Embattled Identities:

Constructions of Contemporary American Masculinity

Amongst Mixed Martial Arts Cagefighters
by
Jaime Holthuysen

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy

Approved April 2011 by the

Graduate Supervisory Committee:
Hjorleifur Jonsson, Chair
Takeyuki Tsuda
Andrea Ballestero Salaverry

ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY

May 2011

UMI Number: 3452883

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ABSTRACT
Masculinity has been increasingly recognized as a critical and relatively
unexplored area of inquiry in anthropological gender studies. This project seeks to
expand anthropological research on masculinity to contemporary American
society. Using the case study of a male-centered popular new sport, Mixed
Martial Arts (also known as cagefighting) this project integrates theories of
embodiment and feminist perspectives to explore how masculinity and masculine
hegemony are shaped, contested, and perpetuated in the United States. Using a
multi-level framework this project explores: 1) How is masculinity experienced
and expressed by Mixed Martial Arts fighters as a form of self-identity? How do
their bodies play a role in constructing masculinity? 2) What are the pervasive
forms of masculinity associated with Mixed Martial Arts (MMA)? Are they truly
representative of the sport? 3) Can these pervasive forms of masculinity be seen
as hegemonic? How would hegemony operate in relation to individual
experience? Using multiple methods to capture multiple points of view was
critical to thoroughly examining the complex notion of masculinity. This study
employed participant observation, semi-structured interviews, focus groups,
surveys, photo elicitation, and media content analysis, as each presented particular
benefits and allowed for the development a more well-rounded understanding of
masculinity within the realm of MMA.
This study also situates the rise of MMA and its representations of
masculinity within the greater perspective of contemporary American society. By
doing so reveals how ideologies of prescribed masculinity do not arise out of a
ii

vacuum but in relation to particular economic, social and political contexts. An

emphasis of this study was to examine the daily lives of MMA fighters to
understand how their participation in what may be regarded as a hypermasculine
activity affects their own perceptions of masculinity. In looking at how
masculinity is embodied, the gaps and often contradictions between representation
and individual experiences are revealed. Ultimately, the goal of this research is to
contribute to a better understanding of masculinity as both an embodied and
relational construct.

iii

DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my mother, who always wanted one of her
children to be a doctor (MD). I think this was the best possible compromise!

iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by grants from the National Science
Foundation, the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada, the
School of Human Evolution and Social Change at Arizona State University, and
the Graduate and Professional Students Association at Arizona State University.
Funding from the Graduate College at Arizona State University and the Emeriti
Faculty Association provided welcomed support during the writing phase of this
project.
There are many people I would like to thank for their time and assistance.
I am sincerely grateful for having the support of such an amazing committee. I
would like to my chair, Hjorleifur Jonsson, for his unwavering enthusiasm and
encouragement. Thank you for providing me with pertinent advice and guidance,
while also allowing me the freedom to follow my own path. Thank you to
Takeyuki Tsuda who always has his door open for his students. I am grateful for
your insights, questions (and also for your careful readings of my many, many
grant drafts.) I would like to thank my final committee member Andrea
Ballestero, who stepped up to the plate on rather short notice. I sincerely
appreciate your insight and vision for ethnography and socio-cultural
anthropology. I must thank my colleague (and unofficial fourth committee
member), Dolma Roder. Your feedback on my work over the years has truly been
invaluable. Also, I would like to acknowledge the time and efforts of Alex
Brewis-Slade and Ed Hackett for their comments and suggestions in reviewing
my grant proposals. Thank you to the interns who contributed to this project, in
vi

particular Juli Hubbard for her dedication. Importantly, I would like to thank all
of the participants in this study, and also the owners of Desert Combat for
allowing me to conduct my research there. I would also like to acknowledge the
American Mens Studies Association for holding their annual meetings where I
met inspiring, innovative scholars and received valuable feedback on my research.
Thank you to my friends for providing their kind support on this long
academic journey: Jacqueline Chao, Alberto Perez, Muna Ali, Alanna Ossa,
Ramsi Watkins, Nahal Namdaran, Lindsey Mulligan, and Andrew Hagar. Last but
certainly not least I would like to thank my family. Mum, thank you for instilling
the importance of education, and the value of dedication and hard work. My sister
Janet, I am eternally grateful for your encouragement and editing. Thank you to
Patrick Runez for helping me focus when I needed to focus, and distracting me
when I needed distraction. I am sincerely grateful for your loving encouragement.
Finally, Mr. G.H. Khan, I could not have done this without you. Thank you for
always being by my side. You made writing up so much easier.
Without all of you, this dissertation would not have been possible.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTERS
1 INTRODUCTION: THE GENDERED WORLD OF MIXED
MARTIAL ARTS............................................................................ 1
Research Questions ............................................................................ 4
Research Design ................................................................................. 5
Research and Gender........................................................................ 13
Relevant Literature ........................................................................... 20
Hegemonic Masculinity ................................................................... 21
Phenomenological Embodiment ...................................................... 29
Mixed Martial Arts: A Background ................................................. 38
Outline of Study ............................................................................... 46


2 EMBODYING MASCULINITY: "IT'S NOT THE SIZE OF THE
DOG IN THE FIGHT, BUT THE FIGHT IN THE DOG"........... 48
Joining Desert Combat ..................................................................... 48
MMA Class ...................................................................................... 55
Fighters Class .................................................................................. 57
Embodying Mixed Martial Arts....................................................... 60
Training............................................................................................. 61
Self-awareness, Feeling and a Mind-Body Connection .................. 65
Sparring............................................................................................. 71
viii

Page
CHAPTERS
Lessons From the Cage .................................................................... 74
Getting Hit ........................................................................................ 75
Competition ...................................................................................... 77
Conclusions ...................................................................................... 83

3 BODY IMAGE: "FAT GUYS HAVE TO PROVE IT"...................... 86
Ideal Bodies and Expectations ......................................................... 87
Cutting Weight ................................................................................. 95
Relationships with the Body .......................................................... 109
Bodies in Parts................................................................................ 116
Conclusions .................................................................................... 120
PART I Discussion: Embodiment, Body Image, and Hegemonic
Masculinity ..................................................................................... 122
Critiques of Hegemonic Masculinity ............................................. 122
Hegemonic Masculinity and Mixed Martial Arts.......................... 125
Embodiment and Body Image in Relation to Mixed Martial Arts 129


4 GENDER, SEXUALITY AND RELATIONSHIPS: "YOU SAY YOU
LOVE ME, BUT WHAT PART DO YOU REALLY LOVE?". 135
Setting the Gender Stage ................................................................ 136
Female Fighters .............................................................................. 137
ix

Page
CHAPTERS
Ring Girls ....................................................................................... 149
Girlfriends and Wives .................................................................... 153
Groupies ......................................................................................... 160
Women in the Media ...................................................................... 163
Becoming Media ............................................................................ 168
Sexuality and Intimacy................................................................... 176
Conclusions .................................................................................... 184
PART II DISCUSSION: Situating MMA in American Culture ... 186
The Rise of Raunch Culture ........................................................ 187
Post-feminism................................................................................. 188
Mixed Martial Arts and Post-feminism ......................................... 189


5 REPRESENTATIONS AND REAL LIFE: "THE UFC IS CREATING
A FALSE REALITY" .................................................................. 192
Im (Not) Goining to be Rich: Finances and Fantasy.................... 193
Every Body is For Sale: Body as Commodity............................... 198
As Real as it Gets: Manufacturing Reality .................................... 200
A Typical Day on Reality TV ........................................................ 204
MMA: The First Reality Sport? ..................................................... 207
Stigma and Sterotypes .................................................................... 212
What Draws Fans?.......................................................................... 225
x

Page
CHAPTERS
True Fans vs Wannabes: Authenticity and Exclusivity................. 230
Fan Fighter Interactions.................................................................. 233
Conclusions .................................................................................... 237
PART III DISCUSSION: Contexts of American Masculinity:
Momentous Events of the New Millenium.................................... 239
The Iraq War................................................................................... 240
Reality TV ...................................................................................... 243


6 CONCLUSIONS: MASCULINITY AS EMBODIED AND
RELATIONAL ............................................................................ 246
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 251
APPENDIX
A

INTERNAL REVIEW BOARD DOCUMENTS ........................... 264

SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS ..................... 268

MIXED MARTIAL ARTS TIMELINE.......................................... 272

UFC RULES .................................................................................... 276

DESERT COMBAT WAIVER ....................................................... 280

BASIC MIXED MARTIAL ARTS GLOSSARY........................... 283

SURVEY DATA............................................................................... 286

xi

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION: THE GENDERED WORLD OF MIXED

MARTIAL ARTS
Why is it popular? Everyone gets the adjudication of disputes through
force. Then there is the athletic component. It is unparalleled physical
rigor, a deeply intimate experience. It is not animalistic--a triangle choke
is not in someones DNA. It is a sport of human combustion. It is a means
of defining oneself by walking through fire. Re-inventing the self. It is the
examination of the ideal human form, but more so it is the expression of
the most effective human body, the capacity of it that is demonstrated in
so many ways. It is art and beauty and unique. Football doesnt have this
arduous journey. MMA is like re-birth through desire. MMA is the
struggle for success. Look at the intentionyou want to know who you are
as a man. It is self-discovery. When the chips are down who are you? Am
I a leader? Most guys want some kind of medium to answer questions
about the self. Sport is thoughtful, regulated, controlled. It is contained. It
provides a satisfying answer. MMA has to do with selfconception/perception, ego and confidence. Men question who they are.
Will I dominate? Will I deal with the pressure? It provides insight into
your own character. MMA has had its ugly moments, but pushed through.
It is deeply complicated and unendingly fascinating. It is so complicated,
but on the surface it is so simplistic, and that is the beauty of MMA.
(Sports Analyst: Luke Thomas on MMA, fieldnotes 2009)
Gender is a way of classifying phenomena, a socially agreed upon system
of distinctions rather than an objective description of inherent traits.
Classifications suggest a relationship among categories that make distinctions or
separate groupings possible (Scott 1988: 29). For Joan Scott, these
categorizations are not statements of fact but often terms of contestation. Sex and
gender are no longer being thought of as the same, nor are they conceived of as
solely rooted in biology. There have been shifts away from gender as derivations
of sex-roles, toward more complex frameworks of gender. Gender is now viewed
as multifaceted. It is relational and experiential (Bourdieu 2001; Connell 1987;
1995; Moore 1994; Weiss 1999) as well as performative (Butler 1990; Goffman
1959).
1

Until about twenty years ago, masculinity was a facet of gender and social
life that was long ignored in critical analysis. It was just assumed that men were
men, and of course they acted in masculine ways. Feminist research (Bordo and
Jaggar 1989; Owens 1985; Snow 1989) has critiqued the pervasive male gaze and
voice in constructions of history and society. This male perspective has indeed
overwhelmingly built the memory of American history (Kimmel 2006; Rotundo
1993), but what exactly does it mean to be a man in contemporary American
culture? What are the contexts of self and social knowledge of masculinity? The
difficulty with conducting research on masculinity is that it is at once ubiquitous
and obscured. Men and maleness are everywhere--their bodies, their images and
their practices. What defines masculinity and how do we examine something that
does not have a clear definition? Guttman (1996: 9) states that to view
masculinities requires a constant refocusing of ones vision. I interpret this
refocusing as referring not only to masculinity being constantly in flux, but also to
the way its characteristics and manifestations are so heavily context dependant.
The experiences of masculinity vary depending on a number of factors such as
age, ethnicity, geographic location, socio-economic status, cultural heritage, etc.
In addition, men must contend with representations of idealized forms and valued
traits of masculinity. Masculinity is both public and personal. R.W. Connell and
James Messerschmidt argue that it is logically possible to define a thousand and
one variations of masculinity (2005: 845).
An avenue of inquiry that has proved fruitful for examining masculinity
and mens experiences in contemporary North American society has been sport
2

(see Dunbar 2000; Klein 1993; McKay, Messner et al. 2000; Messner 1992,
Robidoux 2001). Sport is a forum that has been used to examine other aspects of
culture such as identity formation at a national level (Archetti and Dyck 2003; Ots
2003) and an individual level (Curry 2000; Kohn 2003; Wacquant 2004). Using
the case study of a male-centered popular new sport, Mixed Martial Arts (MMA),
this project integrates theories of embodiment (Merleau-Ponty 1989, Csordas
1999; 1994a, Bourdieu 1977; 2001) and feminist perspectives (Connell 1987;
1995; 2005) to explore how masculinity and masculine representations are
shaped, contested and perpetuated in the United States. Mixed Martial Arts
provides a valuable new context to examine imposition and resistance to
masculine ideals because as a new sport, public images and ideals of masculine
representation are still being negotiated. Currently the sport is dominated by male
athletes. Only in recent years have female athletes begun to compete with each
other in some of the same high profile and televised competitions. Men are paid
significantly higher salaries and prize money, and have far more opportunities for
competition. Spectatorship is primarily male, and marketing campaigns are
targeted specifically toward a male audience. This context is unique in that
particular notions of masculinity are integral to the construction and propagation
of the sport. This study also situates the rise of MMA and its representations of
masculinity within the greater perspective of contemporary American society. By
doing so we can see how ideologies of prescribed masculinity do not arise out of a
vacuum but in relation to particular economic, social and political contexts. An
emphasis of this study is to examine the daily lives of MMA fighters to
3

understand how their participation in what may be regarded as a hypermasculine

activity affects their own perceptions of masculinity. In looking at how
masculinity is embodied, the gaps and often contradictions between representation
and individual experiences are revealed. Ultimately, my goal in this dissertation is
to contribute to a better understanding of masculinity as both an embodied and
relational construct.

Research Questions
This research examines the following major questions: 1) How is
masculinity experienced and expressed by Mixed Martial Arts fighters as a form
of self-identity? How do their bodies play a role in constructing masculinity? 2)
What are the pervasive forms of masculinity associated with Mixed Martial Arts?
Are they truly representative of the sport? Do public representations of a fighters
image fit his personal conceptions of self? 3) Can these pervasive forms of
masculinity be seen as hegemonic? (Connell 1987; 1995) How would hegemony
operate in relation to individual experience? Using multiple methods to capture
multiple points of view was critical to thoroughly examining the complex notion
of masculinity. I employed participant observation, semi-structured interviews,
focus groups, surveys, photo elicitation and media content analysis, as each
presented particular benefits and allowed me to development a more well-rounded
understanding of masculinity within the realm of Mixed Martial Arts.

Research Design
I used a multi-sited ethnographic research design (Hannerz 2003), as the
sport itself is not geographically fixed. Based on a number of factors (e.g. whether
or not state law deemed the sport legal, approximate number of gyms, attendance
numbers for live professional events, and reputation of gyms), I identified regions
in the United States where the sport was most popular. California, Nevada and the
Southwest (Arizona, New Mexico) were the most prominent locations, while
there were other pockets of high interest in Massachusetts, Florida and
Washington State. My research concentrated mainly on Arizona, California and
Nevada.

Participant Observation
Participant observation was key in attempting to identify dominant forms
of masculinity and exploring processes of production and control of masculinity.
It allowed me to examine how masculinity was experienced, and provided critical
data to analyze relationships between more dominant forms of masculinity and
fighters perceptions of their own masculinity. The two field site settings of great
consequence to my research, and in particular participant observation, were
competition venues and training facilities.
Competition Venues
I attended approximately fifteen professional MMA competitions at
various locations across the United States (e.g. San Jose, California; Las Vegas,
Nevada; Seattle, Washington; Fairfax, Virginia) between 2006-2010. I attended as
5

both a member of the audience, and for a short time as a writer/photographer for
an MMA magazine (2006-2007). Events were held in indoor and outdoor arenas,
casino tents and large meeting rooms, and theaters. Depending on the venue,
audience attendance ranged from maximum capacity (sold out) to half empty. The
largest venue (Los Angeles Memorial Stadium) could seat over 90,000, whereas
the smallest venue (a casino in Lemoore, California) held less than 2000.
It was important to observe cagefighting matches, as facets of masculinity
were demonstrated during competition in diverse ways. I watched for the fighters
reactions to outcomes (e.g. crying and other public displays of emotion), and how
fighters were described and portrayed by announcers and the organizations they
fight for. I took note of the atmosphere that was created at these events, and how
that contributed to the experiential aspects the sport emphasizes. The locales that
hosted MMA competitions were central to this comprehensive analysis, as they
were the venues where narratives of masculinity were constructed and circulated
in the public sphere.
Training Facility
My primary field site was Desert Combat, situated in Phoenix, Arizona.
This location was chosen because it has been established as one of the premier
gyms for MMA over the past five years. It has been consistently ranked as one of
the top ten gyms in the United States according to MMA industry websites.1 At
14,000 sq ft, it is one of the largest gyms (referring to square footage, not
participants) in Arizona, if not in the United States. Desert Combat is open six

1
(mmamadness.com 2008; sherdog.com 2008; thefightnetwork.com 2008)
6

days a week, Monday through Saturday, from 10am until 10pm. There are
several classes: Brazilian jujitsu, Muay Thai kickboxing, MMA, and an advanced
Fighters Class (for people who currently compete professionally or are very close
to competing professionally). At this gym, I was able to connect with amateur and
professional fighters, coaches (who were also former professional fighters), and
was also given access to media and various fight organizations who often came by
to interview and recruit the professional fighters.
My Position
I came upon Desert Combat by chance. I had just moved to Arizona to
begin my graduate studies in anthropology and I was looking for a new pastime
that would keep me in good physical shape. Being a longtime fan of Bruce Lee
and Van Damme martial arts movies, I decided to take up kickboxing. Desert
Combat was within walking distance of my home, and I frequently passed it on
my way to the university. I stopped in, inquired about classes and watched the
participants for about half an hour. The class had only two females, compared to
twenty males. I would be remiss to say that I wasnt just a little intimidated.
However, the owner and instructors were friendly so I decided to sign up. During
my first few months I learned that several of the kick-boxers were turning to the
new sport of Mixed Martial Arts, and beginning to compete professionally. I was
at that time only vaguely familiar with this phenomenon of MMA/cagefighting. I
knew that it began in the early 1990s and was subsequently banned due to claims
of brutality. When I arrived at Desert Combat in 2004, the sport was already
making a steady comeback. It was back on television, its popularity growing
7

rapidly. I was intrigued with this rapid shift in social boundaries. How had this
rogue spectacle now become a legitimate sport? What drove participants to
engage in this activity? And why were the narratives of hyper-masculinity so
important to the sports popularity? What does this say about contemporary
American culture? These questions were too compelling to ignore, and in 2006 I
began my doctoral research on how Mixed Martial Arts both shaped and reflected
contemporary American masculinity.

In-depth, Semi-Structured Interviews

Ethnographic interviews were a major source of data. As mentioned
earlier, most of the participants were recruited from Desert Combat. I interviewed
a total of fifty-five individuals. Fourteen were amateur fighters (meaning they
were recreational participants that had not been paid to compete). Twenty-seven
were professional fighters (meaning they had been paid to compete in an MMA
event). I conducted interviews with professional fighters since they could
comment on far more aspects of the MMA industry, such as financial support, the
influence of the organization on their image and personal life, and coming to
terms with recognition and fame (Appendix B). Interviewing amateurs and well as
professionals allowed me to follow the career trajectory of fighters as well as
explore the expectations of individuals who were just embarking on this career
path. I interviewed three coaches/trainers, two representatives from MMA
organizations and seven members of the media. The fighters ranged from age 21
to age 41. As the central focus of this project was on understanding emic notions
8

of masculinity amongst cage-fighters, the majority of interviews took place with

male fighters. The sample population was representative of the demographic
breakdown at the gym as the overwhelming majority of members were male.
However, I did interview two female professional fighters, female members of the
media, female fans, and in a couple instances, the female partners of the fighters.
While this was a study on masculinity, it was essential to communicate with
females associated with the industry to ascertain their perspectives and
experiences in such a male-dominated industry.

Focus Groups
Focus groups consisted of participants I had already interviewed
individually. I conducted two focus group sessions where I acted as the
moderator. These sessions were held at Desert Combat gym, and both sessions
lasted approximately one hour. Sessions were audio-recorded and then later
transcribed. All participants were male, between the ages of 23-29, and all had at
least one professional fight as of 2009. The first session had five male fighters and
all self-identified as Caucasian. The second session had six male fighters, four of
which self-identified as Caucasian, one as Hispanic and one as mixed-ethnicity
Asian-American.
I employed questions addressing masculinity similar to those I used for the
individual interviews, such as asking participants who benefitted from the
popularity of this sport, or to describe differences in male and female
cagefighting. Participants generally gave the same answers as they did in the
9

individual interviews, however if one participant had a particularly strong

opinion, the others seemed more likely to agree. Conducting focus groups allowed
me to gather additional data while also investigating social dynamics and issues of
hierarchy amongst the fighters. This method also promoted deeper reflections on
the nature of masculinity, adding another dimension to data acquired from semistructured interviews.

Photo Elicitation
During the focus groups I used photo elicitation techniques to prompt
participants to verbalize their views on masculinity. This technique involves using
visual aids provided by photographs and/or video clips and asking participants to
provide comments (Collier and Collier 1986; Harper 2002; Tobin and Davidson
1989). This was especially helpful to get at the participants emic view of
masculinity. With this technique, my role as a researcher was de-emphasized,
letting the participants provide their immediate reactions. Their responses led me
to highlight reoccurring themes and categories that seemed most important to
participants. Photos of cage-fighters both in training and competition were used as
a prompt for participants. Images came from public sources of circulation such as
MMA magazines and MMA internet sites to ensure there would be no issues of
copyright infringement. After all of the participants had a chance to view an
image, I posed a question such as could you gauge the success of this fighter
based on his body type? I would wait for the individuals to respond, taking a
passive role while they discussed this question amongst themselves. I did not
10

want to influence their responses or put a particular person on the spot to answer.
While I was the one selecting the images and asking the questions, this method
allowed participants to also guide the course of data collection.
Photo elicitation had both theoretical and practical benefits. Theoretically,
the body and body images greatly impact self-perception, and the fluidity or lack
or fluidity between varying perceptions is crucial in understanding constructions
of a gendered self (Weiss 1999:166-167). In addition, as MMA is a spectator
sport, participants were well versed in interpreting images, which allowed them to
speak with a sophistication and knowledge that is less easily solicited through
direct verbal questioning. The use of images aided in the anticipated problem of
getting participants to comfortably articulate and describe notions of masculinity.

Surveys
Surveys were used to capture information regarding the general population
of MMA fans and their perceptions of the sport. I administered a brief eightquestion survey during the UFC 100 Fan Expo. This fan expo provided a pool of
participants that had established themselves as MMA fans (e.g. though their
attendance at the expo, and payment of fees for expo admittance). While fans
were waiting to enter the building I walked up to them and verbally administered
the survey, recording their responses on the survey sheet. This method ensured
that I would receive a 100% response rate. I began at the front of the line and
asked each subsequent person if they would like to take a survey on MMA for my
dissertation research. Most fans were happy to participate, as they had nothing
11

else to do but wait for the doors to the Expo hall to open. I obtained one hundred
responses to this survey. This method proved to be an effective way to quickly
gather information from a large number of people, spending approximately five
minutes or less with each individual. My only concern regarding potential
limitations for this survey is that individuals who were behind the survey-taker
could overhear, and be influenced by the survey-takers responses. However,
when reviewing the data for duplicate/identical responses for consecutively
numbered surveys, this did not appear as a trend.

Media Content Analysis

The media is extremely influential in the normalization of images and
discourse and the inevitable situating of the subjective placement of identities.
Entangled within media representation and ideologies are aspects of identity and
commodification. Using media content analysis I examined the role and influence
of the media, as it is the primary means of extending masculine ideologies to the
general public. This method of interrogating mass media content has been used by
other social science academics to trace changes in popular perceptions and trends
over time (Danielson and Lasorsa 1997) and political and racial ideologies
(Andrews 2001). Media content analysis has been long been used in feminist
research of popular representations of womens roles (Duffy 1994; Ganahl et. al
2003; Kuperberg and Stone 2008). Following the premise that the media also
communicates messages that inform individuals of the socially accepted, current
standards and definitions of masculinity (see Hearn et al. 2003; Jackson et al.
12

2001; Messner and Montez de Oca 2005; Morrison and Halton 2009), I believed
this would prove a valuable line of inquiry. There were specialized media sources
on MMA (e.g. magazines, websites, blogs) but the sport was often mentioned in
mainstream media such as newspapers (e.g. the New York Times), cable television
and radio. A primary objective of media content analysis was to determine how
popular (non-industry) media sources were representing the sport. I wanted to
uncover what messages and images were being constructed and consumed by the
general population, and not explicit fans or industry insiders.
Using the database Lexus Nexus, I randomly selected one hundred popular
newspaper articles concerning MMA (popular meaning non-MMA industry, such
as The Toronto Star or The Boston Globe.) Search parameters were limited to:
English language sources, over 100 words and published between 2000-2009. The
texts were analyzed with a particular emphasis on what terms were used to
describe the sport, whether articles seemed negative, positive or neutral, and the
underlying themes of the articles. The analysis of discourse and contexts of
representation (e.g. how ethnicity and gender were described) allowed me to
identify trends in the portrayal of the sport.

Research and Gender

From the start of this project I was aware that my gender would influence
methodology and data collection. It is important to disclose this in order to
consider the circumstance and the specificity of intersubjective relations. Toren
suggests that intersubjectivity is central to anthropology as an epistemological
13

project whose fugitive object of study can only be ourselves, even while its focus
is bound to be on others (Toren 2009: 130). As a female researcher studying
masculinity and speaking with mostly male participants, this would indeed impact
the course and nature of my study. As mentioned earlier, I interviewed
participants only in public settings (e.g. the gym or as a last resort a coffee shop).
This was an intentional decision on my part. I had to keep in mind the frame of
context that most male cage-fighters viewed women associated with sport.
Women were either ring girls (scantily clad in bikinis offered up as eye-candy
for the audience at MMA competitions) or groupies (who followed the
professional fighters around in hopes of having sexual relations with them). On
occasion, women were fighters, or photographers, writers or girlfriends/wives of
other fighters (refer to Part II: Gender, Sexuality and Relationships). My previous
few years training of kick-boxing at this facility gave me some credibility as
someone with some practical knowledge of the sport. They knew my face and that
I also trained there. I was not the wife or girlfriend watching from the sidelines,
nor was I there to snag a pro fighter. As a female researcher, I felt like I had to
draw clear lines to establish that my interactions with the male fighters were
purely professional. I purposely emphasized my role as an academic researcher
more than I would have had I been studying female cage-fighters or another topic.
I chose to wear more professional clothes (business casual) when interviewing the
fighters. I tried to impart a serious demeanor by having them review their IRB
consent waivers, listen to my speech regarding this written consent and showing
them my digital audio recorder that would be recording our sessions. For the most
14

part these strategies served me well in representing myself as a serious academic

researcher. Ethnography requires embedding ones self in a particular social
group, and learning through interactions and experiences with this culture. A male
anthropologist studying masculinity and working with male cage-fighters could
very well go out for a drink at a local bar with his participants. Due my gender I
felt it best to turn down invitations for drinks, parties and lunches, as I did not
want any participants to confuse my intentions. I had to be very cognizant of my
credibility and reputation. Part of me felt a little cheated, that perhaps I could have
gained more information, become more of an insider, if I had taken advantage of
these informal opportunities for participant observation and rapport building.
While conducting preliminary research I discovered some minor
difficulties that a young, female researcher studying men and masculinity was to
encounter. In 2006, I developed an ethnographic film project detailing the lives of
Pankration practitioners. (Pankration is a form of Martial Arts used in MMA). I
found it extremely interesting that some of these practitioners of Pankration were
employed by their coaches wife as childrens entertainers. This meant that one
day they would impart a perfect picture of hyper-masculine aggression, kicking
and punching each other into submission, and the next day they would be dressed
as Bubbles the Clown, wearing makeup, making balloon animals and singing
nursery rhymes to small children. To me, this was an exciting juxtaposition of
contemporary masculinities. I made contact with the assistant coach, Kenny,
whom I met with a couple times prior to filming to resolve logistics. At these
meetings we discussed my PhD research concerning American masculinity.
15

Kenny thought it was cool that I was studying MMA but was rather confused
why I would be studying masculinity. I explained that because it is something that
is so taken for granted as the norm, it is important to understand what it really
means. He seemed satisfied with this answer. I visited the Pankration class once
prior to filming to consider issues such as class activities, lighting and sound
quality. During this first visit I did not introduce myself to the class, I simply
observed from the back of the room.
On the day of filming, I arrived early at the gym to set up equipment. My
recollection of this situation is as follows: members of the Pankration class slowly
begin to file in and eagerly sign consent waivers. They appear happy at the
prospect of being in front of a camera. They begin warming up, running around
the gym, laughing and talking amongst themselves. After ten minutes Kenny
blows his whistle and calls the class to gather around. Guys! This is Jaime. She
is going to be filming us working out today. She is doing her PhD on MMA. I
hear them mumble words like cool and awesome. Then Kenny adds, Oh and
she studies masculinity so lets show her how masculine we are. The guys
abruptly stop talking to each other and stared at me. The room is utterly silent.
Flustered, I attempt to say something about gender, identity and men. Its of no
use. They continue to stare at me, their eyes wide with shock and disbelief. Kenny
may well have told them that I study incest or cannibalism. When did
masculinity become taboo? When did it become a dirty secret? I didnt expect
Kenny to tell them that I studied masculinity, nor request them to actively display
their masculinity. I certainly did not expect their reaction to the word
16

masculinity. Once the class began to fall into their usual routine, they began to
forget the camera and microphones were there. We completed filming without
further incident or embarrassment.
The following week I met with Kenny to thank him for coordinating the
filming for the project. I ask him what his class thought of filming and the project.
To be honest, they were wondering if you were some hard-core, lesbian feminist,
or if you had a thing for alpha-male type guys. I was extremely surprised by
these assessments. The members of the Pankration class were trying to figure me
out. They seemed to have come to the conclusion that my interest in MMA and in
masculinity must be rooted in my sexuality. My motivations for studying them
were either under the guise of a man-hating, feminist political agenda to denounce
them for being men (i.e. too aggressive, too macho) and therefore a liability to
humanity, or I was simply creating opportunities to select a well-muscled,
dominant male for sexual partnership. It is genuinely interesting that despite the
fact that I was a doctoral social science researcher, being female left me confined
to only two possibilities.
I learned a great deal from this encounter. I realized that I had to be aware
that my identity as a female researcher would inevitably be entangled in this
academic pursuit to study masculinity. It would be important to find ways to
minimize the influence of both my gender and also connotations that come along
with the word masculinity. There was little I could do about my gender, only to
emphasize that my interest in their lives was purely academic. The experience
with the pilot study led me to more actively construct my professional role as a
17

researcher in my exchanges with male participants. The other important

adjustment to methodology was to exercise caution in my use of the word
masculinity. The experience with the Pankration class suggested that informing
participants that my research concerned masculinity somehow prompted them to
feel as if they had to perform masculinity. The word masculinity was met with
reactions of anxiety, disbelief and mistrust. It appeared as a challenge or a threat
to participants in the pilot study, and was not at all helpful in rapport building.
Rather than state that my research was about contemporary American
masculinity, I told participants that my research was on the experiences of cagefighters and representations of identity. Occasionally I would say that I studied
gender and sport. I chose to omit the word masculinity in my initial encounter
with participants as this word drew to mind pre-conceived notions that would
impact their responses. It was far more fruitful to talk around masculinity to
uncover definitions and perceptions. I felt it was important to frame masculinity
as a part of identity rather than letting the word stand alone.
Gender is unavoidably considered in human interactions. It is one of the
first categories through which we are defined as infants. I could not hide my
gender nor was this my goal. It is easy to identify limitations brought on by my
gender such as not being privy to details of most participants sexual conquests, or
knowing that some responses were worded differently so as not to offend my
female sensibilities. Yet as a female researcher, I firmly believe that I was also
presented with opportunities that a male researcher may not have been. I was
often the foil against which they would construct or display their masculinity. The
18

interview becomes a location for signifying and asserting masculinity (Schalbe

and Wolkomir 2001). As Grenz (2007: 2001) points out,
Masculinity is not to be seen as the real or inner truth of the
interviewees but as something constantly produced in the interview setting
through the content of their stories as well as through out interaction.
In addition, I was often a sympathetic ear for their relationship issues and
childhood traumas. Two participants revealed emotional information about their
personal lives and childhoods they insisted they had not spoken about with
anyone else, and would not have felt comfortable sharing with a male researcher.
This experience of gender-based, selective emotional openness has been
recognized by other female academics interacting with male participants (Frank
2002; Matza 2009). The reason for this may be that for many men, women are
frequently the facilitators of male speech; they are listeners and encourage the
flow of mens talk, (Smart 1984; 155). Furthermore, being a female researcher
also allowed me experience the world of MMA as woman. This exposed me a
different dimension of gender interactions. 2

Part II: Gender, Sexuality and Relationships further discusses how my research
activities were influenced by my gender.
19

Relevant Literature
Sport and Masculinity
Recently scholars have begun to explore the relevance of both sport and
masculinity. Sport is a forum to examine intriguing aspects of culture such as
identity formation at a national level (Archetti and Dyck 2003; Klein 1997; Ots
2003) and an individual level (Curry 2000; Kohn 2003; Wacquant 2004) and
performativity (Blackshaw and Crabbe 2004; Rinehart 1998), with the notion of
spectacle being crucial. Sport may be regarded within capitalist societies as tied to
processes of globalization and commodification (Horne 2006; Crawford 2004).
The consumer dimensions of sport are often the forces driving popularity and may
reconfigure the sport itself (Downey 2007; van Bottenburg and Helibron 2006).
Athletes themselves can be understood as commodities, participating in a
complex negotiation of self under these capitalist constraints. Dunbar (2000)
recognizes that while individuals may conform to standards and ideals of
masculine identities, there also exists commodified rebellion in which the
participant exercises some kind of non-conformist yet marketable form of
masculinity. This perspective becomes crucial to examining Mixed Martial Arts,
as it is marketed as a high-risk, extreme sport.
Sport is recognized as a masculine domain, with explicit rules differing
according to gender. Most scholars agree that sport is entangled in the
reproduction of gender relations. Feminist analysis of sport has a relatively short
history (Duquin 1978, 1984; Greendorfer 1974, 1978; Hall 1972, 1978, 1981,
20

1984; and Harris 1972 cited in Messner and Sabo 1994). These pioneers
examined women, gender and sex inequality in sport, and uncovered sex
differences in athletic socialization and dominant institutional forms of sport that
have served to naturalize mens power and privilege over women. The issue of
gender is often taken for granted, as sport is constructed according to overtly male
heterosexual ideologies (Degaris 2000; Pronger 2000). Connells theory on
hegemonic masculinity examines how aspects of gender are structured in favor of
particular groups and why these ideas are perpetuated.
Hegemonic Masculinity
Some of the most influential frequently cited research on masculinity has
been put forth by R.W. Connell. Connell developed the theory of hegemonic
masculinity in the late 1980s as a reaction against the fixed nature of sex-role
theories and their weakness in dealing with change and contexts of power. Gender
theorists of the 1980s, such as Connell, found fault with this static view of gender
relations, believing it to be too absolutist to encompass the full range of nuanced
experience (see Connell 1995; Pleck 1981). Hegemonic masculinity suggests that
masculinity is not a fixed entity embedded in the body or personality traits of
individualsmasculinities are configurations of practice that are accomplished in
social action, and therefore, can differ according to the gender relations in a
particular social setting (Connell and Messerschimdt 2005: 836). To add
critiques of power and structural inequalities, Connell turned to Gramscis (1972)
notion of hegemony. Gramscis use of this term refers to a dynamic wherein one
group claims and sustains a leading position over other groups. Like Gramscis
21

definition, hegemony does not function due to violence, it is attained though the
influence of institutions (such as government and schools) and through persuasion
(such as established through media).
Connell defines the term hegemonic masculinity as the configuration of
gender practice which embodies the currently accepted answer to the problem of
the legitimacy of patriarchy which guarantees (or is taken to guarantee) the
dominant position of men and the subordination of women (2005: 77). This
configuration is constantly in motion, constantly changing. This description
would indicate that the contexts of social life and therefore the political, economic
and social factors that comprise culture are crucial to its manifestation in
contemporary culture. Meaning that the hegemonic masculinity of 1940 is
perhaps quite different than the hegemonic masculinity of 2009. What remains the
same is the process of development, and its underlying force in structuring gender
relations and patriarchy. Visible bearers of hegemonic masculinity may be
exemplars such as film actors, athletes or even fantasy figures (ibid: 77). Connell
emphasizes that it is likely established only if there is some correspondence
between cultural ideals and institutional power, and provides the example of the
corporate masculinity of the military and government. These are more obvious
examples of the interplay between institutions and individuals operating within a
traditionally masculine realm. A major contention of this theory is that there is
not a singular masculinity, or way to be masculine. There are numerous
masculinities that exist in relation to a hegemonic ideal or group, and the nature of
hegemony may be constantly challenged according to contexts. Connell suggests
22

that it is more accurate to use the term masculinities rather than masculinity as it
relates to pluralism and the existence of multiple masculinities. Essential
components underlying the perpetuation of hegemony are 1) subordination, 2)
complicity and 3) marginalization. Hegemony relates to cultural dominance in
society as a whole and within that framework there are specific gender relations
of dominance and subordination between groups of men (Connell 1995: 78). Even
though in Connells eyes it is women who are ultimately sufferers of hegemonic
masculinity, groups of men from various backgrounds are subject to
subordination as well. This contributes to the reasoning for using masculinities
rather than simply masculinity to denote the subgroups and the diversity of
masculine experience. Connell uses the example of homosexuals as a subordinate
group. Oppression is overtly manifest in the laws of the United States, making
sodomy a punishable crime and denying same sex couples of the right to
marriage. Homosexuality is equated with femininity and therefore not approved
as legitimate masculinity. This homophobic structuration of contemporary
American society leaves not only gay men as a subordinate group, but
heterosexual men who may possess more so-called feminine qualities as
accessory to homosexual subgroups. (See Klein (1993) and Kimmel (2006) for
further discussion.)
Why would individuals who are not part of the hegemonic group still
participate in these structured relations? Crucial to the perpetuation of hegemonic
masculinity is the complicity of individuals and society to invest in current
hegemonic images and representations of masculinity. In terms of complicity,
23

the number of men rigorously practicing hegemonic masculinity may be quite

small. In American society few men fit into the exemplary category of wellmuscled, white, captains of industry. Yet the majority of men gain from
hegemonic masculinity (ibid: 79). Connell is accurate in his observation that if a
larger number of men have a connection of hegemonic masculinity but do not
embody hegemonic masculinity there must be a way of explaining this situation:
complicity. Although Connells explanation is reasonable and indeed follows the
logic of Gramscis hegemony, there are few details explaining the exact processes
involved in complicity. Men reap patriarchal dividends, or benefits due to their
status as male. For example, in domestic situations, women are likely to do the
majority of household work and make far more compromises than their husbands.
The social structure of gendered relations normalizes this inequality in domestic
labor in favor of men.
While complicity, subordination and hegemony are internal to gender
order, marginalization has to do specifically with intersections of ethnicity and
class. New facets of information technology become a vehicle for redefining a
middle-class at a time when the meaning of labor for working class men was in
contention (Connell 1995: 80). Not having the physical elements of labor to fall
back on as definitive elements of masculinity, the middle-class is reconfigured
into an identity and competence based on technological know-how. Even more
pertinent and more visible to a discussion of marginalization is the aspect of
ethnicity. Connell cites race relations as an integral part of the dynamic between
masculinities. In sports and entertainment black men are often seen as hegemonic
24

exemplars, yet the benefits to working class and lower socio-economic strata
black men are not realized in the same ways that benefits of white representations
of hegemonic masculinity are reaped by white working-class and lower socioeconomic strata white men. Marginalization is always relative to the authorization
of the hegemonic masculinity of the dominant group (ibid: 81). Subordination,
complicity and marginalization as a part of hegemonic practice are all relational
and not categories. They are not character types, and there is much opportunity
for both overlaps and even conflicts.
Another essential facet of hegemonic masculinity is the recognition of a
diversity of masculinities. Feminist research on women paved the way for the
status of woman to be now recognized as being crisscrossed and overwritten by
whole range of disidentifications, incongruities and remappings of the material.
Why should we expect men and masculinity to be homogenous and monolithic?
(Weigman 2002: 52). Masculinity is no longer considered a singular, homogenous
category; as Connell (1995) notes, there are subordinate and marginalized
masculinities. Masculinity can also be female, in that females can indeed be
masculine. Halberstam (1998) has done some groundbreaking work on this topic,
noting that there is more interest (both in popular culture and academically) on
feminine males rather than masculine females. Masculine femininity can be seen
in the young tomboy climbing trees, to the bull-dyke riding her Harley
Davidson, to the Drag King entertaining a crowd as Tina Turner. Through these
examples the embodiment of masculinity is explored, recognizing how it is part of
the body, part of the self. At the center of Halberstams work is masculinity
25

without men, an impossible notion in the eyes of scientists and the general public.
Simply because one is male, does not make one automatically masculine. The
majority of research on masculinity in the United States identifies the CaucasianAnglo male, usually of good economic standing, as the exemplar of hegemonic
masculinity. The subordinate, marginalized or alternative masculinities are
usually noted as homosexual, ethnic (Asian, African American) of lower class and
income. A criticism of masculinity research is that it often takes a
heteronormative or heterocentric starting point (see Halberstam 1998; Petersen
1998; Pronger 2000). I suggest that Connells (1987; 1995) theory of hegemonic
masculinity does not necessarily take this as a starting point, but is informed by
the recognition of more dominant or more socially accepted sexual practices. Yet,
at the same time as with ethnicity and masculinity, the masculinity of the other
will always be the marginalized or subordinate group. This does draw attention to
the covert differences that exist, but does little to illuminate the processes of
hierarchy at work within these subordinate or marginalized subgroups. What is
important to take from theories of hegemonic masculinity, with particular respect
of the concept of multiple masculinities, is the flexibility in which masculinity can
be deployed. Connell and Messerschmidt (2005: 841) note that men can adopt
hegemonic masculinity when it is desirable but they can also distance themselves
when it serves their purpose. Masculinity therefore, does not represent a particular
fixed type of man but rather a way that men position themselves through
discursive practices. Pronger (1990) discusses how masculinity is far more fluid
than previously thought. Using a phenomenological orientation, he investigates
26

the ways in which athletic experience emerges for gay men. Prongers concern is
not with categories, but ways in which individuals interact with historically
constructed sexual categories in athletic settings. Popular images of the athlete
and the gay man are virtually antithetical.
As in the case of sexuality, the perception and deployment of masculinity
is important to consider when looking at masculinity amongst different
ethnicities. How does hegemonic masculinity account for men of color? Chan
(2001: 9) states that Chinese men living in the United States are excluded from
the elite hegemonic group because hegemonic masculinity in this country is
defined in opposition to men of color. Constantly reinventing a homogenous
patriarchal identity serves to protect current and primarily Caucasian networks of
power. The conclusion reached by Chan (2001) is that the section of the model of
hegemonic masculinity that relates to marginalized identities is somewhat
ineffectual for examining ethnic masculinities. While the model leaves space for
theorizations of marginalized masculinities in relation to hegemonic norms, the
emphasis should be placed on recognizing where power lies among the interacting
groups, how this is contested and accommodated, and how this power may be
resisted or negotiated (Cornwall and Lindisfarne 1994).
Whether or not it is necessary to consider masculinity in the plural, as
entirely different masculinities rather than dimensions or forms of masculinity,
should be held in question. While the emphasis on a plurality of expression
highlights the variation of masculinity, the separation of subordinate,
marginalized and hegemonic masculinities prove to be gray categories. As
27

mentioned earlier, according to Connell (1987; 1995), subordinate masculinity

may be related to a number of identifying factors, while marginalized masculinity
seems to be more closely tied to race or ethnicity. These lines are often blurred. In
using the model of hegemonic masculinity in Europe or North America, the
groups that are marginalized (or ethnic) will continue to be the non-hegemonic
groups. The structure remains stationary, yet flexible enough for challenges and
conflicts to alter bits and pieces of contemporary hegemonic masculinity.
However, this model of masculinity attempts to fit masculinity of the other (gay,
female, Chinese etc.) into a construct that will almost always place them in the
role of the disadvantaged. Chan (2001) suggests that Chinese masculinity, for
example, should be analyzed within the context and history of Chinese culture.
Distinct cultural contexts are relevant to any masculinity of other ethnicities or
immigrants living in America. This would provide more understanding as to why
masculinity of the other does not always fit the hegemonic ideal. It is not
necessarily the hegemonic ideal that forces these masculinities to remain
subordinate or marginalized, but the cultural frameworks of these groups of
cultures themselves that guide these groups to choose more resistant types of
masculinities. This may still be accounted for within the current models of
hegemonic masculinity. However, it draws attention to the need for a deeper
understanding of the workings of alternative masculinities before assuming the
directionality of power within this model.
Power and agency continue to be aspects of gender that require in depth
investigation. Scholars of masculinity and embodiment continue to investigate
28

these issues, yet take a more relational rather than structural standpoint. A more
nuanced understanding of gender and society comes to light examining
masculinity in terms of the body and daily experience. For example, Whitson
(1990) suggests that through sport, boys in particular are encouraged to
experience their bodies. Downeys (2005) research on Capoeira suggests that the
body is interchange for comprehending subtle differences in the perception of
reality. For example, experienced practitioners of Capoeira insist that they see,
hear and feel the world differently because of their life long endeavors to enhance
their senses (ibid: 18). In Alters (1992) study of Indian wrestling, he proposes
that life for these men is organized around their physical development. This
physical development goes hand in hand with spiritual development. Wrestlers
are not only competitive athletes, but regarded as moral reformers whose
conception of self and society is fundamentally somatic. It is crucial to understand
the relationship between the body and the self to explore notions of gendered
identity.

