos is said to be the
biggest epic poetic narration in the world. It contains more
than half a million lines and is 20 times bigger then Odyssey
and Iliad together and 2, 5 times bigger then Mahabharata.
It appeared more then a thousand years ago and was
passed around and through the centuries by the word of
mouth inherited by every next generation, sharpened by talented poets who developed aesthetic shape of every line.
Manas reflects entire history of Kyrgyz people starting
from about 10th century. The basis of the epos is description
of valorous feats of the central hero Manas uniting his nation
suffering from invasions of foreign tribes and federations.
But content of the epos is not merely a traditional narrative
concerning the heroic deeds of its protagonists. One can read
this epic history and along with its main scenes, imagine the
vibrant pace of the everyday life of a nation, its traditions,
customs, colorful descriptions of feasts and funerals.
These stories and legends have fueled the imagination of
Kyrgyz artisans for centuries and now in the twenty first cen-

Kyrgyz Shirdak

128

tury they have gained a new momentum.

Textiles and Rugs

For thousands of years, Kyrgyz artisans have contributed
to Central Asias reputation as the land of textiles. Their traditional lifestyle of wandering herdsmen limited their crafts
and even their dwellings to portable items. The principal raw
materials of their decorative arts are derived from hunting
and livestock breeding wool, leather, bone and horn.
Traditional Kyrgyz art includes patterned weaving, thick
felt carpets and clothing, woolen carpets, leather items,
wicker ware, carved wood, ornamental metalwork, and the
figured and patterned clay, bone, and brick decorations of
gumbez, or funerary monuments.
The Scythians, Sogdians, and the troops of Alexander the
Great spent time in Kyrgyzstan, leaving their cultural imprint.
Symbolic zoomorphic motifs like that of the Sogdian sacred
pheasant were incorporated into the design vocabulary of
local weavers.
From antiquity through the Middle Ages, several of the
Silk Road caravan routes passed through Kyrgyzstan, providing varied artistic, commercial, and spiritual influences
from China, Persia, and the Middle East.
A characteristic Kyrgyz creation is the Shirdak, a heavy
rug made from pounded felt, with appliqud colored panels
that are hand-stitched with camel thread. The rugs are assembled in the summer after the annual process of washing and
dyeing the sheared sheep wool.
The most common decorative patterns are the Kochkor
Mujuz or plant motif, the Teke Mujuz or ibex horn motif,
and the Kyal or scrollwork motif.
It is said that each crafted item reflects the long history of
the Kyrgyz people, and that the woven and carved designs of
Kyrgyz household objects create a symbolic, magical universe of poetry, spirituality, and the beauty of nature.
Kyrgyz women (mostly in villages) are accomplished textile artists. These women are bearers of tradition in the new
Kyrgyz society. Traditional crafts are taught in school, and

Some artists aspire to follow ancient rules of manufacturing and decoration in their
creations. Other, try to apply new ways, or borrow from painting or diagrams composite courses, creating works only for exhibitions. But as always, art defines its own
meaning and purpose. Artists have been exploring new territories for their artistic
creations, experiencing new ways and methods which reflect various parts of their
cultural heritage, expressing the Kyrgyz spirit of their inspirations which are deeply
rooted in their native land.

the graphic arts are well developed.

In most cases artisans create objects to be sold either as
souvenirs to tourists or as heirlooms for people's homes.
Some are displayed in the National Gallery or in museums
abroad. Most of these are done in wool or silk, including the
wool carpets of Shirdaks and Alakiis, embroidered wall
hangings called Tush-Kiis, and small animal or human figures. Wood, horn, leather, and clay are also used.
There are a number of painters as well whose works are
sold mostly to foreigners. These often have traditional Kyrgyz
themes but often use modern and postmodern styles of painting. Galleries and art exhibits are almost exclusively in the
capital city.

Incorporating Modernism: The Fusion of

Modern Approach and Traditional Arts
The applied arts are vibrantly alive here, and not surprisingly many of their leading practitioners are strongly influenced by their native land. They are working to combine
Western ideas of abstraction with their Central Asian
heritage.
The transitional period started from the independence of
Kyrgyzstan is reflected in fine and applied arts. Many criteria
which served in the near past to mark the conventional estimation of creative work now concede their places to other
criteria.
There is a new understanding of market oriented artifacts
which stresses on the fact that the variety and evaluation of art
depend on the various aesthetic tastes of the consumers.
Artists are compelled to be guided by the tastes and claims of
potential buyers.
Commercial art develops, galleries appear: exhibitions,
sales. At the same time it is becoming more difficult to
arrange thematic exhibitions devoted to urgent problems
which require attention and financial help. One of the problems facing the updated Kyrgyz society is the problem of
preservation and development of the best traditions of Kyrgyz
art. The relations of traditional and modern styles are evident

in creations of decorative-applied art.

It is possible to notice two approaches in this kind of art.
Some artists aspire to follow ancient rules of manufacturing
and decoration in their creations. Others try to apply new
ways, or borrow from painting or diagrams composite
courses, creating works only for exhibitions. But as always,
art defines its own meaning and purpose.
Artists have been exploring new territories for their artistic
creations, experiencing new ways and methods which reflect
various parts of their cultural heritage, expressing the Kyrgyz
spirit of their inspirations which are deeply rooted in their native land.
For example a sugar bowl produced in the workshop of a
Kyrgyz artist is not, as it may seem at first sight, simply made
in an odd shape. Its shape is modeled on that of a yurt, the
domed felt tent in which Kyrgyz nomads have lived for centuries.
The teapot that accompanies this bowl is made in the shape
of the traditional vats in which Kyrgyz villagers cook their
food. It also refers to the shape of the Calpac, the tall felt hat
worn by many Kyrgyz men, which in turn reflects the profile
of the towering mountains that cover most of this country. Or
vases with their narrow strips of painted figures made by a
modern Kyrgyz artist.
These figures are adapted from some of the thousands of

129

Kyrgyz modern Painting

ancient petro-glyphs that have been found on rocks in eastern

Kyrgyzstan. ''It's in my blood,'' Ms. Tenizbaeva says, a modern Kyrgyz artist. ''No matter how much I want to move
toward art that is purely modern, the Kyrgyz influence comes
out in my work. It's not just shapes, but also ideas and concepts that come out of the legends I heard from my grandparents when I was a child.''
Ms. Tenizbaeva, 45, is one of several dozen artists here
who are taking a new approach not only to ceramics, but also
to clothing, jewelry and various forms of installation. Their
work, while modern, seeks to embody Kyrgyz tradition.
Mr. Ruppel is one of the most successful Kyrgyz artists
and the felt that he favors is the most traditional of Kyrgyz
materials. His works are largely abstract, but many seem to
include the shapes of the rivers and mountains that define this
country's rugged geography.
The rectangular constructions that he has been making for
the last few years hang in the homes of several foreigners
here in Bishkek, and others are in European collections. But
just as this work is becoming recognized, he has moved away
from them and begun making free-standing installations.
After its independence in 1991, Bishkek was transformed
from the central city of one of the southern states of the for-

130

mer Soviet Union into the national Capital of a country. Foreign entrepreneurs, diplomats and aid workers began moving
here and they provided a market for Western-influenced work
that still puzzles some Kyrgyz.
This new market has created new demands which must be
catered. Also there are increasing numbers of local people
who have become interested in what the applied artists are
creating. New shops have been opened that offer a wide range
of these artifacts.
Nowadays there is a steady flow of patrons, some from
Kyrgyzstan and others from abroad who are much interested
in the objects made by local artists. Jewelry, ceramics and
metal plates, all with unusual designs; a lampshade decorated
with motifs inspired by the country's famous symbolic petroglyphs, evocative pendants in the shape of yurts. These are
fine attractive artifacts which are most inviting for the foreign
buyers or local people.
''We put on workshops here where masters show young
people how they work,'' says Aynura Ashirakhmanova, one of
the shop's managers. ''We also have fashion shows, and you
can see that our designers are making pieces that are really
high fashion, although they do have Kyrgyz themes. Every
piece in here has a spiritual memory.''

