CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Mechanics of Materials
(Part 3)
by
Assoc Professor T. H. Wee
Department of Civil Engineering
Email: cveweeth@nus.edu.sg

Introduction
The mechanical properties of a material have been discussed only in
relation to loading in Mechanics of Materials Parts 1 & 2.
The consequences due to loading in particular the failure of the
materials will be discussed in Part 3.

WHY STUDY Failure?

Failure of materials may lead to huge costs and other serious
consequences.
Causes include:
improper materials selection or processing,
improper design of components, and
improper use (eg. overloading).
CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Examples of Material Failures

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Examples of Material Failures

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Examples of Material Failures

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Introduction

Therefore, to minimize the possibility of failure, the design of

a component or structure often calls upon the engineer to
consider:
proper materials selection or processing,
proper design of components, and
proper use
For this, it is important to understand the mechanics of the
various failure modes - i.e., fracture, fatigue, and creep - and,
in addition, be familiar with appropriate design principles that
may be employed to prevent in-service failures.

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Fundamental of Fracture
Fracture is a form of failure where the material separates in two
or more pieces due to an imposed stress at temperatures below
the melting point.
The applied stress may be tensile, compressive, shear, or
torsional.
The fracture is termed ductile or brittle depending on whether
the deformation is large or small.
Steps in fracture (response to stress):
Crack formation
crack propagation

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Ductile Fracture
Ductile fracture surfaces will have
their own distinctive features on both
macroscopic and microscopic levels.
The
figure
shows
schematic
representations for two characteristic
macroscopic fracture profiles.
The configuration shown in figure (a)
is found for extremely soft metals and
polymers. These highly ductile
materials neck down to a point fracture, showing virtually 100%
reduction in area.
The most common type of tensile fracture profile for ductile metals is
that represented in figure (b), where fracture is preceded by only a
moderate amount of necking.
CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Ductile Fracture
Stages of ductile fracture
(a) Initial necking
(b) small cavity formation (microvoids)
(c) void growth (elliptical void) by coalescence into a crack

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Ductile Fracture
Stages of ductile fracture (Contd)
(d) fast crack propagation around neck. Shear strain at 45o
(e) final shear fracture (cup and cone)
The interior surface is fibrous, irregular, which signify plastic
deformation.

Cup-and-cone
fracture in
aluminium

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Brittle Fracture
Brittle fracture takes place without any appreciable deformation, and
by rapid crack propagation.
The direction of crack motion is very nearly perpendicular to the
direction of the applied tensile stress and yields a relatively flat fracture
surface, as indicated in figure (c).
Fracture surfaces of materials that failed in a brittle manner will have
their own distinctive patterns; any signs of gross plastic deformation
will be absent.

Brittle fracture
in a mild steel
CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Examples of Ductile and Brittle Fracture

Failure of a pipe

Ductile fracture:
- one piece
- large deformation

Brittle fracture:

eg. steel or copper

pipe

eg. cast iron pipe

- many pieces
- small deformation

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Characteristics of Ductile and brittle fracture

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Fracture Mechanics
Brittle fracture also sometimes occur in ductile materials
depending on the circumstances.
This has demonstrated the need for a better understanding of
the mechanisms of fracture. Extensive research endeavors over
the past several decades have led to the evolution of the field of
fracture mechanics.
This subject allows quantification of the relationships between
material properties, stress level, the presence of crack-producing
flaws, and crack propagation mechanisms.
Design engineers are now better equipped to anticipate, and
thus prevent structural failures.
(Note: Fracture Mechanics will be taught in higher modules and
will not be dealt with any further in this module.)
CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Example of brittle fracture in ductile material

An oil tanker that fractured in a brittle manner by crack
propagation around its girth.

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

FATIGUE
Fatigue is a form of failure that occurs in structures subjected to
dynamic and fluctuating stresses (e.g., bridges, aircraft, and machine
components).
Under dynamic and fluctuating stresses, it is possible for failure to

occur at a stress level considerably lower than the tensile or yield

strength for a static load.

The term fatigue is used because this type of failure normally occurs
after a lengthy period of repeated stress or strain cycling.
Fatigue is important inasmuch as it is the single largest cause
of failure in metals, estimated to comprise approximately 90%
of all metallic failures.
Polymers, ceramics and concrete (except for glasses) are also
susceptible to fatigue failure but to a lesser extent.
Furthermore, fatigue is catastrophic and insidious, occurring very
suddenly and without warning.
CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

FATIGUE
Fatigue failure is brittle-like in nature even in normally ductile
metals, in that there is very little, if any, gross plastic
deformation associated with failure.
The process occurs by the initiation and propagation of cracks,
and ordinarily the fracture surface is perpendicular to the
direction of an applied tensile stress.