Theories of Embodiment
Maurice Merleau-Ponty can be regarded as one of the forefathers of
embodiment theory. His work on perception and phenomenology appears
primarily based on the phenomenological works of Edmund Husserl. As MerleauPonty emphasizes, Husserl posited that it is the intuitive experience that should be
taken as the starting point of existence. While Merleau-Ponty also takes the
essence of first person experience as the starting point of existence, he does not
29

support Husserls idea of ego's transcendence of the world. In contrast, the

existential phenomenology of Merleau-Ponty proposes that, the very experience
of transcendent things is possible only provided that their project is borne, and
discovered, within myself (Merleau-Ponty 1989: 369). Merleau-Pontys notions
of an embodied world are a reaction against both the Cartesian supposition of the
mind as the starting point for existence, as well as the positivism of the scientific
method. He clearly is at odds with the idea that empiricism can provide a
satisfactory explanation of the world through its so-called objectivity. Because of
a tendency toward objectification, and a circular quest to discover laws of nature,
scientific endeavors inevitably fail as they draw upon a false separation of the
observer from the observed, the external from the internal, the subject from the
object (see Merleau-Ponty 1989: 3-12). Science itself, or more so the construct of
scientific understanding, serves to obfuscate the very phenomena which it
attempts to explicate.
Merleau-Pontys phenomenology is based upon the experience of the
senses and their engagement with perception. Perception is an active, not passive
process. Merleau-Ponty suggests that experience and existence are an intertwining
of the subjective and objective. He suggests that the body is not of the external
world but takes peculiar place as it is always there; not only is the perspective of
my body not a particular case of objects, but furthermore the presentation of
objects in perspective cannot be understood except through the resistance of my
body to all variation of perspective (ibid: 92). The body can be regarded as more
than simply a link between a material and ideational world, but an equally
30

essential component of conceptualizing existence. Rather than a passive recipient

of commands from the mind, the body is absolutely vital in processes of learning,
understanding and communicating. Sensation is the unit of experience.
According to Merleau-Ponty we learn through the body. Not only do we
learn through the body, but through action and movement we revise our notion
of understand and our notion of the body (ibid: 144). It is a reflexive process.
Habits may be read as actions that are repeated as part of a daily bodily
experience, which combines facets of the pre-conscious or subconscious with
intention. He describes the acquisition of habit in examples such as a typists
motions on a typewriter, or a musicians playing of an instrument. These
examples call to mind the complexities in attempting to understand the entangled
connection between the mind and body. Elements such as memory and reflex are
bound together in habit and practice.
The Gestalt view of bodily existence is also demonstrated in MerleauPontys (1989) discussion of the bodys motility. He consistently underlines the
connection between spatiality and temporality. The body is the juncture at which
spatiality and temporality meet. It is quite impossible to discuss a synchronic
dimension of being in the absence of a diachronic dimension of being:
In so far as I have a body through which I act in the world,
space and time are not, for me, a collection of adjacent points nor are they
a limitless number of relations synthesized by my consciousness, and in to
which it draws my bodyour bodily experience of movement is not a
particular case of knowledge; it provides us with a way of access to the
world and the object.
(Merleau-Ponty 1989: 140)

31

This is a particularly pertinent observation as this excerpt gets at both the

theoretical importance of embodiment, and also possible reasons for the diverse
ways in which this term has been employed. The understanding of relations of
time and space in terms of existence is a concept not often addressed in
anthropological theory. Time and space are quite often conceived of as
diametrically opposed axial points. The body as the means through which such
parameters of cultural study can be addressed provides an encouraging direction
for future study. Yet, at the same time, with the body as the nexus of
subject/object, time/space and knowledge/existence, how can we begin to
operationalize these entanglements? Various theorists have attempted to employ
the insights of Merleau-Pontys phenomenology, taking up elements of his work
and attempting to engage phenomenological theories of the body with method and
practice.
Thomas Csordas presents convincing research documenting the use of
embodiment theory built upon the works of Merleau-Ponty in his socio-cultural
anthropological research. In fact, Csordas (1999; 1994a; 1994b) presents an
extremely comprehensive discussion of culture and the body and embodiment in
terms of a phenomenological approach. He notes that studies of embodiment are
not so much about the body, or situate the body as a subject, but can be
understood from the standpoint of bodily being-in-the-world. His concern is of the
immediacy of embodied experience with the multiplicity of cultural meanings that
we are inevitably immersed in. Csordas makes it clear that the body is not simply
biology, but is a cultural and historical construct. The different ways in which we
32

inhabit bodies or exist as embodied are essential for understanding culture. He

demonstrates how Merleau-Pontys juncture of space and time experienced
through the body may be interpreted as built into social, political and historical
circumstance. The contexts and conditions of life serve to shape experience and as
a result are indoctrinated and expressed through the body. Embodiment is not a
topic of study but an alternate standpoint from which to address familiar topics
such as gender, power and emotion (Csordas 1999; 1994a; 1994b).
A phenomenological approach is a useful framework from which to
examine gendered experience within the very physical realm of sport. It offers the
opportunity to construct an interconnected method and theory that is both
reflexive and attentive to the data and circumstances of research. There are
numerous ways in which the terms embodiment and phenomenology have been
employed. The benefit of this diversity research is that it highlights the flexibility
and utility of theories of embodiment but also recognizes a number of concerns.
These include the issue of representation versus reality, how socio-political and
historical circumstance affects experience of the body, and the body as both
individual and social, to name but a few. Embodiment, it would seem, can best be
understood as a standpoint of investigation. Aspects of existence such as gender,
power-relations, boundaries and representation are inherently tied to the practices
of the body that are rooted in experience. A phenomenological framework based
on the foundational work of Merleau-Ponty (1989), and further shaped by the
works of key theorists such as Csordas (1994a), provide a means by which to
investigate bodily experience as it shapes identities.
33

Frameworks of (phenomenological) embodiment attempt to explain

relations by way of existence and experience. With this goal in mind, it makes it
exceptionally difficult, and counterproductive even, to attempt to separate method
from theory. In fact, one of the strengths of attempting understandings through
embodiment is a necessary consideration of how theory and practice are joined
together, how models of social life fit with daily lives of individuals and
ultimately how this is represented by the researcher.

Embodiment, Representation and Writing

Csordas (1994a) also calls to our attention the complicated issue of
representation, particularly for those who use frameworks of embodiment in their
research. Theoretical trends in the anthropology of the 1970s and 1980s dictated
that representation did not denote experience but constituted it. Representation, or
critiques of representation, dominated discourse and there seemed no way to
answer the question of what lies beyond representation. Csordas offers the
solution that the phenomenological idea of being-the-world be used as a
dialogical partner to representation (Csordas 1994a). This experienced-based
concept should run alongside issues of representation in what could be considered
a course of lateral reason. It would seem that an analysis that recognizes these
dialogical partners would therefore require an identification of such. Yet in
Csordas work and also my own fieldwork experience, this is more difficult than
it appears. In some cases it was difficult to extricate the representation from the
experience. Csordas observes in his work on Navajo religion and healing (Csordas
34

1994b) that there is a difference between what he calls mythic texts and mythic
worlds and actual religious experience. In this ethnographic experience one can
see actual religious experience as being-in-the-world while the mythic texts and
mythic worlds are representations. Yet in looking at the religious ceremonies
themselves in part as a reenactment or representation of events of a mythic nature,
the experience of being-in-the-world or participating in these rituals seems to blur
the line between Csordas dialogical partners. Perhaps it is not so important to
distinguish one partner from the other, only to acknowledge an interaction
between the two? Csordas (1994b) ethnography on Navajo healing illuminates
the dilemma between experience and representation, and the difficulty in both
trying to express embodied experience in a textual manner and attempting to
implement a methodology of embodiment in practice. How does one capture
experience? With consideration to the textual dilemma (i.e. the act of writing and
recording information as inherently representative), Csordas (1999: 150) suggests
that adding the reflexive component of embodiment constitutes a restructuring of
representation rather than offering an alternative to the primacy of
representation. Reflexivity acts as a counter-balance to representation. Others
who cite embodiment as a standpoint or foundation for analysis would seem to
agree. Kohn (2003) discusses how the philosophy of the Japanese martial art
Aikido is experienced through the body of practitioners. The relationship of the
body's movement through space becomes a medium other than consumerism
through which to re-shape an adult identity. Kohn (2003) argues that current
anthropological notions of sport lack key experiential components and that sport
35

is often examined in terms of what makes sense to the analyst rather than the
participant.
My primary goal was to examine how Mixed Martial Arts makes sense to
participants. Chapter headings are themes generated from observations and
interviews, and while I was the one asking questions, interviews were open
enough to include topics that were relevant to fighters, which they brought up
themselves. I follow Torens concern to as clearly as I can, describe how humans
constitute themselves as unique beings who can nevertheless be seen to be the
always dynamic product of the history of intersubjective relations in whose terms
they live their lives (2009:136). I am looking at embodied experience, therefore
how I write is as important as what I write with regard to the representation of
subjects, meaning both the participants in this research and also anthropological
issues investigated. With this in mind, I chose to take Torens lead and include
extracts directly from my field notes not only to allow for the experience of the
immediacy of situations but also to expose/outline my own embodied experience.
Likewise I choose to use the identifier me when offering excerpts from
interviews, as the use of initials somehow gives off a homogenizing illusion that
J.H. and P.R. have the same power and motivations, undermining the
intersubjective experience that I feel made interviews meaningful. Furthermore, I
use the term participants where anthropologists have traditionally used the term
informants. I do this for two main reasons. Firstly, the individuals who
participated in this project were a diverse group: men, women, fighters, coaches,
journalists. It was easier to use this one term, participants, in instances where I
36

refer to all those who took part in this study. Secondly, the term participants
suggests that these individuals chose to take part in this study. They were
collaborators. For those who are not familiar with the convention of using the
term informant in anthropology, it evoked connotations of clandestine CIA
operations or hapless FBI snitches. Upon hearing the term informants, some
individuals cautiously joked that this term implied some kind of coercion, that
perhaps they were revealing secrets about others that they should not be revealing.
As I anticipate that some of my participants who are non-anthropologists as well
as non-academics will be reading this, I chose to use a term that is less suggestive.

37

Mixed Martial Arts: A Background

Once viewed as an undesirable subcultural activity, Mixed Martial Arts
(also known as Cagefighting or No Holds Barred Fighting) is now recognized as
an immensely popular and profitable new sport in the U.S and globally (see
Gentry 2004; Krauss and Aita 2002; Mayeda and Ching 2008). In 1993 the new
spectacle of cagefighting was presented to North America. (See Appendix C for a
timeline of the sport.) The first Ultimate Fighting Championship was held in
Denver, Colorado in front of 2800 fans. It was broadcast live on pay-per-view.
Eight men from various martial arts backgrounds entered a tournament to
determine which combat style was the most effective, and thus who would be
deemed the Ultimate Fighter. Created to replicate a realistic fight situation,
participants were allowed to use any style of martial art to kick, punch, wrestle or
choke their opponents. The stage of combat was set in either in a boxing ring or
an eight-sided chain-link cage (thus the moniker cagefighting was born). The only
two rules were no eye gouging and no biting. Although there was a referee, there
were no weight classes or time limits, and the match would only end with either a
victor submitting or knocking out his opponent or the opponent tapping out to
signal his surrender. The winner received $50,000 and the title of The Ultimate
Fighting Champion.

38

Evolution of MMA in the Americas3

According to Krauss and Aita (2002), the Japanese Martial Art of jujitsu
was brought to Brazil in the early 1900s by Japanese immigrants. Mitsuyo Maeda
is credited with teaching the art to members of the Gracie family. With Maedas
influence, his students modified the traditional Japanese style, and developed their
own school of Brazilian jujitsu. Members of the Gracie family engaged in
numerous competitions to prove their form of jujitsu was the most effective. In
1969, Rorion Gracie moved to California and brought with him Gracie jujitsu. In
1992, Art Davie, a student of Rorian Gracie, suggested creating a pay-per-view
combat tournament that would pit martial art styles against each other to see
which was most effective. Both Davie and Gracie believed this would ultimately
display the prominence of this new martial art style, Brazilian Jujitsu. After some
time and negotiations, the Ultimate Fighting Championship was born.
While there was always a referee, in its infancy there were no time limits
for MMA bouts. They could last from merely seconds due to a knockout, or
fighters could be locked in a relative stalemate for over an hour. There were no
weight classes to prevent a 120-pound man from fighting a 250-pound man; in
fact, this kind of challenge was welcome. Would skill and intelligence beat the
brute force? Royce Gracie, the legendary champion of several early Ultimate

3
I chose to follow the path of MMA evolution in the Americas, and its primary
founder the UFC. However, I must acknowledge that there were other
organizations that developed in different areas of the world. The Japanese MMA
organization Shooto was formed in 1985, nearly ten years before the UFC. This
organization grew out of an off-shoot of professional wrestling. It was an attempt
to display an authentic fight experience, rather than the fixed matches of
professional wrestling.
39

Fighting Championships, proved just that. He demonstrated that knowledge could

defeat strength and this became an enduring tenet of the sport, according to longterm fans. The potential for David versus Goliath triumphs contributed to the
spectacle of MMA in the early 1990s. The desire to simulate a real-life combat
situation led to founders to implement as few rules as possible. Participants were
not required to wear any protective gear (head protection, gloves etc.). The idea
was to put forth an image of danger and intrigue. Two men enter, only one leaves
standing. This was reality, and not the staged melodrama of WWF wrestling.
Contests were only available through pay-per view and the underground,
subversive nature of the sport produced a cult fan base. These fights represented
everything contrary to everyday life in America. One is not allowed to use
physical force against others. There are legal repercussions and one certainly is
not rewarded for it. The monetary compensation for these fighters was minimal,
but acclaim and title of Ultimate Fighting Champion was enough for men in the
United States and internationally (e.g. Canada, Brazil, France) to enter these
competitions. Its initial marketing in the U.S. in the early 1990s as bare-knuckled,
anything-goes fights prompted a nearly national banning of the sport, with
government officials such as Senator John McCain deeming it to be the equivalent
of human cock-fighting (Gentry 2004:73) and claiming that it may lead to
deaths. Interestingly, Senator McCain, perhaps one of the greatest opponents to
MMA, was a self-admitted fan of boxing. When questioned about the brutality of
boxing, the Senator had no response, although he had witnessed firsthand the

40

death of twenty-three year old Columbian boxer Jimmy Garcia (Shamrock and
Hanner 1997:86-87).
The elements driving the popularity of MMA events were precisely the
elements that led to its near demise. The public took wind of the barbaric events
occurring under their noses, in their own cities, and rallied for a stop to seemingly
senseless violence. The owners of the trademarked Ultimate Fighting
Championship were desperate to sell their ailing company. MMA events went
underground once again.
Ten years later, the resurfacing of the sport and its meteoric rise in
popularity was achieved through regulatory changes (See Appendix D for current
UFC rules) and strategic marketing by the Ultimate Fighting Championship
organization (UFC). Seeing an opportunity where other saw only failure,
businessman Dana White convinced wealthy casino chain owners Lorenzo and
Frank Fertitta to purchase the organization for two million dollars. Under their
company Zuffa, they began the process of re-packaging the event to make it more
socially acceptable. The way to achieve this was to model the sport after other
well accepted sports such as baseball and football through increased
quantification. An official set of rules was implemented, including thirty-one
fouls (i.e. actions not allowed) along with earlier changes of weight classes and
protective gear. Ironically the mandatory use of gloves resulted in making the
sport more perilous (Van Bottenburg and Helibron 2006). The public perception
of the danger of bare-knuckle fighting was incorrect. When participants fought
without gloves they were more likely to break their own hands. Therefore
41

knockouts were less likely to occur. With padded gloves, participants are able to
hit much harder, increasing the likelihood of knockouts. In attempting to appease
public perception, owners of the Ultimate Fighting Championship actually added
an additional degree to injury. Regardless, the apparent increase in safety
standards and quantification of the sport served their legitimizing purpose.
During this time No Holds Barred Fighting or cagefighting developed into
MMA. It became apparent that a combination of three major facets of martial arts
led to superior control over an opponent, therefore instead of having one distinct
style versus another cagefighting transformed into a hybrid sport. The newly
evolved sport of Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) combines the techniques of Muay
Thai kickboxing, submission wrestling and Brazilian Jujitsu. However
participants may also have a solid background in a variety of other martial arts
(often depending on their country of origin) such as Judo, Savate, Sambo etc.

Going Mainstream
MMA is often referred to as Ultimate Fighting and for many the terms
are synonymous. The UFC effectively branded itself as the sport of MMA.
Successful branding occurs when the brand is a site of interactivity, organizing a
dynamic, two-way exchange of information between consumers and producers
(Kennedy and Hill, 2009: 263), and this certainly what the UFC did. With the
triumph of the UFCs reemergence as a profitable and legitimate sport, several
other MMA organizations in North American began appearing. Companies saw
the financial possibilities that MMA could bring and were eager to share in the
42

proceeds. This was also reflected in media content analysis as mainstream news
sources such as the Los Angeles Times, The National Post (Canada) and The New
York Times began running more articles on the sport. In 2006, UFCs major
competitor Strikeforce came onto the MMA scene, followed shortly after by The
International Fight League later that year, and EliteXC in 2007. Only a couple
short years later, like the Dotcom bubble, the MMA bubble burst. The UFC
bought out smaller MMA shows, eliminating most of its minor competitors. Other
larger companies were to be blamed for their own demise with top executives
making important structural and financial decisions without any real knowledge
of MMA. There is much speculation in the MMA industry that perhaps some of
these business forays were in actuality pump and dump operations. Currently,
there are organizations such as Strikeforce and Bellator that compete with the
UFC, but for the most part this founding company holds a monopoly of the MMA
industry. Forbes Magazine (May 5, 2008) reported that offers to buy the UFC
from Zuffa exceeded over one billion dollars. While live events and advertising
deals account for much of their profit, their financial success is largely due to payper-view revenue. In 2010, Zuffa was estimated by industry sources as doing
9,145,000 buys and generating $411 million in gross pay-per-view revenue for
sixteen events, including five that topped 750,000 buys.4 To put this into
perspective, in 2009 (the year of UFC 100) the UFC not only held the top spot for
pay-per-view buys rates but also the fourth, fifth, seventh, eighth, and ninth places
out of the top ten. Boxing events ranked second and third and the final tenth sport

(http://sports.yahoo.com/mma/news?slug=dm-ppvbiz011111)
43

was held by WWE.5 This displays not only the commanding profit that Zuffa
obtains from its pay-per-view UFC events but also the immense popularity of the
sport.
Mythic Origins
Numerous participants and fans cited the ancient Greek sport of
Pankration as the origin of MMA. Pankration has been documented as early as
648 BCE (Arvenitis 2003). This ancient practice utilizes a combination of boxing
and wrestling in one-on-one competition. It is interesting that in Aita and Krauss
(2002) popular book on MMA, their descriptions emphasize Pankration as a noble
pursuit: the tales of Pankration champions are shrouded in legend and poetic
license (ibid: 14). They further state that Pankration lasted until the height of the
Roman Empire. Although it continued on in the Greek Olympics, in Rome it had
mutated into a gladiatorial bloodsport, for which warriors donned bladed gloves
and fought to the death (ibid: 14). The significance of this passage rests upon
establishing the fact that there once was a pure form of Pankration. This was once
a highly regarded athletic competition that transformed into a gory spectacle.
While Pankration from ancient Greece provides the first written account of a
mixed technique combative sport, there is not a direct timeline that traces the
movement of Pankration across the continents and across two millennia. This is
not a case of unilineal, cultural transmission and evolution. Pankration as an
origin appears to be more of a symbolic linkage. It is a nostalgic hope for MMA
participants to be regarded as Greek heroes were, as legitimate athletes who

5
(http://peteprose.com/2010/02/top-10-ppv-buyrates-of-2009)
44

represented bravery, skill and hope for their nation. This heroic legacy is touted as
part of the UFCs market savvy ideology as they include imagery of Roman
gladiators in their opening sequence to live pay-per-view events.

45

Outline of Study
This first chapter provides an introduction to topics of study such as gender,
masculinity and Mixed Martial Arts, highlighting the research questions posed. It
includes an overview of the research design and methods used, and also general
background on theories of hegemonic masculinity and embodiment that frame this
research. I have divided this study into three major parts. Part I (Chapter 2)
introduces the primary field site Desert Combat and includes a description of the
facility and structure of the classes offered. I explore how MMA fighters
understand their bodies, selves and masculinity through their practice in MMA.
This chapter further examines processes of embodiment, focusing on how fighters
experience the world of MMA through a critical mind-body-social connection.
Chapter 3 continues to explore embodiment, in particular how MMA fighters
perceived their own bodies in relation to idealized representations. Part I
concludes with a discussion of key points from Chapters 2 and 3, including how
hegemonic masculinity fits with MMA, a critique of hegemonic masculinity and
how embodiment may add to theories of hegemonic masculinity. Part II/Chapter 4
examines women, sexuality and relationships in the world of MMA. This chapter
includes insights on embodied practice yet also discusses representations of
gender. Therefore it provides a bridge between Part I that focuses on embodiment
and Part III that concerns representation. This chapter looks at the experiences of
various women in the MMA industry (myself included), and touches on
homosexuality and heterosexual male intimacy. In the conclusion of Part II, I
situate MMA in relation to other popular American cultural trends (e.g. the rise of
46

Raunch Culture) and academic trends (e.g. Post-feminism). In Part III/Chapter

5, I consider issues of representation and reality and their frequent incongruence
in the world of MMA. I examine finances, commodification, fame, and the
stereotyping of both fighters and fans. I examine how representations affect the
lives of individuals involved in the industry. Part III concludes with a discussion
of the contexts of MMA in American culture and the two major events of the new
millennium that correspond with the explosion in popularity of the sport: Reality
TV and the Iraq War. In order to understand masculinity as a relational construct
it was necessary to interrogate wider representations and contextualizations of
gender in contemporary American society. In the final chapter, Chapter 6, I
briefly summarize this study, highlighting important points from each discussion
section. I contemplate hegemonic masculinity as a theoretical construct in terms
of three key considerations. The first concerns adding notions of embodiment to
achieve a fuller understanding of how daily practice fits with models of power
and gender relations. The second addresses the idea that hegemonic masculinity is
best understood as a model of reality functioning in the realm of representation.
And the third suggests that in order to comprehend masculinity as relational, it is
necessary to thoroughly examine the contexts that shape contemporary gender.

47

PART I: CHAPTER 2. EMBODIMENT: ITS NOT THE SIZE OF THE DOG

IN THE FIGHT, BUT THE FIGHT IN THE DOG

The majority of field research took place at Desert Combat gym in

Phoenix, Arizona. Participants spent enormous amounts of time here, and this site
proved crucial to developing notions of their self-identity. For this reason, I take
the liberty of describing in great detail the layout of the gym, the atmosphere, and
what is entailed in training in MMA. As participants spoke of the demands of the
classes, they also alluded to the experience of a mind-body connection that
seemed more reminiscent of yogic practice rather than combat sport. In this
chapter, I explore this facet of embodied practice and conclude by reviewing the
ways in which psychologists, anthropologists and sociologists have theorized this
mind-body-social connection.

Joining Desert Combat: the Field Site and Key Employees

As you enter the gym you are immediately greeted by the reception area
and the adjoining merchandise room. This merchandise room that offers Desert
Combat t-shirts was a more recent addition, as the gym only began to sell their
own branded clothing within the last two years. Participants can also buy
necessary gear: hand-wraps, gloves, shin guards, and jujitsu uniforms called gis.
The kickboxing and MMA classes do not require any kind of specialized clothing,
though most people wear t-shirts and shorts. The office, where the owners/trainers
conduct meetings and attend to paperwork, is located adjacent to the merchandise
area. The reception area has a clear display case that holds trophies and two world
48

championship belts, a visual statement that this is an elite gym and that champions
train here. The receptionist, an attractive lady in her forties, greets clients and
potential clients as they enter. New clients sign a waiver (Appendix E) indicating
that the gym is not liable if the client gets injured or contracts some kind of
disease (such as AIDS, hepatitis or fungal infections). The prospective members
are given a schedule of classes, a copy of their waiver, and told that their first trial
class is free. Beth, the receptionist, then gives the potential client a tour of the
gym and answers any questions the client may have.
Beth has been a point of contention with the regulars at the gym. She was
employed by the owners just a year ago to formally manage the memberships and
daily functioning of the gym. Prior to this, the former receptionists (Ryan and
Jake) were members of the gym. The face that greeted you was an established
member of the gym, someone who practiced these sports (kick-boxing, jujitsu, or
MMA) and therefore had bodily and intimate knowledge of the workings of the
gym. Unfortunately for Jake and Ryan, the owners decided that they needed to reorganize the workings of the gym to promote efficiency and keep better track of
the clientele. Regular patrons of the gym resisted and also resented the
introduction of Beth. She was clearly an outsider. She did not train at the gym, or
participate in any form of martial arts. She didnt seem to be a fan of the sports
(MMA, kick-boxing, jujitsu) and patrons suggested that she did not belong there.
Some of them even stated that if she were the wife/girlfriend of an owner, coach
or participants this would make her employment more acceptable. When I asked
some of the long-time gym members if it was because she was a woman, their
49

response was of course not. They stated that they resented her presence because
she did not have any knowledge of the sport or of the gym whatsoever. She
represented a corporate force brought into the family gym atmosphere. Beths
lack of knowledge and participation made it impossible for her to be seen as
having a legitimate place in this group membership. No one directly indicated this
to Beth, and when I spoke with her asking her about how she felt as a new
employee, she indicated that it was fine and that it was a good job.
The hallway is a museum of martial arts accomplishment and inspiration.
The walls along the hallway leading toward the training rooms are covered with
photographs. Most of these photographs are of gym members at tournaments, or
other events. Some photographs are of famous fighters, perhaps to inspire new
gym members to fulfill their own potential greatness. The floor of the hallway is
lined with trophies of varying sizes. These trophies, won at different tournaments
and fights, belong to the gyms members. I estimated there were over fifty
trophies from various events (jujitsu, kickboxing, boxing) won over the past eight
years that the gym has been open.
There is also a large cork-bulletin board in the hallway, a handmade
tribute to the career of the primary owner of the gym, Francisco, and the career of
his twin brother, Fernando. Francisco is thirty-five years old and from originally
from El Paso, Texas. As a young man, he and Fernando (who is also a head coach
at Desert Combat) competed professionally in Muay Thai kickboxing. For the two
brothers, martial arts was an outlet and escape from an unpleasant family life.
Their relationship with their stepfather was tenuous at its best, and violent at its
50

worst. Kickboxing was something they both excelled at, thereby creating a means
to travel the world. They competed in premier kickboxing events across the
United States, and even in front of the King of Thailand at the famous Lumpini
Stadium in Bangkok. In the early 1990s they transitioned to the new
spectacle/sport of cagefighting. The brothers competed in some of the earliest
international events in Hawaii, Japan and Abu Dhabi, gaining a reputation for
being tough and determined fighters. Although they are not widely recognized by
todays MMA fans, those who take time to research the beginnings of the sport
would cite them as relevant pioneers, particularly for their weight class. The
brothers are smaller in stature, standing 56 and walking around at
approximately 140 lbs. In the early days of the sport there were no time limits or
weight classes, so often they were competing against men who were 20-40lbs
heavier than they were.
Francisco and Fernando identified themselves as the perpetual underdogs
with audiences due to their size. Growing up they were sometimes the target of
bullying, again due to their size, and had to learn how to stand up to these threats
of violence. Their success is prominently displayed across the bulletin board, with
photos from their events showing them in action and being awarded trophies and
medals. Across the top of this display there reads, Its not the size of the dog in
the fight, but the fight in the dog. This has been a life-long mantra for the twins,
having been constantly judged for their size and having to prove their toughness.
This saying is also a source of inspiration for many of their fighters from lighter
weight classes. I have often heard these lighter weight fighters repeat this phrase
51

during interviews, and also in during practices. I asked several participants (men
and women of varying sizes) to comment on this phrase. I did not encounter one
person who believed this to be false. Many invoked a comparison of David and
Goliath, and a reasoning that technique and tenaciousness could win out over
brute strength. The core of all martial arts promotes this ideology: skill and
training can overcome adversity. Fernandos and Franciscos achievements are
evidence of this, and furthermore evidence that ones physical stature should not
be an encumbrance if one is determined enough. The brothers size is a benefit to
their business, as clients can identify with them, and believe that their own bodies
can be shaped and trained as they wish, if only their will is strong enough.
Francisco teaches kickboxing and the Fighters Class. Fernando also teaches the
Fighters Class, and comes in exclusively to prepare professional fighters for their
upcoming fights.
The gym consists of one large open training room (with a boxing ring,
and cage), a weight room (with treadmills, dumbbells etc.) and a smaller room in
the back of gym for MMA and jujitsu exclusively. There are mens and womens
changing rooms, roughly the same size, although the mens changing room is
larger. The changing rooms have cupboards rather than lockers, and there are no
locks. It is an honor system and people leave wallets, purses, and other valuables
in there. Surprisingly, there have been very few claims of theft during my time at
this gym. There are separate mens and womens restrooms, but one room with a
single shower that both men and women use. The owners stated that when they
first moved to this space a couple years ago, they planned far more elaborate
52

changing rooms, complete with separate showers for men and women, but had run
out of money to make these expensive renovations. Male and female participants
take turns using a single private shower room.
The MMA classes take place in the back room of the gym. There are
bulletin boards with photos of participants competing at events, and a shelf with
numerous trophies. Blue, two-inch thick mats cover the ground of the entire room.
Victor, a member of the Fighters class, who has several professional fights and
championship titles to his credit, teaches the MMA classes. Victor has trained
with Desert Combat since the start of his MMA career at age eighteen. Now
twenty-five, Victor often comments how he has grown up with this gym and
would not think of leaving (until he decides to run his own gym full-time). Victor
is very well known at the gym, and was also one of the gyms most famous
professional fighters. He is a draw for new members of Desert Combat. Many
potential members inquired whether Victor would be teaching there before they
agreed to join the gym. Santiago, the jujitsu instructor who shares this room, is
quite a well-known practitioner in his field. Although jujitsu is a component of
MMA, MMA fans would not necessarily know of Santiago. However, dedicated
jujitsu practitioners are aware of Santiagos prestigious lineage, training with
important founders of the Brazilian style of jujitsu.
The largest training room is for the kickboxing class and the Fighters
Class. The walls are covered with mirrors and the floors are lined with the same
type of mats as in the MMA/jujitsu room. There is a regulation size boxing ring,
an eight-sided cage, and numerous heavy bags (for punching and kicking) that
53

hang from the ceiling. A large banner hangs above the doorway that reads, One
year here is like five years anywhere else. To be the best, you have to train with
the best. The banner is a declaration of the high quality of training a member will
receive at this gym. When Francisco first opened Desert Combat approximately
eight years ago (2002), there were only one or two other MMA gyms around.
(Now, in 2011, there are at least thirty other MMA gyms in the greater Phoenix
area). His major competitor, Caged Battleground, had been established a few
years earlier (1998). Caged Battleground emphasized the spectacle aspect of
MMA. This gym opened during a time when MMA was just beginning to be
accepted as a legitimate sport. It was still often called cagefighting or No-HoldsBarred fighting. The owner, Sven, was also a fight promoter who held MMA
competitions around Arizona. Svens gym became a place to recruit fighters for
his shows. Desert Combat has had several transfers from Svens gym. Several
former Caged Battleground members described a disappointing experience at
Svens training facility. One former member stated:
That place was ridiculous. I came in there and they immediately threw me
in with some big guy to spar. I had no martial arts training before, just a
street fight or two. The guy just wanted to take my head off. Everyone
there was like that. They just wanted to brawl and show how tough they
were. I didnt really learn anything. No technique, nothingI wasnt even
there for two monthsSven came up to me and asked if I wanted to fight
in one of his shows. Youve got to be kidding me?! I didnt really know
what I was doing. I told him I was busy. Dont get me wrong I wanted my
chance to fight, and be a cage-fighter, but I didnt think I was anywhere
near ready for that.
Other former members of Caged Battleground commented that they also didnt
really feel like they learned anything. (I requested interviews with Sven several
54

times and was denied, and therefore I cannot comment on his position regarding
Caged Battlegrounds policies or training methods.) Francisco and Fernando told
me they could immediately spot the guys who came over from this gym. They
usually had poor technique, and thought they had to prove themselves. The
brothers clearly had little respect for the workings of Caged Battleground. They
felt the owner Sven was just there to make money and didnt really take training
seriously. The brothers commented that Desert Combat was different. This was a
place where you would learn the proper techniques through effective coaching
and practices, and they refused to let any of their members fight without being
thoroughly prepared. Thus, the brothers firmly believed in the sentiment of the
banner. Their members should expect to receive the highest quality training
around.

MMA Class
The participants in the MMA class are primarily young males (with the
addition of one or two females in a given class more recently) between the ages of
18-33, with the average age being around twenty-two. Most are beginners to the
sport, although many have backgrounds in high school or collegiate wrestling.
There are usually between 15-30 participants for any given class. Victor teaches
the one-hour class five days a week in the early evening. The participants wear tshirts, tank tops and shorts. Much of their apparel comes from popular MMA
clothing and gear companies, such as Tap Out. The participants train barefoot and
do not wear socks or shoes. In comparison to boxing or kickboxing where large
55

12-16oz gloves that cover the entire hand are worn, in MMA, gloves are only 46oz and the fingers are left open. This is to allow for the grappling component of
MMA. The fingers must be left free to execute takedowns (where the waist or
legs of the opponent are grabbed) or to implement jujitsu techniques such as
chokes or arm bars (see Appendix F for MMA glossary).
The class begins with a brief warm up of running around the room, pushups and sit ups, and stretching. The next exercise is drilling. Drilling involves
pairing up with another participant of similar size (height and weight) and
working on specific techniques such as wrestling take-downs or Muay Thai
clinches (Appendix F). This exercise lasts for another ten to fifteen minutes as the
pairs rehearse their repertoire of established techniques. Then the participants are
given instructions regarding which set of skills they will practice for that
particular training session. Victor may demonstrate a combination of punches or
kicks, or an effective means of setting up a Rear-Naked Choke (Appendix F). The
participants take turns practicing these techniques with their partners for the
duration of the class or the class may end with participants spending the last
twenty minutes or so sparring (i.e. putting on protective gear and throwing and
defending strikes).
The gym does not offer official ranks or belts for kickboxing or MMA
achievements, and therefore there is no visible skill differentiation based on
clothing or accessories. In contrast, the jujitsu class offers a succession of colored
belts and stripes to enforce a tangible skill hierarchy. When asked about this lack
of visible status recognition, the fighters responses were split. Some indicated
56

that it would be nice to be given the recognition, saying it would motivate them to
practice harder or enter more competitions. Others said that MMA is a different
kind of sport where the traditional martial arts hierarchies displaying rank are not
so important. One fighter noted, Its not like Karate, we just win the
[championship] belt to prove our rank. The only rank that counts is world
champion.
Fighters Class
The Fighters Class is held five days a week in the evening. This class has
the least amount of participants compared to the other classes offered. There are
usually less than ten people. Participants are invited by coaches Francisco and
Fernando to join this class, and cannot simply promote themselves. All of the
participants are male, except for Alissa (a high level kickboxer) who regularly
attended, and Reina (a professional boxer learning MMA who only attended for
about a year). The participants of this class are noticeably older than the MMA
class, with an average age of about twenty-six. These are individuals who have
already had experience fighting in amateur leagues and are now professionals or
soon-to-be professionals. (The main distinction between amateur and professional
is that professionals get paid; also, the rules may differ depending on the state in
which the competition is held.) The class begins at 6:30pm. The fighters are
dressed in t-shirts and tank tops, and wearing Muay Thai kickboxing shorts or
MMA shorts. They all wear hand-wraps, which resemble thick cotton bandages
that are wrapped around the hands to protect the knuckles and wrists from injury.
These hand-wraps are worn under gloves. Most fighters are barefoot, although
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some choose to wear wrestling shoes. It is the gyms policy not to wear street
shoes on the mat, as this would damage the mats and also bring in outside dirt.
Wrestling shoes are soft flexible shoes that are laced above the ankle to provide
support for foot and ankle while also providing traction. These shoes may only be
worn indoors.
The fighters from this elite class are given more freedom during the warm
up than other classes. Some choose to run around the gym, while others choose to
jump rope. After about ten minutes, one of the coaches will yell for them to begin
shadowboxing. Shadowboxing involves practicing punches, kicks, elbows and
other strikes against an imaginary opponent or your own shadow. It also involves
visualizing that your shadow or imaginary opponent is also returning these strikes.
Therefore, you must be constantly moving out of the way and also defending and
blocking against invisible attacks. Each day of the week is set aside to practice a
particular set of skills. For example, Monday is set aside to concentrate on
improving boxing skills. As boxing is a major component of MMA, the
professional fighters hands must be very well developed. Other gyms may
choose to practice all components of MMA every day and spar everyday, but the
coaches at Desert Combat feel it is more effective to break down important
components and practice them separately to improve. There will be specific
exercises practiced to hone the desired skills. These exercises usually involve
putting fighters in pairs (generally with someone of similar size who is their
regular training partner) and have them each take turns practicing. One individual
will hold up pads while the other strikes. There are two types of pads held in
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exercises such as these. One type of pad is called a hand-mitt and used only for
hand strikes (i.e. punches). This hand-mitt resembles a heavily padded baseball
mitt . The other type of is called a Thai pad, which is used to cushion blows of all
types (e.g. kicks, punches, knees, elbows). Thai pads are larger than hand-mitts.
They are rectangular shaped, and cover the hands down the forearms to the elbow.
There are handles to hold the pad with fingers, and straps to secure the pad to the
forearm. These pads can vary slightly in size and thickness. The participants could
either take the rest of the class to perfect the striking activity using the pads, or
end the class with time spent sparring, employing the techniques they learned that
day. This decision is up to the coaches. The entire class runs approximately 90
minutes. The Fighters Class is not required to do calisthenics (push-ups, sit-ups
etc.), as the kickboxing or MMA class is asked to do. This is because they are
already expected to be in excellent cardiovascular shape. Francisco notes:
I expect these guys to be really good shape. They shouldnt be coming
here to work on cardio, but to be learning the techniques. They need to be
working on their cardio on their own time...Sometimes in a fight, in comes
down to how much you have in your gas tank
Clearly, there are higher expectations for the Fighters Class. They are expected to
use their own free time to be improving their overall cardiovascular health. The
coaches treat these participants as serious athletes, and the participants also try to
live up to these standards. Mark describes his decision to take his health more
seriously after barely completing his first Fighters Class.
Me: How was the transition to the Fighters Class from the regular
kickboxing class? What were some of the differences that you noticed?
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Mark: There was a difference[laughter]. When I first started at Desert

Combat I was a bit overweight, not really in shape. I liked to go out with
my friends most nights, drink, smoke [cigarettes]. My first kickboxing
class with rough, all those pushups and squat jumps and that was just the
warm upit was really hard, but I could make it through though. Im
naturally an athletic guy so I could pick up on things really fast. Francisco
said I was good, even though he said my cardio sucked [laughter]. When I
got to the Fighters Class the guys were in really good shape. I was a little
embarrassed that my cardio was so bad. Half way through the first
[Fighters] class, I felt like my lungs were going to give out. I decided to
quit smoking right then.
Me: Right that minute? Because of the class?
Mark: Yep. I need my lungs. I need to be in good shape if I want to do this
professionally. I did start drinking way less too. I was too tired to go out
every night after spending a couple hours here [at Desert Combat].
As Mark observed, the Fighters Class requires a dedication to train on a
consistent basis and to keep the body functioning at a high level. Although
Francisco never asked him to quit smoking, drinking, or going out at night, Mark
made the choice to do so. Several other fighters commented that they had made
similar choices to improve their health as result of their commitment to MMA.
The physicality of the sport forces participants to be more aware of their bodies
how their bodies function, and what changes in their lifestyle are necessary to
obtain their goals. Through participation in MMA, fighters develop intimate and
profound relationships with their bodies.

Embodying Mixed Martial Arts

Thomas Csordas (1994a) theorizes embodiment as the existential
condition of cultural life. In contrast to theories that suggest the body is simply
inscribed by culture, or perspectives that suggest the passive body is manipulated
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by the mind, Csordas emphatically states that the body is dynamic and crucial to
knowledge and experience:
Embodiment is reducible to neither representations of the body, to the
body as an objectification of power, to the body as a physical entity or
biological organism, nor to the body as an inalienable center of individual
consciousnessPhenomenological theory of culture and self [is] an
anthropology that is not merely about the body, but from the body.
(Csordas 1994a: preface)
From this standpoint, the body is taken as the starting point of existence.
Knowledge of ones self and the world is learned through the experiences of the
body. Mixed Martial Arts is an extremely physically demanding activity, and the
body is revealed as a site of self-development and identity. Yet MMA requires
dedication not only of the body but also of the mind. Interview data suggests that
much of the learning process involved in MMA requires a complex relationship
between the mind and the body, and also a balance, which demands trust in ones
body in addition to a strength and training of ones mind. In this section I examine
how participants experience their bodies in training and competition, and how
knowing is achieved though creating an existential connection between the mind
and body.
Training
Im training my body but at the same time Im trying to condition my mind
(Dennis, field notes May 2009)
Aside from school, home, and work, Desert Combat was next most
frequent response by participants to the question where do spend your day. An
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informal poll of members at Desert Combat suggested that recreational/amateur

fighters attended an average of three to four days a week, while professional
fighters came in five to six days a week. Recreational/amateur fighters spent one
to two hours at the gym taking classes, while professional fighters spent at least
three hours per day taking classes. Professional fighters would also spend at least
another two hours lifting weights or doing cardiovascular activities. This
significant amount of time training was reflected in the semi-structured interviews
I conducted with participants. Paul has been with Desert Combat for three years
now, and has just started competing professionally.

Me: Tell me about a typical day training for you. How many hours a day
do you spend training?
Paul: I usually go in [to Desert Combat] after work, so between two and
three hours.
Me: A day? Is it a major part of your daily life then?
Paul: Oh yeah. I usually get in at either 6:30pm and leave at 9:30pm, or if
I can get in earlier, I do. I usually have at least a two-hour practice you
know. If I can get a three-hour practice in, even better. Ive noticed doing
MMA you can work on so many different things, standup, grapplingI
can spend the whole day there and not get too physically exhausted
because my intensity level doesnt have to be high the whole time. Theres
a lot of things to work on, technique wise too.
Me: You dont get burnt out at all?
Paul: Not really. On average Id say I go five days a week and because
there are so many different aspects to learn, I dont get burnt out.
Whenever I get off of work, Im fortunate. Im in sales so I can make up
my schedulefree up my nights up so whenever I get off of work Im
usually just straight to the gym.

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Paul tells me he is dedicated to the sport, and training that much is necessary to be
good. Every other professional fighter I spoke with agreed that it is a sport that
takes up a large amount of time to practice in order to be successful.
Raphael has come to Desert Combat on a training holiday. He trains in
jujitsu in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil with the same school where Santiago, the head
jujitsu coach at Desert Combat, had trained. It is quite commonplace to have
members from the same jujitsu school (e.g. Nova Uniao) visit different locations
of this same school across the United States and even the world for training. It is
very much like an exchange program. I spoke to Raphael to see if the intense
professional training philosophy (6 days a week/five hours a day) of Desert
Combat professional fighters held true for professional fighters in Brazil.
Me: Tell me about your training. How many times a day, how many days a
week?
Raphael: I train every day. Now here, Im training two times a day.
Morning is grappling and evening is boxing or MMA, but when Im in
back in Brazil Im training two or three times a day on physical
preparation. You know what that is?
Me: Like running or lifting weights?
Raphael: Lift weights and cardio. Ahh, and grappling, and stand up or
wrestling. Basically, is two or three times a day training.
Me: Not one day of rest?
Raphael: Wednesday. Cause its the middle of the week. Not all day rest,
sometimes I just run a little bit.
Me: Do other professional fighters in Brazil, or at your gym, train as much
as you?
Raphael: Yeah. Most, if they want to be good.
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Not only professional fighters, but individuals who had no desire to

compete and simply engaged in MMA for recreational purposes, also suggested in
order get better, it required dedication and significant time commitment. I asked
this group of recreational/amateur MMA fighters why they chose this sport. Some
responded that it was a realistic form of self-defense while others stated that it
was fun because there were so many different components to learn. All
participants replied that it was the best possible way to stay in shape.
Desert Combat has several professional football players that train MMA in
their off-season. These individuals come to Desert Combat because of its
reputation for high quality training and for producing several professional, worldrenowned fighters. Sam has been a professional football player in the NFL for
approximately four years and has been coming to Desert Combat for the past year
and a half.
Me: So why MMA and not something else like karate or cycling?
Sam: I like MMA because its full-body training. More than any other
sport, you do so many different thingsthe ground game [referring to
jujitsu and grappling] and stand up [referring to striking]you use every
muscle. And it works your cardio. Man, does it work your cardio.
Sam: Which is more difficult training-wise, football or MMA?
Sam: Ooh, I mean being a professional football player, I would say
football is very physically demanding, but overall, as far as being
physically demanding, I would say mixed martial arts is more physically
demanding. I think theyre both physically demanding in their own right
but you know mixed martial arts would definitely have to take it.