Dayarbekov, a renowned jeweler who also makes constructions and sculptures from metal, leather, or any other object that speaks to his Kyrgyz soul. ''It's complex, but there's
no excess.''
''I think that spirit is what animates the applied arts here,''
Mr. Dayarbekov says. ''Fine art only came to Kyrgyzstan at
the beginning of this century, but we always had a rich tradition of folk arts and crafts. What we're doing today is using
modern approaches to art in a way that reflects our own artistic and spiritual heritage''
Recently two talented Kyrgyz artists, Momunbek Akmatbaev and Jyldyz Oruzbaeva (nickname - Asangali) had the
chance to exhibit their works for twenty days in the capital of
one of the western countries. The talented couple exhibited
about 40 works, which apparently drew attention of the art
lovers. The main aim of the exhibition was introducing Kyrgyzstan to the world community by means of painting. The
unique Kyrgyz motives for fair moved the audience.
The style of Asangali's works is invigorating innovation
in Kyrgyz art. Her works mingle modern art, handicraft and
miniature painting. She thinks that Foreigners deeply appreciate beauty of unique Kyrgyz felt hand-made articles.
But the country should treasure smart, educated and gifted
people. "Look how many able Kyrgyz artists and sculptors
are most in-demand abroad. Recently 10 Kyrgyz sculptors
have been invited by the mayor of Ankara to participate in a
symposium and make decorative marble sculptures" says
Asangali.
State Russian Museum art critic Sergei Buglak once wrote:
"Asangali has some inherent taste for color and rhythm. Each
painting is based on the rhythmic composition of bright colors. Short vivid brush strokes add to the energetic and picturesque atmosphere of canvases. They exert a strong
psychophysical influence."
At the close of 2007, a path breaking exhibition with the
title of "Epoxa" (Epoch) held in Kyrgyzstan, the main goal
of this exhibition was to explore the relationship between visual culture and liberalization through five spheres: film, advertising; painting; modern art and photography.
There were fundamental questions which seemed to find
their answers through mediums of art. The sudden change
represented: a rejection rather than succession: time leapt
forward and offered opportunities, encouraged boldness in
interpretations.
How do we interpret what artists did with their new-found
political freedom but also the loss of economic subsidization
after communist collapse? How did the politics of the era coexist with these new art forms?

While post-communist collapse increased the influence of

global communications, certain features specific to
Kyrgyzstans visual environment remained important. As a
bilingual country (Kyrgyz and Russian), and one forging a
new post-independence unity, the importance of visual culture assumed added importance. The upshot was a series of
visual culture products that combined influences largely
from: pre-Soviet tradition, the Soviet past, and recent Western
influences but many works still represented the deep influence of Kyrgyz folk art such as work of Youristanbek Shygaev "Kurak" which combined imported elements from
world art with local elements of folk art and nomadism, conveying heroic mythological content in an international form.
Kurak, the Kyrgyz word for patchwork, represents an
age-old tradition practiced throughout the centuries by
craftswomen from all over the world. It holds, however, significance in Kyrgyz traditional culture, where the name
comes from the word Kura which means to piece together
or to assemble from separate scraps and acquired specific
symbolism in the peripatetic lifestyle of traditional Kyrgyz
nomads.
Ethnographic postmodernism was another major trend in
Epoxa which tried to express the link between political and
ethnographic contexts taking shape during the years of post
soviet collapse and the transformations which Kyrgyz society
has gone through. Project Epoxa vividly and compellingly
captured moods of both continuity and change in Kyrgyzstan.
*The article has been compiled from relevant sources on the subject. Sections of the material have been reproduced from: "Manas" Epos and
worlds epic heritage", By Tendik Askarov, Festival tourism and social
changes, Internationales Kunst-Adressbuch, Published by K G Saur books.

131

Home of Ottoman Sultans

Topkapi Palace

132

The Story of the Old Byzantine Capital

n 633 B.C. the Doric migrants from Megara established a small,
commercial colony in a land that became known as Byzantine. In
the ancient world topography and strategic considerations, there
whrer two determining factors dictating the location of cities and this town
was no exception.
The settlers founded their new habitat at the tip of a peninsula that dominated three waterways. After the establishment of the polis, to protect it
from the aggressions of any hostile army, a city wall measuring five kilometers in length and having twenty-seven towers was built.
Within the surrounding walls, a hill was selected to become its acropolis.
This was the first among of the city's eventual seven hills which seems
tobe an obligatory topographical measure taken by the founders of the legendary ancient cities. Pperhaps the most famous example of such cities
with impenetrable fortresses is the city of Troy incidentally located within
the boundaries of today's Turkey as well.
During the centuries to follow, with the continuous expansion and development of the acropolis, the city went through several transformations.
The first major one took place in 196, during the reign of the Roman emperor Septimus Severus.
This involved the rebuilding of the land wall. But at the time of the
Roman emperor, Constantine the Great; it was finally transformed into a
great metropolis and titled by the emperor after his own name, Constantinople, accentuating the greatness and splendor of the city that resounded
the name of the victorious emperor. This city was to become the capital of
the eastern Roman Empire.

The Baghdad Ksk interior

Topkapi Palace, Turkey

133

The chief architecture responsible in that period was the Persian architecture named Aladdin, also known as Acem Ali. The great fire of
1574 destroyed some parts of the palace including
the kitchens. Sinan was entrusted by Sultan Selim
II to rebuilt the destroyed parts expanded them, as
well as the Harem, baths, the Privy Chamber and
various shoreline pavilions
In 412, the fourth
major expansion of
the city took place
under the Emperor
Theodosius who intended to create a
new metropolis to
serve as the capital of
his empire. To do so
he ordered the
rebuilding of the land
walls.
In the course of the
history, most of the
palaces built in this location, overlooked the
Sea of Marmara. Thus
when
the Emperor Justinian
Gold suspended oil lamp
Second half of 16th century
(565-578) made the radical deci16th century glass chimney of
sion of relocating the new palace
The type known as Tur glass
(Topkapi Palace museum).
(Blachernae) to a place where the
seawalls of the Golden Horn met
the land walls cutting across the peninsula, it was a turning
point in the course of development of the city.

History of the Palace

Topkapi is the largest and oldest palace in the world to
survive to our day. The Empire founded by the Ottoman
Turks, was the largest and the longest lasting one among the
16 Turkish empires and it lasted for 622 years.
For almost four centuries, the Topkapi Palace was the residential palace of all the Ottoman sultans until the reign of
Abdulmecid I (1839-1860).
When it was used as a palace, it served more functions
than one usually associates with royal residences. Although
it was the residence of the sultan, the sole ruler of the empire,

134

it was at the same time the center of the

administrative affairs.
There the sultan received his dignitaries, over the course
of time and the palace became a huge complex comprising
gardens, workshops and a school (a so-called university) to
educate a loyal corps of Bureaucrats serving the sultan
throughout the Ottoman Empire.
Capable civil servants, after completing their education
in the school in the private courtyard of the sultan, served
faithfully and successfully in the administration and organization of the empire. Most of the viziers and grand viziers
were graduates of this school.
During four centuries, the palace assumed more importance in connection to the legislative body of Ottoman Empire. It was the place where the council of ministers met, and
the treasury, mint, and state archives were located. Therefore
it was the heart, the brain, the very center of the Ottoman
Empire. Much later, the harem (private quarters) of the sultans were moved here too.
All these factors turned the palace in to the control center
of an Empire stretching from Algeria to Yemen, Persian gulf,
Crimea and the Hungary, under the rule of Suleyman "The
magnificent" (ruled. 1520-66) and his successors. Peoples
of different races and religions were united under its rule.
The only other empire in history that governed such vast
lands for such a long period was the Roman Empire.

Ottoman Empire
The new image of power in the fifteenth and sixteenth
century;The link between the past and present
After the Ottoman conquest and the fall of Byzantine
Constantinople in 1453, the young Sultan Mehmet (ruled.
1444-81) moved the capital of the empire to Istanbul. The
Ottomans inherited the great wealth of Byzantine
architectural monuments mostly the great churches of Constantinople.