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

FATIGUE
Cyclic Stresses
The applied stress may be axial (tension-compression), flexural
(bending), or torsional (twisting) in nature.
In general, three different fluctuating stresstime modes are
possible.
(a) Reversed stress cycle, in which the stress alternates from a
maximum tensile
stress (+) to a
maximum
compressive
stress (-) of equal
magnitude.
relative to the
zero-stress level

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

FATIGUE
(b) Repeated stress cycle, in which maximum and minimum
stresses are asymmetrical relative to the mean-stress level.
mean stress m, range of stress r, and stress amplitude a, are
as indicated in the figure.

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

FATIGUE
(c) Random stress cycle.

Finally, the stress ratio R is just the ratio of minimum and

maximum stress amplitudes:

By convention, tensile stresses are positive and compressive

stresses are negative. For example, for the reversed stress
cycle, the value of R is -1.
CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

FATIGUE
THE S-N CURVE
A series of tests are commenced by subjecting a specimen to
reversed stress cycling (i.e mean stress =0) at a relatively
large maximum stress amplitude (max), usually on the order of
two thirds of the static tensile strength; the number of cycles to
failure is counted.
This procedure is repeated on other identical specimens of the
same material at progressively decreasing maximum stress
amplitudes.
Data are plotted as stress S versus the logarithm of the number
N of cycles to failure for each of the specimens.
Two distinct types of SN behavior are observed. The higher the
magnitude of the stress, the smaller the number of cycles the
material is capable of sustaining before failure.

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

FATIGUE
THE S-N CURVE
For some ferrous (iron base) and titanium alloys, the SN curve
becomes horizontal at higher N values; or there is a limiting
stress level, called the fatigue limit (also sometimes the
endurance limit), below which fatigue failure will not occur.
This fatigue limit
represents
the
largest
value
of
fluctuating stress that
will not cause failure
for essentially an
infinite number of
cycles. For many
steels, fatigue limits
range between 35%
and 60% of the
tensile strength.

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

FATIGUE
Most nonferrous alloys (e.g., aluminum, copper, magnesium) do
not have a fatigue limit. The SN curve continues its downward
trend at increasingly greater N values. Thus, fatigue will
ultimately occur regardless of the magnitude of the stress. For
these materials, the fatigue response is specified as fatigue
strength, which is defined as the stress level at which failure will
occur for some specified number of cycles (e.g., cycles).
Another
important
parameter
that
characterizes
a
materials
fatigue
behavior is fatigue life. It
is the number of cycles
to cause failure at a
specified stress level, as
taken from the SN plot.
CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

FATIGUE
FATIGUE - CRACK INITIATION AND PROPAGATION
The process of fatigue failure is characterized by three distinct
steps:
(1) crack initiation, wherein a
small crack forms at some point
of high stress concentration;
(2) crack propagation, during
which this crack advances
incrementally with each stress
cycle; and
(3) final failure, which occurs very
rapidly once the advancing crack
has reached a critical size.

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

FACTORS THAT AFFECT FATIGUE LIFE

Mean Stress
The dependence of fatigue life on stress amplitude is
represented on the SN plot.
Such data are taken for a
constant mean stress m,
often for the reversed cycle
situation (m = 0).
Mean stress, however, will
also affect fatigue life; this
influence may be represented
by a series of SN curves,
each measured at a different
m.
As may be noted, increasing
the mean stress level leads to
a decrease in fatigue life.
CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

FACTORS THAT AFFECT FATIGUE LIFE

Surface Effects (Material Factors)
For many common loading situations, the maximum stress
within a component or structure occurs at its surface.
Consequently, most cracks leading to fatigue failure originate at
surface positions, specifically at stress amplification sites (eg.
scratches, flaws and other defects, etc.)
Therefore, it has been observed that fatigue life is especially
sensitive to the condition and configuration of the component
surface.
Numerous factors influence fatigue resistance, the proper
management of which will lead to an improvement in fatigue life.
These include design factors as well as various surface
treatments.
During machining operations, small scratches and grooves are
invariably introduced into the work piece surface by cutting tool
action. These surface markings can limit the fatigue life. It has
been observed that improving the surface finish by polishing will
enhance fatigue life significantly.
CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

FACTORS THAT AFFECT FATIGUE LIFE

Surface Effects (Design Factors)
The design of a component can have a significant influence on
its fatigue characteristics.
Any notch or geometrical discontinuity can act as a stress raiser
and fatigue crack initiation site; these design features include
grooves, holes, keyways, threads, and so on. The sharper the
discontinuity (i.e., the smaller the radius of curvature), the more
severe the stress concentration.

(a) Poor design: sharp corner.