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In consideration of the fact that Sam is a professional athlete, it is a significant

acknowledgment that MMA requires intense physical conditioning. The
individuals competing professionally are athletes and training just as much for
MMA as they would any another professional sport such as football or tennis. In
the early days of MMA, the spectacle of cagefighting did not require such intense
training. Ronald has been competing in MMA since the early 1990s and continues
to compete professionally although he is now in his forties.
Ronald: In the beginning it was just brawlin. Just like a street fight. You
dont really train for a street fight. You just get in there. Well, I did train a
bit though, because thats who I am. I was really good cause I was a
college wrestler. I was even an Olympic qualifier in 87. I used my
background as a wrestler so I had an advantagethen I went over to Japan
Me: Ah, yes. That is where you were with New Japan Pro Wrestling?
Ronald: Yeah. Then I went back to MMA.
Me: Did you notice a difference?
Ronald: Yep. Sure did. I kind of noticed this transition happening all
along. Like I said in the beginning it was all just brawling, now you have
to be good at everything. The kids in the sport now are really turning into
true athletes.
Self-awareness, Feeling and a Mind-body Connection
It seemed odd to many participants I interviewed that I would ask them
how training felt. Training was something you do. You experience it. You dont
necessarily verbalize this. I explained that I was examining the daily lives and
experiences of MMA fighters, and it would be helpful if they could describe what
it was like to train so that those who did not have first hand experience training

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could understand. For several participants, I had to ask that they comment on
physiological cues, and this would trigger more specific responses from them.
Me: How do you feel when you train? Whats your mindset like? Do you
notice your heart rate? Do you notice your breathing?
Carlos: When Im out of shape I notice my breathing.
Me: Is that the first thing you notice?
Carlos: When Im out of shape, yes, because when your lungs go and
youre tired, you can get away with it if you have better technique but
when your lungs go, its harder to keep going. I think if everything is
feeling good and Im in shape, Im actually less aware of my body. Its
almost like my mind goes blank and Im just flowing with everything. Im
very focused on whats happening here when Im not stressed out at all.
Me: Are you consciously thinking, Do this, do that?
Carlos: Sometimes I am, but for the most part the ideas dont come to my
mind like Okay, this is what I need to do. Its more just youre focused
and your mind is taking in everything thats happening, then it just kind of
goes. You just know when to move your hands, or feet in a certain way.
You dont really have time to consciously think, Okay, I need to do this
now. It just kind of happens. At least for me, my mind is usually kind of
blank.
Me: So what is the best part of training?
Carlos: I think that relaxing and focusing and being there nothing else
matters. No matter what else is going on in your life, when youre there,
youre just there. Your main problem is either getting punched or choked.
Thats everything that youre focused on right now. I like that. I like
leaving all the other crap behind. No matter how bad of a day it is, no
matter how good of a day it is, thats just my time to not think and to just
take in everything thats happening.
Me: So its very much in the moment?
Carlos: Yeah.
I was surprised by Carlos responses to how training MMA feels. I could replace
the sport of MMA with the practice of yoga and his responses would be equally, if
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not more conventionally appropriate. Carlos describes his MMA training almost
as a form of meditation. It provides an opportunity for him to be present in the
moment and provide a reprieve from the stress that he may be feeling resulting
from other aspects of his life. It appears paradoxical that the intense bodily
activity, which requires focus and concentration, would allow for his mind to go
blank.
In contrast, Jareds experience training suggests a more intense, and
mentally constructed experience. Like Carlos, Jared has also been fighting
professionally for a couple years now. Jared makes frequent reference to the
mental aspects of his training, evoking a much more mind over matter philosophy.
He spoke about the satisfaction he received from pushing his body to the limits of
nearly losing consciousness.
Me: How do you feel when youre training, what is your mindset like? Do
you notice changes in your body, like increased heart rate? What do you
feel like when youre training?
Jared: The only thing that I really notice when Im training real hard is my
breathing, my heart rate. If get winded then my vision starts to fade a little
bit, you kind of, I guess its like blacking out but its just like everything
starts to close in a little bit. And thats when you train real hard, thats
when I know Im doing it right, Im pushing myself.
Me: So what do you do if youre tired or you get to that point where
youre so exhausted, and part of your head is saying, what is your head
saying to you at that moment?
Jared: If Im training and I start to feel that way I just push through it
because I know like if I push myself to the point that I like vomit or
something, when the trainings over, when the coach say alright you guys
are done, you did good. I feel so good about myself that night, and I sleep
really well. Thats what keeps me going and thats how.

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Me: And if you didnt push yourself through that, youd be upset with
yourself?
Jared: Id feel terrible, yeah; Id feel like I let myself down.
Me: So whats the best part of training? That feeling of pushing through
that you were talking about?
Jared: For me the best part of training is learning something, and just
knowing that Im not wasting away on the couch, not doing anything.
Me: What is the worst part about training?
Jared: An off-day, like when your timing is off and you just cant make
things click and when you just; its just a frustrating day. Thats the worst
part of it, when youre trying so hard to make it better but you cant.
Me: What causes an off-day?
Jared: When your head is not there. Or your body is just so tired and
broken down. But mostly its when your head isnt there.
Jared and numerous other fighters commented that it was ones mind that was
often the cause of a poor practice or an off-day. I asked participants who trained
in MMA (amateurs, professionals, coaches) to estimate what percentage of the
sport was mental and what percentage of the sport was physical. An
overwhelming majority stated that the mental aspect outweighed the physical
aspect. Responses ranged from 50% (the lowest estimate) to 90% (the highest
estimate), with most participants citing a range of (75-85%). One fighter summed
it up best by saying, It doesnt matter how good you are, or how hard you
trained, if your mind isnt right youre going to lose. Most frequently cited
reasons for a fighters mind not being right were personal/relationship issues, or
being intimidated by ones opponent and not having enough confidence. The

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subtext of these responses appears to be a lack of focus. According to all fighters,

mental focus and determination are critical to a successful career in MMA.
Although Desert Combat was my primary field site, I also travelled to
other gyms across the United States to observe their teaching methods and
philosophies, and to interview other fighters and coaches. The gym American
Fight Club, located just outside Miami, Florida, placed an exceptional emphasis
on the mental aspect of MMA. Out of the five different gyms that I visited during
the course of my research, only American Fight Club had a mental conditioning
coach. Clarence is a forty-four year old former collegiate wrestler. He had
practiced MMA recreationally for over ten years, but did not compete
professionally. His most important role at American Fight Club was to prepare
professional fighters mentally for their competitions. Clarence would also attend
regular MMA practices for both amateurs and professionals, observing the class
and walking over to individuals offering tips on mental clarity.
Me: As I was asking you before, can you explain a bit more about being
the mental conditioning coach? What is your specific role?
Clarence: I am here to help out with everything but technique. I help the
guys get mentally prepared. I was involved with coaching a gentleman
who won a gold medal in wrestling at Beijing in the 2008 Olympics.
Me: That is quite impressive. Could you tell me more about how you
coach? Do you have a specific technique you employ?
Clarence: I coach with goal setting, how to turn a victory into a learning
experience and then also how to turn a loss into a learning experience. A
real big part of it is goal setting. Then right along with goal setting is
following through on your goal setting. I help kids establish a goal, then I
help them establish an action plan.
Me: Are there specific exercises you do with them aside from goal setting?
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Clarence: Well, theres mental visualization. I have them picture the moves
they will use to win in their heads, and also picture standing in the octagon
with their hand raised [in victory].
Me: To what degree is a fight mental?
Clarence: Id say 90%. Lets put it this way, if you arent focused on the
fight, youve already lost.
Clarence went on to describe to me the mentally challenging aspects of training.
He explained that training itself is not just physically but emotionally draining.
Clarence tells me, Sometimes your emotions just sneak up on youyou have to
control them. To Clarence, fighting is not about getting out aggression and anger
but learning to control emotions and being mentally strong. This is relevant from
both a coach's perspective and a fighters perspective. Ryan, from Desert Combat,
seemed to relate to this point of view. He stated that in order to be a successful
fighter being mentally tough is key.

Ryan: The qualities that a fighter should haveone is definitely being

mentally tough as far as emotional side of it and the training side of it.
You need to train two or three times a day. A lot of people cant do it. You
need to push past the physical and that is where the mental comes in. I
know people who have panic attacks before the fights but you have to
control it. You have to know how to get your heart rate down. You have to
know your body and this takes mental strength.
After reviewing interview data, it seems that fighters describe training for MMA
as an interesting combination of the mind commanding the body to endure, while
also allowing the body to subconsciously act.

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Sparring: Practice fighting in a safe place

First and foremost, youve got to conquer ego.
(Francisco speaking to Fighters class, Oct. 2008)
Sparring involves taking the techniques learned during classes and
practiced during drills and implementing them in a fight situation. I feel the
practice can be best described by the words of Desert Combat participant Jared:
Sparring is like a kind of toned down version of an actual fight. Its like
practicing fighting in a safe place. Participants at Desert Combat are not allowed
to spar until one of the coaches (either Francisco, Fernando, or Victor) says they
have reached a level of proficient technical skill. Sparring is closely monitored by
the coaches and may take place in the cage, in the boxing ring, or on the large
open mat area. Sparring participants are generally matched up by approximate
size and skill, although sometimes the coaches will have more advanced students
helping the less experienced. Most members of the gym are eager to spar because
it means they are a step closer toward fighting at an amateur, then professional
level. Fernando tells me of the countless times an individual with no experience
will walk into the gym and demand to get into the cage to spar.
Fernando: I cant tell you how many times weve had some guy off the
street come in and want to sparLots of them dont even have experience
or say they train MMA in their backyard. You cant just get in here and
spar. You have to earn it.
Me: You mean prove you are good enough to spar?
Fernando: Yeah. Its not just about technique. Its about control. Guys
think its all about how tough you are but it takes a lot of training.
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Me: So what do you tell these guys?

Fernando: I tell them they have to show they have the skill and control
before they can get in there. Thats how we weed out the guys that really
want to learn and the guys that come in here to prove something. There
was this one, big, roided-out [steroid user] douche-bag that came in here
wanting to fight one of our pro guys.
Me: Did you let him?
Fernando: No, but god, I wanted to. I wanted to be like ok, buddy get in
there with Steven. Steven wouldve totally kicked his ass. People still
think its just a fightIt takes a lot of work to be a pro.
Fernando and the other coaches expressed concern that if one does not take the
experience seriously it could lead to injury. Fernando mentioned control and this
is an important distinction. Sparring is not about getting out aggression and
simply pummeling the other person. Sparring requires being able to control ones
emotions, and the strength at which one delivers strikes. The coaches will instruct
participant to go at 60%, meaning to go at 60% of ones full strength. The only
times the coaches may tell participants to go full force is when a pro fighter is
getting ready for a competition. Participants do wear protective gear such as
gloves, shin guards, headgear, elbow and knee pads, mouth guards and protective
groin cups, but there is still risk of injury. Therefore it is crucial that participants
know how to control their emotions and strength. Both Francisco and Fernando
tell me that females have the most difficult time controlling both their emotions
and strength. Although the MMA and Fighters classes are almost entirely male,
the kickboxing class, which has more females, also participates in sparring.

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Francisco: Its the ladies that get out of hand the most. (Laughter). The
girls are more vicious than the guys.
Me: Really? What do you mean?
Francisco: Well, its a couple things. The girls get angry faster. If the
other girl hits them, they want to hit them back harder.
Me: Well, arent most people like that?
Fernando: No, its true. Ive seen it turn really ugly with girls. Girls that
used to be friends then after they sparred they couldnt stand each other.
They just couldnt let go.
Me: So do you think that women are just more emotional? Is that why?
(Fernando and Francisco emphatically nod their heads in agreement)
Francisco: Guys are more used to wrestling and play fighting--girls dont
have that experience.
Fernando: Also, when we put the girls with the guys they go hard because
they think they had something to prove. The poor guy barely hits the girl
and shes going all out on him. Its funny.
Me: What do you mean he barely hits her?
Fernando: Guys grow up learning that it is wrong to hit a girl. Most guys.
So its hard for them to go at an equal level. They dont want to hurt them.
Initially, I assumed this was a reiteration of a common stereotypethat females
were more emotional than males and have a more difficult times controlling their
emotions. After speaking to several male participants, it would seem that the
coaches assessments were not purely speculative. Many of the lighter-weight
male participants would be paired with females of equal experience. These men
commented that although they would only go 30% [of their strength] yet their
female partner would retaliate with estimates of 80% or as hard as they could.
These male participants suggested the same reasons for this as the coaches, they
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dont know how to play-fight, cause they never did as kids, or they have
something to prove. Although I may not necessarily agree that female
participants were more emotional and therefore less in control, I did find that
many male participants found it somewhat unnerving to spar with a girl. Many
suggested that holding pads during a drill for a female was not a problem but
when it came time for them to actually hit a girl it was very different. Luckily,
during my participant observation I was fortunate enough to find sparring
opponents without this prejudice.

Lessons from the Cage

I quickly put on my shin guards, pop in my mouthpiece, and put on my
boxing gloves. I step into the cage. Finally, it was my time. I was going to
spar. Give her the headgear too! yells Francisco. Jonathan pushes the
padded helmet-like protector over my head and fastens the strap under my
chin. Ready? Jonathan asks me. I nod. Am I ready for this? Will I
remember the drills and combinations of punches and kicks? Hmm, it is
really quite difficult to see out of this headgearI think its a little big.It
kind of smells funny too My thoughts are interrupted by the bell
signaling the start of the round. Marlon and I circle around each other.
Should I jab? No, I should go for head kick right awa-- Marlon lands a
clean jab to my forehead. Already, I have made my first mistakeI am
thinking too much. Something that Jonathan and Francisco often call me
out on. Ok, Im ok. This isnt too bad. I throw a kick at the left side of
Marlons abdomen. He quickly deflects it. We continue to circle each
other. I can tell I am still too much in my head. I am trying to mentally run
through combinations that may work on the more experienced Marlon-jab, cross, hook, switch- kickMarlon was landing blows to my head and
body from out of nowhere. I didnt even see it comingI realize that my
peripheral vision is severely impaired by the ill-fitting headgear. He
finishes another flurry of combos with a double jab that knocks my head
back. I picture myself as one of those bobble-head dolls sitting atop a
cars dashboard. I quickly return a jab, a cross and then a kick to the
body. Marlon drops to his knees. Out of instinct, I throw another cross at
his head on his way down. Wow, I did it! I am standing above him
waiting for him to stand back up as the bell signals the end of the round.
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Jonathan and Francisco come running over. I rip off my gloves and
headgear, concerned that I may have injured Marlon. I then realize that
Jonathan and Francisco and laughing uncontrollably. My victory was
short lived. Jonathan yells, Holy shit! Did you see that? She nailed him
in the balls with that kick; then she sucker punched him in the face on the
way down! I was mortified. I thought I had kicked him in the stomach
and he had gone down due to my skillful combination.
My god Marlon, I am so sorry. I couldnt see out of this headgear really.
Are you ok? Im so sorry.
Marlon responds, his voice barely above a whisper, No, no its my fault.
I didnt wear my cup.
Francisco turns and yells to the class, See guys, this is why you always
wear a cup.
(First time sparring, field notes, Oct. 2006)
The lessons here are two-fold. There are practical messages such as: 1) if you are
male, you should always remember to wear your cup while sparring, and 2) it may
be worth it to invest in headgear that fits properly and allows for your full range
of vision. However, the most important lesson I learned from the experience was
to trust my body more. I was intellectualizing and silently verbalizing my
intended actions, which only served to slow down my reflexes. I spent far too
much of that first sparring experience in my mind rather than in my body.

Getting Hit
What do you think it feels like to get hit? It hurts. Like my request to
describe how training feels, most participants found this to be a bizarre question.
Luckily, the participants at Desert Combat grew accustomed to me asking
apparently strange and self-evident questions. Many replied with the most

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obvious response it hurts, but a couple fighters replied that they actually
enjoyed the experience of being hit.
Me: You joked before that you liked getting hit. Now what do you mean
by that?
Carlos: Well I was sparring with Ruben a while back. He noticed
something funny, that every time I get hit I tend to smile.
Me: You know what? Ive noticed a lot of people do that during a fight,
especially when its a good hard punch or kick.
Carlos: Yeah! Youre just like Ah! Good one! You got me. When a
fighter smiles after that means the shot really hurt.
Me: So why is it a good thing to get hit?
Carlos: I dont know. It just kind of makes you feel like youre alive. You
get hit and youre just like therealive. I dont know why its a good
thing. It just feels kind of good.
Indeed, it was also Carlos who also described MMA as if it was were an exercise
in meditation that connected both the mind and the body, but he was not the only
one to suggest that pain was a positive and life affirming experience. Although I
intentionally avoided my research becoming an academic quest to uncover
fighters psychological motivations for engaging in such as seemingly violent
activity, I did ask participants why they chose this sport and why they wanted to
fight. Many seemed to restate Carlos sentiments that it is just something that
makes you feel alive. Although fighters try not to get hit, getting hit provides a
consequencean assurance of purpose and existence. According to numerous
professional fighters one of the most truly exhilarating moments in their lives
involved stepping into the cage to fight.

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Competition
I asked the coaches at Desert Combat how long it took to become a
professional fighter. They responded that it depended on the person. Each fighter
at the gym had to undergo an informal and unspoken assessment by the coaches.
If the individual had developed the proper technical skill, had good cardiovascular
fitness, and could maintain a level-headedness about them during sparring, they
were given permission to compete. This could take anywhere from six-months
(for exceptional athletes with prior experience in wrestling or other martial arts)
or several years. Fernando and Francisco emphasized that the individual had to be
mentally prepared because there are a number of factors that elevate competition
above a day at the gym sparring. For many people, not just fighters,
demonstrations of ones skill in a public place, in front of an audience could
understandably add a component of pressure. Oftentimes, the events are also as
televised. There are bright lights and cameras that can be placed within inches of
a competitors face. Several fighters described their first professional fights as
both stressful and exhilarating.
Me: Tell me about your first time competing at a professional event. Were
you nervous?
Jason: I was just trying to stay positive and not freak myself out. Its just
pretty intense when youre walking out in front of ten thousand people. I
just went out there and I just did whatever came natural to me, and ended
up winning it. But it was definitelyserious butterflies, thats for sure; its
definitely a rush, you know. But one guy was telling me, you have a
choice to either be nervous or just soak it in. And thats what I try to do,
just soak it up cause everybodys there for you. Its just a mental thing for
most people. Thats pretty much the only obstacle I feel I have had to get
over. But other than that, yeah it was a definite rush and it was fun. I cant
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explain how it feels having your hand up at the end and everybody
cheering and going nuts. Its pretty cool.
Although Jason fought in front of an extremely large crowd, he has had some
experience competing in front of a large audience while wrestling in college.
Other individuals admitted that their first fights were sources of extreme anxiety.
Lawson had a far more difficult time getting used to the feelings that arose before
a competition.
Lawson: Yeah, I had a lot of anxiety. Im getting better at that, the anxiety
thing. Im never really worried about it anymore. But at the first one I was
stressed and wondered if maybe I couldnt performYou wonder if
youre going to go in there and freeze up. Whats going to happen? Am I
going to get knocked out right away? I did pretty good though; I won. Its
stressful. Youve just got to deal with it.
Me: How long were you anxious and stressful? Like a week before?a
day before?
Lawson: Like months, like a month before.
Me: Really? A month before?
Lawson: Like a month and a half I was stressed. I was like Why am I
doing this? But I did it anyway and Im still doing it.
Me: So why were you doing it?
Lawson: Because I wanted to. I wanted to be good at what Im doing so
thats the only way to find out if youre good at it.
Me: So how did you deal with the stress right before the event?
Lawson: I dont know. I just drove myself into a frenzy kind of I guess. I
just went in there and did it.
Me: Does it help to be really anxious and just sort of let it out?
Lawson: No. Its better to be mellowrelaxed.
Me: What do you remember about your first fight?
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Lawson: Whats weird about your first fight (or the first couple), you are
fighting out of pure emotion and instinct. Later fights you know how to
keep your mind in that perfect balance where you know you are thinking,
you are feeling the pressure but letting your body do the work. You just let
your body do its thing.
Lawson noted that the best mental state to be in was one that was relaxed yet
feeling some kind of pressure. He and numerous other fighters talked about
moments when you are so intensely focused that the body just takes over. Some
have even compared this occurrence to an out-of-body experience. Professional
fighter Tito Ortiz writes about this in his autobiography:
When it's time to fight, I flip the switch and there's character that comes
out of me that's not me. I have an out of body experience when I fight. I
see myself high from a place outside the ring. It's like some kind of
fantasy.
(Ortiz and Shapiro 2008: xii)
Zeke, a professional fighter at Desert Combat, shares a similar experience with
me:
Me: Tell about your first fight. Was it memorable?
Zeke: Yeah, it was memorable because it was local, so all my friends and
family were able to go. Actually, my first fight almost felt like I was in a
video game, but it was like someone just kept pushing the A and B button.
It just felt like kind of surreal, like things slowed downamazing, like I
wasnt even in my body type of thing.
This experience during competition could perhaps be equated with being in the
zone. Sport psychologists refer this as the zone of optimal performance,
according to theories of anxiety/arousal and performance. The Inverted-U
Hypothesis (substantiated by Martens and Landers 1970) states that when
depicted visually, the correlation between the quality of motor performance and
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arousal creates an inverted-u shape. This means that the optimal level of arousal
for high quality performance is not low or high, but moderate. Participants allude
to this in their interviews, suggesting that it is important to be somewhat excited
but not excessively nervous or too pumped up. Athletes have often commented
that when they perform well, everything comes together and simply flows. The
intention and action are complementary. Csikszenthmihalyi (1990) calls this a
flow state. In 1996, sport psychologists Jackson and Marsh developed a
measure to evaluate ones situatedness within a flow state. Although there are
nine dimensions of flow, the aspects most pertinent to this research and
participants responses include:
Action-awareness merging: Involvement is so deep that it becomes
spontaneous or automatic.
Concentration on the task at hand: Total concentration of the task as it
occurs.
Sense of control: The person experiences a sense of exercising control but
without actively trying to exert control.
Transformation of time: Time alters perceptibly, either slowing down or
speeding up.
(Jackson and Marsh 1996)
Looking at interview data from professional MMA fighters, based upon this
criteria, it would seem to indicate that many of them were in this flow state. They
were concentrating intensely but their actions were almost automatic. This is what
Merleau-Ponty (1989) also discusses in his work on perception, motility and
habit. He describes what Jackson and Marsh (1996) would call action-awareness
merging using the example of a musician learning to play the piano. The musician
practices and concentrates on combining mental and physical efforts together to
learn. Over time, and practice, this activity becomes automatic. The musician no
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longer has to actively think of each note, or the how many beats per measure. The
musician, with closed eyes, can let the fingers move across the keyboard without
conscious thought. This experience is not reserved solely for musicians or
athletes. Wacquant (2004:149) cites this mind-body connection evidenced in, the
moral and sensual logic of criminal careers (Katz 1989), the learning calculus
(Lave 1988), and the craft of surgery (Cassell 1991).
Zekes and Titos references to an out-of-body experience during
competition suggest that something more than individual experience may be
going on here. More than a merely autonomic state, it seems to be almost some
kind of cathartic, spiritual experience. Perhaps the added dimension of being in a
public venue, sharing the moment with others or an audience elevates an
individuals action awareness-merging (Jackson and Marsh 1996) to a whole new
level. Wacquant (2004) also describes this phenomenon occurring in a social
setting in the presence of others. Here he gives an account of boxers shadowboxing at an inner city Chicago gym:
This continuous visual and auditory reinforcement generates a state of
collective effervescence quite reminiscent of the frenetic excitement of
the great aboriginal totemic ceremonies of colonial Australia, which has
the effect of facilitating the assimilation of gestures by prodding
participants to drop their inhibitions, to let go of their bodies, and whip
up their energy.
(Wacquant 2004: 116)
The body is often cited as central to facilitating highly sensory religious
experiences such as trance-like states or spirit possession (see Bacigalupo 2004,
Kapchan 2008, Port 2005, Nguyn 2008).
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Theorists such as Mauss (1973) and Bourdieu (1977) have explored this
physical-mental state in relation to social contexts. Mauss (1973) describes how
the learning that occurs through the body is not just physical, but also entangled
with the mind and with society. Mauss uses the word habitus to imply action that
is beyond simple habit: they do not just vary by individuals and imitations []
in them we should see the techniques and work of collective and individual
practical reason rather than in the ordinary way, merely the soul and its repetitive
faculties (1973: 73). In Techniques of the Body, he emphasizes how movements
such as running and eating are learned and culturally constructed according to
variables such as age and gender. Bourdieu builds upon Mauss (1973) work and
expands upon the notion of habit. He describes an apparently infinite number of
components to the term habitus, though it can be summarized as a system of
durable and transposable dispositions that enable agents to reproduce the
conditions of existence. There are three main aspects of habitus come out in
Bourdieus (1977) work: 1) the manner in which it is generated by social practice
while simultaneously generating and passing social practice; 2) its emphasis on
the unconscious and unintentional; 3) its connection to history. The culmination
of these aspects of habitus allows for processes of embodiment to occur. Bourdieu
(2000) addresses how perception and cognition are intertwined with experience
but beyond individual experience. Habitus can be taken as Bourdieus way of
adding the social dimension to Merleau-Pontys theory of embodiment, in that the
perceptual is itself conditioned by the social (Hoy 1999: 11). These theories of
embodiment all underlie the learning that goes on for MMA participants. Their
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craft, their sense of knowing, feeling and awareness, is mediated by social

contexts (such as sparring or competition) and impacts facets of practice such as
mental acuity (i.e. flow states). Their world is not simply defined by their bodies
or by the physical.

Conclusions
Mixed Martial Arts sometimes requires conscious mental focus, and other
times the habitual actions of body can lead to a meditative state.
Elements of an anthropology of boxing as biologico-sociological
phenomenon set into relief the central place of practical reason into this
limiting case of practice that is pugilism invite us to move beyond the
traditional distinctions between body and mind, instinct and idea, the
individual and institution by showing how the two terms of these perennial
antinomies are constituted together and mutually support one another,
specify and reinforce themselves but also weaken each other in the same
movement.
(Wacquant 2004:149).
In this quote from Notebooks of An Apprentice Boxer, Wacquant describes the
complex and seemingly contradictory facets of MMAs cousin sport, boxing. The
activity is at once physical and mental, learned through ones body but also
through interactions with others (bodies). Mixed Martial Arts, like boxing, is not
purely instinctual but must be learned, repeatedly executed to attempt perfection.
The body is central to this. The body is the vehicle of experience and perception
but the mind is its collaborator. In examining the experiences of MMA
practitioners during training and competition, various states of consciousness and
cognition are revealed. Although on the surface, the sport of MMA may appear to
be heavily physiological, training and success in competition require intimate
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knowledge of and trust in ones body and mind. Elements such as memory and
reflex are bound together in habit and practice to create self-awareness, but can
also fashion moments of inarticulate half-consciousness (Weber as cited in
Wacquant 2004: 149) often necessary for flawless athletic execution otherwise
known as flow states (Csikszenthmihalyi 1990). On an individual level, the
practice of activity to a point where the conscious mind and the body let go is
recognized by sport psychologists as achieving a flow state (Csikszenthmihalyi
1990), or as action-awareness merging (Jackson and Marsh 1996). Merleau-Ponty
(1989) would describe this as a key part of phenomenological embodiment, and
sociologists such as Mauss (1973), Bourdieu (1977) and Wacquant (2004)
recognize the collective component that situates individual experience to add
dimensions of shared a socially embodied experience. There is remarkable
complexity to uncover in exploring the relationships between the mind and body
and society but it is difficult to define the terms used to explain these processes.
As Scheper-Hughes and Lock point out:
We lack a precise vocabulary with which to deal with mind-body-society
interactions and so are left suspended in hyphens, testifying to the
disconnectedness of our thoughts. We are forced to resort to such
fragmented concepts as the bio-social, the psycho-somatic, the somatosocial as altogether feeble ways of express the myriad ways in which the
mind speaks through the body, and the ways in which society is inscribed
on the expectant canvass of human flesh.
(Scheper-Hughes and Lock 1987: 10).
The Cartesian illogicality of controlling the mind while also letting the body take
over, is illuminated through Merleau-Pontys denial of such a simplistic duality.
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The body, not as object but also subject, is fundamental to existence as, the very
experience of transcendent things is possible only provided that their project is
borne, and discovered, within myself (Merleau-Ponty 1989: 369).

85

CHAPTER 3. CONTROLLING THE BODY AND ITS

REPRESENTATION:FAT GUYS HAVE TO PROVE IT
Pope et al.s (1999) study of the increasing muscularity of male action
figures over the past thirty years suggests growing cultural concern with the
appearance of the male body in American society. For Mixed Martial Arts
participants, the body provides the foundation for their identity as a fighter. The
active, efficient, material body is key to sporting success, yet the image and
representation of the body is equally important to attaining financial and overall
career success. There are many issues that arise out of an inquiry into the body
and its role in MMA. In this chapter, there are three issues I address: 1) is there a
pervasive image or hegemonic ideal for the male body associated with the sport of
MMA; 2) if there is, to what extent is it represented by actual participants; and 3)
is the ideal, if it does exist, a result of training the body into its most effective and
efficient form for MMA, or is it influenced more by aesthetics? Through
participant observation and interviews (with the use of photo elicitation) I
discovered that there is a great deal of diversity in terms of the height and weight
of fighters, but also a shared acknowledgment that there is a representation of an
ideal form and concern over achieving this. The body in MMA is equated with
power and control, but also professionalism. It was apparent that at times, some
participants were uncomfortable verbalizing ideas regarding bodies; however,
their practices of cutting weight in preparation for competitions suggests an
impressive, intimate knowledge of their own bodys functioning. The body
appears at the forefront of self-representation for individuals participating in
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MMA yet the body also becomes a vehicle through which to uncover selfawareness.

Ideal Bodies and Expectations

One of the first questions I asked participants was whether there was an
ideal body type, weight, height or look for an MMA fighter. I received similar
responses from participants at Desert Combat, and the professional fighters nearly
all gave the same answer: There is no ideal body type, height or weight. It
depends on the individual. The ideal is whatever wins. Ruben was the first
professional fighter I encountered who fought in the flyweight (or 125 lb) weight
class.
Me: Is there an ideal weight or height for an MMA fighter?
Ruben: Any weight, any height. Ive pretty much learned now that you
cant judge. Its like you cant judge a book by its cover. Watching fights
you see guys who are tall, skinny guys, almost scrawny, that have no
muscles, and youre like this guy is definitely going to lose. But when the
fight starts and they get on the ground, the guys jujitsu is absolutely
unreal. I mean the only thing I would say is that usually for MMA you just
think of somebody whos lean. You know, someone who does MMA, you
think would have low body fat. Thats probably the most similarity that I
see, lean.
Me: So what about your weight class, 125lbs, right? Is there an ideal for
your weight class?
Ruben: No, I think its whatever you feel the best at, you know. You gotta
be lean of course. But its whatever you feel comfortable at. You know
some people feel comfortable at a lower weight, higher weight, more
muscle mass, just whatever you feel your bodyfor me its always been
you know as lean as possible, and you know, whatever I feel the fastest
and the quickest at, you know, and its been 125 for me. I think it just
depends on your build and your skill level, and you knowing what your
strengths are.
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Me: What about in terms of height? How tall are you?

Ruben: 54. Height isnt so much of an issue. With the lighter weights,
like fly weights, most of us are pretty short. You know you get a lot of
Hispanic guys, and Asian guys and they are usually smaller. We do get
some tall guys, but at 125lb they arent too many that are taller than like
58. Those guys probably have a reach advantage but I get in and out. Im
quicker, and I have good balance, a lower center of gravity. Some of those
lanky guys can be good at jujitsu though. I think there really isnt an ideal.
It depends on the person.
I was curious to get Rubens take on an ideal body for a fighter, since from a
commercial standpoint he is not the most visible weight class. In the past,
televised MMA events usually showed fights at 155lbs as the lightest weight
class. Only in the past couple years have they begun showing 135lb fighters.
Ruben fights ten pounds below this weight at 125lbs. He acknowledges to me that
he feels there is some bias toward heavier fighters.
Ruben: You know in boxing it was all about the heavy weights? I think
America still thinks of all fighters as heavy weights. I guess they think the
heavier weight class will give you more knockouts. But I think lighter
weight classes are more exciting. The guys are faster, move around more
and dont get tired as easily.
Me: Yeah, I agree. The heavy weights seem to get tired and hang onto
each other.
Ruben: Yeah they get into that clinch position and just hang on until the
ref breaks it up.
Me: So do you feel like you have to live to more difficult standards if
people want to see the heavier weights, or think of fighters as bigger?
Ruben: No, not really. I mean thats the way the industry is right now, but
its changing. WEC [World Extreme Cagefighting] has got the lighter
weights in and the fans really like that. Its definitely changing. As far as
standards, not reallyI cant change my height, and I dont want to fight
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at a higher weight class. Like I said, its about the fighter and how he
fights best.
Although it appears that an effective fighter can be any height or any weight, the
public perception still seems to be that fighters are somehow physically
identifiable through their bodies. Many expect fighters to be big and strong.
Survey data gathered from one hundred fans at the 2009 Ultimate Fighting
Championship Fan Expo indicates that fans believe that fighters share several
physical characteristics. When fans were asked about words that came to mind to
describe professional fighters, muscular, big, strong, and good shape
were the most frequently cited adjectives. Several of the lighter weight fighters
commented that people were often surprised that they were professional fighters
because fighters are supposed to be big. James tells me about a particular
experience that illustrates this discrepancy between perception and reality.
James: Yeah, so, I was in this bar with some friends. We were there
hanging out, and a girl came up to me and asked me about my ear and I
was like, oh, I do MMA fighting.
Me: Uh-huh. So she meant the cauliflower ear that wrestlers/fighters get
from training right?
James: Yeah. And she was like, Oh, MMA? What do you mean? Then I
say, Ill give you the short version, (since she obviously didnt know what
it meant) its similar to the UFC type fighting. She took a step back and
looked at me, and she was like, youre small. I couldnt even believe that
she said that. I tell her, you know there are weight classes I was a little
bit taken back by it actually.
Me: Did it offend you?
James: A little bit.

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As James re-told this encounter, I could sense that he was truly offended by her
comment. This girl did not appear to be very knowledgeable about the sport so
her comment appeared generated out of ignorance rather than malice. When I
pressed James about how he felt about being called small, he told me that no
guy wanted to be called small even if they were shorter or lighter than the average
man.
Me: Why is small so bad?
James: Well, small is for a kid. I know that I am not as tall or big as the
average guy but no guy wants to be called small. Its like for girlsno girl
wants to be told shes big.
Me: Ok. I see your point.
Small seemed to imply a juvenilization of his masculinity. Small is a term used
to describe a boy, not a man. A boy has not reached the pinnacle of his
masculinity yet. James was still muscular, and was in what anyone would
consider good shape, but his legitimacy as a fighter was questioned due to his
stature. For him it seemed that it was not just an attack on his profession, but also
on his masculinity.
I also asked the same set of questions regarding body type ideals to
Raphael and Luiz, two professional fighters from Brazil who were on a training
holiday at Desert Combat, in hopes of seeing cultural differences in bodily ideals.
They shared the same sentiments that fighters could be different sizes but should
be lean and muscular.
Me: Is there an ideal look for a fighter? Does he have to be really big?
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Luiz: Dont have to be really big, depends what class. Fighters dont have
to be like too much muscle, too tight, too much muscle. You lose your
flexibility.
Me: You lose your flexibility?
Luiz: Ya. You know if you see fighters he looks like kind of we call dry all
your body dry ya know muscle dry.
Me: Like no fat? Cut?
Raphael: Ya, cut. The speed and power is potency and this is the best
thing. If youre too big you spend a lot of energy to one punch and one
movement and the other guy escape.
Me: Oh. So in Brazil fighters want to be cut, have dry muscle so they can
be flexible and agile. They cant be too big, have too much muscle.
Raphael and Luiz (talking over each other). Ya. This is right.
Me: In America it seems that fighters say the same thing. Have you
noticed a difference between the bodies of American fighters and
Brazilian fighters?
Raphael: Ya they want the same. All good fighters know the best ratio for
muscle is not too big.
It was clear from my numerous interviews with individuals who practiced MMA
that in practice there was no ideal body for a fighter per se. So how can the
pervasiveness of the image of the lean, muscled fighter be explained? I assume
that from practicing such a vigorous sport that requires huge amounts of caloric
fuel, that body becomes shaped as a result of this intense physical exertion. For
individuals who were truly serious about the sport, training five to six days a
week, and three to four hours a day, their bodies simply become a product of this
activity. This, combined with the fact that most fighters expressed a concern to eat
healthy (low sugar, emphasis on protein, vegetables and fruit), would seem to
shape the body in this particular, lean, well-muscled manner. Yet not every fighter
demonstrates this ideal body. There does seem to an image presented in the media
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that portrays fighters as lean and well-muscled. I was curious as to how much of
the shaping of their bodies was a conscious effort to keep up with these
representations. Some individuals remarked that they were aware of social
pressures to have a lean, well-muscled body and that the body in fact becomes a
marketable commodity.

Lee: When we grew up, everybody idolized body-builders and

runnersso I think that image kind of carries over a little bit. These are
like media types. You see there are certain heavyweight fighters that are a
little harder to market because they dont look like fighters. Fedor
[Emelianenko] doesnt look like a fighter. No one knows hes one of the
best in the world just by looking at him, unless youve seen him fight and
unless you know him. You would put him and Andre Arlovski together
and you would just automatically assume that Arlovski would kill [defeat]
him.
Me: Based on the body shape and image?
Lee: Yeah, I would say based on the images of what they look like, which
realistically is not all that important. I think on the outside, the media look
more toward image.
Me: Do you think if the media is looking toward promoting these people
with six-packs and closer to the aesthetic ideal that it would filter down
into everyday life? Like some guy who is just working at some gym, an
MMA gym, and he would see this image and think well, I should look
like this?
Lee: I dont really know. Maybe subconsciously? People always want to
look good, but I think its always going to come back to the effectiveness
of the fighter and your trainers. Sometimes Francisco calls me fat to be
like youre a fat kid, just poking fun. I took it as a joke. I dont think he
was being mean, it was just his way of telling me to get back in the gym
and keep training. Dont take time off. And it kept me in the gym, and Ive
been in ever since. I dont want him to call me fat again (laughter)
Although Lee insists Francisco was joking, and was just being Francisco, Lee
appeared hurt by the comment. I must add that Lee is not what one would call
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conventionally fat. In fact, I doubt that word would even have come to mind were
I asked to describe him. He appears a little heavier set, and while he isnt slim he
also isnt overweight. He has slightly round cheeks that are emphasized when he
laughs. He admits feeling anxiety over being called fat. Perhaps his anxiety lies in
not being recognized as a fighter. Lee mentioned that Fedor, who is a world-class
champion Russian MMA fighter, does not have this lean, well-muscled body.
This is they way that other participants have also described this fighter. Fedor
doesnt look like a fighter. Lee could very well have invoked Fedor as a rolemodel displaying a higher level of body fat in response to Franciscos harsh
assessment of his body. But he didnt. Although on a practical level, Lee knows
that it is more about skill, technique, and stamina, somehow it becomes important
to look like a fighter. Body image plays a large role in the representation of these
individuals. It is an unspoken way to communicate information about that
individual. Like Lee, other participants in this study suggested that image is
important but very few of them actually admitted that they were actively
incorporating this ideology of physical perfection into their own career plans.
Most participants could cite famous, well-known elite fighters who didnt have
ideal bodies but were extremely successful athletes. Despite this evidence, the
media representations (such as those in MMA magazines and websites) still give
seem to endorse the lean, well-muscled body as potentially the most effective.
Most participants interviewed seemed to indicate a desire for this physique.
Me: Do you think fighters have to be concerned about what their body
looks like?
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Bryan: No.
Me: Do you think some of them are?
Bryan: Yeah. You have millions of people watching you on TV. You
want to look sexy or whatever. Some people are just fat and flabby. Look
at Big Country [Roy Nelson]. Hes not sexy at all, but Im sure he still
gets laid and chicks still dig him because hes a big, burly fighter and
stuff. I think about it too. I wish I was a little bulkier and had more abs.
If youre a good fighter and youre doing your thing, look at Chuck
Liddell, for instance, big old beer gut, ugly as shit, but so many girls are
just all about him. Hes so famous. It doesnt matter what he looks like.
Hes a bad ass, so people respect him.If youre more concerned about
what you look like then youre not going to be totally focused on your
fighting. Thats kind of the way I look at it. I dont really give two shits
about it, if Im ripped up or whatever, as long as Im a good fighter. It
doesnt really matter. I enjoy being ripped up. Its fun being kind of
jacked.
Bryan tells me it doesnt matter what you look like as long as you are a good
fighter, but he also enjoys being ripped and jacked. (By this Bryan is referring to
having large, visibly defined muscles.) Another professional fighter, Jose made
some particularly insightful comments regarding body image. He suggests that the
fans provide additional pressure regarding ones physique as they come to expect
certain standards due to the images that are promoted by the media.
Jose: Training generally gives you the idealized body so most guys dont
worry. Fans expect certain things: broad shoulders, they want to live
vicariously through the fighters bodies. Fans want to see the idealized
bodies and are disappointed when they dont get it. Its a safe forum to
appreciate the male body. You want to be that person. If he looks like
thatimagine what he can do. Fat guys have to prove it.
This seemed to be consensus among the professional fighters I interviewed: fat
guys do have to prove their ability. Since there is a perception among fighters and
among fans that fighters should be lean and muscular, those who do not fit with
this image must work harder. The appearance of the body allows for inferences
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about the individual to be made and how the individual measures up to their social
groups ideals. For example, Popenoes (2004) study on the fattening practices of
Azawagh Arab women is an interesting counterpoint to western/North American
notions of fatness. North Americans notions of fatness (shared by MMA
participants) generally equate fatness with laziness, ineffectualness, and perhaps
even unattractiveness. Popenoe (2004) concludes that the fattening of Azawagh
Arab women creates sexual desire, displays healthfulness, and further notes that
constructs of gender are entailed in the process of fattening. The image of the
male body functions in much the same way for MMA participants as lean,
muscled bodies become representations of individual attractiveness and health but
also embodied ideals of the society to which they belong.
However, fighting bodies fluctuate, meaning the weight that a fighter
walks around at is often different than the weight a fighter competes at. Fighters
would mention to me that their bodies visibly changed depending on whether or
not they were fighting soon, or at what point they were in their training camp.
Training camp refers to the preparation for a fight and includes a schedule for
physical activities, other members to train with, and sometimes even changing
training locations. The body can be altered significantly during this time. For
example, at the start of a training camp an individual may be 180lbs and by the
end of it (after 6-12 weeks) he is down to 160lbs. Days before a fight the
individual may dehydrate his body to lose an additional five pounds to make the
required fight weight of 155lbs. The dehydration causes the muscles to stand out

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even more than usual. This process of cutting weight can alter ones body
dramatically.
Cutting Weight
Many fighters dread weigh-in day, depending on how much they have to
cut. Some have to pare down their eating a couple days out and carry around
a bag of raw spinach leaf to snack on. Some don't eat a sliver of food or
drink an ounce of water 24 hours to 40 hours before weigh-ins. Depending
on the fighter's knowledge of how to cut weight or circumstances like taking
fight to the last minute, I've heard of guys cutting up to 30 pounds a week of
the fight. This can be a miserable, draining process.
(Couture and Hunt 2008: 246)
Cutting weight is a temporally relative term. It may refer to the amount of weight
a person wants to lose by the end of a training camp. Or, it could refer to the last
couple pounds of water weight an individual has to lose before a fight. Either
way, it implies losing weight in a relatively short amount of time. It would seem
odd that if a fighter walked around (non-competition weight) at 180lbs that he
would choose to compete at 155lbs. Why would anyone want to go through all the
extra effort of losing twenty-five pounds before a fight? Ryan explains the
advantages of cutting weight to me:

Ryan: Well everyone wants to have the advantage. If you are 160lbs and
you fight at 155lbs and you are fighting some guy whos usually 180lbs
but he cuts down to 155lbs, he will have the advantage.
Me: Why is that?
Ryan: Well, he is going to be naturally bigger and probably stronger. You
want to get your body fat down and muscle mass up so you can be
stronger. Its about having the best ratio of fat to muscle at the competition
weight. The thing is, you only have to weigh-in at 155lbsand twentyfour hours later you can rehydrate and be up to 175lbs. If you dont cut
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weight you are going to rehydrate back to only 160lbs. You will be
smaller and not have the size or strength advantage.
Fighters must compete at certain weight classes. Height or other bodily
measurements (such as reachthe arm length of a fighters punch) do not matter.
The fighters weight measured during weigh-ins provides a sense of equality and
fairness that the competitors somehow begin the competition on par with each
other. The implementation of weight-classes was crucial to MMA becoming a
legitimate sport. With weight-classes, the spectacle aspect of a 150lb man fighting
a 220lb giant disappears. The quantification creates a sense of fair play and
equality that is pertinent to the structuring of genuine sport activities. The
reasoning behind cutting weight before the weigh-ins is to have the best possible
advantage size-wise over an opponent. It is a way of physically re-structuring the
body in order to manipulate the established system without actually breaking any
rules. This practice of cutting weight is common in the sport of wrestling at all
levels, from high school to the Olympics. Many professional MMA practitioners
come from wrestling backgrounds and therefore have had years of experience
learning how to cut weight.
There is controversy (as evidenced in numerous MMA chat-rooms online)
over cutting weight due to issues of fairness and also out of concern for the
fighters health. Although at the time of weigh-ins, both individuals may weight
155lbs, by the time they get into the cage, one fighter may outweigh the other by
twenty pounds. While the match is listed as a fight between 155lb men, what the
audience may be in fact watching is a fight between a 160lb man and a 180lb
man. I was astonished to learn that fighters may gain back ten, even twenty-five
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pounds in a twenty-four hour period. Victor, the instructor of the MMA class, and
world champion professional MMA fighter cuts over twenty pounds to compete at
155lbs.
Me: Okay, so let me see if I have this right: you walk around at about
175lbs, then you weigh-in at 155lbs, but the next day at the fight you are
back to 175lbs?
Victor: Yeah (laughter). About 175lbs, maybe 170lbs.
Me: How does the body do that? Is that safe?
Victor: Ive been doing it forever since Ive been wrestling forever. I can
do it safely. My body is used to it [cutting weight]Its pretty much all
water weight. You know that body is like 90% water. [Note: the body is
actually composed of 55-65% water.] Im careful how I rehydrate. Some
guys arent. They take in the wrong things.
Me: What do you mean?
Victor: Well, you want to hydrate again. Thats the main thing. I drink lots
of water and special rehydration drinks like Pedialyte. Not too much
sugar. Gatorade has too much sugarI try to get as much in as can, but
slowly. I also try to eat things like oatmeal, eggs, maybe a bit of pasta
(sometimes we go to like an Olive Garden), a bit of protein, a couple bars
but I dont go overboard.
Me: If I had been starving myself for six-weeks, I would eat everything!
Victor: Yeah, thats where some guys make the mistake. They are so
hungry they eat too much sugar and carbs. Its like a rock in their
stomachs and when it comes time to fight they feel like shit. You need to
be smart about how you do it [rehydrating and re-gaining weight].
Other fighters echoed this same sentiment. There is a good way and a bad way to
re-gain the weight. Many of them say they learned through undergoing the
experience, and by watching other fighters go through this process. None of them
read books on how to do this, or were taught in their MMA classes how to do this.
Information was gathered on an informal level through casual conversation.
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Several fighters pointed out to me that it is specific to each person, and that the
best way to re-gain weight before a fight may not be the same for every
individual. They suggested it is a learn as you go experience. What happens
when you dont re-gain the weight properly? The outcome can be disappointing,
painful, and even embarrassing. Bryan tells me,
There was this video all over the internet. Dude, it was so funny. I cant
remember who it wasthis fighterwell, he gets in the cage, the fights
starts, they go to the groundthen all of a sudden you see this stain
appear on his white shorts (laughter). Aww, it was sooo gross. The guy
shit his pantsseriously just shit his pants there in front of everyone
(I give Bryan a minute to compose himself as he has now fallen onto the
floor and is still laughing.)
Me: That really happened? Why did that happen?
Bryan: Yeah, check it out. You can find it if you google it(laughter
continues). No really, people said it was because maybe he was scared, but
he probably just ate like shit before the fight.
Me: What do you mean?
Bryan: Well, you need to do it right. He probably just had some soda and
KFC [Kentucky Fried Chicken].
This did not seem to be an isolated incident of indigestion as internet searches
would reveal. MMA websites, blogs and chat rooms actually had numerous
threads regarding this unfortunate happenstance. As humorous as it may be to
some, re-hydrating and regaining weight properly is actually quite a serious issue.
I spoke to a general physician who also trains recreationally in MMA at Desert
Combat. He explained to me that this process of cutting and regaining weight
could wreak havoc on ones digestive system, particularly if the individual does
not have much experience in this practice, or makes poor dietary choices when re99

gaining weight. Not eating or drinking, then choosing to consume the wrong
product (e.g. too much sugar) could indeed cause stomach upset and diarrhea. Dr.
Simmons also suggested that in the long term, liver and kidney damage could
potentially occur due to bouts of severe dehydration. Although the body may
intake the fluids and re-gain the weight, it may be a slower process at the cellular
level if the individual is extremely dehydrated.
It has now become common practice in MMA competition for some
fighters to rehydrate using intravenous therapy after the weigh-ins. This may
either take place at a hotel, or off premises such as at a medical clinic or fire hall
station. The IV may be administered by a doctor, nurse, or anyone with proper
training (such as an Emergency Medical Technician). The IV is usually inserted
into the arm with the process taking about two hours, depending on the individual
and the rate of the drip. The IV is the fastest way to rehydrate the body and
rebalance electrolytes, far faster than if one were to intake the fluids orally. When
I asked the few fighters at Desert Combat who have had personal experience with
this method of rehydration, they seemed to think it was a safe practice but had
very little precise knowledge as to the contents of the I.V. or side effects from this
practice. In fact, only one individual knew vaguely that the IV was probably
saline solution. There seemed to be great trust in the science of medicine to the
point where the fighters felt exact details of the IV were not important. Out of the
three fighters that had used IVs to rehydrate, Victor and Jose said that they would
continue to use IVs after weigh-ins. They described the experience as great and

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that they felt fantastic about an hour after the IV drip had finished. Kristoff on
the other hand was decidedly against it.
Kristoff: I dont know about IVs. I tried it once but its not really my thing.
It made me feel sluggishI almost felt too hydrated. Also Im not really
in control. Id like to be able to control what I put back in my body. It was
ok, but I dont think Id want it again
What Kristoff may be referring to is a side-effect of the I.V. therapy called fluid
overload. Fluid overload is common to all IV solutions and therefore should be
adequately monitored by a healthcare individual. Another point of concern,
especially since all three fighters were not aware of the exact contents of their IV
drips, is the possibility of allergic reaction. Although rare, some components of
the IV solution could potentially cause irritation to cells in certain individuals.
There are numerous types of solutions and different ratios of elements present in
IV solutions. Some solutions carry high potassium levels that may cause heart
dysrhythmias (Alam and Rhee 2007). Infiltration is another side effect, wherein
fluid seeps in the surrounding tissues at the site of catheter entry due to the
patients movement or incorrect placement (ibid: 2007). All three fighters
however, had not considered any adverse affects that may have occurred due to
the IV, instead citing the safety of this practice because of its pervasive use in
hospital and other medial settings. Jose tells me, Hey, if the doctor or nurse does
it, it must be safe. Jose is no different from the general population, as cultural
norms enforce the expertise of the science of medicine, and the need for
unwavering, unquestioning faith for the institution of healthcare for it to run
efficiently. There are many health issues to take into consideration to properly cut
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and regain weight. This process of cutting and regaining weight is crucial to
MMA competitions as it could make a difference for the outcome of the fight. A
fighter who has more experience and does this safely may recover faster and have
more energy for the fight. He may also have a greater size advantage for the
match.
At all competitions (regardless of whether they are televised or not) the
fighters weigh-in weight is announced, as opposed to their weight immediately
prior to the match. Their weight prior to the match is irrelevant to the structure of
MMA fights and rarely mentioned. It is important to promote the idea of a fair
fight. It is an issue of presentation, not quite deception, but a means to work
within the rules to gain an advantage. Weigh-ins are almost always held twentyfour hours before the fight. In order to remedy this dilemma of having fighters in
a single match competing at vastly different weights, why not have weigh-ins
right before the fight? I proposed this solution to several of my participants and
was told that it would be too dangerous.

Me: Why dont they have weigh-ins right before the fight?
Jared: Because the guys need time to re-hydrate and recover. They are
still going to be cutting weight to get that advantageIf they dont rehydrate properly they wont be able to fight properly. They will be tired,
slow, maybe even disoriented. No one wants to see guys fight like that.
They want to see athletes at their peak.
Me: Good point. It seems to me that the guys who have been wrestling
their entire lives and are used to cutting weight may have the advantage.
Jared: Absolutely. They have it down to a science. But some guys dont
know how to do it safeIve seen guys starve and dehydrate themselves
too many days before the fight because they are trying to make weight so
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bad. They are fatigued mentally, because their bodies are at a weaker state
from cutting so much weight. I think it just puts your body in like a
catatonic state. You get really tired and when you do need to compete,
your body is just in shock. You can damage your kidneys, your liver
As Jared points out, while cutting weight can give a fighter an advantage (if done
properly), it could also hurt a fighters performance and overall health. Yet,
several of the participants I interviewed were former high school and collegiate
wrestlers. They informed me that the process of cutting weight does not have to
be harmful and if done properly it can be quite safe. Kristoff is a professional
fighter who competes at 135lbs. He has wrestled throughout his life, from
elementary school until graduating from college. He has successfully cut weight
hundreds of times.

Me: Tell me about how you prepare you body for a competition, in terms
of losing weight.
Kristoff: Well, first you wanna lose as much as you can naturally leading
up to the fight cause you know you can only lose a certain amount of
weight or body fat. You can only lose two pounds of fat a week at most-you cant really lose more than two pounds a week of legitimate weight.
My plan for 135lbs [his competition weight] is to get within ten to twelve
pounds, and be comfortable and be well-hydrated. You want to stay
hydrated till the furthest possible point, till you have to start dehydrating
yourself. Then the last two or three days before weigh-ins, I work out
hard, drink less, really limit my meals to get down another five or six
pounds. The day or two before weigh-ins, I dont eat, just have a couple
sips of water to get the last few pounds of water weight off.
Me: What does this whole process feel like?
Kristoff: The day before the fight, when youre doing most of the weight
cutting, youre definitely a little physically and mentally fatigued. Its not
that bad though, you just feel kind of tired, kind of worn out. Like you
have been over-trainingYou have to realize that its just temporary. The
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process is mental and physical. You need to control your mind while your
body is weak.
Several other fighters described this as a mentally draining process as well. Some
fighters commented on how your mind could sabotage you while cutting
weight. They noticed that they were often more irritable, in a daze, and it was a
true struggle of will and determination to continue the drastic transformation of
their bodies. According to those who have undergone this experience, it is
important to stay positive and to stay focused on the end goal of victory. While in
this stage of losing weight, many fighters emphasized that they would try to
isolate themselves from loved ones.

Ryan: I go into hibernation mode. I have to separate myself from my

friends and family. I know that I am not fun to be around. I know I can be
meanMy girlfriend understands, but I try not to see her as much because
I dont want to get mad at her for no reason. I know how my body works,
if its really tired I know I can be a jerk.
He went on to explain that the weight cut affects people in different ways. For
those who have had a lot of experience, it may not be as severe. Cutting weight
properly requires intimate, detailed knowledge of how ones body functions. Hall
of fame, world Champion MMA fighter Randy Couture describes how he
developed a method for cutting precise amounts of weight due to his many years
of practice at cutting weight:

I cut weight for over half my life, and my body responds well to a process
I've fine-tuned over the years. I gradually trim down in the weeks leading up
to the fight so I only shed a few pounds of water on that day. I had 5 1/2
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pounds to go, I headed to the Mandalay Bay spa and jumped on the
treadmill, wearing long underwear, a plastic suit, and sweats over that. I
have a formula where I can lose 1 pound every 10 minutes walking at a
normal pace. I can also tell how much weight is going by watching the
sweat stains rise up my sleeves.
(Couture and Hunt 2008: 246)
It is hard to image having so much knowledge of ones body and its functioning
that you can relate a standard form of measure (lbs) to the amount of sweat
collected in ones clothing. I had another remarkable conversation with Ruben,
who was also a life-long wrestler with extensive practice cutting weight. He
revealed to me that he has paid such close attention to how his body works that he
knows how much exercise he must undertake, how much food and water he will
intake and how many calories (therefore pounds) his body burns at rest.

Me: So have you perfected at system for cutting weight, with all your
experience wrestling? I have heard from your training partners that you
are always on weight. You are never over, even a tenth of a pound.
Ruben: (laughter) Yeah...I think thats right. I have gotten quite good at it
[cutting weight]. I know if I work out regularly at practices and eat and
drink regularly I will float a pound overnight.
Me: Float? What does that mean?
Ruben: I will lose a pound overnight.
Me: Wow, thats an efficient metabolism. How did you figure that out?
Just by getting on a scale? Counting calories?
Ruben: Not really. I do get on a scale but I track my weight during my
training camps. I keep a chart of what I weigh everyday, and then I go
back to look at that. I dont count calories or anything that scientific. I just
know how I workout, what I eat and drink and how I need to adjust things
to cut weight.

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Ruben and numerous other fighters emphasized that they just knew their bodies.
This sense of just knowing supports the notion of a phenomenological
understanding of the body. In fact, the body is taken as starting point of
perception, through which knowledge is thusly acquired and shaped. This
knowledge is rewarded in the world of MMA as participants are required to
control the weight of their bodies to the degree of a tenth of a pound. They must
weigh-in at a precise weight of 155.0 lbs, for example. Generally, fighters are
given leeway of one pound, in consideration of inconsistencies in the scale, but
they should not weigh-in at 156.1 lbs. This would imply a lesser degree of control
over the body. Should a fighter weigh-in at five pounds over the agreed upon fight
weight, this would be regarded as unprofessional and the fighter would be seen as
lacking control over his body (and self). The following describes the weigh-ins
twenty-four hours before a professional MMA competition held in New Mexico
in 2009.

During the weigh-ins at Cagesport Challenge, the promoter, Frank

Rednen, became very upset when several of his fighters did not make the
agreed upon fighting weight. Ryan Marcus was nearly five pounds over.
The athletic commission read the number on the scale (176 lbs)There
was a pause. The whole room was silent. Is that right? They re-read the
number. It was right. He missed the target weight by six pounds. The
promoter is visibly upset, almost horrified. This is a professional
organization!!! He curses and throws his hands up in disgust. MMA
photographers rush in to snap photos. The crowd is whispering. Ryan
apologizes, I swear this has never happened to me before. Im sorry.
Ryan descends off the scale and dresses slowly. He leaves the room. The
next fighter Marshall Linden undresses down to his underwear and gets
on the scale. It is a replay of Ryans situation. Marshall is five pounds
over. Franks face is turning red. He is very angry, cursing, saying this is
supposed to be professional fight. Marshall is quiet. He does not make
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apologies like Ryan. The weigh-ins continue and a couple other fighters
weigh-in at two-three pounds over their fight weight.
Yukiko, the female fighter from Japan, weighs in at 114.6 lbs for her
115lbs matchup. Relief crosses Franks face. However, her opponent,
Maggie is not present when her name is called. Her manager tells the
Frank and the audience that she is downstairs in the hotel gym on the
treadmill, still furiously trying to cut weight. When Maggie finally arrives,
she is 118 lbs, three pounds over the agreed upon weight. I hear her
corner (team, advisors) whisper that her extra weight is due to the fact
that she has her period. The promoter, Frank, says he doesnt care. She
needs to cut the last three pounds as soon as possible or their fight will not
happen. Frank looks over at the fighters then yells, This is a professional
organization and you are supposed to be professional fighters! What the
fuck is wrong with all of you? He storms out of the room.
The fighters are off in the corner, talking quietly amongst themselves like
scolded children. They come to the conclusion that the scale is not
forgiving. Some suggest because the scale is on carpet as opposed to a
smooth surface like cement, it weighs heavy. One fighter states that the
scale in the hotel gym is almost half a pound lighter and they all nod in
agreement. Ryan jokes that he should have stood on his head during the
weigh-in---a myth that this will make him weigh less. They laugh quietly.
The guilty fighters are trying to find reasons that would absolve them from
missing weight, but they clearly feel embarrassed. (Ryan later admits to
me that he should have started his cut earlier and he knew a couple days
ahead of time that he was not going to get his weight down in time for the
weigh-ins.)
(Cagesport Challenge weigh-ins, field notes, November 15, 2009)
Frank, the promoter, spoke with me after the event was over, telling me how
disappointed he was that several of his fighters didnt make weight. According to
Frank, they make the sport look bad: This is a real sport, not back in the day
when there were no rules. I had to work hard to get this fight sanctioned.
As mentioned earlier, the introduction of official weigh-ins for MMA
competitions, overseen by state athletic commissions, added a level of
quantification needed to turn the spectacle into a legitimate sport. The
implementation of rules (MMA now has thirty-one rules codified under the
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Unified Rules of MMA) served to shift MMA from activity to sport because sport
requires quantification. Frank described the effort he has put in trying to promote
MMA as a legitimate sport, and his desire to distance himself from the no-holdsbarred brawls past of MMA. To Frank, professional means strictly abiding by the
rules, and professional also means control over ones weight and ones body. In
addition, Frank is a business owner and fighters are his products. Like any
successful business that relies on uniformity, Frank is attempting to put into place
standards that fulfill public expectations. Just as the McDonalds hamburger is
always approximately 100 grams (www.mcdonalds.com), a fighter fighting at
155lbs should weigh-in at just that155lbs.6 Bodies are to be standardized. This
is what Martin (1992) refers to as the Fordist body. Fighters who do not make
weight are penalized and fined, in much the same way that Henry Fords autoplant workers that were found to be engaging to unhealthy habits (drinking too
much etc.) were penalized and not given their full five-dollar wage (see Martin
1992: 122).
The weigh-ins are a demonstration in complete somatic control and
discipline. This is part of the fight, or even the fight before the fight. The
challenge begins far before these fighters step in the cage. They must get their
weight down through exercise and food intake. It requires strict discipline but
more so an amazing level of bodily knowledge. The weigh-ins provide a stage to
display this knowledge and discipline. When MMA first began, weigh-ins, if held

After weigh-ins it is no longer necessary as the issue of standardization is for the
purposes of presentation only. By this I refer to the fact that fighters may weigh-in
at 155lbs the day before the fight and the next day at the fight be 170lbs.
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at all, were not open to the public. Lauren Harrison, an MMA journalist who has
covered the sport since the early 1990s, recognized that over the years the weighins have become an important part of MMA competitions.
Lauren: In the early days, it would just be me, and maybe one or two other
reporters at the weigh-ins. There were hardly ever photographers even.
The fighters would be there, maybe a family member or girlfriend, and the
coaches and managers. The rooms would be really tiny. Now, everyone
who goes to the fight wants to go the weigh-ins too.
Me: Why do you think that is?
Lauren: At the weigh-ins you get to see the first glimpse of the fighter.
You get to see how lean they are. You get to see the stare-down. [When
two fighters get into a fight stance with their fists up and stare at each
other.] Sometimes there is drama, and a fight might almost break out.
Sometimes it is funny, and a fighter will wear pink bikini underwear. Its
part of the show.
Me: Do you think fighters can get intimidated and thrown off during the
weigh-ins?
Lauren: Absolutely. If one fighter comes in right on weight, and looks
lean and muscular, and the other guy looks out of shape, it may affect his
confidence.
The weigh-ins provide an opportunity to demonstrate mastery of ones body. It is
an indication of the physical and mental discipline an individual can possess to
shape the body at will. By extension this accomplishment reveals potential power
over opponents bodies.
Relationships with the Body
For participants in the Fighters class it is mandatory that they keep their
bodies in peak condition. During interviews, most of these participants told me
that they try to maintain a healthy diet (i.e. not too much carbohydrates, lots of
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protein) and did various other activities (such as weigh-lifting or jogging) to stay
in good shape. Francisco tells me how he has had several people in the gym lose
significant amounts of weight through their training here. Joe began his training at
Desert Combat weighing over two-hundred pounds. Joe was also only 56.
Joe: I was never slim growing up. I always had a wide build. I didnt
really care about much. Before, it just got out of control I guess, my
eating, and I was drinking a lot back then. But then I had to start training
hard, cut back on drinking too.
Me: So, how do you look at yourself, when you were 200 pounds,
compared to now?
Joe: Um, lazy.
Me: Lazy? Is there a big difference between the way you were then and
they way you are now?
Joe: Definitely, um, a little, Ive always been like, felt like I was a
motivated person, but, I always like, must have found excuses back then
as to why I was going to do this, and why I wasnt going to do that, and
there was always something. I make sure my priority list is kind of on
track, I guess. Rather than going out and hanging out with my friends and
partying, Im at home sleeping, when I need to be, wrestling and you
know, doing all of that. My girlfriend really likes it too, because Im not
the fat kid anymore. I think Im way happier with how I look now.
I asked several participants during interviews if they felt their bodies had
changed as a result of participating in MMA, and also how they felt about their
bodies. Some were visibly uncomfortable talking about their bodies with me. I
assumed this was because I was female, but also because many men are not used
talking about their relationships with their body. Relationships with bodies are
often framed within the discourse of deficiency. By this I mean that one of the
only times that men are asked to speak about their bodies is when there is
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something wrong. This is generally in a medical context, when their bodies are
injured or not functioning properly. Any other context seems irrelevant, boastful
or feminine. For example, one fighter, Gary continued to avoid responding to
questions of how he perceived his body:
Me: Has your body changed since starting MMA?
Gary: Huh? Ummm. I dont know what you mean
Me: Have you noticed differences in what your body can do, or how you
think about it?
Gary: I guess I can hit harder. Um, I guess I never really think about my
body like that.
Me: Hows that?
Gary: I dont know. I just notice things when I get hurt. Its not really that
important to me. Ummm
As, he was clearly uncomfortable, I quickly changed the subject so as to continue
a positive flow of conversation. Another Desert Combat fighter, Jake also seemed
to think that it was odd that I would be asking about his body:

Jake: You want to know what I think of my body? Um, its good? You
want me to talk about body parts like muscles? Or what?
Me: How do you think of your body?
Jake: Oh, ok[long pause]. I dont want to brag or anything.
Me: Its ok. Go ahead. What do you think about your body?
Jake: Im in good shape. Im proud of my abs, my back and my calvesI
think my biceps could be bigger. I could be a little more ripped [pause]. I
dont want to sound like a girl.
Me: What do you mean?
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Jake: Well you know how girls always complain about their bodies.
To Jake, complaints about the body fall into a feminine domain. I was not entirely
sure whether his hesitancy to talk about his body was because he felt it was a
feminine topic, or because for him it, was strange to ask someone about how they
think about their body. His discomfort may also have been because I was female
and that he did not know me very well. Perhaps he felt that it was only
appropriate for women to touch and feel male bodies, whereas verbalization
regarding the body was somehow off limits and seen as a potential critique or too
intimate a gesture without proper qualification. Were we lacking an appropriate
context to discuss his body? Clearly, the participant did not know exactly how to
respond. However, some participants were quite receptive to this line of
questioning and shared some interesting insights on their bodies. For one fighter,
the experience shaping and controlling his body had brought him more
confidence:

Me: Would you say participating in MMA has changed the way you think
about how your body works or how you perceive your body?
Eric: Most definitely. I know more about my body and just how a body
works in general now than I ever did before. I think the main driver of
gaining that knowledge was trying to do better in the sport and be a better
coach and understand it better.
Me: Has it made you more comfortable with your body? Are you
comfortable with your body?
Eric: Yeah. I mean, being in shape, obviously Im more comfortable with
my body. More than that, even when Im not training and Im feeling fat
or overweight or whatever, Im still happy and self-confident. Thats
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because of the training and because of my background in martial arts.

Once youre comfortable with yourself you can be comfortable with so
many other things in life, and Im really, truly comfortable with myself.
Its nice.
Eric describes how he has learned more about bodies in general and how they
work. When I questioned him further, he talked out how particular exercises can
be employed to gain not only strength but also speed and endurance. Before
training, Eric told me he figured all training was pretty much the same for most
sports. Now, he realized the interactive nature of bodies and sport. He suggests
that bodies can be molded to influence the sport in terms of increasing standards
of strength, speed and agility, but also bodies also reflect the sport sports they are
engaged in. In terms of MMA, Eric emphasizes:
You cant be too muscular or the body will use up too much oxygen. Also,
you would not be flexible enough or be able to move fast enough. And,
you cant have one of those body-builder type buildsyou know those
guys with huge bulging muscles and the short T-Rex arms?
Certain body types and muscles groups can be developed depending on the sport
that one trains for. My interview with Matthew reaffirmed this point.
Matthew is a thirty-six year old, former professional football player for the
NFL. After leaving the sport due to a knee injury, he turned to jujitsu to stay in
shape. While at Desert Combat practicing jujitsu, coaches Fernando and Francisco
recognized his impressive athleticism and suggested he try MMA. He competed
in a couple professional MMA fights, but then decided he would rather devote all
his energy to jujitsu. Matthew was quite open about talking about his body,
something that may be credited to his age, or perhaps just because he appeared to
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be a very confident individual. I asked him if his body had changed after he
stopped playing in the NFL and began training for jujitsu and MMA.
Matthew: Im flexible in ways that I was not in football and didnt need to
be then. Ive lost all the muscles that I needed in football. I dont have
those anymore. Im stronger in different ways like my hands are like
unbelievably strong now because I have to grab and pull and tug and now
I have a different type of cardio, a different type of lungs now, its just
really weird.
Me: Can you tell me more about that? As far as body shape and things
changing. Was that awkward or different for you when you developed all
these different muscles?
Matthew: Well it was weird because of my genetic makeup. Whatever I
do, whatever I use the most, is going to grow really fast so because you
know I was a runner, a stopper and a starter I had to run twenty-something
thousand hours fast as I can, stop, come back and go the other way. I did
that all day, every day. Sideways, dodging people, I was jumping over
people like all day, every day. Thats what I did for 26 years. Thats a long
time and so all of a sudden one day I stop. I mean all those muscles its
just disappeared and that was my lower body. But because I still use my
upper body like all the time for MMA and jujitsu. I use my back, my arms
and chest and stomach. My upper bodys totally still in shape and my
lower body doesnt look like it didin my opinion it doesnt match my
upper body you know. My lower body just took a hit.
I notice that Matthew often referred to his genetics and how easily he puts on
muscle. I asked him if he thinks this has anything to do with being African
American. He hesitates on the issue:

Matthew: ProbablyRace may have something to do with it. I dont really

like the idea of race though. People look at me and assume that I am
African American. I am also part Native American. Well, I think my
great-grandmother was. I have a bit of everything in me, French, Scottish,
somewhere a long time ago. I look black though, my parents look black
though, but I hate it when people just assume things.
Me: Do you think people assume things about the athletic ability of
African American men?
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Matthew: Yeah. Look at the NFL and NBA, most of them look black. The
thing is, there are a lot of brothers that arent that athletic too(laughter).
I was good at sports though, since I was a kid. I saw these guys in my
neighborhood in football uniforms and I thought I want that too. So thats
what I did. I do have natural athletic ability, but I also had to work hard. It
is a little frustrating when people assume that you dont work as hard just
because of the way you look or how your genes happen to be.
Me: I see. Are you happy with your body?
Matthew: Oh yeah. I love my body. I mean Im 36 and Im in really, really
good shape but I dont have that football body anymore. You know people
see me and they go what happened to your legs? What happened to your
lower body? These are the people that knew me when I got voted for
Washington D.C.s Best Legs and Best Butt award. They did all these
silly awards back when I was in high school and college. People that see
me, that knew me then, are like what happened to your lower body? You
know, what happened to your butt, and legs? I dont care. Im 36 and Im
probably going to look like this for another ten years.
Matthew suggests he is happy with his body, especially in comparison to the
bodies of other men his age. However he does sound somewhat nostalgic for his
old lower body. For him, the aesthetic sacrifice is a price he must pay but is also
willing to pay for his newly obtained skill in MMA and jujitsu.
This interview with Matthew was especially revealing with respect to the
multifaceted nature of body image. Matthew described his first-hand experience
with popular conceptions of race and genetics that are tied to sports, and indeed
tied to his own perceptions of body image. Weiss (1999:1) argues that the term
body image itself is problematic in that it creates a faade of a neutral
phenomenon. She suggests that images of the body are not discrete but form a
series of overlapping identities whereby one or more aspects of that body appear
to be salient at given moment in time. In Matthews observations of his own body
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and body image we see how different elements such as the athletic body, the
African-American body, the football players body, the attractive body, the
fighters body, and the thirty-six-year-old body are all crucial to Matthews
conception of self. Body image is both social and comparative. Like identity (of
which body image is often a key characteristic) there are intersections of
ethnicity, age, sex and gender, as Weiss concludes:
Rather than view the body image as a cohesive, coherent phenomenon that
operates in a fairly uniform way in our everyday existence, a presumption
that underlies many traditional accounts of body image, I arguefor a
multiplicity of body images that are copresent in any given individual, and
which themselves constructed through a series of corporeal exchanges that
take place both within and outside specific bodies.
(Weiss 1999:1)
Bodies In Parts
In Matthews interview and many others, I noticed that participants felt
most comfortable discussing their bodies when the body was reduced into parts.
Earlier, Jake spoke about specific muscle groups he was proud of, or wanted to
improve. This appears to be an influence from bodybuilding discourse where the
body is understood in a mechanistic and segregated fashion. This functions to
separate out muscle groups for precise enhancement.

The gym has mirrors along all of the walls of the training rooms. This is to
allow participants to correct their own technique as they practice. To
some, the mirrors are indeed a chance to critique their own technique but
also an opportunity to assess their own physique. Several times,
particularly during the Fighters class, I caught a couple individuals
checking themselves out. They were clearly admiring their appearance
and sometimes would comment on parts of their bodies. The most admired
body part seemed to be abdominal muscles. Fighters would lift their
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shirts, look in the mirror and flex their abs. Sometimes they would make
comments like almost there, almost got my eight-pack, meaning that
these abdominal muscles were defined to the point to almost reveal eight
separate abdominal muscle groups.
(Fieldnotes, January, 2006)
I wondered why abdominal muscles were important and one participant
responded:
Thats the way you can tell if someone is really ripped. Abs are some of
the hardest muscles to get definition on because you need to have such
low body fat in order for them to show up. You can tell that if someone
has abs, like a six-pack or eight-pack, they are in really, really good shape.
Besides, the ladies like it
Through my own practice in kickboxing, and conversations with the coaches at
Desert Combat, I discovered that abdominal muscles are crucial to creating the
torque needed for effective punches and kicks. Abdominal muscles are also
important for movement, form and balance. When I asked the participant about
abdominal muscles, however, he made no mention of functionality. He
commented that it was for the benefit of females, and it provided a personal gauge
of muscularity and fitness. He later mentioned it was also for the benefit of other
males.
Ive had other guys come up to me in the gym to comment on my abs.
Bro, those are some sick abs! Not in a gay way, of courseYeah, I liked
it because I work hard on my absI think other guys may be jealous of
my abs. Sometimes people ask me what kind of exercises I do cause they
are trying to get the six-pack too
Members of the gym seemed comfortable commenting on the bodies of their
training partners. If a professional fighter was getting ready for a competition it
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was commonplace to hear other fighters telling him his chest was looking good
or his back appeared really ripped. When speaking to each other they omitted
the qualifier not in a gay way that they frequently included when I questioned
them about bodies. This may be because they were familiar with each other,
aware of each others heterosexual disposition, and assumed due to the gym
setting and context of conversation that it would not be confused as an expression
of their attraction. Commenting on musculature provided a safe forum in which to
speak about the bodies of others.7 By speaking about distinct muscle groups in
terms of progress in a sport setting, this somehow negates any implications of
homosexual attraction. The bodies of others and ones own body may be
somehow more relatable when conceptualized as fragmented.
What can be inferred from this compartmentalization of the body? As
Sharp (2000: 290) asserts, pertinent questions posed of the fragmented body
should include: how is the body fragmented, for what purpose and by whom, and
how can these processes augment constructions of personhood or social worth?
For MMA fighters, the body appears readily understandable in terms of
compartmentalized muscle groups, which implies both effectiveness and aesthetic
ideal. Does the individual have a more compartmentalized vision of their own
image? Merleau-Ponty (1989) suggests that the body is structured by its world.
By way of perception and motility, a reciprocal and reversible relationship
between the body and its world takes place (Merleau-Pony 1989; Weiss 1999).
Weiss (1999) states that the consciousness of the body is encountered in

7
This will be explored in more detail in Chapter 4
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fragments, and these fragments illustrate the multiplicity of body images that are
lived according to context. Fighters evident compartmentalization of the body
may support Weiss notion of fragmentation. The manipulation of the body
through training and cutting weight establishes that the fighters body may
drastically change over a relatively short amount of time. Therefore fighters may
view their bodies not in a singular and static form but in a continual state of
transformation. Weiss (1999) proposes that in order to assume a normative view
of the body (i.e. a healthy view of ones body) one would accept the notion of the
existence of multiple body images. The rejection of this existence of multiple
body images, relevant to context, results in body dysmorphic disorder, which is
thought to lie at the heart of eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia (ibid).
The idea of multiple body images, (rather than a singular body image), provide an
alternate perspective in the psychology of distorted body image and resulting
disorders. Some of my research participants on occasion suggested dissatisfaction
with their body images, and an acknowledgment that there is a lean, muscular
idealized form for the male body in MMA. Yet, disjunction in image and
actualized bodies need not indicate personal psychological dysfunction but rather
a response to cultural pressures or as Sharp (2000: 290) notes social worth of
human bodies.
There appear to be ideals of the male form that are circulated in the realm
of MMA that elicit reactions of personal comparison and critique from MMA
participants and fans. This pervasiveness of this ideal may sway this population to
generate a more singular and static view of the male body. (In this manner, the
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body becomes more of a social experience when considered in relation to a

hegemonic ideal.) Therefore, representations of a masculine hegemonic form are
encountered and interacted with by these participants in MMA. Representation
becomes a key facet in shaping identity using the body as means of constructing
self-identity. Yet I cannot leave the impression that these participants are blindly
attempting to re-create this hegemonic ideal. There is acknowledgement that the
body plays a key role in establishing ones self in the world of MMA and that a
lean, muscular form will bring the benefit of implied power and control.
However, participants note this is one facet of image in MMA. Compared to other
sports, MMAs weight classes allows for more variation in body image. Those
with knowledge of the sport recognize that a fighter could be 54 and 125lbs or
64 and 300lbs. This implies a wide range of variation in height and weight.
While a lean muscular form ispreferred, the embodiment of this ideal
representation is complicated by numerous factors such as variation in height and
weight, and also the temporality of size indicated in the process of cutting and
regaining weight.

Conclusions
The body is central to identity in the world of Mixed Martial Arts. It
appears that on the one hand, the size and shape of actual MMA participant can
vary dramatically. Monaghans (1999) study of body-builders comes to a similar
conclusion that there is a far wider range of ideal body shapes than what appears
on the surface and that maximizing size is not the only goal. On the other hand,
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like body-building, there does appear to be a consensus that a lean, muscular body
having a low percentage of body fat is a desired form for MMA. The intense
training of the sport itself can contribute to this ideal, yet the ideal seems in part
constructed out of aesthetic desire. Functionality and success in combat can be
achieved without possessing this ideal form. However, as MMA evolved into a
legitimate sport and required strict quantification, the ideal form became crucial to
displaying potential power and control. In Unbearable Weight (1993) Bordo
suggests that in Western cultures, the body has come to denote the moral state of
an individual and that ones body is an outside reflection of inner commitment
and self-control. For MMA fighters this is certainly true. The weigh-ins are a
platform for the display of skill in controlling ones weight, ones body and ones
self. Even more so, the weigh-ins are now a competition within the competition,
through which one can generate an influential representation of kinetic power.
This can only be achieved through an intense and actualized awareness of the
bodys own functioning.

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PART I Discussion: Embodiment, Body Image, and Hegemonic Masculinity

This discussion examines the previous two chapters pertaining to
embodiment and body image, how these concepts were explored in research on
MMA, and how these concepts relate to the overall framework of hegemonic
masculinity (Connell 1987; 1995). As I examined MMA participants daily lives,
how they conceived of their bodies, their relationship to their bodies and their
own identity, I began to realize that Connells (1987; 1995) hegemonic
masculinity was somehow lacking.

Critiques of Hegemonic Masculinity

While this theory of hegemonic masculinity has had such a great impact
on those in the field of gender studies, and in particular, those who study
masculinity, some criticisms have been brought forth since its conception nearly a
decade ago. In 2005, R.W. Connell, the researcher to whom this idea is attributed
to, along with James Messerschmidt, authored an article that re-evaluated the idea
of hegemonic masculinity. As noted by the authors, the term has been applied to a
variety of contexts where male domination or the appearance of masculinity is
most visible: criminology (Messerschimdt 1993), sport and media (Messner 1992;
Messner and Sabo 1994; Sabo and Gordon 1995) and the workplace and military
(Barrett 1996; Cheng 1996; Cockburn 1991). These studies highlight the various
arenas in which hegemonic masculinities operate, and detail the diversity,
changes, and costs and consequences of hegemonic masculinity (Connell and
Messerschimdt 2005: 834). The success of this framework is in its flexibility; it
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has been used in a variety of contexts world-wide. (See Guttman 1996; Ferguson
2001; Taga 2003.)
While demonstrating utility in many ways, hegemonic masculinity was not
immune from criticism. Connell and Messerschimdt (2005) address major
criticisms of hegemonic masculinity such as: the confusion over the underlying
concept of hegemonic masculinity; the ambiguity and overlap in its usage; the
reification of the power of hegemonic masculinity; the unsatisfactory theorization
of both masculinity and hegemony as separate concepts; and the functionalist
interpretation of the patterning of gender relations. The major criticisms presented
in the article are tightly intertwined, and at the heart of the problem is the
complexity of creating an operational definition.
Given that the concept of masculinity has only begun to be critically
examined in the last twenty or twenty-five years, it is not unreasonable that there
is confusion over the term masculinity and how it may be employed. In
attempting to define any complex idea, there are always criticisms that to do so
involve a reification of something that is a process or a dynamic. The very
definition of masculinity, as with concepts such as gender, identity or ethnicity, is
often at the center of debate. Many researchers attempt to delineate the boundaries
of a concept or create models regarding an idea in order to operationalize the
subject for critical inquiry. Therefore, the criticisms related to the aspect of the
reification of masculinity such as those by Petersen (1998) can be seen as a
common critique of any model of societys functioning. In attempting to create an
explanatory model or theory there is always the risk of reification.
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The manner in which hegemony is treated has also drawn opposition. First
of all, the notion of power does not seem be treated adequately. Connells (1987;
1995) theory of hegemonic masculinity does not clearly describe how power
culminates in institutions in the first place or how it may change. This may be due
to the fact that hegemony of any kind is a process that is context dependant, and
creating an all-encompassing theorization of the operations of power was not the
intent of the researcher. Whitehead (2002) claims that hegemonic masculinity is a
concept that is reductionist and as it has been presented by Connell (1987; 1995,
2005), appears as a result of structural determinism. Connell and Messerschimdt
(2005) deny this, and stress that this is a relational model of practice. Hegemonic
masculinity is a result of historical practice, not a self-contained, self-reproducing
system (ibid: 844). In addition, the framework of hegemonic masculinity has been
so widely applied that it has often been related to instances of a particular type of
fixed masculinity, or applied to whatever form of masculinity appears dominant.
Martin (1998) asserts that the usage of the concept is inconsistent and the nuances
of the processes of power relations, particularly engagements with institutions,
come across as either elusive or amorphous. Such criticism is echoed by
Wetherell and Edley (1999) as they suggest it is unclear as to how this actually
looks in practice or how people conform to hegemonic masculinity. Hegemonic
masculinity as a concept is diverse. Lusher and Robins (2009: 389) note that
hegemonic masculinity is a multilevel concept operating at local, regional, and
global levels that also simultaneously engages cultural, individual, and structural
factors. They suggest the flaw in Connells theory is that the interdependency
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between structures, individuals and culture has not been explicitly expressed
theoretically.
Connell and Messerschmidt (2005: 838) agree that there has been a lot of
diversity and perhaps misusage of the term hegemonic masculinity and emphasize
that it is not to be used as a fixed, transhistorical model. They further suggest that
the ambiguity surrounding the usage of hegemonic masculinity is important to
recognizing mechanisms of hegemony. This can be seen in the various models of
masculinity (such as in government, religion or media) that refer to but also
distort the everyday realities of social practice (ibid: 838). Therefore, it appears as
if there can be numerous spheres of dominant masculine ideologies that both
overlap and conflict and are interpreted by individuals in their daily lives. These
interpretations can manifest in bodily practices (e.g. sports, fashion) or
emotionally and intellectually as influencing day-to-day interactions with others.
It needs to be emphasized that historical and particular social contexts prove vital
in understanding the changing nature of masculine hegemony.

Hegemonic Masculinity and Mixed Martial Arts

The emphasis of this study was to examine the daily lives of MMA
fighters to understand how their participation in what may be regarded as a
hypermasculine activity affected their own perceptions of masculinity. With the
assumption that MMA is a practice that glorifies aggression, dominance and
physical prowess (all attributes said to be those of the hegemonic male in
America) the sport can be seen as nothing else but an outward manifestation of
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male hegemonic power. The term hegemony implies uni-directional power.

Hegemony in this case would seem to refer to the MMA organizations, and preexisting, entrenched gender structures of the United States. Male fighters, with
their muscled bodies and readiness for physical combat complicitly re-create these
same relations of gender inequality in order to reap their patriarchial dividends
(Connell 1995). Those fighters who succeed in the MMA industry who do not fit
traditional, ideal conceptions of masculinity (e.g. female fighters, fat fighters, or
male fighters who adopt feminine practices such as painting their nails) are said to
be practicing resistant masculinity. Yet this theorization of masculinity and MMA
under the framework of hegemonic masculinity is entirely lacking. This
framework presents only one way of viewing the sport and its male participants
and obfuscates the daily practices, embodied experience and negotiations of what
it means to be a man in the sport of MMA. As Pringle notes, Hegemonic
masculinity is a term of generalization and generalizations, although useful for
helping to understand big picture accounts, can be problematic for understanding
the constitution of individual subjectivities (Pringle 2005: 267 emphasis in
original). There are aspects of MMA culture that just didnt fit anywhere into
hegemonic masculinity and could not simply be explained away as resistant
masculinity.
Working with the framework of hegemonic masculinity, Cheng
(1999:298) describes key attributes as domination, aggressiveness,
competitiveness, athletic prowess, stoicism and control, and notes that
Aggressive behavior if not outright physical violence is important to the
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presentation of hegemonic masculinitylove, affection, pain, and grief and

improper displays of emotion. While this does indeed on one level describe the
practice of MMA (the overt domination, aggressiveness, athletic prowess), it fails
to fully account for the displays of emotion central to the sport. Immediately after
a match, the winner of the fight, and often the loser, are interviewed. In this
moment these men almost always display incredible amounts of emotion and
vulnerability, often crying and showing affection for their opponent through hugs
or kisses. There is also often tremendous pain and grief expressed by the loser of
the fight. This post-fight interview has long been part of the configuration of
MMA competition, and suggests that the audience longs for more than just a
display of domination and violence. The audience appreciates the opportunity to
hear the statements and view the expressions of deep and sincere emotion by
these men. Theories of hegemonic masculinity present a one-sided view of
masculinity, and as this post-fight ritual suggests that MMA does not fit neatly
into the category of hegemonic masculinity regardless of its outward appearances.
Within the framework of hegemonic masculinity these valued displays of emotion
could be deemed a practice of resistant masculinity (as everything counter to
hegemony is resistant), but it labeling it as such offers no real explanatory power.
Instead, it highlights the multi-dimensional nature of masculinity that cannot be
forgotten or ignored in trying to fit the everyday lives of individuals into an
orderly model of hegemonic masculinity.
Hegemonic masculinity (Connell 1987; 1995) certainly offers a starting
point. There are inequalities in social relations, be it based on socio-economic
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differences or gender, that should be addressed. This model allows us to perceive

MMA as a gendered social phenomenon, but is less useful in understanding the
processes of how individuals are incorporated into a hegemonic structure. Like
Wetherell and Edley (1999: 336) conclude, Connell[s theory of hegemonic
masculinity] does not articulate how the differing configurations of masculinity
identified in the theory actually prescribe or regulate mens lives. Male
participants in MMA do not automatically become alpha males, or hegemonic
men by entering this sport and not every man entering the sport is an alpha
male or archetype of hegemony. Considering someone a hegemonic man is the
equivalent of creating a character type. In creating a character-type the relational
aspect of gender disappears and gender once again becomes an individual
attribute (Lusher and Robins 2009). Masculinity is constant negotiation in relation
to perceived ideals. There is a gap between the representation of MMA as a
hegemonic sport of hegemonic men and the individuals who participate. Robinson
(2010) states that in researching sporting masculinities we need to interrogate
everyday lives, as the public world of sport cannot be understood in a nuanced
manner unless we also investigate both the private sphere and the
emotional/subjective aspects of sporting identities. Further, it is through the
mundane, the ordinariness of peoples lives and the assumed and taken-forgranted everyday rituals and practices, that how relatively little we know about
masculinity in certain contexts is illustrated (ibid: 311). While a widely
televised, physical competition between men inside a chain-link cage is quite an
exceptional display of masculinity, it is their daily lives (the hours in the gym, the
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dieting, the relationships with their families) that provide the context and platform
for shaping embodied masculinity. Adding embodiment as a theoretical
component in examining hegemonic masculinity helped to illuminate the
processes of negotiation and reflexivity that occurred for these men in their daily
lives.