For obvious reasons, the old byzantine monuments

should have been adjusted to the Islamic requirements
of the Muslim Ottomans. Therefore for a second time in
the history of the Islamic architecture an intense dialogue
was taken up with the classical heritage of Byzantium
(the first was the case of Umayyad dynasty when they
conquered Syria and the modification and adjustment of
the Damascus mosque which was originally a Byzantine
church).
The architectural monuments from the golden age of
Byzantine Constantinople caused the Ottomans to redefine their concept of imperial architecture. As most of the
Islamic conquering dynasties, the Ottomans tried to create an imperial image for themselves projecting the
power and legitimacy of the Empire. This image of imperial power which was appropriated from the early
Byzantine architecture elements represented the Ottoman
Empire as the new power in the Asia Minor to their Muslim and non-Muslim subjects, as well as their rivals both
in Europe and in the Islamic world.
Hagia Sophia, the first and foremost Friday mosque
(Masjid-I-Jame) of Istanbul (originally a Byzantine
church) inspired a series of Imperial mosques - starting
with that of Mehmet II - established the new rulers of the
city as the link to the past Byzantine.

The adirvanli Talik

Topkapi Palace.

135

Topkapi is a classical example of Turkish palace architecture. Since its initial

construction in 1459, the palace has gone through many changes and transformations. Each Sultan, according to his taste or the contemporary requirements
added various structures and elements to the palace's original plan. But during
the reign of Sultan Suleyman, whose title "the magnificent" reflects the atmosphere of the period in the Ottoman Empire which had been resulted from the
rapid expansion of the empire's territory

The Greek historian Kritovoulos wrote of Mehmed II's

mosque, "The sultan himself selected the best site in the middle of the city and commanded them to erect a mosque
which in height, beauty and size should compete with the
largest and finest temples existing there."
Another Turk historian, Tursun Beg, wrote about the ambitious construction projects of Mehmed II as follows: "And
he (Mehmed II) built a great mosque based on the design of
Hagia Sophia, which not only passed all the arts of Hagia
Sophia, but in addition incorporated modern features constituting a fresh new idiom unequaled in beauty."
This would explain the desire of Sultan Mehmed II for
building new palaces, mosques and other public places in
his new capital. Since the Byzantine Imperial palace of Constantinople was largely damaged during the wars and mostly
in ruins, the Sultan searched for a better location and chose
the old Byzantine acropolis, ordering the construction of a
new palace in 1459.
It was originally called the New Palace (Yeni Saray) to
distinguish it from the previous residence. It received the
name "Topkapi" in the 19th century, after a (now lost) Topkapi Gate and shore pavilion. The name directly translates as
"Cannongate Palace".

Palace at a Glance
Topkapi is a classical example of Turkish palace architecture. Since its initial construction in 1459, the palace has
gone through many changes and transformations. Each Sultan, according to his taste or the contemporary requirements,
added various structures and elements to the palace's original
plan.
But during the reign of Sultan Suleyman, whose title "the
magnificent" reflects the atmosphere of the period in the Ottoman Empire which had been the result of rapid expansion

136

of the empire's territory, the need to build glorious structure

with grandiose decoration to represent the power and authority of the Empire was felt. Therefore new buildings were
constructed or enlarged. The chief architecture responsible in
that period was the Persian architecture named Aladdin,
also known as Acem Ali.
The great fire of 1574 destroyed some parts of the palace
including the kitchens. Sinan was entrusted by Sultan Selim
II to rebuild the destroyed parts, as well as the Harem, baths,
the Privy Chamber and various shoreline pavilions. By the
end of the 16th century, the palace acquired its present appearance.
In a western eye, Topkapi represents a non monumental
character which is unlike the other Imperial buildings in
other countries or even the other Ottoman palaces. It consists
of tree- shaded courtyards, each serving a different purpose
and opening onto one another with monumental gates. The
courtyards are surrounded by functional buildings.
From the time of its construction, the palace developed
constantly with alterations and additions made by each sultan. There are many smaller buildings and pavilions randomly scattered within the courtyards and surrounding
walls. This unusual plan with the courtyards opening on to
each other, created an ever increasing privacy for the residents of the palace.
Gardens of geometrical designs of flower and vegetable
beds combined with fountains and pools reflect the Muslim
traditional love of the nature and symbolic derivation connected with aspiration for gardens of paradise.
Although the Ottomans did not match the extensive gardening of Andalusia Spain, especially under the Nasrid dynasties, the Topkapi palace shows a considerable talent and
royal interest in it. Terrace gardens arranged in rows of cypresses stretch in many parts of the palace complex, espe-

cially along the sea shore.

At the height of its existence as a royal residence,
the palace was home to as many as 4,000 people, formerly covering a larger area with a long shoreline. The
complex has been expanded over the centuries, with
many renovations such as after the 1509 earthquake and
1665 fire.
Life started at dawn in the palace and it was subject
to strict rules and ceremonies. Everybody had to abide
by the centuries-old customs and traditions, and these
were observed rigorously even when the empire fell
into a period of decline. The etiquette of this palace always influenced the rules of protocol in the Western
world.
Topkapi Palace gradually lost its importance at the
end of the 17th century, as the Sultans preferred to
spend more time in their new palaces along the
Bosporus. In 1853, Sultan Abdl Mecid I decided to
move the court to the newly built Dolmabahe Palace,
the first European-style palace in the city. Some functions, such as the imperial treasury, the library, mosque
and mint, were retained though.
However with Sultan leaving the palace, it lost its
glory and importance as the official royal residence, virtually left to deteriorate. The seaside mansions and
pavilions of the Palace were demolished at the end of
the last century.
The different tiles, woodwork and architectural
styles displayed in Topkapi Palace reflect the

Garniture of chain mail,

Associated with sultan Mustafa III,
Iron partially gilt
(a craft for which artisans from Derbend and
from Kubachi in Daghestan where particularly famous.)

137

Flask
(Matara; from the Arabic Mathara,
Purification vessel), 16th century
Height: 32.2 cm.
Topkapi Palace Museum.

pieces.

development of Turkish
art and the harmonious ex-

Visiting the Palace: The First Courtyard

You can enter the first courtyard through the so-called
Imperial Gate. The monumental fountain seen outside the
gate is a beautiful example of 18th century Turkish art. The
palace bakery, the mint, the quarters of the palace guards
and the firewood depots are located in the first courtyard.
The vegetable gardens used to occupy the terraces below.
The first building in the palace complex, the Tiled Pavilion, and the Archeological Museum are in this courtyard as
well. To the left of the entrance is the Hagia Eirene Museum which dates back to the 6th century A.D.

The Second Courtyard

istence of differing styles over the centuries.

The palace finally regained its former unpretentious
beauty after fifty years of continuous restoration
in the Republican era and eventually became a major
source of tourist attraction in today Istanbul. Most of
the objects exhibited in the palace today are unique master-

138

The main entrance to the Palace Museum is the second

gate, known as the Gate of Salutation. The second courtyard was the administrative center of the state and the
government. Only the sultans could enter this yard on
horseback. Citizens with official business were allowed
here, as well as the representatives of the Janissary corps
on special paydays.
The reception of foreign emissaries and state ceremonies took place in this courtyard. According to the historical documents, the absolute silence prevailed in such
ceremonies, sometimes attended by up to ten thousand
people.
When the sultan was present in the event, the imperial throne was placed in front of the gate at the other
end of the courtyard, and as a demonstration of respect;
the people who attended these ceremonies would stand
with their hands clasped in front.
The only tower in the palace is located in the second
courtyard. It was called "the Tower of Justice" because it
was the venue of the state court of justice. The entire city
and the port could be kept under observation from this tower,
the only entrance of which was from the harem section.