(b) Good design: fatigue
lifetime improved by
incorporating rounded fillet
into a rotating shaft at the
point where there is a
change in diameter.
CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

FACTORS THAT AFFECT FATIGUE LIFE

Environmental Effects (Thermal Fatigue)
Thermal fatigue is normally induced at elevated temperatures
by fluctuating thermal stresses.
The origin of these thermal stresses is the restraint to the
dimensional expansion and/or contraction that would normally
occur in a structural member with variations in temperature.
The magnitude of a thermal stress developed by a temperature
change T is dependent on the coefficient of thermal expansion
and the modulus of elasticity E according to

= E T

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

FACTORS THAT AFFECT FATIGUE LIFE

Environmental Effects (Corrosion Fatigue)
Failure that occurs by the simultaneous action of a cyclic
stress and chemical attack is termed corrosion fatigue.
Corrosive environments have a deleterious influence and
produce shorter fatigue lives. Small pits may form as a result of
chemical reactions between the environment and material,
which serve as points of stress concentration and therefore as
crack nucleation sites.
Crack propagation rate can also be enhanced by corrosive
environment.
Measures to reduce the rate of corrosion fatigue includes,
applying protective surface coatings, selecting a more
corrosion-resistant material, and reducing the corrosiveness of
the environment.

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

CREEP
Creep is defined as time-dependent and permanent deformation
of materials when subjected to a constant load or stress.
Creep is normally an undesirable phenomenon and is often the
limiting factor in the lifetime of an element. It is observed in all
materials types. However, for metals it becomes important only
for temperatures greater than about 0.4Tm (Tm = absolute
melting temperature in Kelvin). For example, steel absolute
melting temperature is 1811K (1811-273 = 1538 degree C).
Amorphous polymers, which include plastics and rubbers, are
especially sensitive to creep deformation.
Concrete also
experience creep deformation under sustained load.

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Generalised Creep Behaviour

A typical creep test consists of subjecting a specimen to a
constant load or stress while maintaining the temperature
constant; deformation or strain is measured and plotted as a
function of elapsed time.
Most tests are the constant load type, which yield information of
an engineering nature. The resulting creep curve consists of
three regions, each of which has its own distinctive straintime
feature.
The
most
important
parameter from a creep
test is the slope of the
secondary portion of the
creep curve (t/); this is
often called the minimum or
steady-state creep rate.
CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Generalised Creep Behaviour

Stress and Temperature Effects
Both temperature and level of applied stress influence the creep
characteristics. For metals, at a temperature substantially below
0.4Tm and after the initial deformation, the strain is virtually
independent of time. However, for concrete, the strain continues
even at room temperature.
With
either
increasing
stress or temperature, the
following will be noted: (1)
the instantaneous strain at
the
time
of
stress
application increases, (2)
the steady-state creep rate
is increased, and (3) the
rupture
lifetime
is
diminished.
CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Creep and Stress Relaxation

Creep (under sustained load)

is the phenomenon of a
gradual increase in strain with
time under a given level of
sustained stress
Relaxation (under sustained
strain)
is the phenomenon of gradual
decrease in stress with time
under a given level of
sustained strain
CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Creep of Concrete
The phenomenon of creep is associated with many materials, but it is
particularly evident with concrete.
The precise behavior of a particular concrete depends on the
aggregates and the mix design, but the general pattern is illustrated by
considering a member subjected to axial compression. For such a
member, a typical variation of deformation with time is shown, by the
curve in the figure below. The characteristics of creep are:

1. The final deformation

of the member can be
three to four times the
short-term elastic
deformation, e1 .

Creep strain

Creep recovery versus Time

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Creep of Concrete
2. The deformation is roughly proportional to the intensity of
loading and to the inverse of the concrete strength.
3. If the load is removed within a short period, only the
instantaneous elastic deformation will recover* the plastic
deformation will not.
4. There is a redistribution of load between the concrete and
any steel present.
5. If a specimen is unloaded
after a period under a
sustained load, an
immediate elastic
recovery, e2 is obtained.
The instantaneous
recovery is followed by a
gradual decrease in strain,
called a creep recovery.
* approximately equal to
e1

Creep strain

Creep recovery versus Time

e2

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials

Creep of Concrete
For the case of an axially loaded RC column, the redistribution
of load is caused by the changes in concrete compressive strains
being transferred to the reinforcing steel. Thus the compressive
stresses in the steel are increased so that the steel takes a
larger proportion of the load.
The effects of creep are particularly important in beams,
where the increased deflections may cause the opening of
cracks, damage to finishes, and the non-alignment of of
mechanical equipment. The provision of reinforcement in the
compressive zone of a flexural member, however, often helps to
concrete restrain the deflections due to creep.

CE2155 Structural Mechanics and Materials