Embodiment and Body Image in Relation to Hegemonic Masculinity

Mixed Martial Arts is a physical endeavor that overtly places the gaze on
body. The body is a location for achievement, expression and identity. In looking
at how fighters use their bodies as such, it allows for considerations of how daily
practices fit within the construct of hegemonic masculinity. Rather than simply
being an exercise of fitness and conquest, MMA for many of these participants
becomes a way to understand and appreciate their bodies. It allows them to gain
an intimate level of bodily awareness that many individuals will never experience
(as discussed in participants knowledge and practices of cutting weight). While
not unique to sport, participation in MMA highlights a mind-body-social
connection that psychologists, sociologists and anthropologists attempt to explain
in theories of action-awareness merging (Jackson and Marsh 1996), flow states
(Csikszenthmihalyi 1990), habitus (Bourdieu 1977; Mauss 1973) and ultimately
embodiment (Merleau-Ponty 1989; Csordas 1999; 1994a; 1994b). As Toren
points out, relations between people mediate the processes in and through which,
over time, mind constitutes its own transforming products and is constituted by
them. The challenge, then, becomes that of fleshing out a theory that is able to
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recognize that biological, psychological, and socio-cultural data give us access not
to different levels of integration (and thus of explanation) but to aspects of one
and the same phenomenon (Toren 2009: 141). The question then becomes how
could the notion of hegemonic masculinity benefit from the acknowledgement of
this integrated embodied and social phenomenon? Moores (1999) recognition of
the relational quality of the body provides the connection. She suggests that
bodies are the site where subjects are morphologically and socially constructed,
they are at the intersection of the social and the symbolic; each subjects relation
with his or her body is both material and imaginary (Moore 1999: 168). In this
statement, Moore notes that the body is conceived of as physical but also in
relation to an imagined ideal. For MMA fighters their bodies were viewed no
doubt as physical, possessing kinetic power, but in relation to an ideal. This is
where hegemonic masculinity is key, in that it provides the representation of an
ideal.
For example, the physical altering of the body (cutting weight) impacts
both fighters and fans perceptions. There is a representation of the ideal fighting
body, one that is lean, muscled and silently speaks of control and power. The
body becomes a forum to pronounce both individual and social values. The
weigh-ins are a moment in time where the body perhaps does achieve the
imaginary and thus the process of illusion-creating that is necessary for
representation, which purposefully implies the presence of a hegemonic force. In
this respect we can see how the body, embodied with ideals and expectations,
becomes involved in the production of what could be considered hegemonic
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images. Yet, the next day, this body drained of fat and hydration transforms and
becomes ten, fifteen, or even twenty-five pounds heavier. The day of the fight this
fact is rarely acknowledged. What is important is the moment (the weigh-in), the
illusion and representation of fairness and control. Here, we see how images and
reality are transitory and how the body connects to the imaginary and operates in
constructing perception and ideals.
Despite the fact that many professional, male MMA fighters displayed
such intimate knowledge of their bodies, they often found it difficult to articulate
their feelings about their bodies. Men are allowed to create or acknowledge
relationships with their bodies when based explicitly on domination/violence or
sexuality. The image of MMA appears formulated to celebrate these dimensions,
with the goal of this combat sport being knock-out or submission and ring-girls in
bikinis as a constant reminder of heterosexual desire, yet when speaking to
participants they understand their bodies as more than this. Bodies become a
means for experiencing a connection to the mind, the negotiation between control,
determination and letting go. But the body can also be a source of vulnerability
and recognition of how others may perceive them. Former NFL football player
and MMA practitioner Matthew, reveals how relationships with the body are tied
to ethnicity and perceptions of genetics that create naturalized conceptions of race
and ability. Again, this speaks to the fact that ideals of the body, of men, are
considered in relation to expectations and the imaginary, and thus the fact that
hegemony operates squarely in the realm of representation.

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Theoretically, there are aspects of embodiment frameworks that provide

deeper understandings of processes of hegemonic masculinity. Coles (2009)
suggests that Bourdieus (1977) concepts of habitus, capital and field be added to
complement hegemonic masculinity (Connell 1987; 1995) in order to avoid
limitations of hegemonic masculinity. (The major limitations being that men are
not always consciously acting to achieve dominant positions, and that as Hearn
(2007) notes, hegemonic masculinity does little to account for the variety of
dominant masculinities that exist under this umbrella term and how they are
interconnected). Coles (2009:39) postulates that habitus describes how men
negotiate masculinity often in unconscious ways (e.g. through their posture or
speech), and this level of performance, below consciousness allows for men to
view their masculinity as innate and simultaneously allows individual men to
consider their own form of masculinity as a true sense of masculinity without
questioning what it means or seeking a reason to validate their actions. Habitus
provides the explanation for why men act in ways they do, but consciously are not
actively seeking to gain the upper hand. It appears that Coles (2009) is alluding to
Bourdieus (2001: 55) notion of anamnesis.
In his work on gender and social order, Masculine Domination, Bourdieu
discusses how androcentric views of the world are not natural, but because these
views are presented as such, they appear as an inherent structure that is selflegitimating. This is achieved through anamnesis. In essence, anamnesis involves
the forgetting of the process of learning knowledge and not the knowledge itself.
Bourdieu borrows this concept from Freud, who borrowed the concept from Plato,
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and while the original term was used on abstracted and psychological levels,
Bourdieu translates this phenomenon to a social level. He notes that individuals
are bound to each other in society and their existence in relation to each other
allows for this anamnesis to occur. Anamnesis functions on an experiential level
as it is not the familiarity supplied by the acquisition of a simple knowledge
[savoir], but the familiarity gained by that re-appropriation of a knowledge
[connasissance] (ibid: 55 emphasis in original). The concept of anamnesis is
useful in the sense that it provides explanations for actions that are not easily
explained. For example when asking fighters why they feel mens MMA is
superior to womens,8 many responded by saying that men were naturally
stronger, more aggressive, or that it was in mens DNA to fight and not womens
DNAthats just the way it is. Yet these are learned frameworks of
understanding. The idea of men being stronger than women is naturalized and
thought to be a matter of fact because this notion is so unquestioningly repeated.
Their references to DNA or genetics speak of the rhetoric of current, popular bioevolutionary theories that reinforce the infallibility of science as all knowing, and
man as the driving force of humanity. This is the reiteration of man-the-hunter
hypothesis [which is] pre-eminently about male ways of life as the motors of the
human past and future (Haraway 1991: 86). These explanations of this being a
natural state of gender display the re-appropriation of knowledge (connaissance)
that Bourdieu states produces anamnesis. Yet this concept of anamnesis explains

Examined in detail in Chapter 4

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more why actions or traditions continue and less about why and how they
change.9
Bourdieus embodied notions of habitus and anamnesis are helpful to
understanding how subconscious thought and action play a role in everyday life
and contribute to gender order. However, as Hoy (1999:16) recognizes, Bourdieu
himself insists that this model of reality should not be confused with reality itself,
and Connells (1987; 1995) hegemonic masculinity is a conceptual model of
reality. During the course of my field research I found it difficult to delineate the
processes and categories of hegemonic masculinitywho was being hegemonic,
who was being marginalizedthe men (and women) that I encountered were far
too complex. The layers and intersections of ethnicity, socio-economic status, age,
education, family and even emotion, provided contexts that made hegemonic
terms like dominant, subordinant and marginalized insufficient. While oftentimes
it was clear that a specific body image or particular characteristic of the male
MMA fighter was deemed an ideal, it was visible through the presentation of this
ideal (e.g. advertisements) and how individuals perceived their own relations to
this ideal. Therefore, it may be that hegemonic masculinity is a concept that can
be better understood as a construct of the realm of representation rather than
actuality.

9
To be fair he does aim to examine embodied structures. Furthermore, Bourdieu
(2001) focuses much explanatory energy on gender as constructed through sexroles, noting that because of the way that women are perceived, primarily through
their physique (outer appearance), women tend to highlight signs of social
position (e.g. dress, decorations) and make it a language of seduction (Bourdieu
2001: 99).
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PART II: CHAPTER 4. EXPLORING GENDER, SEXUALITY AND

RELATIONSHIPS: YOU SAY YOU LOVE ME, BUT WHAT PART DO YOU
REALLY LOVE?
Part I, (the previous two chapters), explored the ways in which male
MMA fighters used and understood their bodies as part of their self-identity.
Gender and masculinity are relational concepts, and as previously stated,
masculinity is not conceived of as a biological essence. Masculinity can also be
associated with women (see Halberstam 1998). It is not my aim to evaluate the
masculinity of women, but to include women and womens perspectives as a key
part of this study. In recounting the experiences of women in this male-dominated
sport industry, we can gain a fuller, more nuanced understanding of masculinity
as constructed through MMA. By speaking with women I was able to more
clearly see how men in the sport shape their identities in relation to the women
involved in the sport (but also to idealized representations of women) and
importantly, how these women though constrained, contributed to and shaped the
MMA industry. In this chapter, I explore the various positions of women in
MMA: female fighters, girlfriends, groupies and women in the media. I include
my own experience as a member of the MMA media and how my own gender
(and education on gender) complicated the situation. The last section in this
chapter on sexuality and intimacy juxtaposes male intimacy with the prevailing
notions of normative heterosexuality. In this masculine environment that plays up
representations of women as objects of lust and men as their obvious sexual
counterparts, I was curious as to how homosexuality was perceived. This led to
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the realization that MMA actually provided a rare avenue for non-sexual male
intimacy.
Setting the Gender Stage
On June 17, 2009, Kim Winslow became the first female to referee a
televised MMA event for the Ultimate Fighting Championship. As MMA
journalists noted, this momentous event passed with little fanfare. It was
actually quite remarkable that a female referee be placed in such a crucial position
considering that the organization itself does not hold any female MMA matches.
Kim Winslow has trained extensively in MMA for over twenty years, and has
been a referee for smaller MMA events before working at this UFC event. She
was appointed to the Nevada State Athletic Commission, and it was the
commission that selected her to oversee the match. The controversy over Winslow
as a referee is not necessarily due her qualifications, but her ability to effectively
stop a fight. A referee must be prepared to physically get in between two fighters
and there has been public criticism she may not be able to do that. In an interview
with the website MMAfighting, Winslow highlights the fact that this assessment
has nothing to do with her stature and everything to do with her gender.
The question I get a lot that I'd like to address is, as a female, whether I
can stop a fight, and should I be restricted to lower weight classes. I've
never been restricted to lower weight classes. The largest fighters I've
been in the ring with were a 386-pounder and a 392-pounder up in
Washington (Ernest Henderson vs. Gaylon Cooper in 2007) and I did get
in the middle of them and I did stop them effectively without a problem. I
do want people to know that. That is not a factor. We are not expected to
fight the fighters. I am definitely able to defend myself if it came to that.
And anyway I'm not a small female. I'm bigger than Steve Mazzagatti,
Josh Rosenthal and Yves Lavigne [other UFC referees]. It's not a gender
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issue, and if I weren't capable of stopping fights I wouldn't have come as

far as I have.10
Although there are female judges, time-keepers, and ring-side doctors,
these are all positions appointed by individual state athletic commissions. There
are females that work behind the scenes for MMA organizations, female members
of the media, female fans, and also wives and girlfriends of male fighters. These
women are on the periphery of the MMA scene. The most visible women in the
world of MMA are female fighters and ring girls. This is a carefully constructed
presentation of gender that serves to reinforce a prevailing ideology of
heterosexuality. There has definitely been progress in terms of womens MMA
becoming more popular, but ability becomes entangled with presumed notions of
femininity and image. Men too are confronted with issues of appearance and
marketability for heteronormative consumption. However, an exploration into the
daily practice of MMA and the relationships established through experience
ironically suggest that this manly activity actually provides an avenue for real
male intimacy.
The Visible Women in MMA: Fighters and Ring Girls
Female Fighters
In a sport that is so heavily dominated by male athletes, promoters, and
managers, and with marketing campaigns targeted specifically toward men,
women have just begun to carve out their own place in the sport. What are some

10
(Kim Winslow, http://www.mmafighting.com/2009/06/25/kim-winslow-onbeing-the-first-female-ref-in-ufc-history/)
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of the strategies that women have employed in this arena? Must their femininity
be downplayed to be accepted, or exaggerated to succeed? I spoke with male
fans, male fighters and male representatives from organizations and sponsorship
companies regarding their views on womens MMA. I also interviewed
professional and amateur female fighters about experiences, image and created
opportunities.
Me: Tell what it was like starting out for you?
Reina: Well, Ive been boxing my entire life. I have a professional record
of 19 [wins] 6 [losses] and 6 [draws]. Ive been a flyweight champI
transitioned to MMA about two years ago. Even though there are a lot of
female boxers, boxing is also kinda considered a guys sport. I dealt with
that with boxing so I expected it with MMA too. Womens MMA now is
like how womens boxing was like 15 or 20 years ago.
Me: What do you mean by that?
Reina: Its just getting started really. There are some shows that have
women on the card but the major organization UFC has not put any
women in any of their events. There are less fights, and less women
fighting so a lot of places feel like the quality of womens MMA is not up
to par yet.
Reina tells me it has been a struggle for womens MMA to be accepted by both
organizations putting on the events and also by fans. Granted, there are many
male MMA fans and male fighters who appreciate the skill and dedication of
female fighters but overall it is difficult to be taken seriously. She speculated that
it had something to do with the violent image of the sport and also the idea that
women are supposed to more delicate and gentle than men, and therefore had no
place in such a visceral sport. These sentiments were reflected in the opinions of
most of the men I interviewed who expressed dislike for womens MMA. Their
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concern appeared as a mixture of chivalristic principle, patriarchal protectiveness

and a presumption of the pre-determined biological deficiency of women. My
interview with Leo, a professional fighter from Desert Combat is representative of
most male participants responses their opinion of womens MMA.

Me: What do you think of womens MMA?

Leo: Its cool but Id rather watch men.
Me: Why is that?
Leo: A bunch of reasonsIts a masculine sport. Its violent. I dont want
to see women hitting each other. Its not right. Besides they are not very
exciting fights anyhow.
Me: What do you mean? The technique is not as good? They arent as
aggressive?
Leo: Yeah, both. Womens MMA is not up to the level mens is. Women
werent made for that kind of punishment. They werent made to fight like
that.
Me: Men are? Is it a matter of biology?
Leo: Yeah. Men were always the hunters and women cooked and stuff.
Men had to fight and women didnt
Me: What about fighters like Cyborg and Gina Carano?
Leo: Gina is ok but they just want her on T.V. because shes hot. Cyborg
is a dude. No woman really looks like that.
This conversation highlights several issues. First, Leo talks about how he would
not want to watch women hit each other. In his words, it is simply wrong. When
I questioned other male fans and fighters who agreed with this statement many of
them insisted they were taught it was morally wrong to hit a female. I replied by
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saying that this was a setting where it was not men hitting women but women
competing in sport. These men continued to cite political correctness as their
reason for not wanting to watch female MMA fights. For them, denouncing
violence against women carries over to women fighting with other women. As I
pressed further, a couple interviewees admitted that a female friend or family
member had been a victim of domestic abuse and these fights summoned
recollections of these past traumatic events. Other interviewees, suggested it was
a matter of principle, that regardless of the situation women were to be protected
and never subjected to injury.
The second issue Leo presents is that of biology. Women were not
genetically engineered to withstand the kind of physical trauma men are able to.
Leo declares that womens biology prevents them from being aggressive and
strong, characteristics necessary to competing in the masculine sport of MMA. It
is interesting that Leo referred to the old adage of man as hunter and woman as
preparer. Leo certainly was not the only male participant in this study to quote
this kind of popular evolutionary theory. Numerous participants presented
evolutionary biology as accounting for everything from mens physical fitness
being superior to womens, to reasons for infidelity, to the explanation for why
the sport is so popularit is in our genes.
Finally, Leo discusses image and womens MMA. Male fans would often
divide female fighters into two groups: 1) attractive yet ineffective, or 2) manly
steroid-users. One MMA fan described the situation as youve either got the hot
girls that guys want to watch because they are hotor the bull dykes the look like
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men. Some of these chicks look more masculine than most guys. Although many
participants in this study admitted that there were women who were talented and
not seemingly masculine, the polarized conception of women in MMA as either
hot or manly was a reoccurring theme. Halperts (1997: 7) study of female
boxers also exposed this bifurcation, observing that the lesbian label, in fact,
seems to be the most popular stereotype for female prizefighters. In fact, women
pugilists pose a dichotomy to those who stereotype them as either lesbian (nonheterosexual and not attractive to men) or Foxy boxer (heterosexual and attractive
to men).
Gina Carano would fall under the hot category. She is one of the most
famous female fighters in MMA. She participated in the first womens MMA
event sanctioned in Las Vegas in 2006. She also became the first female to fight
on a widely televised major MMA event (Strikeforce 2006). Carano soon became
the face of womens MMA. Although her record of seven wins and only one
loss speak to her talent in MMA, critics suggest her appearance was the defining
factor in her popularity. Carano is conventionally feminine and attractive, with
delicate features, long brown hair and a genial smile. Articles about her describe
her as looking more like a model than a fighter. Carano has received numerous
public accolades for her appearance: she was voted Hottest Woman In America
by Big Biz Magazine in the Spring 2008 issue; on May 13, 2008, "Gina Carano"
was the fastest-rising search on Google and third most searched person on Yahoo;
and in May 2009, it was announced that Carano was ranked #16 in Maxim's Hot

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100 list.11 The other fighter mentioned in the interview with Leo is Cyborg. If
Gina Carano is the feminine poster-girl of womens MMA, Cristiane Cyborg
Santos is her antithesis.
Cristiane Santos is from Brazil and has competed in MMA events in
America since 2008. She competes at the same weight as Gina Carano (145lbs).
She is extremely muscular and has a more pronounced jaw line and brow ridge
(characteristics associated with masculine faces). Since her appearance on the
American MMA scene, there have been ongoing accusations that she is either
really a man, or is using steroids (thus giving her a masculine physique and facial
structure). Either allegation places her outside the realm of femininity. What
makes Gina more popular than Cristiane? I asked a Terry, a journalist and owner
of a popular MMA website. He has a degree in marketing and has also worked in
the field of consumer research.
People want to look at pretty faces. When they turn a TV show on, they
don't just want to see normal. They want to see really attractive people. I
think so for the most part, a brand will latch on to somebody that is very
good in their sport, and then if they're good looking or have a great body,
they're charismatic or whatever, then that's obviously going to take them
farther, the companies will want to pay them more money or have them
promote more products. I think thats just the way it is. It holds true for
both sexes, but women definitely more than men.
Both Ginas and Cristianes abilities in MMA are somehow discredited due to
being female. Gina is a marketing tool for the industry of MMA, a beautiful face
to entice male viewers. Cristianes physique and supposed steroid use is evidence

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gina_Carano
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11

that women must resort to artificial means to adopt masculine posturing and
stature in order to compete in this sport.
The female fighters I spoke with were aware of the fact that the publics
views of womens MMA were not solely based on ones abilities but more
heavily upon ones appearance. Many stated that there was more concern with
training and getting fights than focusing on creating a marketable image.

Me: Do you and your manager try to do anything to enhance your image
as a female fighter?
Sara: Not really. I am who I am. Im not going to change that. I know
some girls [female fighters] that have posed in mens magazines, or done
bikini photo shoots. Im not comfortable doing that. I want to get my shot
for the title because I am good at what I do.
Me: What do you think about the female fighters that pose and play up
their sexuality?
Sara: If that gets them noticed, more fights, more money, good for them.
Its just not the route I am going to gobut Ive thought about it. Im too
shy to do stuff like that anywayIm just going to concentrate on my
training and hope I get more fights.
The importance of appearance and self-promotion is not lost on Sara. MMA is a
sport but it also provides entertainment. It is sport where celebrities are made, and
many who enter the sport are seeking this celebrity lifestyle.12 Women who
participate in this sport are confronted with the tacit social message that they must
somehow retain their femininity or risk falling outside the category of female. For
these women, appearance is also entangled with sexuality and opportunity.

12
As will be discussed in further detail in Chapter 5
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Jenny has been training at Desert Combat for a couple years. She has
hopes to fight professionally but has yet to undertake an amateur fight. Her
coaches have had difficulties in setting up matches for her due to lack of
opponents and events. Jenny decides that she will find her own way to practice
combat.
Every Tuesday night the downtown gentlemans club Vixenss
hosts what they call stripper cage-fights. It is their busiest night of the
week. Valet parking is mandatory and I am told the price is thirty dollars.
This exuberant price seems incongruous to the locale. This does not seem
to be an upscale establishment. The neighboring businesses are a Jack
in the Box and a check-cashing store that I am later told has been subject
to attempted robberies over the past year. I negotiate with the valet and
end up paying ten dollars. At the door I am asked for my ID and my purse
is searched for tasers, mace and other weapons. I tell the lady at the
front that I am with Desert Combat gym. The manager of the club was a
former member of Desert Combat so he has made special arrangements.
My entrance fee of seven dollars is waived and an extremely large security
guard dressed all in black escorts me to our table. Two female members
and one male member of Desert Combat are already seated. There are
approximately twelve small round tables with three or four chairs around
each that form a semi-circle below the three foot-high raised stage. An
empty cage sits in the center of the tables below the stage. The cage is
made of chain-link but appears to actually be a temporary fence (like
those used at construction sites) fashioned into a six-sided enclosure.
Customers are asked to pay forty dollars for a table. The customers who
get bottle-service (meaning they buy a bottle or two of alcohol) are
placed closest to the stage.
It is dark and crowded. Surprisingly, women seem to make up 40%
of the audience. The audience is primarily African American, followed by
Hispanic and then white. Considering the location of the establishment,
this would appear representative of the neighborhood demographics.
There are two poles on stage that the majority of strippers walk around
rather than actually dance or climb on. There seems to be a lack of
enthusiasm from most of the women on stage, characterized by a blank
gaze and emotionless expression. Periodically, the audience members will
throw money near them to encourage the strippers to dance near their
seats. This establishment serves alcohol, therefore according to state law
the women are only allowed to be topless and not entirely nude. The fights
were to begin at 11:00pm, and it is nearly midnight.
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Our waitress is a tiny girl, athletic looking, with braided hair. I ask
if she will be fighting tonight. Yep, sure am. She says she does not have
formal experience fighting and that she is just a scrapper. Shortly after
that exchange, she is called into the cage. The lights are brightened and
club owner comes on stage. He announces the fights are about to begin.
Each girl is introduced, said to weigh approximately 110 lbs. The girls are
dressed in similar outfits --tight tank tops and small booty shorts that
reveal the lower part of their buttocks. They are given 16oz boxing gloves,
protective headgear and mouthpieces. They are barefoot. Before the fights
are allowed to commence there must be enough money thrown into the
cage. The announcer yells, You wont see any fights if you dont spend
the dough. Come on these girls deserve it. People start gathering up their
one-dollar bills and tossing them into the cage with the girls. The
announcer stalls, again asking for more money. Finally a man sitting up
in the balcony of the VIP section tosses a large handful of one-dollar bills
into the cage, making it rain money. Making it rain is a common
practice in strip clubs. The idea is to shower the stripper in money, thus
increasing the prestige and social capital of the rain-maker by calling
attention to himself and making it appear as if he has a lot of money to
spare.
Finally it is time to begin. There are three men in the cage with the
two women. There is a referee (not dressed in any official clothing) and
two men who act as coaches and are there to fix equipment and give the
girls water in between rounds. Fight! yells the announcer. The girls
launch forward at each other, a flurry of gloved fists. The crowd cheers.
They push each other into the corners, and one girl attempts a kick.
Mostly, it is just wild punching. Although each round is only one minute
there are several stops to fix equipment. The headgear is broken and must
be taped up each time it falls off one girl. The other girl points to the hole
in her boxing glove and is ignored. Round two: much of the same wild
punching. One girl throws the other to the ground and while standing over
her, kicks the fallen girl in the stomach. Clearly there are no fouls or
established rules. Round three: more punching and the round ends with
the girls being physically separated. One girl is clearly enraged at having
been tossed to the ground. She is restrained by the referee as she tries to
continue the fight. Resulting injuries appear quite minimal; one girl has a
small cut on her eyebrow and the other girl is complaining of a sore
finger. There is confusion over who has won the fight. The girls take off
their gear, gather up the dollar bills on the ground and are ushered off
stage.
Well, should I do it? asks one of the girls at my table. Jenny has
been training in MMA for a little over a year now. She has not had any
amateur or professional fights but has every intention of competing.
Jenny, you could totally take those girls. They have no technique at all,
Melanie tells her. We all encourage her, and she signs up to fight. Jenny
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goes back stage to find some shorts to wear and to sign a waiver of
liability.
After about ten minutes, Jenny is called to the cage. One of the
strippers has lent her some booty shorts. She enters the cage wearing
her protective gear. She throws a couple quick combinations of punches
and knees into the air. We cheer for her. Moderate amounts of cash are
thrown into the cage. The announcer calls out for more money to be
placed in the cage. He insists they there will not be a fight unless there is
more money. At least ten minutes pass. Finally a very tall, African
American man in his forties hands a waitress a large stack of money to
throw into the cage. This appears to be a sufficient amount of money to
finally start the fights. (I later learn the benefactor of this money was a
former NBA player who several audience members took pictures with.)
Fight! Jenny attempts a more traditional sparring session
approach while the other girl runs forward, her gloved arms flailing.
Jenny is unable to actually use techniques learned in the gym because her
opponent is swinging so erratically. She resorts to swinging back but
clearly has more skills than her opponent. I am excited for Jenny. She is
doing very well. I yell, knees! to remind her to knee her opponent when
her opponent pulls her close to a clinch position. This elicits amusement
from the group of men in front of me as they turn around and laugh. Jenny
dominates all three two-minute rounds, although her opponent did make
contact with a couple wild yet effective punches. In between rounds, the
announcer again requests more money from the audience, threatens to
terminate the fights if his demands are not met. The audience reluctantly
obliges him. The last round ends with the women on the ground and when
the girls stand up Jenny initiates a hug. (This is common practice seen at
professional cage-fights, the opponents will hug to acknowledge the
experience and leave the aggression in the cage.) The announcer comes
on stage to declare the winner. He has the audience cheer for the girl they
believe won the fight. The cheers are overwhelmingly in favor of Jenny.
We cheer loudly. She raises her arms in the air. As she walks over to us
she is stopped by a fan. A man in his twenties wearing a Tap-out t-shirt
tells her that she is a good fighter and then gives her a small wad of cash.
We congratulate her and she laughs and tells us she lost a contact lens in
the process. She is clearly happy with her victory. She goes to change,
while the male employees of the club gather up the money from the cage
floor. The strippers resume their positions on stage and the lights dim
once more.
With the fights over for the night, people begin clearing out. It is
almost 1:30am. Jenny comes back and announces that she has made $176
dollars for her six-minute fight. She is told that all the money is simply
split down the middle for the two girls. Jenny comments, $176 for six
minutesnot bad. I think Ill start coming down here on a regular basis.
Where else am I going to actually get fights?
(Field notes, October 12, 2010)
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There are several key issues relevant to gender and MMA that arise out
this excursion to Vixens. Jenny alludes to the fact that it is very difficult for
female MMA participants to get amateur fights. First of all, there are less women
in this amateur pool which makes matching up with opponents difficult. Second
of all, few amateur promotions actually include female MMA matches in their
events. This leaves little opportunity for competition. Jenny spars with the both
female and male participants at the gym. She has asked the coaches at Desert
Combat to look for a fight for her, but they had thus far been unsuccessful. For
Jenny, even though her opponent was not trained in MMA, these stripper cagefights presented one of the only venues available for her to practice her skills in
competition.
The staff at Vixens told me that stripper cage-fights on Tuesdays is their
most popular night of the week. Danny, the clubs manager, tells me that the
clubs parking lot is always full, and then they decided that they would convert to
a valet system to make more money. I am somewhat surprised that these fights
would be so successful but Skeules (2000: 20) offers the perspective that men
perceive women fighting as erotic because battle is the antithesis of female
sexuality, whereas male sexuality is fused to itgirl-fights are a male turn-on
because of the abandon, and the passion they see displayed. Having strippers
fight enhances this eroticism because their bodies are already equated with sexual
objectivity. Who thought of this idea to have strippers fight in a cage? And how
come not all of the women are strippers? Danny tells me,
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MMA is really big now. Guys love watching that stuff. Guys also love
watching hot girls take off their clothes. Why not combine this?...Yeah,
you know we got the girls [strippers] to do it first. They were the ones who
thought it would be fun to fight. Some of them are really feisty anyway.
Then we just opened it up to any girl that wanted to do it. Actually, its
better that way. We dont want our girls fighting each other because then it
can cause problems at work
Dannys comments provide insight into the juxtaposed pairing of MMA as a
masculine sport and stripping, which although involves females is located
primarily in a masculine domain. Here, is an explicit demonstration of how
womens bodies are sexualized in relation with combat for the obvious benefit of
the male gaze. Womens MMA struggles with organizations and social structures
that demand a standard female beauty, in terms of recognizable femininity while
taking part in the presumptively masculine activity of combat. Despite the fact
that it is obvious that more attractive female fighters are more marketable and as a
result more successful (in obtaining fight contracts), this dilemma is somewhat
avoided in public discussions and presentations of the sport. Here, at Vixens, they
are making this gender commentary unequivocally visible and using it as an
unapologetic strategy for profit. This is meant to be entertainment, while also
providing a sense of reality. The event is not staged. The fight results in (minor)
injury. The outcome is not predetermined. It is in a sense a real fight, but it also
must only be entertainment.
For legal purposes, Vixens fights are not real. In order to hold an actual
cage-fight there are legal procedures that must be enforced. The promoter must
get a license, there must be insurance, there must be medical tests. It is time
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consuming and expensive to hold an actual MMA competition. Danny tells me

that Vixens has no intention of holding sanctioned MMA events. They are more
interested in the profit and have no stake in furthering legitimate female MMA
competitions. I argue that it appears as if they are holding real fights, they have
the cage, protective gear, a referee and the girls get paid for fighting. Danny tells
me, Exactly. It has to look realWell, I meanthey are real fightsI guess?
(At this point, I choose not to pursue a philosophical debate on the nature of
reality.) Hiding fights under the guise of being purely entertainment could perhaps
be a clever way of bypassing state laws, or simply a declaration that female
bodies are most conventionally perceived as a source of entertainment. In any
case, for Jenny, this provides a real avenue for practicing combat. Is she complicit
in her own subordination and sexualization? Or is she subverting and
manipulating the system by using stripper cage-fights as means to her own
financial and experiential gain?

Ring Girls
The crowd begins to cheer loudly, there are whistles and I hear a male
voice behind me remark, Yeah baby, thats what I want An attractive
girl with long brown hair, wearing a bikini and tennis shoes walks around
the perimeter of the cage holding a sign with a large 2 on it. She is
there is to signify the end of the first round and the start of the second
round. She smiles and blows a kiss at the audience. I hear the voice behind
me say, Did you see that? That kiss was totally meant for me!
(Field notes, Feb 2007)
Strangely enough, the voice behind me was right. The duty of the ring girl
in the sport of MMA is to provide a source for male desire. She is a convenient,
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re-occurring reminder that this sport is staged for a heterosexual audience. Ring
girls have been a long-standing tradition in boxing and this practice has carried
over to MMA. The ring girl appears at the end of each round (after five minutes).
There may be three rounds for a non-championship MMA fight and five rounds
for a championship fight, therefore she will make either three or five appearances
during a fifteen-minute or twenty-five minute match. The ring girl will walk
around the outside of the cage, holding the sign signifying the round and smile
and gesture toward the audience. They are almost always wearing revealing
outfits, such as bikinis, that will often display the symbol of the organization
putting on the event. These women are either employed by the organization,
signing a temporally specified contract, or they will be hired for just a single
event. (The latter is often the case for smaller and amateur events and the women
hired are frequently exotic dancers from a nearby gentlemans club, or aspiring
models.) Ethnicity is variable: Caucasian, African-American, Hispanic, and
Native American. However, the women hired for these positions are always
young (I estimate between eighteen and twenty-five years old) attractive, in good
shape and appear conventionally feminine. By this I refer to signifiers such as
wearing make-up, usually long hair, and evident hips and breasts.
During the UFC 100 Fan Expo in Las Vegas I had the opportunity to
observe a contest to discover the next UFC octagon/ring girl. The UFC Fan
Expo was held over two days (the weekend of UFC 100) and included several
activities such as autograph signing by professional fighters, MMA
demonstrations and seminars. There were over one hundred MMA companies
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exhibiting apparel, fight gear and equipment, and various beverages and
supplements. The new UFC octagon/ring girl event was heavily promoted and
gathered an audience of at least two hundred people. It was a joint promotion held
by the UFC and by Maxim magazine, a popular mens magazine known primarily
for its revealing photo layouts of attractive women and female celebrities. The
women on stage were the finalists who had been chosen to attend this MMA Expo
in Las Vegas, where the final judging would occur. The marketing director for
Maxim told me that hundreds of candidates sent in photographs to the Maxim
office and only five were selected. Two of the judges were from Maxim
(marketing director and editor) and one was a representative from the UFC. The
UFC representative was unavailable after the contest; however, I spoke with both
judges from Maxim magazine. I was quite curious as to how these women were
judged or what specific criteria they were looking for.

Eric: Well, we look at their personality, their looks, their physique, and
their ability to represent UFC in a good way as Octagon girl.
Me:

So what are some of the specific qualities that you look for?

Ivan: Body tone.

Me:

So they have to have very little body fat?

Eric: Um, I dont know how it equates to a percentage, but its overall
body tone and proportion. I mean we had lots of girls in different sizes,
which is great. There are some really tall girls. There are some really
short girls. I mean proportion is a really important part. You know hips
and chest and waist. Its important, especially for television. You dont
want anyone whos too skinny or too rounded. A lot of the finalists were
really physically fit, so they didnt have the stereotypical Barbie body in
my opinion.
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Me: Are there differences in the way you [Maxim] judge the finalists and
the way that the UFC does? Do you look for anything different?
Eric: Yeah, I think we take a little bit of a different tact than the judges
from the UFC side. We are used to dealing with print and image models,
and its a little bit different than girls who are going to be appearing on
television, especially in High Def. They have to come up to even higher
standards, especially body tone, cause High Def is so unforgivingWe
[Maxim magazine] cater to a lot of different audiences, so we love a
variety of different body types, racial types. It always just depends. I
think we might be interested in a girl who may not have the perfect ten
body, but has that perfect nine or ten face because being a print side, we
can do some things on the retouch. UFC doesnt really have that luxury
because they are going to be on live television, so that might be the
biggest difference.
According to the Maxim judges, there were no specific requirements such as
weight, height, chest size or even age (although all participants have to be over
the age of eight-teen). Knowledge of MMA was not required, nor any kind of
training in the sport. The new octagon/ring girl simply had to be considered
attractive and fit and appear friendly and approachable. As Eric suggested, with
the invention of High Definition television the standards of female beauty and
perfection are elevated further than for print images in a magazine. High
Definition increases the resolution of images by increasing the number of pixels
in a screen thus resulting in minute detail being much more visible to the human
eye. For women whose physical appearance is scrutinized, every dimple, wrinkle,
or blemish can be seen by television viewers, therefore shattering the fantasy of
perfection. In print magazines, photos can be re-touched; these supposed
imperfections are airbrushed and made non-existent. Eric and Ivan tell me this
practice is extremely common, and almost every magazine from Mens Fitness to
Good Housekeeping will use computer technology to re-touch images.
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The new octagon/ring girl selected is a petite blonde. She appears

physically fit with subtle muscle contouring but also retains a conventionally
feminine shape. Natasha tells the audience that as an aspiring model she is
grateful for this opportunity. The audience cheers and whistles. Somewhere
behind me I hear, shes hot, but too bad her tits arent bigger
The most visible women who inhabit the world of MMA are primarily
there to enhance masculinity and the masculine sexuality of male fighters by
exhibiting their own sexual appeal. Even when there are female MMA matches,
the ring girls are still brought out between rounds to reinforce conventional
female beauty and roles. The ring girls are there to provide an illusion of fantasy
for the audience. It is both the fantasy of sexual promise and fantasy of the
perfection of female beauty.

Relationships
Girlfriends and Wives
Ive been in this business a long time. Ive interviewed thousands of fighters
over the yearsIf a fighter is off [during a competition], its usually mental
hes got other things on his mindIts almost always issues in his relationship.
(MMA journalist Lauren Harrison, field notes April
2009)
At the time of the interviews, I would estimate a little less than half of the
fighters (professional and amateur) had a significant other such as a steady
girlfriend or wife. I was particularly interested how these relationships functioned
as the fighters spent considerable amount of their time training. Would this make
having a romantic relationship difficult? What other factors do fighters, and
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women in relationships with fighters, have to confront as a result of their

participation in the sport of MMA? Overall, I found that participants were quite
open about discussing their relationships with me. I spoke to fighters about their
relationships, but also to their partners. Many stated they were in happy, longterm relationships. When asked to identify their most serious issues, both fighters
and their partners responded with the following: the time large amount of time
spent training (and therefore less time with their partners); their partner not
agreeing with the violent appearance and injury resulting from the sport; and also
issues of jealousy and trust, particularly for professional fighters who had attained
a higher level of fame and recognition.
I asked participants how women reacted to them being mixed martial
artists/cage-fighters. Jareds response represents the three most common
reactions, Some women think its scary; some of them think its hot; some of
them just dont understand The stereotype of MMA being barbaric follows
participants into their personal lives. It is a misconception that they must confront
when explaining their occupation to others, particularly those with little
knowledge of the sport.

Victor: That is probably one of the hardest things for me to tell people,
tell girls--this is what I do for a living and it is difficultwhen they hear
fighter, they are thinking Mike Tyson. They are thinking this motherfucker
has got anger issues, he is going to beat me when he gets mad and we
argue. I dont have anger issues, I have never, never once laid a hand on a
girl.I try to avoid telling people Im a pro fighter at all costs, but if it is a
girl I am interested in, then I am not going to lie to her. If it is just some
chick I met at a club and I dont really care, I will tell her whatever, like
Im a golf pro.
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Victor takes the approach to avoid revealing his true occupation whenever
possible. Even if a fighter explains his unique employment to his partner there can
still be issues of conflict surrounding the his chosen profession. Ruben dated his
girlfriend for a little over a year. He tells me that it was her distain for the sport
that finally drove them apart.

Me: So what happened?

Ruben: She couldnt handle blood or even bruises. Ill come home with a
bruise, which I get all the time. But shell just freak out about it. I just say
this is what Im doing and I dont expect you to understand it, or you if
you wanna understand more about it, I can help you. But if you think its
barbaric, then its barbaric. But its what I do, so you just gotta respect it.
Me: Did she try to respect it?
Ruben: No, she just thinks its barbaric. She thinks its just two guys
hitting each other; its not a classy thing you know. She never really tried.
She would avoid everything that had to do with MMA, even my friends.
She would be a bitch to my friends from the gym on purpose. That was the
last straw. She didnt have to be like that.
Me: Didnt she know you were a fighter from the start?
Ruben: Yeah, but maybe she didnt realize it was such a big part of my
life.
It would appear an initial hurdle is getting ones partner to understand that despite
MMAs beginnings as a No-Holds-Barred spectacle of violence that it has
evolved into a regulated sport. The next obstacle presented would be finding a
partner considerate enough to understand the enormous amount of time spent
preparing for competition. Professional MMA training requires three-five hours a
day, if not more. Many professional fighters also maintain full or part time
employment elsewhere, leaving few hours to spend with partners and families.
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Often fighters travel to other locations for training camps, which can last
anywhere from six to twelve weeks. For the fighter and his partner this can be a
lonely time.
Tito was traveling all the time, he was gone a lot. I didn't see him much and
even when he did come back, he would be training. If I had issues, I
couldnt talk about them with him because he was in training mode. Once
he was done fighting, it was all about him having fun and partying. All of a
sudden it was never about me.
(Tito Ortizs first wife Kristin Ortiz. From Ortiz and Shapiro 2008: 110)
Even if the training camp is in the fighters own town, some choose to isolate
themselves from their partners and families. Kevin, a professional fighter of five
years tells me this is crucial to his preparation for competition.
Kevin: I go into isolation mode. Its like Im going to battle. I need to
prepare myself mentally. I cant risk the distractions of relationships or
family drama. I need to focus completely on what I am going to do.
Me: Does this mean you go away somewhere for training?
Kevin: Well, not necessarily. Sometimes I go up to Flag [Flagstaff] but
usually I stay around here. When I say isolation I mean I go to the gym
and I go home. Thats it.
Me: You avoid everyone for a couple months? Really?
Kevin: The best I can. I tell everyone first. They understand. If theres an
emergency they contact me but I need to be alone.
Me: What do you do at home, by yourself?
Kevin: I watch fight footageIll write poetry, read
Me: What do you read?
Kevin: Mostly scripture, the Bible. It helps me to stay focused and calm. It
gives me inspiration.
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This self-imposed exile is quite remarkable. Kevin chooses to avoid

human contact and the outside world. He tries not to watch television or surf the
Internet. He is very serious about this preparation and likens himself to a warrior
going to battle. How would others perceive Kevins behavior? I spoke with
Kevins girlfriend Reina (separate from my interview with Kevin). She is also a
professional MMA fighter. They met while training at Desert Combat.

Me: Can you tell me about what its like dating a fighter?
Reina: I never wanted to date a fighter. Actually, Ive only had one serious
relationship. He was my boyfriend first and then became my trainer. That
was kind of something, but Kevins the first person whos a fighter that
Ive ever dated. I was always likeits just such a selfish life.
Me: Being a fighter?
Reina: Yeah. Im at the gym every night for hours upon hours. I know
how much time I need to spend there. Ive been so dead set against dating
someone who fights but honestly its like who else is gonna understand
my lifestyle more than someone who does exactly what I do? How else
would someone understand him? It would be really stressful and I couldnt
imagine it if I werent a fighter too. Yeah, so God bless all those
girlfriends and wives. At least if youre a wife hopefully youve been
through it and you kind of can understand.
Me: I see. With you and Kevin, you can understand each otherall the
time spent training, and Kevins isolation before fights. But you guys get
to see each other at the gym. Right?
Reina: Kev tells me when he is going to do this. He makes it clear that it is
not personal or has anything to do with our relationship. Its tough, but I
understand. At the gym we keep it very professional. We acknowledge
each other but we dont talk. We are there to train.
Me: Are there any conflicts with dating someone from the same gym?

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Reina: I want people to think of me as a fighter, not as like Kevins

girlfriend. It ended up being fine. I think everyone respects both of us a
lot. No one ever bothers us about it.
Reina insists she wants to be recognized through her own merits as a fighter and
not simply known as the girlfriend of a fighter. Reina is afraid that her gender
may influence others to see her first as a girlfriend, as an accessory to a fighter,
but male fighters too struggle with how others view them due to their profession.
Jon tells me about the difficulty in being seen for who he is. In his case, Jon
reveals that doesnt merely want to be seen as a fighter but as an individual with
thoughts and feelings.

Me: So you had a girlfriend from the time you started competing
professionally? Did she ever have a problem with you fighting?
Jon: Actually, she liked it a lot. Im pretty sure, thats why she was
attracted to me, because, she knew I fought. It was probably a turn on to
her. Maybe she just liked me because I was a fighter. I dont know. Who
knows?
Me: Are you worried about that happening, with other girls?
Jon: Yeah, definitely. I was on the tv show [The Ultimate Fighter]. When
it was done, people started to recognize me. Girls started to recognize me.
The girl I was with liked the attention, the spotlight. She would tell
everyone I was a fighter on tv.
Me: So you werent sure if she really liked you or if
Jon: I had feelings for her, and eventually its like, do you really like me?
I really like you because I know who you are, but you just like me because
I am this fighter kidYou tell me you love me but what part do you really
love? Do you even really know me?

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I was a surprised by Jons openness but I also felt privileged to witness this
vulnerability. While many professional fighter admitted that liked the fact that
their career often brought female admirers, Jons honesty highlights what
numerous participants said they truly wanted out of a relationship: a partner who
loves them for who they are and understands the demands of their chosen career.
Relationships begin and end because of MMA. The circumstances surrounding
training and competition make maintaining relationships difficult. The separation
from one another, lack of understanding and the fame all provide a recipe for
infidelity.
Travelling to different cities, attending promotional events and parties, and
adoring female fans may make it difficult for many professional athletes to remain
faithful to their partners. Professional athletes (along with other employment that
includes travel, media exposure, and fame) do not have the best reputations when
it comes to fidelity. While infidelity was not a topic I specifically asked about it
sometimes came in interviews when we spoke of women and relationships.

Me: How did that relationship end?