The Harem
The harem was the private zone of the palace, where the

mother and siblings of the sultan, the other members of the

family and the concubines and eunuchs serving this large
family lived.
Until the mid-16th century, the harem was housed in the
Old Palace in another part of the town. The harem of Topkapi Palace consists of long narrow hallways and about 400
rooms scattered around small courtyards. It was altered and
enlarged over the years.
The harem was strictly closed to outsiders, and it became
the subject of many stories over the centuries. The concubines serving the sultan and his family were chosen from
among the most beautiful and healthy girls of different races
or they were presented to the court as gifts.
These girls came to the harem at a very early age and
were brought up under strict discipline. After they became
thoroughly acquainted with the customs of the palace, they
were separated into different groups. Those who could attract the attention of the sultan had the chance of becoming
his wife.
There was no such title in the empire as "empress". The
sultan's mother was the sole ruler in the harem. Amid the entire splendor and wealth, rivalry, hatred and intrigues to get
closer to the sultan were part of the daily life.
When a new sultan ascended to the throne, the harem of
the former sultan was moved to another palace. The ladies
of the harem and the chief eunuchs emerged as a political
power influencing state administration if the reigning sultan
was weak and ineffective. Still, life in the harem with all its
intrigues, good and bad parts was superior to the life style of
ordinary women of that period living in different parts of
the country.
Today only a section of the harem is open to the public.
It is up to the imagination of the visitor to recreate the colorful and lively old days in these dim hallways and empty
rooms.
The tour of the harem starts with the 40-room section allocated to the mother of the sultan. The next sections are the
large Turkish bath and the spacious, domed hall reserved for
the sultans.
There are fireplaces and fountains in all places available.

The large hall with a pool filled with interesting fountains is

decorated with exquisite 16th century tiles. It dates to the
reign of Murat III. At the end of this hall, one enters the small
library and the "fruit room" which is embellished with paintings of fruits and flowers.
The two 16th century rooms seen at the end of the harem
tour have beautiful stained glass windows complementing
the rich wall decorations. These rooms were allocated to the
crown prince.

Weapon Collection and Council Hall

The large structure next to the "council of state" building
with broad eaves was the state treasury. This eight-domed
building today houses rich collection of old weapons in a
modern exhibition.
Besides the armor and weapons used by the sultans, those
used by the members of the palace and the army is displayed
here along with weapons conquered from other countries.
The Tower of Justice rises beside the "council of state"
section. The council was composed of the viziers and secretaries and the grand vizier chaired the meetings.
The sultans did not participate in the meetings, but could
listen to the deliberations from a high window in one of the
walls. This window opened to the harem section and a curtain masked it. The feasts given in the honor of visiting foreign missions used to take place in this hall.

Kitchens and Porcelain Collection

On the right side of the second courtyard are the palace
kitchens with twenty chimneys. Of the 12,000 pieces of Chinese and Japanese porcelain in the palace collection, about
2,500 are on display in this section.
When these buildings were used as kitchens, over one
thousand cooks and their assistants prepared and served
meals for the various sections of the palace.
Selected pieces of the largest of such collection in the
world are displayed in a chronological order. Sections of the
kitchens have been kept as they were when in use, while another part is allocated to porcelain and glassware produced
in Istanbul.

139

Another section houses the collection of silverware and European porcelain. The unique Chinese celadons are in the room
to the right. The exhibition of blue and white, mono- and polychrome porcelain objects ends with the Japanese porcelain collection. In the special kitchen where sweets used to be made,
everyday kitchen utensils, coffee sets and gold-plated copper
wares are displayed.

The Third Courtyard

The third courtyard was the private domain of the sultan and
it was entered -only by special permission- through the Gate of
Felicity, guarded by the White Eunuchs.
The imperial university, the throne room, the treasury of the
sultan and the quarters housing the sacred relics were located in
this section. The sultans received foreign ambassadors and high
government officials in the throne room, which is directly opposite the entrance. For security reasons, those serving in the throne
room were selected from among deaf and mute persons.
The military officers who served the sultan in various capacities were at the same time the managers of the imperial school.
The library of Ahmet III in the center of the courtyard is an
18th century building that is a typical example of the harmonious
blend of the baroque and Turkish architectural styles.

The Costumes
Unique collections of the sultans' wardrobes are displayed in
the section to the right of the courtyard. There are altogether
2,500 of these handmade costumes that were made of fabric
woven on the palace looms and preserved carefully in special
chests since the 15th century. Beside these garments embroidered with silk, gold and silver thread, there are also silk carpets
and prayer rugs, masterpieces of Turkish art, used by the sultans.

The Treasury
The treasury section of the Topkapi Palace Museum is the
richest collection of its kind in the world. All the pieces exhibited
in the four rooms are authentic originals.
Masterpieces of the Turkish art of jewelry from different centuries and exquisite creations from the Far East, India and Europe are open to visitors to see. In each room there is an imperial
throne from a different era. Ceremonial costumes, weapons,
water pipes, Turkish coffee cups and other wares, all of them
embellished with gold and precious stones are the most important items in the first room.
The second hall is known as the Emerald Room. It contains
dazzling display of aigrettes and pendants decorated with emeralds and other jewels. Uncut emeralds, some weighing several

140

Revan Khiosk, Topkapi Palace.

This khiosk pavilion was built by Murat IV
in 1635 to commemorate the Revan campaign.

kilograms each and the famous Topkapi Dagger (the symbol

of the museum) embellished with three large emeralds are
also on display here.
The third room contains enameled objects, medals and
decorations of state presented to the sultans by foreign monarchs, the twin solid gold candelabras each weighing 48 kilograms, and the most famous throne in the palace, "The
Golden Throne", which the sultans used during coronations
and religious holidays. The 86-carat Spoon Maker's (or Piggott) Diamond, one of the most famous diamonds in the
world, is also to be found here.
The balcony connecting the third and the fourth rooms
offers a breathtaking view of the entrance to the Bosphorus
and the Asian coast. In the fourth room, a magnificent throne
of Indian-Persian origin is on display. There are also many
other objects encrusted with precious stones of different
sizes to captivate visitors.

Clock Collection
The richest collection of clocks in the world is exhibited
in the room next to the Sacred Relics Section. To the right of
the entrance there are clocks made by Turkish masters.
These priceless wall and table clocks and watches are from
the 16th-19th centuries. Clocks of a huge variety of makes
were presented to the palace as gifts.
The largest clock in the room is one of English origin. It
is 3.5 m high and 1 m wide, and contains an organ. Among
the pieces of special interest are the watches with the portraits of Abdulmecid and Abdulaziz, and a birdcage hanging
from the dome, the underside of which is an enameled clock.

Sacred Relics
The sacred relics of Islam were brought to the palace after
the conquest of Egypt in the 16th century and have been preserved here since then. This hall was used as the throne room
before it was allocated to the sacred relics. The walls of the
domed rooms are covered with tiles. Important pieces of the
collection are the swords and bow of Prophet Mohammed
(May peace and blessing of Allah be upon him) and his mantle (cloak), which is kept in a priceless box. The seal of the
Prophet (PBUH), hairs from his beard, his footprint and a
letter are other exhibits in the showcases in these rooms.
Also on display are one of the first manuscripts of The
Koran, the keys of the Ka'aba in Mecca, and the swords of
prominent religious personalities.

This gallery is located in the building with a colonnade,

which stands between the Sacred Relics Section and the
Treasury and also houses the museum offices. In the large
hall, temporary exhibitions are organized from time to time.
The Palace Museum has a rich collection of manuscripts,
books, miniatures and writing tools. Some of these rare items
are displayed in this section. Oil portraits of the sultans adorn
the walls of the balcony-shaped galleries of the hall.

The Fourth Courtyard

A passageway leads from the third to the fourth courtyard
where there are a number of pavilions set amidst gardens.
The last courtyard is dominated by tulip garden, which was
once adorned by the sultan. It served as a royal park used
for relaxation and entertainment. Hence the buildings of the
section of the palace had leisure functions, mostly in the
form of kiosks and terraces.
The so-called "Sunnet Odasi", "the circumcision chamber" is a pavilion built in the midst of the tulip grden. The
pavilion consisted of a large hypostyle hall renowned for its
magnificent tiles, dating back to 16th century, mostly from
the great legacy of Iznik blue and white tiles. The pavilion
was a party center where the royal children were circumcised according to the Islamic tradition. The circumcision
was carried out in a partying fashion with feasts of food,
music and joy.
The only wooden pavilion in the complex, the Revan and
exquisitely decorated Baghdad Pavilion from the 17th century, and the last addition to the palace, the Mecidiye are
some of the buildings in this courtyard.
On the ground floor of the last building, there is a restaurant for visitors. The terrace in front of Baghdad Pavilion
(17th century) is the best place to get an overall view of the
Golden Horn, the Galata district, and the wonderful skyline
of old Istanbul with its domes and minarets.
The gardens of the palace sloping toward the sea have
now been turned into a public park, but one can not stroll
around this legendary monument without getting the feeling
that he has become as a part of the legend even for a few
moments- enchanted within the walls of the once magnificent court of the sultan.
* The article has been compiled from relevant sources on the subject. Sections of the material have been reproduced from: "The Evolution of
Turkish Art & Architechture, By Metin Soezen", "Turkish Arts, A publication of the Ministry of Culture, Republic of Turkey".

Portraits of Sultans

141

Zurkhaneh athletes- Ghajar period

Pahlavani

The Ancient Sport

of Mythical Valor
Mehdi Omrani Nezahd
142

he ECO region has an ancient history with unique

cultural values that need to be recalled and reassessed at regular intervals to protect and promote its distinct identity and influence. Among the subjects
to be revisited here is traditional sports. The so called
Pahlavani sport dates back many centuries and is now
being revitalized with added vigor as it has become of special interest to some peoples in the ECO member states and
elsewhere in the world including Asia, Europe and North
America.
Varzesh-e Pahlavani literally meaning "Sport of Heroes",
also known as Varzesh-e Bastani ("The Sport of the Ancients"), or simply as Pahlavani, is a traditional discipline of
gymnastics and wrestling in Iran, which was initially a form
of training in marital arts and is performed in Zurkhaneh
(meaning the house
of power).
The cardinal rule
of modesty is exemplified by a maxim
read normally before
each event: Learn
modesty, if you
desire knowledge. A
highland will never
be irrigated by a
river". In this traditional and ancient
sport the focus is
inherently on moral
attitude.
Though
physical prowess and

individual heroism is of special significance, it remains secondary to the moral fundamentals. The great Iranian epic
poet Ferdowsi, has often referred to these heroic legendary
figures; in his book, Shah-Nameh, the Pahlavans of the
Mythical era (starting from 1065 BC) including the famous

In this traditional and ancient sport

the focus is inherently on moral

attitude. Though physical prowess
and individual heroism is of special
significance, it remains secondary to
the moral fundamentals

Young athletes during push ups with Takhteh Shena in a Tehran Zurkhaneh
photos: A. Nasrollahi

Rostam, are always

fighting
against
forces of evil.
Pahlavani which
is said to go as far
back as the Parthian
era (132 BC - 226
AD) absorbed philosophical and spiritual
dimensions, following the development
of mystical Islam in
the 8th century AD.
The height of its popularity was reached
during the reign of

143

the Qajar king, Nassar al-Din Shah in the 19th century. Performances inspired by Persian mythology were held at the
Shah's court during the Norouz celebration (March 21). The
sport declined following the rise of the Pahlavi dynasty in
the 1920s as Reza Shah the despotic king of Pahlavi dynasty
considered the sport as a relic of Qajarite rituals.
The ancient sport is now being practiced in 54 countries
around the world and 34 countries have joined the International Zurkhaneh Sport Federation (IZSF); among them are
Philippines, South Korea, India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri
Lanka, Iraq, Indonesia, Germany, Netherlands, Belarus, and
many of the ECO member states including Afghanistan,
Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan and Tajikistan. Zurkhaneh sports will
be one of the major events at the 2008 World Festival of
Traditional Games and Sports to be held in Busan, South
Korea, and at the 2009 Islamic Countries' Sports Festival.
Ranks and grades
There are explicit rankings and titles for Pahlavans. The
lowest ranked Pahlavan is called nowcheh (beginner) followed by nowkhasteh or advanced student, and finally the

pahlavan or champion.
Tools
All Pahlavani appliances have roots in ancient marital art
that can be traced back to the pre-Islamic era of Persia. The
main instruments include:
Meel: A heavy pair of wooden clubs that evolve from
ancient mace
Kabadeh: Bow
Sang: Shield
Takhteh Shena: The Bar

Meel
During the Mongol invasion of Iran (1256 AD) many
Iranian Pahlavans traveled to India and introduced some of
the Pahlavani traditions and instruments to the subcontinent.
One introduction among many was the Meels also known
to the western world as Indian Clubs. Over the centuries
Meels took different shapes and sizes in India and appeared
under names such as Ekka, Karela, Jori and Gada. Some
even have sharp nails or blades on the sides of the clubs.

1st Zurkhaneh Sport World Championship

he 1st Zurkhaneh Sports
World
Championship
organized by TAFISA is officially patronized by IOC (International Olympics Committee) , WHO
and UNESCO. The official title of the
event is The 4th Busan TAFISA
World Sport For All Games which is
also called TreX-Games in common parlance , since Tr symbolizes
Traditional, e stands for e-games
and X represents Extreme Games.
TAFISA organizes World Festival of
Traditional Sports and Games every 4
years. This festival is designed to collect traditional sporting activities
from all around the world at one
place, which are succeeded and developed as a cultural heritage in each
nation of the world to present them
through demonstration and competition. The 4th festival, to be held in

144

Busan 2008, is different in operation

from the three previous festivals and
aims to offer a new paradigm for the
culture of sport. Busans TreX-Games
in 2008 will not only cover traditional
sports, the core part of the TAFISAs
quadrennial event, but also adopt
newly-developed leisure sports for
younger generation (e.g. X-Games
and e-Sports) in terms of competition.
The transformation of the event as a
New Mega Event is expected to contribute to the realization of the new
sport paradigm, the harmonization of
traditional and futuristic sport cultures. 2008 Busan World TrexGames, unlike competition in only
elite sporting events, will consist of
many different ways, e.g. demonstrations,
performances
and
competitions. Traditional sports will
be operated in forms of demonstra-

tions and performances in general;

however, they can be held in the combination of demonstration and competition when the participating teams
are from more than 20 nations. Overall operation of new sport games, e.g.
X-games
and
e-sports, will be carried out in a competition format. Additional programs
like a World Walking Day of 10 Million People and a Rollerblade
Marathon Contest for world citizens
will give us the opportunity to reconfirm the value of human coexistence
and world peace through sporting activities as they offer a space for people from all over the world to get
together, whether they are participating athletes, executives, ordinary citizens or tourists. These aspects will
certainly distinguish the Busan World
TreX-Games from Olympic Games as

Practicing with Meel

These features are not seen in the present-day Iranian Meels.