Rick: Well, (long pause) I cheated on her. We werent getting along,
fighting all the timeI was away a lot. I was meeting lots of girls. I was
doing promotions and appearances at places like the Playboy Mansion and
the hottest clubs in Vegas. It wasnt something I intentionally set out to
do.
Me: It just happened? Really?
Rick: Ok. It was my fault. I just had so many opportunities. The girls
would come up to me and give me their numbers. Or they would Facebook
me or hit up my Myspace saying that they wanted to hookup. It was just so
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easy. Factor in alcohol and that I was kinda lonelyI meanI regret
hurting her though.
Me: How did she find out?
Rick: Um, yeah. That was not good. This chick posted a pic of us, um, in
bed on Myspace and my girl saw it.
Me: WowI dont know what to say.
Rick: Neither did I
Groupies
Rick suggested that part of his lack of fidelity can attributed to the many
opportunities he had to meet women who sought out his company. The women
from these encounters are known as groupies. According to participants, almost
every professional sport has its own groupies. These women follow fighters
careers; they will show up at fights, after fight parties, promotional events, just
about any place professional fighters are scheduled to be. I was somewhat
intrigued by this practice. What were these women gaining from these
encounters? What were the athletes gaining from these encounters? Sexual
gratification is the obvious answer, but is this somehow a means of gaining
social/cultural capital? (Bourdieu 1986). I found this aspect of interviewing male
fighters quite difficult. When I broached the subject of groupies and sex, most
fighters displayed signs of uneasiness. Some would shift uncomfortably in their
chairs, look away or even laugh nervously. I can only speculate that my gender
had very much to do with these responses. Perhaps had I been a male researcher
they would have seen me as an ally to share stories of seduction with, but as a
female researcher they admittedly were worried about what I would think.
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Me: Do you think that MMA has groupies?

Carlos: Yeah, for sure. Every pro sport does.
Me: Have you had any personal experiences with this?
Carlos: What? WellumkindaI guess, a little?
Me: Its ok, this is all confidential, just for research purposes.
Carlos: Aww, I cant really talk about it. I see you in the gym all the time.
You are going to think Im a jerk. [laughs]
Me: I wont judge you. I understand that things happen.
Carlos: Yeah, but if a guy just hooks up with a girl, then never calls her
again, other girls think hes an ass.
Carlos did eventually tell me about some of his experiences after I repeatedly
assured him I would not think any less of him. His encounters were for the most
part quite tame and followed the general premise offered by Rick: a girl would
contact him on Myspace or Facebook, let him know that she was interested in
meeting him when he was in town and leaves her phone number. The Internet was
cited as the most common source for connecting with groupies. Sometimes, girls
would come up to professional fighters at parties after fights and introduce
themselves. There would usually be some drinking involved and them they would
retire to a hotel room, her place or other location to have sexual relations. One
fighter (who explicitly wanted to remain anonymous) told me that he often meets
up with the same girls depending on the city. For example, he told me there are a
couple girls he always hooks up (meaning has sex with) in Vegas, one girl in
Los Angeles, and one in New Jersey. He just texts them or contacts them through
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the Internet to let them know when he is in town. I ask him to comment on the
benefits and drawbacks of this arrangement.

Anonymous: Benefits? Obviously the sex. No strings attached. They know

I am just in town for a day or two. Its just about having funHmm,
drawbacksI guess sometimes I meet new girl and I have to decide who
to go home with. Shit, I sound like such an asshole
Me: Do these women want a relationship from you? What do they get out
of it?
Anonymous: Like I said, its about having funI guess they get to say
they had sex with a celebrity? Its an ego thing for both of usSometimes
girls can get a little clingy. If she wants a relationship, relationship, like
for me to be her boyfriend, I tell her I cant because of the distance. That
always works.
Me: I see, you let them down easyHave you ever felt any of these girls
want money from you?
Anonymous: Yeah. No doubt. Especially the ones I meet at after parties.
Not like a prostitute getting paid for sex, but like sometimes they talk to
me about money. They hint around about stuff they want. They think I
make a lot[laughs]I mean I make a lot but Im no millionaire.
Me: Lets see if I understandThese girls, groupies want excitement,
fame and money?
Anonymous: Yeah, pretty much.
This criteria seemed to make sense, but I wondered how could one truly recognize
a groupie? Knowledge of the sport of MMA was not necessary. Several
professional fighters stated that in fact the majority of the groupies they met did
not possess much knowledge about the workings of the sport. Is there a way to
visually identify groupies by their appearance? Participants (both female and male
fighters, and fans) suggested that they were usually the women at the fights and
after-parties in short, tight dresses, with breast implants and perhaps tattoos. How
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do you tell these women apart from ordinary fans or party attendees? I was told
that how they acted and represented themselves revealed their intentions and true
groupie-ness, yet several female fans, as well as female members of media
expressed concern (and even anger) over being mis-labelled as a groupie.

Women in the Media

It is interesting that some of the most talented pioneers of MMA media are
women. In an industry so heavily constructed upon masculine ideals and men,
these women were crucial to advancing MMA as a legitimate sport. Here I will
focus on the contributions of three women: Lauren Harrison (journalist/author),
Eva Ching (photographer) and Leah Terry (photographer/website owner). All
three of these women confront several of the same issues in their line of work.
There is the constant flirting from their subjects and requests for dates, the
accusation of being an MMA groupie and most importantly not being taken as a
serious and productive member of the MMA media community.

Me: What was it like starting out in this business?

Lauren: Well, it was rough in some aspectsFighters look you up and
down, look at your chest before answering you. They question your
credentials and think you are a groupieSome wives of fighters even
thought I was groupie.
Me: How did you deal with these things?
Lauren: I just made it clear that I am Lauren Harrison, and I am a
reporter. After you are out there awhile people start to know you and
know that you are serious... Actually, its been the last two years I have
experienced more discrimination than ever, not in the beginning. In the
beginning it was like we were all fighting together to get the sport
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established. After this hurdle, where it turned from cagefighting to MMA

and became more mainstream, more and more people became MMA
journalists. It has become more competitive and people just want to be
famous now. Some men in MMA media often express that women should
not be writing about this or involved in this industry. Thats ridiculous
Ive been covering this sport before most of them even heard of it.
For those who follow MMA it is obvious why Lauren feels more discriminated
against in the past few years. In April of 2009, Harrison wrote an article on an
MMA news website discussing how the UFC would now be restricting backstage
access of agents and managers at their discretion. This story apparently outraged
the president of that organization, Dana White, who took to the Internet to
respond. In a video-blog taped and released by the president of the organization
himself, he attacks not only the validity of the article but also Harrison using
misogynistic and homophobic language.

Fucking retarded story ... you fucking moron ... fucking dumb ... you
don't know what the fuck you're talking about ... shut the fuck up ...
whoever gave you that quote is a pussy and a fucking faggot and a fucking
liar ... maybe you're the liar ... everything that comes out of your mouth is
fucking stupid ... You fucking dumb bitch. Fuck you, [Lauren
Harrison].13

This tirade was met with some outrage but also a surprising amount of
indifference when it came down to any kind of penalty or real recourse. A month
later in an interview with ESPN the president of the organization offered a public
apology for using homophobic slurs but not to Lauren Harrison. He stated

13 (http://deadspin.com/5195532/ufcs-president-really-knows-how-to-handle-themedia)
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emphatically that he would not apologize for his opinion of her. He felt people
respected him for his honesty, You know what?...The feedback I got was not
negative. It was overwhelmingly positive from our fans. It was, 'Yeah, you
goyou're the man. The president of this organization made it a point to
apologize for homophobic language but not for his misogynistic language. There
was some public scrutiny over whether the president had put MMA back to the
days of violent spectacle. Several sports reporters suggested that if MMA was
truly a legitimate sport with real regulations like the NBA, he would have been
pressured to resign. This debacle indicates that MMA holds a privileged and
liminal position. MMA attempts to quantify, regulate and legitimate itself as a real
sport to obtain mainstream sports financial success. Yet, its beginnings as a
spectacle for entertainment value both undermine and also protect it from
operating at the same moral levels as other mainstream sports, particularly in
terms of gender equality. (However, not every organization expresses the views
espoused by this individual. Some organizations have taken active steps to
promote female MMA as discussed in the previous section of female fighters.)
I spoke to Eva about her experiences as a member of the MMA media.
She tells me that unlike Lauren, she has never encountered sexism anywhere near
the extreme level Lauren has. This may be due to the fact that Eva is a
photographer. While images are also a powerful mode of expression she does not
have to answer for controversial written or verbal statements. Eva is a free-lance
photographer that has been contracted by several MMA websites and MMA
organizations. She attends fights and takes action sequence images as well as
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doing photo-shoots of individual fighters. Eva has had numerous fighters ask her
on dates but many fighters seem to respect her work and tell her its cool that a
girl is doing what she does. I ask her if she has any strategies to have the fighters
take her more seriously. Eva tells me that she doesnt do anything specific, she is
just herself. She dresses the way she always would (jeans and a t-shirt) and she
doesnt try to downplay her femininity nor enhance it. I ask her about her opinion
of well-known MMA photographer Leah Terry.
Eva: Leah is a great photographer. Some people have a problem with her,
the way she uses her sexuality, but everyone uses their own assets. There
is no resentment here. In fact, Leah is responsible for the fighters
becoming celebrities. Her work set them up to be more famous, and with
that they are able to get paid more. She has done a lot for the industry.
According to her website, Leah is an MMA photographer, Nightlife
Connoisseur, Entrepreneur, Internet Marketing Guru, & all around fun chick.
Her photographic work displays talent but her greater ability is to create fame for
fighters. This is achieved through emphasizing the life-style of MMA. She was
one of the first to photograph fighters at after-parties and other non-fight contexts
to promote an image of a fun, extravagant, almost hedonistic, lifestyle that MMA
would appear to promise.
Leah is a somewhat controversial figure in MMA. She has been a model
for several years and has thus learned that to create fame and celebrity, sex indeed
does sell. Unlike Eva, Leah heavily plays up her feminine sexuality. On her
website, she posts modeling photos of herself in revealing clothing (such as
bikinis) and has been very public about her plastic surgery breast enhancement.
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Leah overtly uses her sexuality as an in to the industry, a way to set herself apart
and bring an element of celebrity to her person. Opinions of Leah vary. Some,
like Eva, believe she is a good photographer that has done much for MMA and for
the fighters; others suggest that she is a decent photographer but is only wellknown because she uses her sexual appeal. Some male MMA journalists
suggested she was obviously promiscuous due to her appearance.
Me: What makes Leah a whore? Do you know her personally?
Michael: Nobut I heard she slept with a bunch of UFC guys.
Me: How do you know that is true?
Andy: Just look at her. Shes always with fighters and porn stars. She
wears slutty clothes and puts her cell phone in between her tits so people
will look at them.
Michael: Yeah, and puts all those pics on her sitein tiny bikinisand
shes hanging all over the fighters at parties
Unfortunately sexuality is a slippery-slope, particularly for women. Although I
did not get a chance to interview Leah to get her response to these accusations, I
am quite certain she is aware of these rumors and misconceptions. Other members
of the media (both male and female who know Leah) insist that although she
definitely uses her sexuality, she is not some kind of super-groupie, sex fiend.
The rumors of her promiscuity result from the false implication that any overt
display of sexuality must equal sexual activity. For Leah, I assume that this
simply a facet of her strategy she has to deal with. Perhaps it makes her more
intriguing and generates more publicity for her business? The majority of people I
spoke with had a great respect for Leah and her work but I did encounter those
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who saw Leahs sexualized approach to enhance her career as degrading to

women. Shelley is an amateur female fighter and MMA website blogger.
Shelley: Ok. I know that Leah does all that to get more business but it is
really bad at the same time. It is bad for female fighters and other women
in MMA who want to be taken seriouslyShe may flirt and put sex out
there, but then the guys will just look at other women and think that they
can treat us the same way. I dont want to have dress up and pretend I
want to sleep with a guy just so I can get an interview. Its bad enough
sometimes
Shelleys critique echoes the arguments put forth by well-known orthodox
feminists (such as Dworkin and MacKinnon) that the use of the body in activities
such as prostitution or stripping not only make women complicit in their own
subordination but they are victims of oppressive patriarchy. Leahs attitude, on
the other hand, is aligned with sex-positive feminists (such as Paglia and Rubin)
that believe that women who use their bodies in such a way are in fact
empowering themselves and actively making decisions from which they are
benefitting. Yet being familiar with this theoretical literature did not give me any
substantial, practical insight when I found myself in complicated situations where
I became responsible for representations of women in the world of MMA.

Becoming Media
Hey, you study MMA right? I heard that you are doing a PhD on MMA.
Um, well yes
Im putting together a new magazine on MMA that also focuses on the
local talent here in Arizona. Im looking for writers and photographers.
Are you interested?
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Jerry and I meet for coffee the next day and discuss his business plans.
Jerry is a member of Desert Combat. He is a forty-year old entrepreneur
and fitness fanatic. Although not a fighter himself, he has trained in MMA at
Desert Combat for a couple years and has become a newly devoted follower of
MMA. Like me, he has watched several fighters from Desert Combat become
successful professional fighters. He tells me he sees a great business opportunity
to publish a local MMA magazine. It is important that this magazine have a
different angle. There are numerous other MMA magazines out there, and an
infinite number of MMA websites that bring up to the minute news on MMA
events. It would not make sense to compete in that respect. Our in would be in
depth interviews and profiles on fighters from around the Southwest. The
magazine will visit gyms around Arizona and highlight up-and-coming local
fighters and local MMA equipment/clothing companies. Jerry proposes that the
profit will come from advertisements and therefore decides that the magazine will
be distributed for free. By the end of our meeting I have agreed to sign on to this
fortuitous research opportunity, and Jerry has promoted me to Assistant Publisher
of Fightzone Magazine.
Once I was officially a member of media, I was afforded several privileges
that I was not as a researcher. I sent in applications to major MMA organizations
to obtain press credentials to view events across the United States. I attended
approximately ten national MMA events as a member of the media. Press
credentials gave me backstage admission to events where I was able to move
freely around the venue. Most organizations would set up a Media Room for the
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Press with access to Internet and tables to set up equipment, and there would often
be refreshments provided. The Press were given good seats to view the fight, and
photographers were often given ring-side seats to capture up-close images of the
action. We were seated in the front row for weigh-ins and for after-fight press
conferences, where we could take photos and ask questions. I met numerous other
members of the media who had come to the United State for these events from as
far away as Japan and Brazil. I had the opportunity to speak with professional
fighters (from all over the world), managers, coaches and organization
representatives. I found that as a member of the Press my identity was much more
understandable. Most people I encountered were familiar with reporters and
photographers. Explaining that I was an academic researcher studying gender and
masculinity in contemporary American culture was often met with skeptical and
quizzical responses. Once I began working with Fightzone Magazine I made the
decision to tell people that I was a reporter, particularly when I was attending
these events as a member of the Press. When conducting interviews for Fightzone
I would tell individuals that I was also doing a PhD in Anthropology and that I
study issues of gender and MMA. I would then request their consent to include
information we discussed in interviews for my dissertation. Over the two years I
was employed with the magazine, I was fortunate and did not have one person
who objected to my use of this material in my dissertation. While reflections on
my work with Fightzone could be incorporated into any section of this
dissertation, I feel it is most poignant here, in this chapter that includes women in
MMA. This is not only because I was a female member of the MMA media, but
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as the Assistant Publisher of Fightzone, I had to make difficult decisions that

pertained to the image of women in MMA.
There were four of us who worked full time on the magazine. Jerry was
the Publisher who also acted as a writer and photographer. I was the Assistant
Publisher, writer and photographer. Roman was the graphic designer who worked
on the layout and publishing of the magazine. Fred was the copy-editor (and
ultimately became my nemesis regarding gender politics). Jerry and I would meet
on a weekly basis to discuss ideas for the magazine, which fighters to interview,
gyms to spotlight, and also various strategies for advertising. With such a small
staff we decided that we would limit our quarterly issue to about twenty-five
pages. Jerry and I worked well together as we both had some background
knowledge of MMA, and shared the vision that Fightzone could help to promote
local fighters, gyms and other MMA companies. Roman was also a fan of MMA
and very flexible when it came to me suggesting layout changes. I was genuinely
surprised to find that working with Fred would be such a challenge. Fred had a
Masters in writing. He was well-spoken, and was a self-proclaimed progressive
liberal. I assumed with Freds level of education and his political stance that he
would most likely concur with my ideas about how women in the magazine
should be represented. He did not.
Our primary target audience was fans of MMA. This demographic was
males 18-40 years old. Since ring/octagon girls were clearly a visually appealing
part of MMA, we decided to include a feature in the magazine called Fightzones
Knockout. The knockout was an attractive female model who would answer
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sexually suggestive questions about MMA (e.g. Do you like it standing up or on

the ground?). Jerry suggested Maxim magazine as the format that we would
imitate when it came to these layouts. Maxim is a magazine that has cornered the
market for 18-40 males. It offers photographs of highly attractive women wearing
bikinis or lingerie. I struggled with this idea: Would this be demeaning to women?
How could I as an academic and feminist contribute to this? What would my
colleagues think? Or worse, what would my dissertation committee think? My
role was to think like an Assistant Publisher. I had to consider what would make
the magazine more successful. Looking back on my experience with the
magazine, Fightzones Knockout Girl definitely contributed to our short-lived
success. Jerry put me in charge of overseeing the photo-shoots. According to him,
I was female so I would make the models feel more comfortable, and I would
know what looked pretty. We hired a photographer who supplied us with a pool
of models. The models would work for free and be provided photos to use for
their portfolios. Jerry and I would both agree on the model to be used for the
feature.14 Selecting models would prove more difficult that I imagined. I was not
prepared for the level of honesty used to critique the women in the modeling
industry. I talked to several of the girls who told me they were used to employers
commenting that their teeth were too crooked or their breasts were too small. I
simply told the girls we did not select that they didnt have the look we were
going for. Roman explained it to me as follows: Modeling is not the nicest
industry, but these women choose to make a living off the way they look so they

14
All questions of finance were handled by Jerry. It was his business and his
money.
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are used it to. It is nothing personal, but it takes time (which costs money) to
airbrush out cellulite and acne. We have to be picky. Roman had a pointhis job
as a graphic designer for a magazine includes photo-editing, and this process can
be quite time-consuming. Still, I felt guilty telling one girl to keep her hat and
sunglasses on as a means to hide her fresh outbreak of blemishes.
Although I supported the idea of the Knockout Girl I wanted to make
sure that our readers would be able to differentiate between this source of eyecandy and female fighters. I wanted to make sure that all the time and dedication
that female fighters put into the sport was taken seriously. I wanted to make sure
that they were taken seriously. (Perhaps it was my slightly guilty conscience, my
unexpressed questioning of the exploitation of the Knockout Girls that made me
entirely committed to this principle). Jerry and I both agreed that womens MMA
was just taking root and we should do a story about a prominent female fighter.
Jerry contacted the manager of MMAs most popular female fighter Gina Carano
and secured an interview. As Gina was living and training in Las Vegas, I
conducted the interview over phone and email. We discussed how she got her
start in MMA, her image as the face of womens MMA and what she thought
about the future of MMA. Her responses revealed her to be intelligent, thoughtful
and wholly dedicated to her chosen career. Although she was the face of
womens MMA she was unwavering in position not just to advance her own
career but that of all female fighters. We used some stock photos that her manager
sent us, and Roman put together the layout for print. He decided to use a pink
background because she was a female fighter. Immediately, I questioned his color
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choice. I thought perhaps the feminizing color would detract from the seriousness
of her skill as a fighter. Roman pointed out that Gina Carano herself often chose
to wear pink, as did many other female fighters. This was certainly true. Many
female fighters wore pink to distinguish themselves, to appropriate their
femininity as a source of empowerment. Ok, I conceded, but not too pink.
Romans final layout did incorporate pink, but he used it sparingly and in edgy
patterns such as tribal tattoo style images. My next task was to review the copyedits done by Fred.
Whats a pretty thing like you doing in a sport like this
I could not believe what I was reading. This was not my opening sentence. I read
through to the end and discovered numerous instances where Fred had inserted
provocative phrases and sexual innuendo. Horrified, I contacted Jerry and showed
him the newly edited article. I told him that our goal was to portray womens
MMA as a serious endeavor and that the new edits reduced one of the most
talented female fighters down to a generic male fantasy. Jerry agreed. I
approached Fred and kindly suggested to him that perhaps the use of the
Knockout Girl had confused his interpretation of what I intended the profile on
Carano to be about. He stared at me blankly. I reiterated that she was a
professional fighter and some of the edits he made were not appropriate. He
responded by telling me that this is what guys like. Although Fred admittedly
had very little knowledge of MMA, he was certain he knew the demographic. He
elaborated by insinuating that the Fightzone demographic was most likely
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uneducated, and they would all perceive women as sex-objects anyhow and
therefore it did not matter that the subject of the profile was a professional fighter.
I attempted to reason with Fred, stating that he was making unfair generalizations,
and that if he believed that were true wouldnt he want to take the stance of
establishing womens MMA as a legitimate sport. Fred would have none of it. He
insisted that his edits were just what the magazine needed. I tried another
approach. I told him that the language used in his edits made it appear as if the
author were using tired pick-up lines on Carano and that it would appear strange
because I (another female) was the author. Fred thought perhaps it would make
the article more interesting. Finally, I told him as the author and assistant
publisher I felt we could not take his edits to print. His response was that writers
get too sensitive over their own material, they want too much control, and it was
his job to edit the drafts we produced. There appeared no reasoning with Fred. As
I removed myself from this exchange I wondered if he would have been so
stubborn and condescending if I were male. In the end, my tenacity won out and
Jerry agreed that I should have the final editorial say.
No amount of feminist theory prepared me for the decisions and
negotiations I had to make regarding representations of women in the MMA
industry. My position as a female, a feminist, a researcher and part-time martial
artist reflected my steadfast decision to promote womens MMA as legitimate and
on par with mens MMA. My role as an assistant publisher, concerned with
developing a successful product, guided my choice to print images of scantily
clad young women as Fightzones Knockout Girls. The experience left me
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conflicted, wondering how I would categorize my feminism. Was I Third-wave?

Was I post-feminist? Was I a selective sex-positive feminist? Reality is messy and
unbounded. It is confused with ideals, abstractions and representations that are
shifting and circumstantial. Women in the MMA industry are confronted not just
by the opinions and morals of those in the industry but also the judgments and
generalizations of those looking down upon this social world.

Sexuality and Intimacy

There is little room in the realm of MMA for anything but a heterosexual
consciousness. Every aspect of the sport seems to speak to the power and glory of
a conventional, straight masculinity, ironically even with the unspoken
implications of homoerotic posturing. Could it be intentional that a female
presence (the ring girl) is interspersed with the intimacy of one-on-one male
MMA combat therefore reinforcing the heterosexual ideology for the sport? The
grappling activities involve manipulating another mans body with ones own
body and this puts the fighters in extremely close bodily proximity while wearing
very little clothing. For example, on the ground, men are often straddling the torso
of their opponent and scrambles for obtaining an advantageous position may
involve ones face coming into contact with others genital region. When
watching professional fights on television with those unfamiliar with the sport,
(particularly other females) I was often asked if I realized how homoerotic the
sport appeared to those who did not follow MMA. I responded by asking what
made it homoerotic and was told, Well, its two guys rolling around wearing
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almost nothing In addition, the language of grappling/jujitsu supplied much

amusement for some first-time observers of MMA (again particularly females). I
heard several snickers and laughter at the terms, rear-naked choke and full
mount. Why are instances of close physical contact between two men to be
equated with lust and desire? Are men left only with one route to explore physical
intimacy with another man? It would be very easily to proclaim the sport a
product of some kind of repressed, homosexual desire but I feel the analysis of
this phenomenon deserves more than a psycho-sexual, reductionist generalization.
Sport actually provides one of the only socially accepted avenues to explore
physical intimacy without accusation of homosexuality.
Chris has been training in martial arts since he was a child. He was an
early convert to MMA in the mid 1990s and has been coaching at a well-known
gym in the Los Angeles area for almost ten years. He emphasizes that fighting is
truly an intimate activity.
A lot of the reason why guys get into this sport is because they want to
test themselves. They want to know themselves. What would you do when
it comes down to something so primitive like a fight.How much can you
know about yourself if youve never been in a fight? Likewise, how
much can you know about someone else if youve never fought them,
being a fighter. That kind of intimacy, those kinds of boundaries that we
were talking about before, intimacy boundaries, just totally bulldoze
down. There are no boundaries after that. Youve just been in a fucking
scrap with somebody where youre both really trying to hurt each other
bad and win. After that, a hug, a kiss on the cheek, a pat on the ass,
whatever is nothing. Youve just shared something thats like the most
intimate experience you can have outside of sex with another person.
Well, for some people sex isnt intimate, but we dont need to get into
thatYouve just had an extremely intimate encounter with another
person where youre both putting everything out on the line and sharing a
lot of things with each other, and all of those boundaries are just taken
down.
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As Chris describes it, the fight is an intimate experience because the fighters put
so much effort into training and so much effort into the fight itself. The training is
a long and arduous process. It involves physical and mental exhaustion, emotional
distress and isolation. The fighters that step into the cage realize that their
opponent has gone through the same kind of harrowing experience. Both fighters
want the win so badly, and are willing to put everything on the line. The
unspoken, shared knowledge of the desire to win and experience of training
creates this extremely intimate encounter. The end of the match is often marked
by a hug between fighters or a kiss on the forehead of cheek even. I ask Chris why
this type of affection is acceptable in a public arena and not simply walking down
the street.

Chris: Its complicatedLike I said the experience that they have just
shared brings this kind of gesture. It also has to do with it being a cultural
thing. In other cultures where its not quite as taboo to be homosexual or
to be touchy with another man like that. For instance, in Brazil they give
you kisses on the cheek or even on the lips no matter what your sexual
orientation. Ive said hi to Brazilian guys before and they give me a kiss
on the cheek and give me a big hug. Theyre always so touchy with you
and thats not a bad thing. Thats just how it is where they come from and
there are a lot of other countries where its the same way. It just depends
on where you come from, but ultimately in America that kind of male-onmale or female-on-female contact is taboo to a lot of people. Being in the
sport of MMA, I meet at lot of people from different cultures, like Brazil,
or Mexico or Japan. They have different customs and you learn that we are
actually really uptight here in America
Chris has trained in various locations around the world and recognizes
that in comparison to other cultures, the United States is quite conservative
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when it comes to interactions between men. His cross-cultural observations

suggest an insularity of American heteronormative views. In the United States,
there does indeed seem to be some fear and anxiety over any physical contact
with other men. Any touch can lead to an allegation of homosexuality. Only in a
public setting, in a domain like sport that is highly constructed around
heterosexual norms and roles, can typical boundaries be pushed. The masculine
appearance of the sport--the ring girls, the marketing campaigns, the aggression
(that generally associated with men and masculinity)--all negate any implication
of homosexuality such as a kiss or hug between two men. Chris appeared very
accepting of homosexuality and male intimacy but I wondered how these issues
were confronted on a daily basis for MMA practitioners. Was homosexuality
something that was ignored, made invisible or exposed?
While I certainly observed fighters using denigrating language involving
homophobia and misogynistic slurs (e.g. gay, fag, pussy) I did not encounter
any first hand incidences of homophobia or gay-bashing. I acknowledge that the
use of such words indicate a disregard to the perpetuation of negative stereotypes,
and the use of such terms as insults may perhaps reveal a distain for women or
homosexuals at some level for some individuals. Yet when I asked several
fighters why they used these terms as insults many responded that this simply the
language they grew up with.
Jared: I never think about what is meansWhen we were kids everything
was gay gay was just the word you use to insult someone. We
didnt really think they were gay, and I would never insult a gay person by
calling them gay.
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Me: What about calling someone a pussy as an insult?

Jared: Same thing. I never really thought about what it meansObviously
hes not really a girl, and theres nothing wrong with being a girl. Its just
what we say. There are some girls in here that could definitely kick my
ass
Many remarked these insults were made simply in jest. There was no thought or
meaning, it was always said as a joke and never a serious commentary on the
inferiority of homosexuals or women. Kimmel (2011 personal communication)
suggests that in this interviews with college-aged males at various campuses
across the United States, the majority of males simply utter the words to mean
stupid or dumb not actually as accusations of homosexuality. Thats gay or
youre so gay are in fact the most common put-downs from male youth, and
seems to a product of the times in which they grew up (Kimmel 2011; personal
communication). Could these slurs be thoughtless, poor choices of vocabulary or
evidence of real homophobia? Interview questions I asked nearly all participants
were what would you think about training with a male fighter who is gay and
would you have any issues fighting a publicly gay fighter? The overwhelming
majority responded was that they would not mind training with or fighting
someone that was a homosexual.

Mark: Hey man, to each his own. If thats what floats his boat its none of
my business. All I care about is how hard hes going to work in the gym.
Other interviewees echoed the same sentiments, that the other fighters sexual
orientation was none of their business. Several mentioned a close friend or family
member being gay and explained to me that it wasnt really a big deal in society
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anymore. These observations, that many of the fighters did not seem consider
homosexual a big deal anymore, is echoed in research done by Mens Studies
scholar Eric Anderson on beliefs and views of sexuality amongst American male
youth. Anderson (2005) posits that in addition to, and also in response to
hegemonic (or orthodox) masculinity, men are also displaying inclusive
masculinity. He suggests that as cultural homophobia decreases, along with
decreased expressions of sexism and racism, college-aged men in both America
and Great Britain, are able to construct softer versions of masculinity (Anderson
2009).
However a couple fighters added the qualifier, as long as he doesnt hit
on me. Despite declarations that sexual orientation does not matter, a deeper fear
of being propositioned by a gay man surfaced. On these occasions I argued that
just because someone is gay it does not mean he will immediately have romantic
intentions for every other man that crosses his path.

Me: What makes you think that a guy will just hit on you because he is
gay?
Victor: I dunno, he might.
Me: My understanding is that gay guys dont simply hit on anything that
is male. Do you hit on every female you see?
Victor: Well[laughter] Ok. You have a pointbut I am pretty
irresistible!
Actually, I observed a surprising amount of playfulness surrounding
homosexuality from not only the fighters, but also fans and sponsors. Several of
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the fighters at Desert Combat lived together. They trained together and knew each
other for years so when looking for a roommate, the gym provided reasonable
pool from which to select a roommate. Some fighters would joke about the nature
of their relationships and sexuality.
I didnt hear you come home last nightwere you with another man? I
thought I was the only one
Do these shorts make my butt look bigthats not what you said last
night
Quit flexing those pecs, youre turning me on
Their intention is not put down homosexuality but to highlight the intimate nature
of their relationships. I was also surprised by the ease at which some men talked
about the attractiveness of male fighters.
Adrian:

I think Scott is the best looking one.

Dale:

Scott has a baby face.

Adrian:

Dales got a man-crush on Scott.

Dale:

I dont have a man-crush on Scott.

Adrian:

All he does is talk about Scott.

Dale:

Ok, maybe I do

Adrian and Dale own an auto-parts company in Arizona and sponsor several of
Desert Combats professional fighters. They insisted they were joking about their
romantic interest in their fighters. However, we did speak about the reality that
better looking male fighters are more marketable. This in fact was the entre
into our exchange over romantic interest. They spoke with ease regarding the
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physical attributes of these male fighters that made them conventionally good
looking.
Although this is a general speculative observation, the playfulness
surrounding sexuality may indicate an increase in the level of acceptance of
homosexuality and other types of male intimacy. This is the era of the Bromance. The term is a combination of the word brother and romance. The
bro-mance is a close relationship between heterosexual males that resembles a
romantic relationship. This term was coined by skateboard magazine editor Dave
Carnie, who first used the term in the 1990s to describe the close relationships
between skaterboarders who spent a lot of time together.15 The Bro-mance is
also now a new genre of film. It is more than just the typical buddy film but
explores the acknowledgment that men too, are looking for more intimate and
meaningful relationships with other men. The last five years have produced box
office hits such as: The Forty-Year-Old Virgin (2005), Superbad (2007), I Love
You Man (2009). Mens Studies scholar Robert Heasley (personal
communication, 2011) suggests that heterosexual male friendships have been an
increasing site of academic investigation as reflected in the topics presented at
recent annual Mens Studies conferences.
It may appear counter intuitive that a sport built on the foundation of
aggression and extreme competition should provide a source of intimacy for men
who participate, yet this notion has been cited in studies of sport and masculinity
(Bird 1996; Burstyn 1999; DeGaris 2000; Wacquant 2004; Woodward 2007).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bromance

15

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The close physical contact of grappling, combined with minimal clothing worn by
MMA competitors, could allow for superficial and misguided suggestions of
homoeroticism. But this is all-too easy, etic interpretation would obscure that
value of genuine, intimate relationship being established by the men who share
the experience of MMA.

Conclusions
Like many other sports, in the world of MMA the presentation of gender
appears crafted to uphold a firmly entrenched ideology of heterosexuality.
Women are afforded a limited range of identifiers: fighter, ring girl,
wife/girlfriend and groupie. This makes it quite problematic for other women who
are part of this world. In this male-dominated MMA we see how theoretical
arguments of agency are enacted on the level of daily practice. The terms of
femininity, masculinity and sexuality are approached and negotiated with both
caution and intentionality. There are female fans (whose genuine interest is
questioned due to their gender), as well as female members of the media (whose
close contact with professional fighters often gets them lumped in with the
category of groupie). The marketability of appearance is a factor that both female
and male fighters are confronted with, and both fighters and their partners
struggle with being seen for who they really are. An unexpected turn in this
research highlights that participation in this sport often leads to genuine intimate
relationships between men, and the playfulness surrounding these bro-mance
type relationships may indicate more social acceptance for homosexuality. This is
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the era of celebrity, where sex and sexualized appearance can immediately
skyrocket unknown individuals into the spotlight. Sexual relations are seen as
achievement, particularly those made public (e.g. Paris Hiltons infamous sex
tapes) and provide a new source of social capital (Bourdieu 1986). The world of
MMA is very much a world of celebrity. MMA has become more than a sport and
is touted as lifestyle. It offers the appearance of fame, fortune and a plentiful land
of sexual opportunity. The actuality of the MMA lifestyle is often quite different
than what it appears.

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PART II DISCUSSION: Situating MMA in American Culture

This chapter discussed women involved in the male-dominated world of
Mixed Martial Arts. In looking at how women inhabited this social world we are
able to see how gender is constructed into the ideologies of MMA. The most
visible women were the fighters and the ring girls who were represented as either
attractive and sexually desirable to men, or as butch, manly lesbians. This
dichotomous categorization of women appeared pervasive, and was also used as a
tool for image-management and marketability. This concept was applied not just
to female fighters, ring girls, and groupies but appeared extended to all females
who were a part of the sport. I experienced this as a female researcher on an
occasion when I discovered that my research on masculinity led me to be
classified as either a groupie looking for an alpha-male mate, or a lesbian
revolutionary attempting to condemn all men.16 Yet by also looking at the
experiences of the numerous women who occupy the background of MMA
(photographers, referees, wives, journalists) we can see the other dimensions of
the sport, challenges to gender ideals, and even how MMA has been shaped by
key female members of the media. The women involved with this sport were
certainly not a homogenous group. Perspectives on the sport and gender varied
dramatically. Some women found the sexualization of female fighters and ring
girls objectionable and disgusting, while other women purposefully and
unapologetically employed their own sexuality as means of success in this
industry. The construct of the sport itself may be viewed as an unapologetic

Refer back to methods section.

16

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throwback to a time before gendered political-correctness seemingly invaded

public and personal life. A time (both real and imagined) before sexual
harassment workshops were held at the workplace, and men and women had
clearly defined roles. In this discussion section I examine MMA in relation to
American popular culture in the new millennium, and how this fits into theoretical
notions of a transition to a post-feminist era.

The Rise of Raunch Culture

The new millennium brought with it television shows such as The Man
Show (1999-2004) where nubile, large breasted women (known as Juggies)
jumped on trampolines before each commercial break. In 1998, the first Girls
Gone Wild video was released that captured countless college girls on Spring
Break lifting their tops to flash their breasts. (The now multi-million dollar
franchise is still in active production thirteen years later). Levy (2005) suggests
these types of public statements on sexuality and gender are part of what she calls
the rise of raunch culture, and part of a backlash against feminism. The
ideologies of this raunch culture are espoused by both men and women. For
example, Levy interviews members of an organization called CAKE, whose goal
is to reclaim female sexuality and liberation through activities such as poledancing, and having porn-viewing/lingerie modeling parties. They champion a
new type of feminism, yet Levy insightfully points out that the new feminism
looks strangely similar to the old objectification. I cant help but be reminded of
Leahs choices to use her sexuality in order to become successful as a
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photographer in the MMA industry. She would most certainly see her actions as
reclaiming her own sexuality. Considering the structure of MMA, the bikini-clad
ring girls enforcing normalized heterosexuality and acting as foils to enhance
fighters masculinity, the misogynistic rants of UFC President Dana White, the
sexualization of female fighters, I am forced to question if MMA is a
manifestation what Levy (2005) calls the rise of raunch culture, and therefore a
product of a post-feminist era?
Post-feminism
Feminism is, in part, a project for the reconstruction of public life and
public meanings; feminism is therefore a search for new stories, and so for
a language which names a new vision of possibilities and limits.
(Haraway 1991: 82)
In this quote Haraway is comparing feminism to science, and suggesting
that both are frameworks for public constructions of knowledge. Much of the
drive behind feminism (Second Wave) was acknowledging how this construction
was largely a male endeavor placing men at the forefront and women somewhere
in the background. It is not enough to recognize how women play greater roles in
society, but to see how gender relations of inequality (e.g. in the family and
workplace, and with reproductive rights) can be challenged. Then came the
acknowledgement that there was no real universal sisterhood, as women of
color, gay women and disabled women faced unique challenges. The Third Wave
feminist movement includes the development of anti-colonial feminism, antiracist feminism, transnational feminism, queer theory, disability studies and
ecofeminism (Piepmeier 2006; Walker 1992). Post-feminism highlights the
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popular presumption that the goals of feminism have been achieved, and we are
entering a different phase in which people rarely contemplate womens gender
equity. Staceys (1991) study on daughters of feminist activists found that this
younger generation felt that feminism, as they understood it, was excessive or
irrelevant. Coppock, Haydon and Richter (1995: 5) too suggest that the
ideological basis of post-feminism reveals the politics of feminism to be outdated
and many expressed that, women have only themselves to blame if equality is
not achieved. Unlike Second and Third Wave feminism that articulates goals and
understandings of gender, post-feminism is more a description of cultural milieu.
The major critiques of post-feminism as a true era are very much the critiques that
Third Wave feminists had of First and Second Wave Feminism: this is a primarily
a privileged, (upper) middle-class, heterosexual, White phenomenon.
I think it is vital that we pay attention to this point, as the women who
identify the Third Wave as postfeminist have the luxury of not having to
work for collective social change. Their individualized understandings of
feminist advancement (versus struggle) underpin a particular privilege
that does not require them to pay attention to a transformative politics.
(Rasul 2010)

Mixed Martial Arts and Post-feminism

Although the concept of post-feminism is multi-faceted and contested,
there are several characteristics associated with this phenomenon that are highly
relevant to an examination of Mixed Martial Arts. First of all, the reluctance for
women to label themselves feminists, what is referred to as the Im a feminist
but type of feminism (coined by Susan Douglas 1994), parallels mens
anxiety, and reluctance to engage with the term masculinity. For example when
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my intentions to study masculinity were revealed during my pilot study on

Pankration, I was deemed to be either a man-hating lesbian or groupie looking for
sexual opportunities (see Methods section). Throughout my research activities, it
became clear that there is suspicion and apprehension over the term masculinity,
and those who are here to examine it. This implies that feminist endeavors of
equality are far from having been met, as questioning gender and masculinity
resulted in such suspicion and anxiety. Second of all, post-feminism is said to
have a very particular relationship to late-capitalist culture. Tasker and Negra
[REF] suggest that Post-feminism is white and middle class by default, anchored
in consumption as strategy (and leisure as site) for the production of the self.
MMA is often called an extreme sport. Extreme sports are potentially violent in
nature, involve a high level of adrenaline, danger and risk and include activities
such as skateboarding, moto-cross, kayaking, rock climbing and cave-diving
(Daddario 2010:129). Daddario further labels these postmodern sports and notes
that postmodern sports share characteristics such as being highly commodified
(having significant commercial appeal and corporate sponsorship), and cites these
activities as making particular statements about ones identity.
MMA is indeed a site of leisure, where participants crafted their identities
and emphasized certain aspects of masculinity. Many of them saw themselves
first and foremost as a fighter, before a student, salesman or husband. Dominant
images of masculinity operate within the same sphere as female liberation
achieved through consumerism. Mixed Martial Arts is a multi-million dollar
industry. There are gyms, events, clothing, toys, supplements: it is a lifestyle and
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even more so a lifestyle that offers the promise of the American dream of fame
and fortune. This falls in line with Postrels (REF) description of contemporary
American society as characterized by hyperaestheticization. This
hyperaestheticization emphasizes a luxury lifestyle, retail pleasures and is
thoroughly integrated with economic discourses of aspirational, niche-market
Western societies. Mixed Martial Arts shares the same myth of gendered
empowerment through consumption. There are numerous products to consume
that display ones allegiance to the sport and performative masculinity. Thirdly,
post-feminism also notes a pre-occupation with women attempting to stay
eternally young. This is similar for men, as plastic surgery rates for men are
increasing, and sexual enhancement drugs such as Viagra and Cialis are becoming
more widespread. MMA fighters take countless supplements to perform acts of
physical grandure thought to belong to those twenty years younger, and some
even resort to using Human Growth Hormone or steroids to accomplish this. The
body is crucial to displaying this youthful vigor. Theories of post-feminism
highlight a growing concern in American popular culture over image and
representation. MMA has become increasing successful in expanding its fan base
in part because of the ways in which MMA (primarily the UFC) have represented
the sport and marketed as not just a sport but a seductive and desirable lifestyle.

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PART III: CHAPTER 5. THE UFC IS CREATING A FALSE REALITY:

NEGOTIATIONS OF REALITY AND REPRESENTATION

I love being associated with the sport. Im proud of being associated with
the sport. I am embarrassed when people have a perception of the sport
that is something other than that what it really isThere are people that
give MMA a bad name, that go around and get into bar fights and wear
their Affliction T-shirts too tight, and have too much gel in their hair.
They run around saying that theyre a cage fighter because they walked
into a gym and trained for three months. They think they will get rich and
famousthat part of it Im embarrassed by. I hate that part of it. I wish
that part of it would go away. The real side of MMA is that it is a
magnificent sport.
(Chris, Gym Owner/Professional Fighter, 2009)
Mixed Martial Arts is more than just a sport. It is a lifestyle. Clever
marketing and an entrance into the reality television genre combined legitimate
athletic pursuit with the very contemporary phenomenon of reality celebrityism. The possibility of fame and fortune is intertwined with athletic prowess and
viewed as an equally important goal, if not, at the least, a consequence for many
who enter the sport. Yet the public representations offered do not necessarily
reflect the everyday lives and experiences of MMA participants. MMAs origins
as a counter-culture blood sport provide a profitable image of dangerous appeal,
what Dunbar (2000) would recognize as commodified rebellion, however, the
sport and its participants must constantly contend with this self-perpetuated
stigma of brutality. MMA is visceral, and produces powerful images. Its
popularity relies heavily on a convincing discourse of its inherent reality, yet in
efforts to produce reality, it becomes clear that reality is not always real. In this
chapter I look at how the sport and MMA fighters are represented and how
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fighters lives are affected by these representations. I examine issues relevant to

representation such as: finances, sponsorships, Reality TV, stigma and
stereotypes, and finally relationships between fighters and fans.