There is evidence that very seldom the Meels are called
Gavargah, which is a Mongol word. Among the Pahlavans
who traveled to India, Pahlavan Bozorg Pouriyay-e Vali
(mid-1300 AD) and Pahlavan Shirdel Kohneh Savar (mid1300 AD) are well known. Their journeys and the accounts
of their wrestling matches are documented in Pahlavani
books and have passed on from one generation to the next

World Games for non-Olympic

sports.
The 1st Zurkhaneh Sport World
Championship is scheduled from
September 26th to October 2nd,
2008. There will be approximately
10,000 athletes and executives from
1
0
0
nations in the world. The whole event
will be categorized under 3 sections
and each section will have 19 games
respectively, which will be divided
into competition and non-competition
games. Along with this cultural sporting festival, extracurricular programs
will be prepared and they will include
IOC Forum (1,000 participants from
80 nations), Sport Industry Fair, and
other cultural programs such as World
Photography Contest, etc.
The 1st Zurkhaneh Sport World
Champioship gained the first official
patronage from the IOC since the beginning of the TAFISA Games in

in the form of oral history. Centuries later the British took

the clubs to Europe and named them "Indian Clubs." The
clubs eventually were brought to the United States by European immigrants in the 1800s. Meels come in different
sizes and weights. Two main factors that affect exercising
with Meels are the height and the weight. Usually the lighter
models weigh between 10-15 lbs, which are suited for improving stamina and are exercised in each set of 100s. It is
reported that Pahlavan Bozorg Hassan Razaz used to exercise meel swinging with 1,000 sets of swings as part of his
daily exercise. The heavier models are used for building
strength. Heavy Meels range from between 25 to 60 lbs
each and the height can be between 4 to 5 feet. Because
Meels are very effective in developing the upper body
strength and stamina, many wrestlers in Iran now practice
with Meels and other Pahlavani instruments. The material
used to produce Meels is walnut wood for heavy-weight
kinds. To make it even heavier, Meel makers add lead to the
bottom of the Meel, but this has to be done with care in
order to ensure the symmetry of the Meel in terms of its
center of gravity. Exercising with heavy Meels is part of

1992 and it underlines the significance of the Games as a part of

Olympic Movement. The Games are
also sponsored by other international

organizations such as the UNESCO

and the WHO.

145

Pahlavani tournaments held annually in Iran. One type of

ritual that is not a part of Pahlavani tradition is joggling light
meels. This type of demonstration or entertainment became
popular within the last 70 years in many Zoorkhanehs in
Iran. This theatrical exercise is not part of Pahlavani and
has no Pahlavani characteristics. In recent years the Pahlavani Federation in Iran has discouraged joggling with Meels
in Zoorkhanehs as an individual art which will be scored in
the tournaments.
When holding the Meels, the practitioner's forearm and
upper arm must form an angle of about 100 degrees. In step
1, the practitioner holds both Meels vertically in front of his
chest and positions himself in the starting point. In step 2,
he swings one hand (normally beginning with the left hand)
to his back while keeping the other Meel in the right hand
straight in front of himself and in a stationary position.
When the Meel goes to the back, it is swung using his shoulder muscles. Finally, in step 3 he brings the left hand back
to the starting position while at the same time swinging the
right Meel back, in effect switching the position of the
hands. This time the right hand swings the meel to the back

Kabbadeh exercise

as explained in step 2, and the swinging left hand comes

back in the front and the cycle continues. One cycle of steps
1 through 3 is considered "one set" of meel swinging. Each
swing cycle normally takes 3-4 seconds. After some practice, the practitioner can swing the meels in a rhythmic fashion guided by the drum of the Morshed (the person who
chants and plays the drum) in Zurkhaneh. The benefits of
Meel swinging are for building shoulder muscles, grip

146

strength, and overall upper body strength. Another benefit

of exercising with Meels is the ability for the practitioner to
keep with the rhythm, the music of the Morshed inside
Zoorkhaneh. Almost all Pahlavani exercises are accompanied with rhythmic music.

Kabbadeh
Originally Kabbadeh was a war bow. It is one of the noisiest and most exciting features of Pahlavani exercise. It has
an iron bow and the string line is built of a heavy chain to
which metallic discs are attached which makes a big noise
when swirled over the head.
When holding the Kabbadeh, the practitioner's forearm
and upper arm with the heavier part of the Kabbadeh (not
the chain) must form an angle of about 120 degrees and the
other arm is fully extended. The Practitioner will start the
move from the bow and lower the bow all the way down to
90 degree or lower, but above the head. The second move
is to straighten the arm with the bow and lower the other
arm with the chain, the way the throw will happen and this
will make the Kabbadehs sounds, and after the chain is the
same position as the bow was, the practitioner has accomplished one count, and the cycle continues. According to
both factors of strength and endurance, practitioner will repeat to do the pair up to 72 repetitions, which is the maximum number of repetitions in the tournaments, and after
72, the referee will score the beauty of the movement according to the rhythm of the moves, angle of the arms (since
the practitioner could cheat and not lower the arm enough
to avoid working the triceps muscle), discipline of the body,
while the morshed is playing and counting for him. One
cycle of steps 1 through 2 is considered "one set" of Kabbadeh. Each cycle normally takes 3-4 seconds. After some
practice, the practitioner can move in a rhythmic fashion
guided by the drum of the Morshed in Zurkhaneh. The benefit of Kabbadeh is for building shoulder, triceps, latisimus
dorsi muscles, grip strength, and overall upper body
strength. Another aspect of exercising with Kabbadeh is the
ability for the practitioner to follow the music of the Morshed inside Zurkhaneh. Almost all Pahlavani exercises are
accompanied with rhythmic music. Morshed is the person
who chants and plays the drum while guiding the practicing
group.

Sang
It is a symbol of a shield and in ancient times warriors
would exercise with such heavy equipment to prepare for
combat. It comprises of two rectangular wooden pieces

one cycle or one count considered "one set" of Sang. Each

cycle normally takes 7 to 10 seconds. After some practice,
the practitioner can move in a rhythmic fashion guided by
the drum of the Morshed in Zurkhaneh. Sang is effective in
two different aspects; endurance and strength.

Takhteh Shena

Practitioner doing Sang press

which are semi-circled at the bottom, each weighing about

30 to 40kgs. Exercising with the Sang is one of the most
difficult parts of the practice in Zurkhaneh.
This Exercise is a form of chest press with dumbbells.
The difference is the way the Sang looks. Since this tool is
like a big shield, and there is handle right in the middle and
centre of gravity, its very hard to control the balance of the
shields. The other aspect is the weight. Combination of the
size and the weight make the exercise more difficult and
different from chest press. The practitioners will benefit
from strong wrist and shoulder muscles, as well as triceps
and chest muscles. The first step to learn how to move the
Sang is to do regular press, lying down on the floor. After
the control of balance is mastered and the motion is understood in your muscles mind, then you can move on and
start practicing the next step, which is turning side to side
with each Sang press. That means instead of the regular
press with both arms at the same time, you try to turn to the
side and press the Sang with one arm at the time. While one
arm is extended over the head, the other arm is rested and
supported on the floor, and the practitioner is on the same
shoulder as the rested arm, while he has his legs bent at a 45
degree angle, to the same side. After this single move the
same move will be done with the other arm, to complete

This bars are for doing push ups in zurkhaneh, and the
main purpose is to have some height from the floor to give
a more challenging and better workout for the chest muscles. Since the push ups' benefit is very obvious and clear
that the chest, shoulder and triceps are the main muscles,
the inner thigh muscle will also be involved in zurkhanehs
push ups. Since the practitioners open their leg wide apart,
instead of keeping them together, each time he goes down,
there is a stretch in the inner thigh applying to the legs. Another aspect of push ups in zurkhaneh is the ability for the
practitioner to follow the music of the Morshed inside
Zurkhaneh. Since there is a very high repetition involved in
this kind of push up, the practitioner will continue doing
this push up over a long period of time .The master is doing
the push ups in the middle and others are following his discipline, in a circle around him. It should be stressed that
since the legs are open in push ups, the intensity is lower
than having the legs together and because of high repetitions
of push ups, the morshed sing and play, instead of counting,
which is almost close to or more than 1000 push ups. Morshed plays zarb and sings battle poetries which have spiritual message
Other elements of a Zurkhaneh are:

Morshed
Morshed is the title of the man who chants and plays the
drum while guiding the group practicing in the Goad of
the Zurkhaneh. Men of all ages gather at the Zurkhaneh
early morning or early evening to perform a sequence of
exercises.
Morshed is the leader, but his role is unique to the
Zurkhaneh; he plays a big clay goblet-shaped drum (Zarb)
while reciting religious verses and sonnets from the world
famous Shah-Nameh or Book of King written by the celebrated tenth century Persian poet Abol Qassem Ferdowsi.
Each motion of those exercising in the Goad is closely
coordinated with the rhythms played on the Zarb. The Morshed's tempo at playing the drum determines the rate of
swinging the Meels back and forth. So as he drums faster,
the swings increase accordingly. Two metal instruments also
have prominent roles: the Morshed intensifies certain drum

147

movement; the Morshed can announce that change with the

ring of the bell. Most of the practitioners are alert enough
and are following the master, looking at him, but in case not
looking, they will hear the ring and will pay attention to the
master and follow his change and move. Also when an older
person or a pahlavan or champion enters the zurkhaneh, the
Morshed will ring the bell to announce their presence as a
respect.