Im (Not) Going To Be Rich: Finances and Fantasy

For the average aspiring fighter, a career in MMA rarely provides an
exceptional income. In fact, most professional fighters maintain a part-time (and
sometimes full-time) employment while competing in MMA. While it is true that
top athletes in the sport can command hundreds of thousands of dollars per fight,
the secretiveness and complexity surrounding fighters income make it nearly
impossible to uncover fighters total earnings (i.e. salary, bonuses, endorsements,
pay-per-view percentage earnings). The highest confirmed amount (base pay)
ever paid was $1.5 million to Andre Arlovski for his fight with Fedor
Emelianenko under the organization Affliction.17 The only pay information that is
actually made public is that which is contractually guaranteed. This includes the
base pay and performance-based bonuses (for Knockout of the Night, Submission
of the Night, or Fight of the Night). These bonuses are incredibly important to
fighters. Bonuses for these fight outcomes can more than double a fighters pay
for that fight. Kevin puts this into perspective as he recounts the bonus he
received for his impressive Knockout of the Night:

www.twinsspecial.org/mma/who-are-the-highest-paid-mma-fighters-in-theworld
193
17

Kevin: Yeah. So I got Knockout of the Night and ended up making

$44,000 that night. I got paid $7000 to fight, $7000 to win and then got
$30,000 for the knockout. My coaching salary was $41,000 when I left
coaching. So it was like I made the same amount of money in a minute
and forty seconds, that I made in a year at Ohio State.
Me: That's unbelievable. Does the chance of getting the bonus change
your game plan?
Kevin: Yeah, I think thats the pointto encourage fighters to have more
exciting fights. For the submission and knockout [bonus] only one guy
gets it, but both of you get it if you get Fight of the Night. So you could
lose, get paid $5000 then get the Fight of the Night bonus and get $60,000
more. Its almost worth just slugging it out
A locker-room bonus, an extra amount given out for exceptional
performance at the organizations discretion, is another type of possible income.
More often additional income derives from sponsorship. The money from these
bonuses or sponsorship is rarely released to the public. States such as California
or Nevada where MMA events are overseen by athletic commissions will often
make fighter payouts, and arena gate income (money from ticket sales for the live
event) public immediately following the event. Other states or countries where
MMA events are held are not required to provide this information, therefore
compiling a consistent record of gate earnings and fighter payouts is nearly
impossible. Upon reviewing over twenty different MMA websites and MMA
blogs, the consensus would seem that when sponsorships and pay-per-view
percentages are taken into account, along with base salary and bonuses, the top
salaries would belong to high-profile fighters such as: Georges St. Pierre, Chuck
Liddell, Randy Couture, Tito Ortiz, Fedor Emelianenko and Brock Lesnar. At
UFC 100 held July 11, 2009, both Georges St. Pierre and Brock Lesnar were paid
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$400,000 for their performances and the total disclosed amount paid to fighters
was $2,208,000.18 Some professional fighters on this elite level are seen driving
expensive cars, dining at the finest restaurants and wearing the latest fashions. A
number of aspiring fighters I interviewed suggested both celebrity and money as
motivations for beginning their practice in MMA. MMA is a manifestation of the
American Dream. It offers an avenue for fame and riches that is achievable in a
matter of years.
Unfortunately, there are only a handful of fighters who are paid well
enough to live this kind of luxury lifestyle. What is lifestyle of the average
professional fighter? How much does this fighter actually make in the industry of
MMA? It was very difficult to ascertain the salary for the average professional
fighter using Internet sources, as records are not consistent or sometimes even
reliable. However, reviewing the twenty or so MMA websites that discussed
finances, I would estimate that established fighters on the track toward
championship belts would receive between $20,000-$40,000 per fight. They may
fight an average of three times per year. The fighters (depending on the
organization) get paid according to their experience, how marketable they are and
how hard their manager pushes for a desired salary. There are numerous factors
that may come into play that make it difficult to identify a meaningful average
that is not the result of distorted statistics. What these fighters do share are similar
expenses and schedules that should be considered when talking about finances.
The average professional fighter (with no other employment) spends at least five

18
www.mmaconvert.com/2009/07/13/ufc-100-fighter-payouts
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hours a day, six days a week training year round. He has typical expenses
(mortgage, car payments, food, often a family to support) as well as training costs
(gym fees, trainer fees, manager fees). He must buy nutritional supplements, and
pay for all medical care out of pocket (as they do not have insurance). And like
everyone else, he must pay taxes on any income gained from competition.
I asked a number of professional fighters from Desert Combat and other
field sites what their income was from fighting. The responses were quite diverse.
For fighters brand new to the professional circuit the money was disappointing.
Me: Congratulations on your first [professional] fight!
Shawn: Yea, thanks. It was a good first fight.
Me: If you dont mind me asking, how much did you get paid?
Shawn: [Laughs] Um, not that much
Me: Would you rather not say?
Shawn: No, no its okay. I got paid $1000 but after paying for my pre-fight
medical exams, and blood tests, eye exams, it didnt leave much at all.
Me: Wait, so you had to pay for all that yourself? No insurance or the
organization didnt provide these medical services?
Shawn: Nope. I just switched jobs so no insurance and theres no way this
organization would pay for any of that. Its up to us.
Me: I see. Did you think the money would be better?
Shawn: Yea. But I didnt do it for the money. I need the experience. I need
the wins to get into the bigger shows. When I make it to the UFC I know
the money will be better.
It turned out that this was Shawns only fight for the year. Other new professional
fighters shared a similar experience. Taking into consideration all the training
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costs and medical costs the payout for early professional bouts barely covered
these expenditures. These fighters stated it was impossible to make a reasonable
living off fighting alone, (with no other source of income) when first starting out
as a professional.
Other fighters, who were employed by major organizations like the UFC,
stated that they made well over $100,000 (including base pay, bonuses and
endorsement deals).
Me: Last year, can you sort of estimate how much you made fighting?
Eddie: Yeah. Probably, just like with sponsorship and fighting made like
$40,000. I really only made like $8000 or $9000 from the fights and like
$13,000 from sponsorship because I worked a normal job too, for like
$22,000. But this year, triple that.
Me: So, if were estimating how much you made this yearjust guessing?
Eddie: Almost $170,000 from fighting, sponsorship and everything.
Me: Wow. That is big change from last year. How did that happen?
Eddie: Most of the money comes from sponsorships but its because I
went on the show [The Ultimate Fighter]. I am under contract with UFC
for three years so for my next fights I make ten and ten [$10,000 to fight
and $10,000 to win]. It increases every three years or so, so like every year
it will increase like $2000. When you think about it, that's not that much.
Me: Lets go back to sponsorships a little laterFor the winner of the
show they get a six-figure contract right?
Eddie: Yeah, the winner gets like $100,000 but thats over a certain
amount of years for a certain number of fights so its really not as much as
it sounds either.
Me: Right, but it seems like a lot of people hear that and think, Wow,
these fighters are rich!
Eddie: Yeah, theres not as much money as you think. So you have to
hustle [try to get media exposure and sponsorships] on the side to make a
decent living. Just because, you know, especially once taxes start coming
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out, yeah it really cuts [laughs] down on the amount of money you make.
Every Body is for Sale: Body as Commodity
Sponsorships are crucial to making money in the MMA industry. Several
successful professional fighters that I spoke to estimated that between forty to
sixty percent of their income comes from sponsorship deals. Sponsorship is a
common practice in professional sports. A company pays a professional athlete a
monthly or yearly salary or a one-time fee, and the athlete will wear the
companys logo, make appearances for that company, or assist in other ways
promoting the company. Sponsorships are a means for advertising. The most
popular way for companies to sponsor a fighter is to pay a fighter a certain
amount of money to wear a patch with the companys logo on the shorts he will
wear during a televised MMA competition. MMA journalist Jonathan Snowden
comments that:
Fight shorts aren't a commercial product that companies are able to sell to
the general public. What they are is a billboard for advertising that could
appear in front of a television audience for up to 25 minutes. Short space
is sold in four pieces: the crotch, the butt and both thighs. The top agents
have been able to score more than $30,000 per patch, but that's rare. For a
television fighter who isn't a major star, the crotch and butt space are
worth from $500-$2000. Each thigh ranges from $250-$1500. Savvy
agents can sell these spaces at a premium if they pitch it rightI
represent one guy who is a great wrestler, an agent told me in confidence.
When I sell the space on his butt I tell the company 'Look, his ass is
going to be in America's face for 15 minutes while he pounds on this guy.'
That's incredibly valuable space.19
The most expensive locations on the fighters body are the crotch and butt

Snowden, www.bloodyelbow.com/2010/9/27/1715233/the-economicsof-mma-fight-night-and-the-sponsorship-game

19 Jonathan

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spaces. This does not appear to be based on sexual connotation but due to the fact
that these areas are more exposed to the camera. This buying and selling of
objectified bodily space is such a glaring example of commodification in that this
process transforms persons and their bodies from a human category into objects
of economic desire (Sharp 2000: 293). In the case of the MMA fighter, not only
is the fighter a commodity, but the fighters body parts are commodities for which
one can attribute rates of monetary value. Investigations of these kinds of
transactions have been studied in arena of medical technologies and reproduction
(Becker 2000; Casper 1994) organ donation (Joralemon 1995; Ohnuki-Tiemey
1994) and also in the sex for profit industry (Augustin 2005; Frank 2002; Dalla
2000). At the heart of this discussions are notions of ownership, the blurred line
between the individual and society and the body as ultimately as product.
MMA has a wide variety of sponsors who contract athletes as well as
MMA organizations. The most prevalent sponsors are affiliated with MMA.
These include MMA clothing and gear companies (such as TapOut, Affliction,
Everlast), or supplement or energy drink companies (such as Gatorade, AMP
Energy, MusclePharm). Other sponsors whose products are not directly related to
MMA may simply want to attach themselves to the MMAs major demographic
(18-34 year old males). These companies include Harley Davidson, Burger King
and Condom Depot (an online company that offers a wide variety of
prophylactics). An entire study can be made of the advertising in the sport of
MMA as advertising points to the relationships between representation,
consumption and identity. Jackson, Andrews and Scherer (2005: 2) note that
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advertising has been identified as playing a key ideological role with respect not
only to the legitimation of capitalism and consumer culture (Bell 1976; du Bay
and Pryke 2002; Ewen 1976; Lury 1996) but also within the politics of
representation and identity formation (Bonney and Wilson 1990; Cronin 2000;
2004; Goldman 1992; Kellner 1995; Kilbourne 1999; Mort 1996; OBarr, 1994).

As Real as it Gets: Manufacturing Fame through Reality Television

Around the time that MMA began its ascent to worldwide popularity,
another intriguing phenomenon was taking placethe explosion of Reality TV.
The new millennium saw a public thirst for reality and all things unscripted. A
variety of reality shows documented everything from how to survive on a desert
island (Survivor 2000), to how to become a famous singing star (American Idol
2002), to how to become the person you always wanted to be through extensive
plastic surgery (The Swan 2004). As Andrejevic (2004: 7) states, by 2003, reality
television had become a dominant prime-time programming staple, easily
dominating ratings in the most coveted time slots. The public, represented as
millions of television viewers, seemed to long for representations of reality, and
MMA fit perfectly with this desire. The reality television phenomenon was the
launching platform for the MMA phenomenon and therefore central to the
widespread discourse of contemporary American masculinity.
The tagline for the Spike TV show The Ultimate Fighter is As Real As
It Gets. After a decade of struggling, it was in fact the reality TV phenomenon
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that revived cagefighting from its almost certain extinction. As an innovative

marketing promotion, in 2005 the UFC decided to launch a reality television show
about MMA. The premise for the show was that sixteen men (not actors) would
live together and train together. They would compete against each other until
there was only one winner. Fighters were paid an average of $10,000 for the
duration of six to eight weeks while the show taped. However, the winner of the
tournament was given a six-figure contract and deemed the Ultimate Fighter for
that season. The fighters that participated in the television show were almost
always invited to fight in future UFC competitions regardless of winning or
losing, as long as they appeared to have a promising career. Professional wrestling
was widely known to be a fraud; although athletic, the wrestlers were actors/
stuntmen who played along with pre-determined storylines. There was nothing
fixed about MMA. It was marketed as a primal form of sport competition. The
venture became an immediate success with the first season averaging 1.6 million
viewers, and 2.2 million viewers in the 18-34 male demographic
(mmapayout.com). This television show was central to bringing Mixed Martial
Arts into mainstream society, as it was far more accessible to the average person
than a Pay-Per-View event. At the new millennium, the public was hungry for
unscripted entertainment. How could television get more real? Except it was not
entirely real.
I spoke with UFC representative Michael Randle about the success of The
Ultimate Fighter television show:

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Me:

What outside influences have affected UFC? I know you have the
reality TV show and that was a big boost, a big stepping stone to
get the public involved with mixed martial arts.

Michael: I think that's certainly the catalyst of the popularity. That show is
so
important. I think it's in its 11th seasonIt's a remarkable reality show
and it's done very, very well and made these fighters very popular. I think
that's very important. When you're having over a million people watch
every week when the UFC comes to their town or comes to their area, they
want to see these guys in person.
Me: Right. It's like they've grown up with them and they've seen them.
Michael: Yeah. They really invest their time in them and they want to see
them. I think that's been a very big part of our popularity.
The true value of being on that television show for upcoming professional fighters
is the exposure. The media exposure allowed these little-known fighters to
develop an extensive fan base and make a name for themselves to entice potential
sponsorship opportunities. Both the organization and the individual benefits from
the experience. The fighter gains a reputation while the organization creates
reality-characters with whom the audience can somehow relate. The reality
television show often depicts how fighters skills impressively develop over the
short course of the show, or highlights emotional elements of the fighters
personal lives with which the audience can empathize. Either angle allows for an
affective connection with these fighters that results in not only increased
viewership of the show, but the likelihood that these same viewers will watch the
pay-per-view events that the fighters will later compete in due to the viewers
emotional investment.
I spoke with five professional fighters who had participated on different
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seasons of The Ultimate Fighter Reality television show. Three of them felt the
exposure was incredibly beneficial to their careers (characterizing it as overall
positive), one of them felt it did not help his career (indifferent), and one
individual felt it was a mistake that he would not repeat (overall negative). In
fact, their opinions of various aspects of life on The Ultimate Fighter (TUF) were
mixed. There were enjoyable, demanding and unpleasant aspects of the
experience. The process begins with an audition tape. Some fighters are recruited
by the UFC but still must make this tape. This is usually a brief (approximately)
five-minute visual summary of the individuals skill and personality. It will often
include clips from MMA training and some kind of comedic aspect. Then the
selected fighters will attend a preliminary interview in Las Vegas. At this
interview potential TUF participants seemed to be assessed more for their
potential as an exciting television personality than for their skill as a fighter.
Javier described how the interviewer tried to provoke him:
This guy asks the weirdest questionshe tries to gauge your reactions
and he will call you a pussy or a fag to get a reaction out of you. Then
he asked what I would do if someone stole my stuff or pissed on my
pillow cause guys always pull stupid pranks like that.
I asked Javier if he thought that the recruiter wanted a particular reaction. Did he
want Javier to get angry and try to escalate this confrontation? Was it a test to see
if he could suppress his emotions? Both Javier and I were unsure of the
motivations behind this bizarre assessment.
In the early seasons, sixteen fighters were selected and immediately went
to the TUF house. Later seasons the selected fighters would fight each other
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tournament style to get into the house. Each season had one or two weight classes
(e.g. Season One was Middleweights and Light Heavyweights). Although all of
the participants lived in the same house, they were divided into two teams (not by
weight) and each team was placed under the guidance of a famous, experienced
MMA fighter. The coaches were entirely in charge of the training regiment. Each
team practiced twice a day in the same location but at different times. The
intensity of the workout and skill practiced were at the discretion of the coach.
According to interviewees, some coaches appeared to take the task very seriously,
while others seemed more interested in having fun. Each week there was a fight
between two participants. The winner would get to stay in the house and compete
in the semi-finals and while the loser was out of the tournament he would still get
to stay in the house. The show is pre-taped but the finale is a three-hour live,
televised event held in Las Vegas.

A Typical Day on Reality TV

What would it be like to have your daily life recorded twenty-four hours a
day, seven days a week for six weeks? According to former contestants this
experience was incredibly strange but surprising at how fast you get used to it.
Before filming begins all participants were required to sign a privacy waiver so
they will not leak the fight results or daily happenings of the show since it is pretaped, and also to give legal consent to the UFC use their image as they see fit.
The fighters were intentionally isolated from news of the outside world.
According to Chuck Liddell the coach of Season One:
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The rules for the guys in the house were pretty simple: you can do
anything. You want to create some tension in the house real fast? Put
sixteen amped up amateur fighters in there and tell them they can't watch
TV, read books, listen to music, or go out. The only thing they can do is
stare at each other, eat and think about fighting.
(Liddell and Millman 2009: 225)
There were cameras and microphones installed in the bedrooms, living room,
training facility and even bathrooms. There was a camera crew following
participants at all times. The five TUF participants all agreed that life there was
fairly structured and monotonous.
Me: What would you do everyday there in the house?
Brandon: A typical day in the house? We would wake up, eat breakfast,
go to practice, come back and relax, eat lunch, practice, eat dinner, then
just hangout til we go to sleep. It was pretty boring, we didnt have
anything so we actually made a chessboard out of whatever and used
water bottle caps as pieces.
Me: You didnt have books or games even?
Brandon: Nope. You could have a Bible. Thats it.
This isolation appeared to be an intentional strategy of the shows producers, to
have the participants focus only on fighting, and to increase the level of
interaction between the participants. The former TUF cast members I spoke to
suggested that this was done to increase drama for the shows storylines.
Confining sixteen young males (between the ages of 18-33) in a relatively small
space, with no entertainment, would almost certainly lead to tension. According to
these cast members the training and the fights were obviously difficult and
physically demanding, but the true challenge was enduring the boredom and strain
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of isolation within the TUF house. Javier tells me that the stress gradually got
worse and worse:
Living in the house the first day was pretty cool. You walk in and the
house is nice and clean and you are interacting with everybody. It was
pretty cool, everybody is very talkative the first couple of days just
because we dont know each other. After a week that gets oldteams
start to stick together. It becomes an Us against Them mentality. Then
tension builds between people, people start getting drunk, people start
losing their fights and talking shit. It was crazyfor me first week was
pretty cool, second week was alright, the third week I started counting
down the days so that I can leave. The last weeks you get you cant sleep
at night. All you do is sit on the balcony and stare at the strip of Las
Vegas and we would have to take sleeping pills before we go to bed.
Javier likened the experience to being in a prison. His insomnia was not so much
a result of anxiety over fighting, or having to live with ones opponents but the
overwhelming boredom. The other former cast members of TUF shared this sense
of isolation and boredom although it seemed to have the most negative effect on
Javier. Chriss major complaint was the juvenile, drunken altercations that
happened every season. He attributed these acts to the plentiful amounts of
alcohol available at the house:

The cabinet is always stocked full with alcohol, like any type of Tequila,
any type of Vodka, anything you could want. There was this room called
the Request Room. There is a list with your name on it. You put whatever
you want on it. You can ask for seafood, steaks, even running shoes, but
most guys were excited about the alcohol. You can order a beer from
Brazil, or a Tequila from Mexico, and they will bring you that alcohol just
because they want you to act like a fool.
Reviewing the clips from eleven seasons of The Ultimate Fighter, I would have to
agree with Chriss observation that most televised altercations appeared the result
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of intoxication. It seems that producers were aware that the combination of

isolation and alcohol would inevitably lead to confrontation. Chris stated on
occasion they would be reprimanded, and the alcohol would be taken away,
particularly if they caused a significant amount of damage to the property.
However, within hours, the cabinet would be stocked full again. The promise of
drama, which translates to ratings, was perhaps far too enticing for producers to
permanently ban alcohol from the premises. Although all participants of the show
stated that there was no script, and they were not openly told to say or do certain
things, they were aware of the subtle manipulation perpetrated by producers of the
show.

MMA: The First Reality Sport?

The UFC is creating a false reality for people. Most of the people that
come to train at my gym dont stay that long. These are the people that
watched The Ultimate Fighter and had delusions of grandeur of being
magnificent fighters after just a monthThey see it happen on T.V. but
they dont realize these guys have been training for years. They think it
will happen fast, they think fighting will make them rich and famous
(Chris, MMA gym owner and participant on TUF)
Reality television is an interesting blend of unscripted action/reaction
combined with behind the scenes manipulation. Reality television is a fitting
platform for MMA and the UFC. It is slowly becoming known as a legitimate
sport, but it cannot escape its sideshow past. It is at once reality (the outcomes are
unknown, the injuries are not fake) and entertainment (character types,
storylines). It is entirely a product of its time. MMA is the construction of reality
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for entertainment purposes. It is different than other sports such as football,

basketball, or even its cousin, boxing. Although athletes in those sports may have
distinct or eccentric personalities (such as Dennis Rodman or Muhammad Ali),
the fighters of MMA are more character types. Yet MMA is not like Americas
professional wrestling, with soap opera story lines, clearly delineated good guys
and bad guys and staged combat. MMA is real. It is real in the same ways
that Reality TV is real. It is as real as it gets when entertainment and profit are
at stake. Reality with respect to Reality TV is no longer really real. It is subtle
manipulation, enforced perspectives and truths that are not quite true. It is in
every essence a simulacrum.
The premise of Reality television is to capture real-life, unscripted
situations. Yet, it through these interviews that it becomes quite obvious that
scenarios are intentionally constructed and cast members influenced to act or
speak in a desired manner. Frankie describes how the participants of TUF were
encouraged to say negative things about their housemates to promote
confrontations:
They try to get you talking crap about each other. It was hard in the
Confessionals. For the Confessionals, you are stuck in the garage and it
was summer so about 115 degrees out in Vegas. There was no airconditioning the garage so you are just sweating. You cant see the
camera, theres just lights everywhere. They start asking questions, they
try to prod you, and they will keep you in there until they get you say
something bad about another guy in the house.
This Confessional is a special place where TUF participants were told to reveal
their negative thoughts and feelings. It appears modeled after the Christian
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(Catholic) confessional booth where churchgoers would confess their sins to be

absolved. Ironically participants would rarely voluntarily confess their own sins
here but are coaxed into making negative statements about their fellow
participants. Frankie revealed that often participants would be told that someone
in the house had said something damaging about another fighter that most likely
was not true. These miscommunications were leaked out into the house so that
confrontations would occur.
Brandon was particularly unhappy with the way that the show had
presented them. Brandon felt that the shows producers/editors had made him out
to the cocky asshole of the season. Although he indeed made the comments that
producers highlighted, he insists many of them were taken out of context.

Me: Is there anything you regret about the way you were portrayed on
TUF?
Brandon: Yeah. They kind of made me into the jerk. They made me seem
like a cocky asshole and kind of dumb.
Me: How did they do this?
Brandon: They filmed me doing dumb stuff, joking around, being
sarcastic but made it look like I was being serious.
Me: Can you give me a specific example?
Brandon: Ok. They were asking me questions about the fight. Like What
is Brandon Stoakes going to do in the first round? They kept repeating the
question to me in the third person until I finally said Brandon Stoakes is
going towhatever. They had like ten takes of me saying I am going to
do this but they used the one take where I talked in third person.
Everyone bugged me about that. Even after the show people would mock
me saying What is Brandon Stoakes going to do?

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Brandon felt coerced into not making a particular statement, but to use a particular
means of phrasing. This situation demonstrates how something even as minor as
grammar can impact public perception. Javier disclosed that producer/editors also
manipulated chronological time. Events that happened in the beginning of the
season could appear at the end of the season when televised. The power of
altering time can have a significant impact on creating storylines or characters.
Editors were able to splice comments and scenes together that actually happened
but at the same time were also invented. Javier noted that this technique was
employed to turn a minor one-time altercation between two cast members into
what appeared a full-blown rivalry when the show actually aired. From his
knowledge of what cast members from previous seasons disclosed to him prior to
his own experience, during the taping, Javier was well aware of the control that
the production team on TUF possessed. He remarked, Yeah I was kind of
worried. I didnt want to look like ass on TV because they can do it to you. They
can edit this however they want to, they can edit words from this episode and like
things that happened like Week One and they put it with Week Three. Javier
assured me that in the end, there was no reason to worry too much. He felt that
overall he was fairly represented. It appears that it was the luck of the draw. Javier
was not a major character for that season therefore he flew under the radar of
alterations. Frankie summed up the power of producers to manipulate
representation as follows:
They can create characters that they can do whatever they want with
they can make you a nice guy, or they can make you a bad guy. They
have so much tape on you that they can turn you in to monster, or they can
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turn you into the nicest guy in the world. You just have to wait and see.
Outcomes of Reality: The Good, The Bad, and The Ugly
Appearing on UFCs The Ultimate Fighter Reality Show can be viewed as
a mixed blessing for fighters. On a positive note, fighters gain recognition, a
larger fan base, and a contract with the UFC. All of this translates into more
opportunities (e.g. sponsorships) increased income and fame. Former members of
the show have stated that they were finally able to leave dead-end jobs (e.g.
waiting tables) and more easily support their families. One fighter noted how
exposure from the show led to new sponsors, which allowed him to pay off
medical bills for his wifes brain surgery. The negative side for some fighters
include feeling misrepresented, looking foolish and wasted opportunities. Jon
described this notion of a wasted opportunity:

Jon: I was just too young. I was eighteen when I got on the show. I had
been doing MMA for less than a year. I was good, I had a lot of wins but I
really wasnt ready. I didnt take it seriously enough. Also, in the early
seasons the guys who lost their fights would leave the main house and go
to the loser house. We thought we were out of the running, so we drank,
played video games all day and didnt train at all. Then I got the chance to
come back to the house so I took it. But there was no way I was prepared
for that fight.
Me: Do you regret taking that fight or
Jon: I regret being young and stupid and not knowing I had a chance to get
back in. It was kind of a waste because I ending up with a bunch of losses
on my record and I ending up looking like a bad fighter. Its taken me a
long time to work my way back up because of it.
While Jon felt he had ultimately grown from the experience, his appearance on
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the show resulted in a personal and professional set back. Similarly, exposing the
world of MMA through a reality television show brought the UFC and MMA
great benefits such as launching MMA into the mainstream of American society
and making the UFC exceedingly profitable. However, it also drew criticisms of
the ugly side of MMA. The behavior of participants on the show, their
drunkenness, their angry altercations, their destruction of property, only served to
perpetuate the stereotype of MMA as a senseless and barbaric sport, and fighters
as unintelligent, emotionally-stunted bullies.

Stigma and Stereotypes

Regardless of whether the interviewee was a fighter, a fan, or member of
the media, they all acknowledged the presence of three prominent stereotypes. I
posed the question: What are some of the misconceptions or stereotypes that you
feel are associated with the sport of MMA? The predominant answers were: 1)
MMA is barbaric and dangerous, 2) MMA fighters are uneducated with no other
career prospects, and 3) by default, MMA fans are also aggressive and
uneducated. Given the emergence of the sport as an entertainment centered
spectacle first called No-Holds-Barred fighting, that drew on Roman gladiator
imagery and relished in its edgy, clandestine status, it is not difficult to see why
these stereotypes persist. The image and reputation of MMA is a double-edged
sword. On one hand, part of the market appeal is the danger, the countercurrent
swagger, (once again I submit Dunbars (2000) commodified rebellion), that those
who are part of the industry, fighters and fans, are allowed to claim. On the other
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hand, attempts to legitimize the sport have been in many ways hindered by this
intentionally manufactured illusion of peril. UFC representatives acknowledge
that although they implemented numerous rules and regulations, efforts to grow
the sport are still impacted by its early representation as a blood-sport:

One of our main goals is educating the general public about the sport. A
lot has changed over the past fifteen years. We still have to combat the
misconceptions that it is a brutal sport with no rules, and that the fighters
are thugs. They are trained, dedicated athletes. Now its all about
education.
(Michael Randle, UFC Representative, 2009)
Stereotype One: MMA is violent, barbaric and dangerous
Mixed Martial Arts is a full contact sport. The ultimate goal is to defeat an
opponent through submission or knockout. There is no denying that aggression
and injury play a part in this activity. However, when compared to other
professional sports such as boxing or football we see that these sports can be
deemed just as, if not more dangerous when considering rates and severity of
injury. Yet it needs to be acknowledged that because MMA is a young sport, it is
statistically difficult to compare to other sports. MMA lacks systematic and
intensive medical study of incidences of injury that other sports such as boxing or
football have undergone. Much of the rhetoric that MMA is a deadly and violent
sport rests upon speculation and conjecture, rather than scientific or academic
evaluation.
A search of "Martial Arts Injuries" in PubMed Plus (a major Internet
search engine that searches for topics in clinical medicine across a large
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number of major research journals) yielded only 107 articles. Of these, I

was unable to find even a single article that compared the injury rates of
different martial arts to one another. And, in the articles about individual
martial arts, there is not even unanimity about what the most dangerous
techniques areThus, what we need to do is determine the actual rates per
thousand exposures. Unfortunately, so far as I can tell, no one knows the
real numbers of injuries. Instead, everyone seems to be arguing
anecdotally rather than objectively.
(Landa 2004:5)
At the time of writing, there have been two fatalities (2007, 2010) that occurred
directly related to participation in sanctioned MMA competitions. Both fatalities
were a result of a blow to the head and failure to regain consciousness. In
comparison, Svinths (2007) investigation estimates the risk of death in American
football is about 8.9 per million. To further put this into perspective, Svinth states,
at 76 deaths per million, the death rate for [professional] boxers fighting in
Nevada casinos was lower than the average for US manual laborers. For example,
US construction workers have a death rate of 251 per million, while US farm
workers have a death rate of 393 per million. This is a remarkable comparison.
There has been such public outrage against the violence of contact sports but so
little acknowledgment of the hazards of everyday work for the individuals in these
physically demanding professions. Perhaps the highly visible, televised nature of
entertainment as work draws more attention to the fatalities and injuries of
professional combat sport athletes.
How does MMA compare to boxing? In boxing, the only target areas are
the head and torso. The danger in boxing is chronic injury. The accumulation of
blows to the head can lead to severe brain damage (see Heilbronner et al. 1991;
Moriarity et al. 2004; Porter 2003). In MMA there are more target areas because it
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is a hybrid sport. As kickboxing is allowed, the lower body now becomes open. It
would seem counter intuitive, but with most of the body opened up as a target, the
head and torso are subjected to less attacks. In addition, as a hybrid sport that
includes jujitsu, fighters have numerous options for attack, such as obtaining arm
or leg locks or chokes to force their opponent to submit. Technically, an MMA
match can be won without a single punch being thrown.
I spoke with one former NFL football player and two current NFL football
players that are also amateur MMA practitioners. I was curious as to their insights
comparing the two sports. All three athletes agreed that while MMA was equally
physically demanding, NFL football was far more dangerous. Sam and Colton,
current NFL players, were particularly adamant that football was more than just a
harmless pastime.
Sam: Well, I havent fought professionally but I can tell you there are so
many injuries in football. Ive been knocked unconscious and told to get
back out there for the next quarter.
Me: Um, is that common? You could have a concussion and to go back
out there
Sam: Yeah, especially for the quarterbacks. We need them so unless they
are incapacitated they are going back out.
Me: What kinds of injuries have you gotten while in the NFL?
Colton: Lets see um a separated shoulder, ACL (knee) surgery, sprained
fingers.
Sam: Ive had a concussion, hamstring injuries, issues with my lower
back.
Me: Those sound quite serious. I know you havent competed in MMA but
from what youve seen in football and MMA which sport do you think
takes more of a toll on your body?
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Sam: Football, no doubt.

Colton: Definitely football. People think that its a nice family sport but
when you have some three hundred pound lineman running you down you
wouldnt think so. It takes a lot of aggression, guys coming force at you,
helmet to helmet even.
It appears that the violent image of MMA has much more to do with its reputation
as a blood sport rather than true incidents of injury. The majority of professional
fighters I spoke with stated that most of the serious injuries they received
occurred during practice rather than competition. Some of the more serious
injuries incurred were fractures of the nose, ribs, toes, and various bruises and
strains. What is it that makes MMA appear more violent that other sports?
MMA/jujitsu coach Santiago suggests that it may be a lack of knowledge: If you
have never seen MMA before and see a guy being choked until he passes out, of
course it would look violent and scary. But, it is actually not that dangerous.
MMA fighters learn how to use these techniques properly but they also learn
when to tap out. The lack of knowledge of MMA techniques may also impact the
medical communitys perception of MMA. Martial Artist and physician Robert
Nishime states:
It is my opinion that sports medicine professionals inexperienced with
covering martial arts competitive events should focus first on becoming
familiar with the issues and injuries associated with submission
techniques, including choking and joint locking, followed by takedowns
and throws. These techniques and their injuries are not as easily or
intuitively conceptualized and understood as are those occurring from
striking (i.e. punching and kicking). Chokes--These submission techniques
can appear dramatically dangerous to the inexperienced observer, as well
as the seasoned fan, but are considered relatively safeIf these chokes are
performed properly, crush injuries to the neck and laryngotracheal area
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should be nonexistent.
(Nishime, 2007:165)
MMA is undeniably a contact sport that often results in some kind of injury. Yet
the image and reputation of MMA appears far more responsible for the perception
of this activity as a mortally dangerous sport, rather than the actual practice itself.

Stereotype Two: MMA fighters are aggressive, uneducated and have no other
career options
People have a lot of misconceptions about fighters, but most of the guys
who fight MMA that I know are college educated and are really nice guys,
never would hurt anyone. Most MMA fighters I know dont even get into
fights outside of the ring or the cage and have never even been in a street
fight in their lives. There are obviously guys whove come out of prison or
rehab or whatever or had a troubled youth where they were fighting a lot.
Theres both sides of the coin there. For the most part, in my experience,
most of the guys that Ive met are extremely well-educated, extremely
nice, non-confrontational guys who have families, have regular jobs, work
their asses off just like the rest of us. They arent a bunch of roughneck
hooligans who go out there looking for trouble. Thats not what they do.
Unfortunately, that is a negative connotation that most people associate
with the sport, and thats getting better now that the sports gained a lot of
mainstream popularity. But its by no means forgotten.
(Jake, professional fighter interview 2009)
How does participation in this seemingly violent sport affect the lives of MMA
athletes? Does being viewed in such a negative light create problems in their
personal lives? Numerous participants admitted that they were often
uncomfortable disclosing their chosen profession, particularly to individuals with
little or no knowledge of the sport because of the misconceptions that fighters are
aggressive and dumb.
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Stephan: It was awkward telling my girlfriends parents what I did for a

living. I knew right away that they would judge me.
Me: What do you mean?
Stephan: Well if your daughter brings home a doctor, you think hes a
smart, nice guy. If your daughter brings home a fighter, you think hes
dumb and mean.
Me: Did they think that about you?
Stephan: I think so. They didnt know what MMA was for one thingIt
sounds really bad when you tell them that you get into a cage and fight.
They didnt come out and say it but I could tell. I mean her moms into
real estate and her dad does financial planning. I think they were
disappointed maybe.
Me: Did that make you feel badly or wish you hadnt told them?
Stephan: A little, it was kinda clear they didnt think I was good enough. I
could have told them that I work in IT [information technology]. Thats
what I used to do before I turned pro. But it shouldnt matter that I have a
degree in computer science. Im still the same person.
Stephans level of education was common for most MMA fighters I interviewed.
In fact, the UFC boasts that many of the professional fighters on their roster hold
college/university degrees. As MMA developed into a hybrid sport, wrestling and
grappling became recognized as an important foundation of the practice. A vast
majority of successful fighters gained experience wrestling in college or
university. As a wrestling base is so important to MMA, this perhaps explains
why there are so many university/college grads fighting professionally in MMA.
The UFC and other MMA organizations have put visible efforts into combating
the stereotype that fighters are uneducated. In televised or Internet promotions,
representatives will often mention the education levels of fighters. For example:
UFCs tattooed, mohawked badboy Chuck Liddell has a Bachelors degree in
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Accounting; Heavyweight Shane Carwin has a double Bachelor of Science degree

in Mechanical Engineering and Environmental Technology; former math teacher
and good-guy Rich Franklin has a Masters degree in Education; TUF reality
show finalist Phillipe Nover was a registered nurse; and new-comer Terry Martin
is currently a PhD candidate in Psychology. Rather than seeing MMA as a last
resort to make money, many fighters are choosing to become professional MMA
practitioners over previous conventional careers as teachers, policemen and
accountants.
Somehow, in American popular culture, a man is either a scholar or an
athlete but rarely both. Where does the idea that a man must either be smart or
else tough and athletic come from? This duality is not universal, but
geographically and historically relevant. Being either of the mind or of the body
appears in opposition to the idea of the Renaissance Man or the more holistic
notions of Chinese masculinity as presented by (Louie 2002) that incorporate the
wen (scholarly, academic) and wu (physical, martial) as both important and
complementary aspects of masculinity. I suspect that the ideological divide
between the mind and body so prevalent in American society influences
categorizations of individuals into these two camps. One only has look to popular
American films of the past twenty or thirty years (exemplified in the Revenge of
the Nerds franchise) to uncover the perceived antagonistic relationship between
the nerd and the jock, or the mind and the body.

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Playing up Stereotypes to Create Character types: Ethnicity and American-ness

Stereotypes can function to make the world more recognizable, more
knowable. Ethnicity and socio-economic status seem to play a role in developing
character types for the sport. As, mentioned before, these are not the soap opera
characters of professional wrestling (WWE) but more so identifiable character
types. The standard of physical perfection applies to all men involved regardless
of ethnicity or financial background, but these two factors are used in creating
variations of representations. Some fighters are far more image conscious than
others, and may, in collaboration with managers and organizations, intentionally
aim to develop a more public image. Interviews with fans and fighters brought to
light three main fighter character types: the All American, the Biker Badass
and the Underdog. When surveyed, respondents were able to consistently
identify several fighters as such, thus reinforcing a shared perception of these
types. Yet, respondents suggested that types could overlap in various aspects, and
perhaps half of all the fighters they knew of would not fit in a certain category.
Unlike professional wrestling, there are no universally recognized heroes and
villains. The character types are not as obvious and clear cut; in MMA, they are
subtler. In order for MMA to maintain its integrity as a real, authentic sport,
fighters and promoters must guard against too aggressively and obviously
constructing a persona. There is a fine line that must be walked to make the
fighters a recognizable character (to draw interest and loyalty) but this fighters
image must develop in an organic manner.

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In order for a fighter to be recognized as the All American type there

are several key ingredients. 1) EthnicityAll American seems to be equated
with being white/Caucasian. In interviews with fans when asked which fighters
could be labeled All American, 100% of responses indicated fighters who were
Caucasian. 2) Socio-economic statusfighters of this representation are thought
of as coming from the middle class. Whether their true socio-economic
background is middle class is not important, rather, the perception of middle class
is. 3) Attitudethese fighters generally have a positive demeanor particularly
when interacting with fans and media. According to fans and fighters interviewed,
they possess a never-say die outlook and level of respect for their opponents and
the sport. 4) Physical aspectsrespondents suggested that these fighters could
range in weight classes (from lightweight155 lbs to heavyweight 205 lbs but
within reason (capping off around 250 lbs). However, they must maintain an
excellent physique, meaning low percentage of body fat and clearly defined
muscles. They should appear lean. Also, these fighters do not have any excess
adornments such as numerous tattoos, colored hair or painted nails. They are
almost always clean-cut, clean-shaven and have no tattoos.
In comparison, these four facets (ethnicity, socio-economic status,
attitude and physical aspects) vary in the representation of other types. The Biker
Badass is almost always Caucasian or appearing to be of primarily Caucasian
descent, from a lower-middle-class/middle-class background. These fighters are
also physically fit but may possess a higher level of body fat. Survey respondents
said that they usually have several tattoos, usually tribal designs, Asian characters,
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or skulls. These fighters usually have a Mohawk hairstyle or shaven head. One
fan described them as the typical guy youd find at a biker bar, like a Hells
Angel kind of guy. This fighter has a tough attitude and is more like the strong
silent type. However, even if this character type is seen as a bad-ass, he must
demonstrate a good heart underneath (such as smiling or positive interactions with
fans, evidence of being a family man, etc.).
Interestingly, ethnic minority fighters are the ones that respondents more
often associated with the Cinderella/Underdog representation. They are most
often African American or Latino and from a lower socio-economic background.
They often were depicted as escaping a difficult situation (e.g. living in poverty in
a rough neighborhoods) to become a fighter in a prominent organization. Industry
articles describe these fighters as having little other opportunities and fighting was
their means of escaping violence and poverty. They are determined and remain
connected with their roots. They often do interviews or photo shoots set in their
former neighborhoods. This type of fighter is usually respectful of the sport and
his opponents but has a determined air and confidence about himself. These
fighters are in top physical condition, having very low body fat and clearly
defined muscles. In a review of fight commentaries from randomly selected
events over the past 10 years (available on the internet), African-American
fighters are more likely to be called a physical specimen as opposed to any
other ethnicity. Could this possibly be because more marginalized groups (i.e.,
ethnic minorities) are judged more on their physical appearance rather than other
aspects of their identity? African-American athletes are also more often described
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as having innate talent or being athletically gifted rather than being described as
working hard to develop their skills (Messer, 1990). Alternatively, the use of the
word specimen may be a reflection of a pervasive discourse of evolutionary
biology that has entered popular culture in the past twenty years or so.
Butler (1990:140) states, If gender is a series of repeated performances,
then the distinctions of gender are dependent on the quality of its enactment by
the body. As a result, the body has become the battleground for the policing of
boundaries between men and women. Examining these character types of
masculinity suggest that these negotiated boundaries also involve ethnicity and
socio-economic status. Ethnicity and socio-economic status appear to be
represented in particular ways in the sport of MMA. These facets of identity
contribute to subtly developing publicly recognizable character types. It is not an
overt ideology of racial categories; rather, it reveals a subliminal message about
what and who is truly American.
The presentation of gender or masculinity in MMA is complicated by
factors such as age and ethnicity. To provide a parallel, Banet-Weisers (1999)
work on North American beauty pageants describes the beauty pageant as a more
than just a rehearsal of femininity and relays how pageants also operate within the
realm of politics and ultimately defines both national identity and individual
female aspirations. She notes that the ideal female citizen of America in the past
was almost always white, but the relatively recent occurrence of minority winners
highlights how beauty pageants mediate ethnicity within national boundaries.
MMA, like beauty pageants, provides a venue for the presentation of gender
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ideals, but is also a site where the performance of gender serves to reshape or
reinforce notions of how aspects like ethnicity fit together with gender.

Stereotype Three: Given the nature of the sport and its participants (see
Stereotypes One and Two) MMA fans are also uneducated and aggressive
The weekend of UFC 100 (July 17-19, 2009) the UFC also held their first
MMA Fan Expo. This provided an excellent opportunity to see first hand who
fans of MMA were. (See Appendix G for details on survey.) Target demographics
provided by the UFC suggest that the majority of their viewers are males between
18-34 years old. This demographic also appeared to the prevailing cohort at the
MMA Expo. However, I was somewhat surprised to see numerous women and
children were also in attendance. Most of the females I spoke with indicated that
while it was true that their husbands/boyfriends had gotten them interested in the
sport, they also considered themselves to be true fans of the sport. This meant that
they would view events even if their male partners were not present, and they had
a favorite fighter whose career they would follow. For some fans this appeared a
family event. There were children of all ages present (e.g. infants, toddlers,
teenagers).
I conducted a survey of one hundred MMA fans to gain insight into who
these individuals were (demographically) and why they were fans of MMA. I
randomly selected one hundred individuals by administering surveys to the first
one hundred people who were in line waiting for the expo to open. I interviewed
85 men and 15 women. Forty-nine percent of fans were aged 18-25 years old and
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41% of fans were 26-36 years old. The remaining fans were over the age of 37
years old. The mean number of years that individuals self-identified as a fan was
approximately 7 years, while the median was 5 years. Sixty-six percent listed
Caucasian as their ethnicity, 24% listed Hispanic, 6% listed Mixed Ethnicity,
2% listed Asian and 2% listed Rather Not Say. In terms of education, 70%
percent stated they had either graduated college, attended some college level
courses or technical schooling. The demographic characteristics of this cohort
appear to be comparable to that of a study done by Nancy Cheever (2009)
regarding viewing practices of MMA fans.
Cheever (2009) administered an online survey to over 3,500 MMA fans.
The survey consisted of 61 questions that measured attitudes, opinions, and
behaviors, and levels of hypermasculinity among the viewers. To measure
hypermasculinity she uses subsets of the Hypermasculinity Inventory which
statements such as danger as thrilling and violence is manly (Mosher &
Sirkin, 1984). The demographic traits for this sample were summarized as young
white males (97% are under 40; 73% are white; 98% are male) who are single
(78%), college educated (about 80% have at least some college or a college
degree) (Cheever, 2009:5). Based upon Cheevers (2009) survey and the survey I
conducted, it would appear that most MMA fans have a post-secondary level
education.

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What draws fans?