Goad
Goad is the most essential part and the most sacred part
of Zurkhaneh. It is the main performing area. As opposed to
the sitting place of the spectators, Goad is designed in the
lowest level of the Zurkhaneh floor, symbolizing or in fact
emphasizing the true sense of humility and humbleness that
should prevail in the Zurkhaneh.

Sardam
Morshed playing Zarb, a Persian drum

strokes by striking a small bell suspended in front of him,

and while exercising, the men lift and shake the heavy rattle
(Kabbadeh).The men who come for the drills are scrupulously polite to one another and to the visitors. Toward the
end of the group drill, a difficult solo exercise is performed
by those interested. During this practice, men cross their
arms, then gradually extended outward as they turn in an
accelerating circular motion. The Morshed acquires his
skills either through an apprenticeship that lasts for years, or
through various formal and informal means, perhaps including lessons in the classical Dastgah system.

Rooted in Islamic culture, Sardam is an area adjacent to

the main entrance door, overlooking the Goad, where the
Morshed sits. It is as sacred as a Menbar (pulpit) in a
mosque. The height of the main entrance door to the
Zurkhaneh is lower than the normal size compelling those
who enter to bow first as a symbol of respect for the sanctity
of the Zurkhaneh.

Zang (Bell)
There is a bell combining with the music of zurkhaneh,
which just will be played by the Morshed (drummer) when
he plays the music and rhythm of the sport. This bell will be
played by the Morshed for different reasons such as changing the exercise by the master, or for the ranking and level
of the practitioners. When the Master in the middle of practitioners is running the exercise and others are following,
the Morshed will be play with the rhythm of masters exercise, and the others will follow the same rhythm and discipline. Any time the master is going to change some
Goad of Zurkhaneh

148

We read, hear and learn a lot about Pakistan,

its history, places of interest for tourists, ancient towns, forts, palaces and mosques,
about trekking, high mountain peaks, barren
deserts and coasts, about rivers and fertile
lands and about the many different ethnic
groups of its population with their languages
and handicrafts, but little attention was paid
to its exotic art which displayed on a wide variety of transport vehicles traverse the entire
network of highways of Pakistan.

Pakistan's

Truck Arts
Renata Von Oppen
Photos by Afzal Hussain

Creating art in work-shop

An old fashioned victoria redecorated

Regional art
ife is full contradictions. What could be more of
paradox than the local version of the common
truck? Often a menace on the road, breathing
free and smoke, and scattering all before it, It is
Afghanistan's, Pakistan's and India's answer to the erstwhile dragon. But though a menace, it is at the same time
disarming one, for it is also in its own way a work of art.
No vehicle will be out of use. Their wagon will be
changed with wooden one and will be painted: Truck,
mini-dragon, notorious auto-rickshaw, rickshaw, taxies
and buses, old or new, add colors and gaiety to the cities.
These nations revel in color and decoration. No occasion is necessary; it is part of normal everyday life. Nothing is left ascetically cold or aesthetically pure; from head
to toe, mud hut to palace, they always love to embellish
and enliven their surroundings.
In Pakistan, art is not necessarily confined to galleries;
it is also found on the road. All around Pakistan you will
see a lot of colorful and decorated trucks. They are cov-

150

ered with paintings, ornaments, reflectors, woodcarvings,

and other decorations, which become one of the most recognizable features of the country. It is Pakistan's world-famous "truck arts".
Most surprisingly, the artists and artisans involved in
this special art are not graduated from art schools or colleges. Yet they perform their incredible work skillfully,
albeit in a nave style; using their imagination and inspiration to create fantasies and dreams, the colors and embellishments of which are deeply rooted in Pakistans rich
folklore.
A competition seems to exist between the owners of
the vehicles. Numerous small but ill- equipped workshops
are doing an excellent job of fulfilling the exotic wishes
of their clients. They are apparently willing to spend most
generous sums on getting their ordinary carriages transformed into something most attractive and eye-catching.
It takes about two months to finish the embellishment
of a four wheel art display done by unknown artists- the
painters and artisans. They should be called maestros of

A truck door

the mobile murals because of their oeuvres are masterpieces of a unique art form.
History of Vehicle Painting in Pakistan:
The extraordinary tradition of decorating trucks has its
roots in the days of the raj when craftsmen made glorious
horse drawn carriages for the gentry. In the 1920s the Kohistan Bus Company asked the master craftsman Ustad
Elahi Bakhsh to decorate their buses to attract passengers.
Elahi Bakhsh employed a company of artists from the
Punjab town of Chiniot, whose ancestors had worked on
many great palaces and temples dating back to the
Mughal Empire.
It was not long before the truck owners followed suit
with their own design. Through the years the materials
used have developed from wood and paint to metal, tinsel,
plastic and reflective tape. Within the last few years trucks
and buses have been further embellished with full lighting
systems.

A water tanker

Victorias and Tongas

Old fashioned victorias have been used since long time
ago, before the auto cars came into the world. They belong to the history of the subcontinent-remembering a
queen-empress- and till these days they are still in use.
Tongas have been in service together with the victorias
since a long time in the country.
The difference is that tongas are two-wheel vehicles. Important are the
various purposes they
are used e.g. loading
vegetables, rice, cotton
or chickens. They
also do a good job as
taxis, sometimes
transporting an incredible number of
people.
A rickshaw

151

who express their feelings through the medium of art and

splendor or colors. All across Pakistan, this rolling folk
art has turned village lanes, city streets and long-distance
highways into a national gallery.
Buses
A very conspicuous part of the decoration is the
punched shining metal covering the front, side and mudguards like frivolous aumour. Buses are covered almost
completely by the proper tinseled material. It is astounding to watch craftsmen in workshops squatting on the
floor, finishing and applying this filigree amour, with just
hammer and nail as tools.
From the front and back-fenders of trucks and buses
hang rows of metal chains with small bells, hearts and
other shapes. These gives off delightful jingly sounds
whenever the vehicle hit ruts or ditches in the roads, or
brakes suddenly. Formerly bell bands and bell- harnesses
were used as good luck charms to one of the oldest mode
of transportation.

Trucks
There's almost not a truck in Pakistan that isn't dressed
up. Each truck is a colorful masterpiece. During the 1950s
and 1960s, drivers used to have Quranic verses on their
trucks. Through decades of development, nowadays, on
exhibit are portraits of national heroes, famous buildings,
idealized landscapes with wooded hills and tranquil lakes,
as well as images that profess a profound regard for
Islam. The tradition is believed to date back thousands of
years, to when merchants dressed up their camels for the
caravan along ancient trading roads. When the modern
vehicles replace the traditional camel caravans, people
began to decorate their trucks.
The trucks provide a moving canvas for the artists,

152

Tankers
Decorations are not only on trucks and buses but on all
kinds of vehicles moving on the roads in the cities and
throughout the country. Tankers with the much needed
water or fuel have the warning danger or highly inflammable written in artistic letters.
The best landscapes appear on the back of petrol or
water tankers. They are nearly always of picturesque
lakes and mountains, with winding roads. Little trucks go
up and down, and rose-covered cottages complete the picture. Scenes have great charm, oddly enough enhanced
by the limitations of the tanker's oval shape. The oval
frame belongs to another era and landscapes are right in
tune with it.
Small vehicles
After all the huge and important vehicles-the small
ones serving as all kinds of transportation are also taking
part in Art on Wheels. These include Suzuki as well as
the nicely decorated motor-rickshaws.
Rickshaws have less scope. Owners are usually poorer.
Nevertheless, they produce some pretty exotic work.
Body is painted in bright fluorescent colors, again embellished with flowers or fanciful landscapes, not to mention
the messages, greeting and prayers.

Meymand - Kerman

The Living Antiquity

Meymand Mosque: A man saying his prayers in the mosque carved in the heart of rocks.

Issue 8 - Vol 4

153

Interior view of an ancient home

Kerman city, the capital of Kerman Province located 1,076 km (669 mi) south of Tehran, is a historic place bearing many
attractions.
Kerman is known to be one of the prime cultural heritage centers in Iran. The city was established in the 3rd century by
Ardeshir I. He was the founder of Sassanian Dynasty. So, various monuments, considered to be some of the best examples
of architectural masterworks, reflect the Sassanian Architectural style.
Moreover, Kerman is well known for its scenic beauty such as the majestic Payeh Mountain and Dasht e Lut Desert.
According to the Iran Cultural Heritage Organizations, there are about 283 historical sites in Kerman one of which is
Meymand Village.
Built thousands of years before Persepolis, Meymand is one of the few rock settlements in the world still intact and the
seventh cultural and historical landscape in the world to win the UNESCO Melina Mercury Award.

The Village
eing one of the historical marvels of Iran, Meymand village is located 35 kilometers from the
town of "Shahr-e-Babak" in southern Kerman.
It is undoubtedly one of the most ancient human settlements in the world dating back to some 12,000 years ago
and still lives on.
The rocky architecture of Meymand is unique in the
world. All the public buildings like the mosque, school,
bathhouse and houses have been engraved inside the heart
of the mountain with no construction materials. The village
is like an oblique skyscraper designed thousands of years
ago.

154

Origin
Researchers believe that the early inhabitants of Meymand set it up at the time when the Persians were practicing
Mithraists. Honoring the rituals of Mithraism, they chose
dimly lit caves to say their prayers and carved out chambers
and niches in the mountains to place their dead. Therefore,
one can find numerous temples and tombs in this region,
all cut into the mountain walls.
The Mithraists believed in the endurance, stability and
imperishability of mountains and inspired by this belief,
they dug out their domiciles in the heart of the rocks.
Some experts are of the opinion that chiseled out by
Mithraists, the caves merely served as places of worship or

Honoring the rituals of Mithraism, Meymand residents chose dimly lit caves to
say their prayers and carved out chambers and niches in the mountains to place
their dead. Therefore, one can find numerous temples and tombs in this region,
all cut into the mountain walls

Carved in living rocks, Village of Maymand, Kerman - Iran

burial chambers. However, structured by severe climatic

changes, their architects were compelled to make the caves
their dwelling.
Mithraism was the dominant religion believed and practiced in pre-Zoroastrian Iran and it even lingered a good
while after the dawn of Zoroastrianism.
Recent historical findings illuminate that Zoroastrianism
emerged some 6,000 years before the birth of Christ. Thus,
considering the fact that Meymand was founded by
Mithraists, who predated the Zoroastrians, the date 6,000
B.C. may be the closest point of time we can posit for the
foundation of the village.
10,000-years-old stone-carvings and 6,000-years-old
pottery works discovered at the site are among telltale documents depicting the protracted history of Meymand.
Due to the impregnable position of its fortifications,

Meymand Public Bath

Meymand suffered very little social or physical changes

during history.
An extremely old complex of houses, temples, castles
and fortifications has raised the status of Meymand from a
simple village to a sample of an unrivaled civilization.
Unmoving Faithful
The religious values of the inhabitants of Meymand
were originally rooted in Iran's era of Mithraism and later
Zoroastrianism. After the arrival of Islam in Iran, Meymand villagers, who were born Zoroastrians, converted to
Islam and made lots of sacrifices for their new belief in the
history of Islam in Iran.
The ancient Mithraist and Zoroastrian cave chambers
and temples have now been transformed into mosques and
hosseiniehs (places dedicated to observe and commemo-

155

rate the great sacrifices made by Imam Husein (a.s.) for the
upholding of great Islamic principles during the early years
of Islamic history). Yet, the main function of these prayer
sites have still remained unchanged, i.e. upholding rectitude, decency and praising God the Almighty.
Thrift
The economy of the villagers is hinged on three pivotal
careers: agriculture, animal husbandry and carpet weaving.
Among the trio, carpet weaving is given more attention,
and Meymand carpets are among the best in the world.
The touch of technology has not exempted this rural
community so that it has both electricity and piped water.
However, its people still shun the use of modern equipment
as far as possible in meeting their needs.
In early spring, families focus on breeding livestock and
producing dairy products. Later in summer they collect
wild pistachios, wild almonds and grow almond, walnut
and cumin. It should be noted that Meymand walnuts and
almonds are well-renowned.
Meymand Topography
Rock houses are built on different levels (2 to 5) by chiseling horizontal cuts into the precipice.
These cuts, called kicheh, measure 6 to 9 meters in
length and they are dug into the precipice to the extent that
enough height is provided for chiseling out the upper
house.
The end of a kicheh reaches a terrace-like area known as
the dalan which is a very important element in a neighborhood, for most daily family affairs take place there. The
doors of 1 to 5 rock houses open to a dalan. There are
around 400 large and small kichehs in Meymand.
The interior of a house is either square-shaped or round
and in the past it was illuminated when the daylight shone
in through an opening of 75 to 76 cm high. The wooden
entrance doors are equipped with a latch known as the koleydun (keyhole) which fits into a hole drilled in one side
of the stone doorpost when closed.
The entrance of a room in these houses is roughly
shaped like the outline of a human body. It is narrower at
the bottom of the door and gradually gets wider in the
upper part at shoulder width.
The foot of a door is raised about 15 to 20 cm above the

156

level of the kicheh which doesn't let water and dust getting
into the house.
The village mosque, besides functioning as a center for
religious congregations, also serves as a forum for villagers
to exchange views.
Natural Beauties
Meymand has a temperate mountainous climate. It has
cold winters and mild summers. The village is flanked on
one side by a plain and on the other by mountains. The
plain lies in the distance between Meymand and Babak and
in the past it abounded with pistachios and wild almonds
which have in time shrunk to only certain regions in the
nearby plains. Closer to the village, mulberries are found in
great numbers.
The Meymand plain is also home to different species of
desert animals such as snakes, scorpions, lizards, porcupines, turtles, etc. Among wild animals occurring in the
mountains of Meymand mention can be made of the antelope, wild ass, leopard, fox, wolf, wild goat and various
species of birds of prey.
The flows of a few seasonal creeks and springs as well
as the presence of numerous Qantas (underground channels, or tunnels excavated to carry subterranean waters)
have contributed greatly to the agriculture in this region.
Cultivated lands, just like any other natural beauty, caress the eyes of every beholder who steps into the village,
especially in spring when it is crowned with the blossoming of natural beauty. Other attractions of the city are
Mousa Khan Edifice, Hiyouj Castle, Azarbast Fire Temple,
and Sang-Azarin Cave.
Source: Press-Tv, Iran

International Congress
On
750th Anniversary of the Great Persian Scientist

Khaje-Nasirodin Toosi
21-23 February 2009, Tehran

Call for Papers

Upcoming Conference
Objectives:
Appraisal of the status of the esteemed scientist, Khaje-Nasirodin Toosi.

Appreciation of the scientific, theological, political and historical role of Khaje-Nasirodin Toosi.
Promotion of the level of scientific research and education in the universities.
Presentation of a suitable scientific, research and cultural model for lecturers and students.

Important Dates:
nd

Abstracts Due:

Sept. 22 2008

Acceptance of the Abstracts:

nd

Oct. 22 2008
st

Paper Manuscript Due:

Dec. 21 2008

Acceptance of the Papers:

Jan. 21 2009

st

Prizes will be awarded to the outstanding

papers
Abstracts must be prepared in two A4 size
pages, including the author's name, affiliation
and e-mail address and send in word format
to the congress E-mail Address.

www. Khaje-nasirodin-toosi2009.com
Scientific Chair: Prof. Seyyed Amir'odin Sadrnejad
Sponsors:

K.N. Toosi University

UNESCO

ECO Cultural Institute