The sample population surveyed at the MMA Fan Expo (2009) suggested
that they enjoyed the sport for the following reasons (listed in order of frequency):
1) it was exciting, fun and action-packed, 2) they admired the skill required to
fight, and 3) they liked the fighters. To gain insight fan perspectives on MMA, the
survey also included the questions, Who is your favorite fighter? and What
makes this person your favorite fighter? Responses to who is your favorite
fighter varied, however George St. Pierre, Randy Couture, and Anderson Silva
were frequently cited. Responses to why a particular fighter was favored were
grouped into three categories: 1) Personality Traits and Values, 2) Talent/Skill, 3)
Appearance, and 4) Other. An overwhelming 77% listed personality traits such
as: cool, determined, smart, and humble as their reasoning for liking a particular
fighter. Thirteen percent listed the skill of the fighter, for example: toughness,
strength, power. Appearance (e.g. cool Mohawk or tattoos) was the response
listed by 5% of respondents (although I suspect a couple respondents made these
comments in jest). Finally, there were miscellaneous other responses such as,
hes got a cute girlfriend, or hes Brazilian like me. Miscellaneous responses
should also be considered, as three individuals cited the fact that they liked their
favorite fighter because he was the same ethnicity as them.
Fans indicated that they felt that being an MMA fighter would be a
positive experience. They were asked the question: What do you think is the best
thing about being an MMA fighter? Responses were grouped into three
categories: Personal, Social and Material. Drawing the line between personal and
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social was often times difficult as there is admittedly overlap between the
categories. Personal is defined as individual mental/emotional benefits such as
being the best, accomplishing goals, defending the title. Social refers to
relationships and interactions (e.g. fame, respect, women, and fans). Material
describes responses that can be seen as tangible benefits, for example, money,
cars, and free stuff. Fifty-two percent identified personal benefits, 36%
identified social benefits, and 12% identified material benefits (with money
comprising 90% of these material responses). These survey responses indicate
that fans see MMA first and foremost as a personally and socially fulfilling
endeavor. Fans admired popular professional MMA fighters primarily due to
perceived personality traits such as being brave, smart, or humble, the skill of
the fighter was secondary, and the appearance of the fighter was not especially
significant to their admiration.
Ironically, when asked what do you think are some of the negative
aspects of being a professional fighter, fans suggested that benefits could also be
drawbacks. Surprisingly, fame was also seen as a drawback to many fans. Fans
surveyed also listed injury quite low on the list of negative aspects. When
questioned further, fans felt that although MMA fighters did get injured, the
injuries they were aware of were not too serious. Drawbacks to being an MMA
fighter were grouped into four categories: Personal (12%), which included
aspects such as pressure and stress, Social (69%) for example, lack of privacy
and being away from family, Material/Physical (14%) such as no insurance
and injuries, and Nothing (5%). Fans seem to view the life of MMA fighter as
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very much as socially driven pursuit. Overall, fans appear to be drawn to MMA
due to positive aspects such as the personality and talent of fighters, and watching
someone compete to be the best. These findings seem to be agreement of those
published by Cheever (2009:6) in her aforementioned study on viewing practices:
The number one draw to mixed martial arts is the different styles that
come together (80% of the respondents checked) and the competition of
the sport (78%). Respondents were also drawn to MMA because it takes
more skill than other combat sports, explaining the recent phenomenon of
MMA eclipsing boxing as the favored combat sport among young men.
Few respondents reported being drawn to the sport because of the violence
(22%), the blood (16%), or that it was like the Roman gladiators
(11%)The number one aspect of MMA that fans find most entertaining
is the skill of the fighters (90%). They also enjoy the range of talent and
abilities (81%), the fighting styles (82%), the techniques and moves
(82%), and the competition of it (73%). Fans reported being less
entertained by seeing someone get hurt (15%), the blood (13%), the
violence (17%), or watching the men beat each other up (19%).
Cheevers (2009) study consisted of over 3,500 respondents, and 80% agreed or
strongly agreed that MMA had a positive impact on their lives and 86% of
respondents reportedly never engaged in aggressive behavior directly after
viewing MMA (ibid:8).
Another interesting aspect of this is study is the attempt to measure fans
hypermasculinity. This is another common presumption, that both MMA fighters
and MMA fans are hypermasculine males. What exactly is a hypermasculine
male? Is this a biological condition, an excess of testosterone? Is it a
manifestation of numerous socially perceived aspects of maleness such as
violence, aggression or rampant sexual activity? The term hypermasculinity is
inherently problematic because it is attempting to define a concrete condition of
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excessive masculinity when masculinity itself has yet to be adequately

investigated. This is the same problem with a scale of hypermasculinity in that the
terms of measurement are preconceived characteristics imposed by researchers. In
any case, according to Cheevers data this assumption is not realized:
To test hypermasculinity traits in the men, two subscales of the
hypermasculinity inventory (Mosher & Sirkin, 1984) were used: violence
as manly, and danger as thrilling. Respondents were asked to choose
between two answers that best described how they felt or responded to a
certain situation. The men scored low on the danger as thrilling subscale
(M=3.2) and moderate on violence as manly (M=5.7). It appears that
MMA viewers do not possess the typical hypermasculine traits associated
with combat sport enthusiasts, according to the two subscales used here
(M=4.4).
(Cheever 2009:4)
Media and professional MMA fighters also provided anecdotal evidence that most
MMA fans were not the typical, hypermasculine jock. Eva has been a
professional photographer for over five years. She suggests while there are fans
that look like thugs, wearing their TapOut and Affliction gear, most fans are just
everyday guys. She also noted that she has seen the female fan base for MMA
grow dramatically over the past five years. MMA website developers and
bloggers, Ryan and Noel, divulge that the real MMA fans arent the guys with
tattoos and Mohawks, they are the nerdy guys with glasses and no
girlfriendsThey are the true fans that can tell you the record of every pro fighter
and date of every MMA fight since UFC 1. Professional fighters I interviewed
also stated that MMA fans should not be judged by their appearance.

Jared: Typical fans? Im not sure who that is anymore. Before, I thought it
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was just like frat boys wearing TapOut but now[laughs].

Me: What do you mean?
Jared: My Grandma is so into MMA right now.
Me: Youre kidding?
Jared: After my first fight, I explained to her what MMA was. I thought
that she would be horrified or not understand. Then a couple months later,
she was calling me on the phone asking me if Id seen the last UFC, or
asking what I thought of Mike Brown. I thought she was trying to humor
me or she was just watching so that she could talk to me bout it. But my
Grandpa said, Nope, when the fights are on he doesnt dare try to change
the channel.
Although the primary viewing demographic for MMA events has been
established as 18-34 year males, as Jared and numerous other fighters and
members of the media pointed out, almost anyone could be an MMA fan.

True Fans vs. the Wannabes: Exploring Authenticity and Exclusivity

Kick his ass!
Kill him!
Knock his head off!
These phrases were frequently heard during live MMA events that I
attended. What happened to the educated, civilized fans that I encountered prior to
the match? Did the mix of excitement and alcohol turn them into the equivalent of
the violent, aggressive British football hooligan? (See Armstrong 1998; Brimson
2007.) The fan population that I surveyed and that is outlined in Cheevers (2009)
study is clearly educated about the sport and view MMA to observe their favorite
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fighters and the skill of MMA athletes. Yet there is no doubt that some fans
appear to enjoy the action and aggression of the sport. I suggest that the fans I
surveyed and interviewed were what those in the MMA world consider hardcore
fans, defined by their level of knowledge of the sport. Also, since the UFC 100
Fan Expo was held in Las Vegas, these fans had to spend a significant amount of
money to travel to Vegas, purchase food and lodging, and also tickets to the Expo
and MMA event. I would estimate that the lodging and ticket alone cost over
$500 per person. This would seem to indicate that it would be the more devoted
fan of the sport rather than occasional viewer who would readily incur this cost. I
suspect that the fans that Cheever (2009) surveyed in the spring of 2007 were also
these hardcore fans of MMA. Cheever (2009) chose to use the popular MMA
website Sherdog.com as a platform to reach MMA fans. She posted the survey in
the forum section of the site and members of Sherdog volunteered their responses.
According to MMA fans and media personnel I spoke with, the fans that take time
to post on MMA forums or even join MMA websites (where you must set up a
profile) are obviously the more devoted fans, seeking ways of interacting with the
sport through social media. Fans and fighters alike spoke of two different sets of
MMA fans. There are the hardcore fans, many of who also train recreationally
in MMA, who have followed the sport for numerous years and are more interested
in viewing MMA for aspects of skill and admiration. Then, there are also casual
fans who may be more recent converts to the sport of MMA, do not have much
personal physical experience with MMA, and are more interested in seeing a fight
for the excitement and aggression. What causes this split in the fan base?
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MMA was once an underground subcultural activity that grew into a

highly visible, mainstream, sporting pastime. The hardcore fans continued to
support MMA into this transition, but a new population of casual viewers were
now being drawn to the sport. Among both fighters and fans there appears to be
some discontent over the sport going mainstream. MMA matches can be found
on cable television, MMA apparel can be bought at Walmart, and MMA it now
sanctioned (2010) in every state of the US except for Vermont. (Sanctioning is
currently pending in New York, Connecticut, and West Virginia.) There are
MMA events held all over the world from Poland, to Peru, to the United Arab
Emirates. There are credit cards sponsored by the UFC where rewards points can
be redeemed for UFC tickets and paraphernalia, there are MMA video games on
the most popular gaming systems, and there are even childrens classes in MMA.
While this has made MMA more accepted among the general public and aided in
achieving sanctioning across the United States, many MMA fans resent this
process of selling out.

Marcus [fan]: It used to be really cool, you know? Not many people knew
about MMA. It was only the die-hard fans that followed the early UFCs.
Wed gather around a buddys basement to watch Royce Gracie beat out
everyone.
Me: So how do you feel about the sport becoming mainstream?
Marcus [fan]: It sucks. Now you get every guy off the street wearing
TapOut or Affliction shirts. They watch one fight and they think they know
all the fighters. Or even worse they think just cause they watch the show
and get into street fights, that makes them an MMA fighter. Theres so
many wannabes out there calling themselves fighters and pretending they
train in their backyards. It just cheapens the sport. This was our sport
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MMA journalist Thomas Larson has been following in MMA since the early
1990s. He is the creator of a popular MMA website and blog. He states, Lots of
MMA fans are exclusionary, like a gang they are territorial. They dont want it on
ESPN or to have Coca Cola sponsors. They want it to remain non-mainstream.
They want it to be marginalized. I also noticed during my survey of MMA Expo
fans that many of them made it a point to tell me how they had been long-time
fans or fans since the beginning. As a fan, this level of exclusivity appears key to
their identity. They want to be recognized as an authentic fan of the sport and not
just someone that had latched onto the coat-tails of the newest cool trend.
According to some fans, the commericalization and mass appeal has diluted the
true sport. Extreme sports such as surfing and snowboarding, and even rockclimbing also share a similar kind of resistance to commercialization. Prominent
rock-climber Tim Fairfield describes this negotiation of rebellion and
commercialization in extreme sport, he claims that rock-climbing is packaged
radicalism and its anti-authority but it is not anti-money (Fairfield as quoted
in Rinehart and Syndor 2003: 417)

Its a Love-Hate Relationship: Fan-Fighter Interactions

Our [UFC] philosophy is to be fan friendly, and this comes right from
[president] Dana White. He'll goif he's at a weigh-in, he will not leave
or fight until he signs every autograph and takes a picture with anybody
who wants one. That permeates down to the fighters, and you'll see at
every event that the fighters in the hotel, they'll sign autographs and take
pictures. We set up autograph tables where the fans line up. That's part of
what they have to do. We believe in giving back. We're probably as
approachable as any sport in the world. A lot of them have Twitter
accounts now that we've encouraged. I think they all have Facebook.
Social media is real important, and we really encourage that.
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(UFC Media Relations Representative, interview 2009)

I chose to include fans in this chapter on representation as there is generally a
personal disconnect between a celebrity and a fan. What the fan knows of the
celebrity is usually ascertained third-party, through images, and representations
of that individual and these displays are most often not generated by the
celebrity him/herself. Yet the relationship is still meaningful, especially to the
fan. With advancements in Internet social media, such as Myspace or Facebook,
this gap decreases and the celebrity becomes more accessible. Professional
MMA fighters have utilized this medium to increase their visibility, while fans
see this as a means to establish real relationships.
The professional fighters I interviewed stated that the majority of their
time spent interacting with fans happened via social media networks such as
Facebook or Myspace. Other sources of interaction included live promotional
events to sign autographs or unplanned meetings (e.g. encountering fans while out
a restaurant). While 95% of professional fighters interviewed stated that they had
a Facebook or Myspace account, 80% had a specific profile used to interact with
fans and potential sponsors. The comments received were often positive, but
could also negative or strange.

Me: Do you have a fan page on Facebook or Myspace?

Brandon: Yeah, I do.
Me: What kind of feedback do you get?
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Brandon: Some people will be like, nice job man or sometimes they say
things like you suck, or youre ugly.
Me: Really?
Brandon: Its weird because one day they would be like your biggest fan
and the next day they hate you.
Me: Does it hurt your feelings?
Brandon: It definitely takes a little getting used to. But once youre used
to it, like it doesnt bother me anymore.
Me: I see. Have you had any strange encounters with fans?
Brandon: Oh yeah, like Ive had some weird things on Myspace, received
like messages from some like girl in New York, I dont know how old she
was, and she was like, oh, I had a bad day today and came out about
being molested as a child. What do you think about it? Why would you
even be telling me this? I dont even know you.
It appears that the anonymity of the Internet emboldens individuals to say things
that they may not in real life. Brandon tells me he has never had a fan actually
come up to him and make negative comments about his performance or
appearance. This kind of critique appears reserved for Internet interactions.
Likewise, the female fans confession about her childhood molestation is quite
shocking, yet with the distance and anonymity of the Internet she felt it was a safe
vehicle for revealing her secret. It is strange however that she would choose to
share this incredibly personal information with someone she has never met and
someone she does not even know. Brandon stated that he had not had any prior
interactions with this girl, and this was her first post on his Internet profile.
Brandon appeared baffled as to why she wanted his opinion of such a personal
matter. He speculates that perhaps she got to know him through his time on the
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television show The Ultimate Fighter. Furthermore his fame from the television
turned him into somewhat of a celebrity. As a celebrity, perhaps the young
woman felt his opinion was of more value due to his status.
Other professional fighters remarked that it was a common occurrence for
fans to speak to them as if they knew them. Fans would often call them by
personal nicknames, or even tell the fighter to say hello to your wife and kids for
me, as if they were friendly acquaintances.
Javier: Its really weird. People think cause they see you on T.V. that they
know all about you. They tell me about stuff I said or did that I dont even
remember. This guy followed me to the bathroom to get my autograph.
Im just a regular guy and all of this happened so fast. I appreciate the fans
because without them, I dont really have a job but sometimes they act like
you owe them something.
Through social media and the UFCs unofficial policy, MMA has been made
more accessible to fans. In addition, the ideology of the sport adds another
dimension of accessibility. Much of the popularity of MMA has rests upon the
premise that this sport can turn the average, everyday man into a superstar. Fans
can relate to the seemingly ordinary image of a former garbage man, and come to
admire the achievements obtained through hard work and sacrifice; it is the retelling of the American dream. Being able to relate to the former identity of the
fighter (e.g. school teacher, accountant, mechanic) makes the fighter more
approachable. Unlike football or baseball where one has to basically select the
proper channels of training since youth in order to become a professional, many
MMA superstars have come to sport relatively late in life, as a second career. Due
to The Ultimate Fighter reality television show, a number of fighters have gone
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from obscurity to stardom in less than a year. It is difficult to name any other
professional sports where this could happen. Part of the appeal of MMA is
prospect of possibility.

Conclusions
The world of MMA represents a carefully crafted promise of achievement
and fame. It offers an image of reality that is for the most part incongruent with
the actualized lives of MMA participants. While being a professional MMA
fighter can be profitable for some individuals, most who fight professionally must
also maintain other sources of employment to support themselves and their
families. The slogan of The Ultimate Fighter television show is as real as it gets,
yet this reality is quietly manipulated and shaped to produce drama for the benefit
of ratings. The reputation and appeal of MMA rests upon its claims of reality. The
fighters are not actors and the outcomes of matches are not predetermined. The
goal of the UFC was to as closely as possible replicate a real fight situation to
uncover which combat style would be most effective. The sport, its origins, its
image, its discourse, all operate to reproduce reality. Yet it must be a profitable
reality. MMA is prime example of Dunbars commodified rebellion. Its
beginnings as an underground counterculture activity provided a defiant appeal to
those with antiestablishment sentiments, but in gaining immense popularity and
entering mainstream American culture, the now legitimated sport boasts
bedfellows of corporate America such as Walmart and Burger King. Though the
sport of MMA is sanctioned nearly across the United States and operates under
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State Athletic Commissions, its legacy as once branded human cock-fighting is

certainly not forgotten. The blood-sport origins of MMA and the UFC add a
seemingly authentically dangerous allure, but at the same time provides the source
of stigma that affects the daily lives of MMA fighters and fans. The intricacies of
MMA reveal numerous co-existing contradictions that cannot simply be viewed
as discrete oppositional states, while the carefully crafted image of MMA
illustrates the movable boundaries of a social reality.

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PART III. Discussion: Contexts of American Masculinity: Momentous Events of

the New Millennium

Connell (1987; 1995; 2005) suggests that hegemonic masculinity is a

configuration of gender practices that are constantly in motion. Gender and
masculinity are dynamic, rather than a quality to be possessed or universal state.
These descriptions would indicate that the contexts of social life, and therefore the
political, economic and social factors that comprise culture, are crucial to its
manifestation in contemporary culture. In looking at masculinity through the
analytical lens of Mixed Martial Arts, it is necessary to look at the conditions that
led to its wide-spread popularity and thus ability to disseminate ideas and
representations of contemporary American masculinity.
Although Mixed Martial Arts was established in North America in the
early 1990s, it did not gain its momentous popularity until nearly a decade later.
The rapid transition from an underground, socially unacceptable spectacle, to
multi-million dollar, worldwide sport is quite remarkable. Amendments in rules
and regulations only supply a small part of the answer. Such a change in what is
considered socially acceptable behavior begs the question as to what were the
social and political circumstances that allowed for such a dramatic shift to occur.
And furthermore, how is this aggressive, male-dominated sport tied to
contemporary American gender consciousness? America was founded upon
notions of rugged individualism (Kimmel 2006; Rotundo 1993) but over time
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there have been trends that dictate which qualities of masculinity are most valued.
Around the time that MMA began its ascent to worldwide popularity, two other
major occurrences were taking place. The first is the calling upon of Americans to
enter the Iraq War, and the second is the explosion of Reality Television.

The Iraq War

It is not surprising that researchers cite war as primarily a masculine
domain, and space through which masculinity is defined (Barrett 1996, Hutchings
2008, Kimmel 2007, Lutz 2002, Stemple 2006). Jeffords (1989) suggests that
pervasive narratives of masculine valor in the Vietnam War served as building
blocks to re-masculinize post-Vietnam American society. Hutchings (2007: 390)
points out that the concept of masculinity is anchored through war, and provides a
fixed reference point for any (re)negotiation of what masculinity may mean. The
comparisons between the Vietnam War and the Iraq War have been a site of
analysis for many academics (Danchev 2007, Hoskins 2004, Kalyvas and Kocher
2007, Lutz 2002, Robben 2009). The parallels between the Vietnam War and the
Iraq War underlie the importance of Jeffords (1989) assessments of war as a site
for the shaping of American masculine identity. What is of interest is in the
contexts of the Vietnam War and the Iraq War, similar archetypes of masculinity
are called upon. It is more than rugged individualism, akin to an impulsive,
cowboy-type mentality (Kimmel 2006). The attacks of 9-11 required immediate
and forceful retaliation. It was a time for action, and hero-building (Boon 2005;
Lutz 2002). Staurowsky (2010: 65) suggests that there was an inherent
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masculinism at the core of the response to September 11. Furthermore,

investigative journalist Lorraine Dowler (2002) revealed that although women
made up roughly one-third of New Yorks Emergency Medical Technicians
(EMT) and 6000 women were part of New York police force, women were rarely
acknowledged as part of the rescue efforts in media coverage of the events of
September 11th. The highly macho (Kimmel 2007) political atmosphere appears
to have provided the fertile social conditions in which the overtly physical and
aggressive masculine qualities of MMA were allowed to flourish.
The mythology and symbolism of todays most popular spectator sports
are flooded by dominant themes of: patriotism, militarism, violence and
meritocracy (Messner 1990). Klein (1993) suggests that the heroic ideal is
certainly central to subculture of bodybuilding. He goes on to state that in
American society celebrity is confused with heroism, and that form rather than
function succeeds in todays world (ibid: 274). Yet Klein astutely points out that
besides the question of which venues men choose in defining their masculinity,
there is the matter of determining why a certain choice is more popular at a
certain point in time. In terms of bodybuilding, he ponders whether bodybuilding
reflects the surge in nationalism and military muscle flexing in the Persian Gulf
War, or if is it a reaction to the humiliation of Vietnam. It is perhaps that the 20th
century decline of the practical relevance of physical strength in work and
warfare, along with frequent mediated representations of male body as strong,
virile and powerful, begin to take on increasingly important ideological and
symbolic significance (Messner 1990: 169).
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Discourse analysis highlights the pervasiveness of the language of war in

MMA. During competitions, the commentators label the fighters kicks and
punches as his arsenal of weapons. The two athletes were often said to go to
battle or war. There are clearly parallels in that both war and the simulated war
of MMA appear to be proving grounds for masculinity. As Hutchings (2007: 400)
notes, our understanding and evaluation of war is secured through its association
with masculinity. MMAs connections with war and warfare serve to anchor the
sport as a contemporary source of masculinity. Jeffords (1989) proposes that
societies are in a sense a total sum of their war stories. This effect is accomplished
by formalizing a collective identity for those who engage in it and support it. It
becomes our battle, our war and our victory. MMA provides a venue for a hero to
emerge. There is an immediate and definitive resolution. However, MMAs ties to
war are not simply metaphorical. Over the years, the UFC has actively established
its relationship to the United States military in a number of ways. The Marine
Corp is now a major, paying sponsor of the UFC events. Their recruitment
advertisements are shown during commercial breaks, and their ads appear in
MMA magazines. In 2008, the UFC held its first Fight for the Troops event
raising four million dollars for the Intrepid Heroes Fund, a charity that supports
wounded troops and their families. The mutually beneficial, cross-marketing
relationship was further cemented in a statement endorsing MMA in the Marine
Corps Times Online:
The ideologies behind UFC and the Marine Corps now are very similar in
a lot of ways not just in the fighting techniques and mixed martial arts
aspect, but we both share that warrior ethos, said Gunnery Sgt.
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Pauline Franklin, a spokeswoman at Marine Corps Recruiting Command.

Pro fighters, she added, are very intense people who like to push their
limits, and they focus hard on training and believe in commitment, honor
and courage.20
The characteristics of Marines are now akin to characteristics of MMA athletes
and vice versa. The values of honor, courage and dedication of this very
American institution become synonymous with the description of MMA fighters
and thus by extension MMA appears to be adopted (or co-opted) and
Americanized. The relationship between MMA (UFC) and the United States
military only seems to be strengthening over time, as both become sites for
similarly idealized masculine values.21

Reality TV
Television programming in the early 2000s was rife with reality.
Competition- based shows such as: American Idol, Americas Next Top Model
and Survivor were especially successful in terms of ratings.22 Although the UFC
began its comeback a couple years before implementing The Ultimate Fighter
(2004), it was this reality television show that brought MMA to mainstream
America. It was the Spike TV Networks most popular show by far. Vice
President of the UFC, Mark Ratner, insists that this exposure was pivotal to

20 http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/news/2010/02/marine_ufc_020710w/
21

The links between MMA, militarism and masculinity this could certainly be a
direction for future research. These brief paragraphs only scratch the surface of
the complex and historically situated relationships between these aspects of
American society.
22

see http://www.realitytvworld.com for a list of ratings of reality shows by year.

243

Zuffas (UFC parents company) success. The reality television phenomenon was
the launching platform for the MMA phenomenon and therefore central to the
widespread discourse of contemporary American masculinity as conceptualized
through MMA.
The Ultimate Fighter is about ordinary men who through demonstrations
of their physical prowess become heroes and celebrities. The format, in which
there is only one winner, one Ultimate Fighter, speaks to the glorification of the
individual that was, and is, so appealing to television audiences. Like the other
successful reality, competition-based shows, TUF re-tells the story of the
American dream. It promises how the ordinary, but perhaps gifted and
dedicated citizen can achieve wealth and stardom. These television shows are
idealized representations, as real life for several professional fighters and former
TUF participants revealed. The specifics of the reality show proved to be more
about manipulation for ratings rather than genuine interaction and the
development of MMA skills. The monetary rewards were not nearly as much as
fighters (and fans) had imagined. The manipulation of time and editing of
individuals to create character types proved disappointing for some who had
participated on the show. Furthermore, the glamorous rock and roll lifestyle
depicted in MMA magazines and websites was a reality only for a small minority
of professional fighters. In much the same way that ideals of the body are
representations that create a relation to the imaginary (Moore 1999), the promise
of luxury and wealth also create a reference point of interpellation (Althusser
1971) for contemporary American identity and successful masculinity. Reality
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shows, which frequently offer near instant fame and fortune, suggest that this
lifestyle is desirable and achievable by the mere fact that it is labeled as reality.
MMA transformed from nearly nationally banned, counter-culture
spectacle to being endorsed by a foundational institution of America (the Marine
Corp) in a matter of fifteen years. Although representations of masculinity in the
sport have changed some, it appears that the contexts of American life
surrounding the sport have also changed dramatically.

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CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSIONS: MASCULINITY AS RELATIONAL AND

EMBODIED
The goal of this project was to examine contemporary American
masculinity through the analytical lens of the new sport phenomenon of Mixed
Martial Arts. Using Connells (1987; 1995; 2000) theory of hegemonic
masculinity as a starting point, I attempted to look at how hegemony operated on
the individual level. How did an individuals actions and perceptions transfer and
translate into a shared ideology and vice versa? I turned to notions of embodiment
(Merleau-Ponty 1989, Csordas 1999; 1994a; 1994b) as a framework through
which to understand how this process may occur. In Part I looked at how
masculinity was shaped and embodied through individual participation. Central to
this process of identity construction was an understanding of how the body was
used in daily activities to produce a sense of self and how this is translated into a
masculine domain. The body was certainly more than a link between a material
and ideational world: it was deemed to be an equally essential component of
conceptualizing existence. The body was integral to participation and to identity,
since in many ways it was trained and shaped into a certain idealized form. Daily
training and competition were essential to how MMA fighters perceived and
represented themselves. Yet the experience for these individuals was not simply
rooted in physicality. Participants suggested that the endeavor of MMA required
mental stamina, but success in the sport also involved achieving a kind of mindbody-social connection.

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In the latter half of Part I examined how MMA participants conceived of

their bodies in relation to idealized representations. (At the outset I had imagined
these idealized representations to be hegemonic masculinity.) Many professional
MMA fighters displayed incredible knowledge of their bodies functioning (as
seen in the practice of cutting weight), yet many were uncomfortable in
articulating the relationship they had with their bodies, particularly when in
reference to the term masculinity. In trying to ascertain what hegemonic
masculinity was associated with the sport and perhaps who possessed this
hegemonic masculinity, I found myself constantly being drawn back to the realm
of representation rather than actual individuals. The layers and intersections of
ethnicity, socio-economic status, age, education, family and even emotion,
provided contexts that made hegemonic terms of dominant, subordinant and
marginalized insufficient. While oftentimes it was clear that a specific body
image or particular characteristic of the male MMA fighter was deemed an ideal,
it was visible through the presentation of this ideal (e.g. advertisements) and how
individuals perceived their own relations to this ideal. Hegemonic masculinity
was far easier to identify and see on a representational level (e.g. advertisements,
television shows). In fact, hegemonic masculinity cannot operate without
representation (by representation I mean images that positioned with
intentionality), because it involves the sharing of ideologies. Where hegemonic
masculinity (Connell 1987; 1995; 2005) was most useful was when applied to the
realm of representation.

247

Part II examined women in the world of MMA. A study of masculinity

would not be complete without considering how masculinity functions in relation
to other gender-based constructs such as femininity or homosexuality. This
section also acted as a bridge between embodiment and representation as it dealt
with embodied issues of practice and also how individuals dealt with constraining
avenues of representation. Many women in the sport--fighters, members of the
media and wives of fighters have to contend with dichotomous representations of
women as either lesbians or groupies. Hegemonic masculinity is said to be
constantly changing. In fact, gender itself is said to be relational. In considering
masculinity and gender as represented through the sport of MMA, it became
necessary to examine greater contexts and trends of American popular culture. I
therefore looked at the popularity of MMA as coeval with what Levy (2005) calls
the rise of raunch culture and how this corresponds to what some theorists
suggest as a new post-feminist era, where it is simply assumed goals of gender
equity have already been achieved. Post-feminism discourse highlights gender
constructs as increasingly relying on commodification.
Part III examined how masculinity was represented and constructed in a
public domain and indeed how this domain in MMA was complicated by an
escalating commercialization of the sport. Fighters appeared to be both consumers
and commodities in the MMA industry. Furthermore, I questioned how
representations of MMA and of fighters affect the lives of those involved in the
sport. Participants frequently remarked that they felt they were subject to
stereotypes. This tension existing between the individual and social self involved
248

negotiating ones concept and representation of masculinity. Although the nature

of the MMA has not drastically changed, its profitability has recently prompted
several states to lift the ban on MMA, illustrating how sport is inextricably
intertwined with economics and politics. As Part II led to a consideration of how
MMA was situated in popular American culture, Part III also led to an
examination of the contexts in which MMA became the a world-wide, multimillion dollar industry and thus an effective transmitter of particular notions of
masculinity. One major contributing factor was the aligning of MMA with the
Reality TV phenomenon using the television show The Ultimate Fighter as a
springboard to entering mainstream American culture. The second major event
corresponding with the rise in popularity of MMA was the Iraq War. War has
long provided a site for masculinity to be enacted and represented. Over time, the
affiliation between MMA and the American military has only grown stronger and
more intimate. The Marine Corps sponsorship of the UFC suggests their desire to
connect with popular culture and Americas youth using MMA as a source to
generate excitement. Masculinity is context dependant, changing with time and
place. It is important to examine American culture and the socio-political
happenings that shaped representations and conceptions of American masculinity
that correspond to the rise of the sport. I offer these events not as variables
responsible for the popularity of MMA but rather to reveal that masculinity does
not arise in a vacuum. In order to understand masculinity as a relational construct
it was necessary to interrogate the representations and contextualizations of
gender in contemporary American society.
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Traditionally, anthropological works addressing masculinity have tended

to focus on more remote and indigenous cultures (Godelier 1986; Gregor 1985;
Herdt 1994). This project seeks to expand anthropological research on
masculinity to contemporary U.S. society, which is often taken as the implicit
standard from which to compare masculinities of other cultures. In addition, the
majority of research on how gender is constructed, shaped, and commodified
centers on women (Bordo 1993; Gremillion 2005; Resischer and Koo 2004).
Social science studies of men and masculinity (e.g. Jeffords 1989; Gutmann1996;
Kimmel 2006; Rotundo 1993) provide an important counterpoint to that
imbalance in the academic literature, as the disparity in research only serves to
make masculinity appear more naturalized. My hope is that this study of the
relationships between the outward conditions (such as media representation) that
shape a social self, and the corporeal aspects (such as the training of the body)
that shape self-identity can contribute to a better understanding of masculinity as
both an embodied and relational construct.

250

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263

APPENDIX A
INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD HUMAN SUBJECTS EXEMPTION

264

265

INFORMATION LETTER
Constructions of Self in the World of Mixed Martial Arts
Dear Participant:
I am Jaime Holthuysen, a PhD student under the direction of Professor Hjorleifur
Jonsson in the School of Human Evolution and Social Change at Arizona State
University. I am conducting a research study to look at the experiences of male
Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) cage-fighters, members of the MMA media, and
MMA fans.
I am inviting your participation in interviews that will take up about an hour of
your time. I will be asking you questions about your training and perceptions of
MMA in the media. You may be asked to participate in another group interview
where your responses will be shared with a group of 3-5 participants. In addition
you may be photographed and/or videotaped during your training sessions.
You have the right not to answer any question, and to stop the interview at any
time. Your participation in this study is voluntary. If you choose not to participate
or to withdraw from the study at any time, there will be no penalty. You must be
18 or older to participate in the study.
Research participants will not be compensated for their participation, but
participation in this project will enable the researcher, other academics, and the
broader public to learn more about what it means to be a participant in MMA.
There are no foreseeable risks or discomforts to your participation.
All information gathered during interviews is confidential. The results of this
research may be published; but, your identity will be protected and your responses
will be kept anonymous. The results of this study may be used in reports,
presentations, or publications but your name will not be used.
I would like to audiotape these interviews. The interview will not be recorded
without your permission. If you give permission for this interview to be taped,
you have the right to ask for the recording to be stopped. Please indicate whether
you give permission for the interview to be taped. Recordings will be immediately
deleted off the voice recorder and transcribed into coded files on a password
protected computer. Data, both images and transcripts etc. not directly used in
potential presentations/publishing will be destroyed following analysis.
If you have any questions concerning the research study, please contact the
research team at: Jaime Holthuysen, School of Human Evolution and Social
Change, Arizona State University. ASU, Tempe, AZ 83287-2402, Tel: (480) 9656213, Email Jaime.Holthuysen@asu.edu. You may also contact my advisor and/or
my supervisor Associate Professor Dr. Hjorleifur Jonsson at HJonsson@asu.edu.).
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If you have any questions about your rights as a subject/participant in this

research, or if you feel you have been placed at risk, you can contact the Chair of
the Human Subjects Institutional Review Board, through the ASU Research
Compliance Office, at (480) 965-6788.
Thank you.
Jaime
I agree to be interviewed
______________________________________________
I agree to be part of a group interview
______________________________________________
I agree to be photographed
_______________________________________________
I agree to be videotaped
______________________________________________

Date

______________________

267

APPENDIX B
SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

268

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
I. Basic Information
a) Age
b) Ethnicity
c) Occupation
d) Educational history, (e.g. high school, college)
e) Martial status
f) Children?
g) Gym you Attend?
h) Years in MMA?
II. Background
a) How long have you been training MMA?
b) Would you classify your self as: 1) recreational MMA participant, 2) amateur
MMA fighter, 3) professional MMA fighter?
c) Please briefly assess your ability in MMA. How many amateur fights? How
many professional fights?
d) Do you plan on becoming a professional fighter? Why or why not?
e) Tell me about how you got interested in the sport? What motivated you to
become a fighter?
f) How do you see yourself? (fighter first, student first, father etc.)
g) Is there a big difference between your world here at the gym, and your life as a
____?
h) How does your experience with MMA influence your daily life? (Does your
role as an MMA fighter conflicts with other social roles you have?)
III. Media
a) Do you watch MMA on television? If so which events?
b) Do you go to MMA events? Which ones? Local or international?
c) Why do you think this sport is so popular?
d) What are some of the ideas/misconceptions or stereotypes that people have of
fighters? (positive and negative)
e) What about the way that fighters are portrayed in the media? (e.g. by the UFC
or other organizations, advertising, magazines). Can you point to specific
examples?
f) Do you think that the way fighters have been portrayed by the general public
and mass media has changed over time? Give specific examples.
g) Are you influenced in any way by the media (such as general public or UFC)
images of fighters? What do these images make you think about yourself as a
fighter and other fighters?
h) Do you wear any fight company clothing like Tap Out or Affliction? What do
you think of people who do?
i) Who are some of your role models or fighters you admire in MMA?
j) Why do you choose these specific fighters? What are the qualities that they
possess?
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k) Is there an ideal weight or height for an MMA fighter?

l) Is there an ideal body type for an MMA fighter?
m) Describe what the ideal MMA fighter looks like?
n) How old are ideal MMA fighters? (Or what age do you think a fighter is at his
peak and why?)
IV. Training
a) How do you feel when you train? (e.g. what is your mindset like? do you notice
physiological cues such as increased heart rate? what do you do if you are
tired?)
b) What is the best part of training?
c) What is the worst part of training?
d) Can you describe your mind set when you train? Are you aware of others when
you are training? (in the zone, self-conscious?)
e) How do you feel before you spar?
f) How do you feel after you spar?
g) Have you sustaining any injuries participating in MMA?
h) Are you worried about injuries?
V. Competition
a) What organizations have you fought in?
b) How do you feel when you are fighting at an event in front of an audience?
c) Tell me about your first experience fighting in front of a crowd? What do you
remember the most?
d) What is the best part of fighting?
e) What is the worst part of fighting?
f) Can you describe your mind set when you fight?
g) Are you aware of others when you are fighting? (in the zone, self-conscious?
Influenced by the audience reactions?)
h) How do you feel about demonstrating emotion in the ring? (Have you cried?)
i) Do you do anything to your body (paint nails, colour hair etc.) before or after a
fight?
j) Do you have any pre-fight rituals that you undergo? (Post-fight?)
* (For professional fighters, especially in televised events, do you choose the
pre-fight music you use when they enter?
* (What do you choose to wear when you enter the venue and why? How much
freedom is there in this? (e.g. does the organization put limits on this?)
* (Has an organization you have fought for tried to tell you how you should
enter, what you should wear?)
k) Have you sustained any injuries participating in MMA?
l) Are you worried about injuries?
m) What do you think about drug use in MMA? Why do you think people use
drugs? Have you considered taking any performance enhancing substances?
VI. Females
a) Do you or how do you feel about training with females?
270

b) What do you think of womens MMA?

c) What are some of the advantages or disadvantages women have in comparison
to men?
d) Why arent there more female fighters?
e) How do women respond when they find out youre a fighter?
f) Do you think being a fighter has helped you in particular social situations such
as with women? (Do you think women find you more attractive as a fighter?)
* (For professional fighters. Do you have groupies? Women who want your
attention because of your job as a fighter?)
VII. Misc
a) From your perspective what do you think in general of other fighters? Do you
see any distinctions between people who fight? Are there different motivations?
b) Do you prefer to have friendships with fighters as opposed to non-fighters?
Why or why not?
c) Are there occasions when you feel a need to demonstrate or identify yourself as
a fighter? (e.g. any altercations or fights outside the gym)
d) Have you heard of Michael Smith*? (Gay fighter) What do you think about
this?
e) In conversations with other people I have heard the words posers, fanboys, and
fight bros? What is your take on these terms?
f) What are 5-10 words or phrases you would use to describe male MMA
fighters?
g) Is there anything you would like to add about your experience in MMA that I
have not touched on?
h) Do you have any questions for me?

271

APPENDIX C
MIXED MARTIAL ARTS TIMELINE

272

TIMELINE
1985: Shooto, often credited as the first mixed martial arts organization, forms in
Japan.
Sept. 21, 1993: Pancrase, a Japanese promotion, debuts in Tokyo, featuring Bas
Rutten and Ken Shamrock in separate fights.
Nov. 12, 1993: First Ultimate Fighting Championship fights. The pay-per-view
card from Denver's McNichols Arena features Royce Gracie and Ken Shamrock.
1996-1997: Sen. John McCain labels the sport "human cockfighting" and sends
letters to governors in every state urging its prohibition. Pay-per-view deals dry
up. In response, UFC introduces weight classes and mandatory gloves. The
organization prohibits several tactics, including hair-pulling, small-joint
manipulation, headbutts, groin strikes, kicks to a downed opponent and strikes to
the back of the head and neck.
May 8, 1997: Fighter Tank Abbott, announcer Bruce Buffer and referee Big John
McCarthy appear on Friends, with Abbott pounding would-be fighter Pete (Jon
Favreau), then the boyfriend of Monica (Courteney Cox).
Oct. 11, 1997: PRIDE Fighting Championships, which would become Japan's
largest MMA organization, debuts in Tokyo. Several top American, Brazilian,
Russian and European fighters participate over the next decade.
1998: UFC all but disappears from the pay-per-view market.
1999: UFC switches to five-minute rounds and a boxing-style 10-point system for
judging.
September 2000: New Jersey's State Athletic Control Board sanctions the sport
while helping to develop the rules now known as the Unified Rules of Mixed
Martial Arts. UFC holds its first unified-rules event two months later.
2001: Zuffa LLC, a company formed by Dana White, a manager of fighters, and
casino moguls Lorenzo and Frank Fertitta III, buys UFC. New Jersey formally
adopts the Unified Rules, followed by Nevada soon thereafter.
May 2001: Japans all female MMA organization Smackgirl is founded.
June 30, 2001: World Extreme Cagefighting (WEC) debuts.
Sept. 28, 2001: UFC 33 is the first fight card in the company's new deal with payper-view company In Demand and the first of many events in Las Vegas, thanks
to Nevada sanctioning.
Jan. 17, 2005: The reality series The Ultimate Fighter debuts on Spike. The show
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features up-and-coming fighters in a tournament. First prize: a UFC contract.

April 9, 2005: Live finale of The Ultimate Fighter's first season draws 2.6 million
viewers on Spike. UFC claims this to be the first live mixed martial arts on a
North American network, not including pay-per-view.
March 10, 2006: Strikeforce, a longtime kickboxing and martial arts company,
makes its MMA debut with Frank Shamrock vs. Cesar Gracie before a sell-out
crowd in San Jose's HP Pavilion, the first sanctioned MMA card in California.
April 29, 2006: The International Fight League (IFL) debuts with a team event.
July 2006: PRIDE loses its contract with Japan's largest TV network after the
publication of magazine articles alleging ties between the company's owners and
the Japanese underworld.
December 8, 2006: One of the first major female MMA fights, Gina Carano's
Strikeforce debut against Elaina Maxwell. Carano wins via unanimous decision at
Strikeforce: Triple Threat in San Jose, California.
December 30, 2006: UFC 66, featuring Chuck Liddell vs. Tito Ortiz, draws 1.05
million pay-per-view buys, according to several news reports.
December 2006: UFC buys WEC and World Fighting Alliance (WFA) in separate
deals.
Feb. 10, 2007: EliteXC debuts in Southaven, Miss., with Renzo Gracie defeating
Frank Shamrock in the main event.
March 12, 2007: IFL Battleground debuts on MyNetworkTV. IFL also has a deal
to show fights on Fox Sports Net.
March 27, 2007: Failing to get a new TV deal in Japan and unable to draw
enough U.S. pay-per-view customers, PRIDE is sold to Zuffa.
August 24, 2007: McCain tells NPR: "They have cleaned up the sport to the
point, at least in my view, where it is not human cockfighting any more. I think
they've made significant progress. They haven't made me a fan, but they have
made progress."
Oct. 25, 2007: Spike and UFC extend partnership through 2011, with seasons 9
through 12 of The Ultimate Fighter, four live fight cards per year, a new weekly
live series and the continued run of older events in UFC Unleashed. TV Week and
Multichannel News estimate terms at $100 million.
Feb. 29, 2008: IFL, now featuring a league based on training camps rather than
city-based teams, holds bouts in Las Vegas on HDNet. The deal with
MyNetworkTV has expired.
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March 2008: Debut for a new Japanese promotion, Dream, owned by K-1 Hero's
parent, FEG, and produced by former PRIDE officials. A rival Japanese group,
World Victory Road, also holds its inaugural show.
March 18, 2008: Black Entertainment Television debuts Iron Ring, a series
featuring hip-hop stars and boxer Floyd Mayweather Jr. as "team owners."
April 12, 2008: Strikeforce on NBC, a 52-week series of highlights and profiles,
debuts. Within five weeks, the Saturday late-night show (times vary by market)
claims better ratings in the male 18-34 demographic than some weeknight talk
shows.
December 10, 2008: UFCs first Fight For the Troops held for audience of over
8000 military personnel in North Carolina. The event raised four million dollars
for the Intrepid Heroes Fund that goes to benefit injured troops and their families.
April 19, 2009: UFC 97 in Montreal, Quebec, Canada sets the North American
attendance record with 21,451 attendees.
July 24, 2009: Affliction organization disestablished after its headliner fighter
Josh Barnett tested positive for steroids. The company announces that it will no
longer promote events and go back to manufacturing MMA clothing and
sponsoring UFC events.
January 11, 2010: Zuffa (owners of UFC) sell a ten percent stake of their
company to Flash Entertainment of Abu Dhabi in hopes of expanding into the
Asia market.
October 28, 2010: UFC dissolves WEC and merges WEC fighters into UFC
adding bantamweight (135 lbs) and featherweight (145 lbs) fighters to their card.
March 13, 2011: UFC buys out main competitor Strikeforce.

(http://www.usatoday.com/sports/2008-05-29-mma-timeline_N.htm
supplemented by www.sherdog.com)

275

APPENDIX D
UFC RULES (2010)

276

RULES AND REGULATIONS

I. Weight classes
Bantamweight: over 125 lbs. to 135 lbs.
Featherweight: over 135 lbs. to 145 lbs.
Lightweight: over 145 lbs. to 155 lbs.
Welterweight: over 155 lbs. to 170 lbs.
Middleweight: over 170 lbs. to 185 lbs.
Light Heavyweight: over 185 lbs. to 205 lbs.
Heavyweight: over 205 lbs. to 265 lbs.
II. Bout duration
All non-championship bouts shall be three rounds.
All championship bouts shall be five rounds.
Rounds will be five minutes in duration.
A one-minute rest period will occur between each round.
III. Fouls (actions NOT allowed)
1.
Butting with the head.
2.

Eye gouging of any kind.

3.

Biting.

4.

Hair pulling.

5.

Fish hooking.

6.

Groin attacks of any kind.

7.

Putting a finger into any orifice or into any cut or laceration on an

opponent.

8.

Small joint manipulation.

9.

Striking to the spine or the back of the head.

10.

Striking downward using the point of the elbow.

11.

Throat strikes of any kind, including, without limitation, grabbing the

trachea.

12.

Clawing, pinching or twisting of the flesh.

13.

Grabbing the clavicle.

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14.

Kicking the head of a grounded opponent.

15.

Kneeing the head of a grounded opponent.

16.

Stomping a grounded opponent.

17.

Kicking to the kidney with the heel.

18.

Spiking an opponent to the canvas on his head or neck.

19.

Throwing an opponent out of the ring or fenced area.

20.

Holding the shorts or gloves of an opponent

21.

Spitting at an opponent.

22.

Engaging in an unsportsmanlike conduct that causes injury to an

opponent.

23.

Holding the ropes or the fence.

24.

Using abusive language in the ring or fenced area.

25.

Attacking an opponent on or during the break.

26.

Attacking an opponent who is under the care of the referee.

27.

Attacking an opponent after the bell has sounded the end of the period of
unarmed combat.

28.

Flagrantly disregarding the instructions of the referee.

29.

Timidity, including, but without limitation, avoiding contact with an

opponent, intentionally or consistently dropping the mouthpiece or faking
an injury.

30.

Interference by the corner.

31.

Throwing in the towel during competition.

IV. Ways to Win

1. Submission by:

Physical tap out.

Verbal tap out.

2. Technical knockout by the referee stopping the contest.

3. Decision via scorecards, including:
Unanimous decision: All judges pick the same fighter as the winner.
Split decision: One judge picks one fighter, the other two judges pick the
other fighter.
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Majority decision: Two of the three judges pick the same fighter as the
winner, the final judge says the fight was a draw.
Draw: a) Unanimous draw b) Majority draw c) Split draw
4. Technical decision.
5. Technical draw.
6. Disqualification
7. Forfeit.
8. No contest.
* Referee may restart the round:
If the fighters reach a stalemate and do not work to improve position or finish.

(http://www.ufc.com/about/Rules)

279

APPENDIX E
DESERT COMBAT WAIVER

280

RELEASE OF LIABILITY, WAIVER AND HOLD HARMLESS

AGREEMENT
This document limits your legal rights & among other things, it will prevent you
from suing Desert Combat, Inc. (including its owner, employees and contractors).
Read carefully before you sign. In consideration of being allowed to participate in
the activities provided by Desert Combat, Inc. or its facilities, I acknowledge and
agree to the following:
Ring or Mat related sports (i.e. boxing, kickboxing, grappling, and jiu jitsu) are
activities, which are, by nature dangerous. They involve the actual use of
violence, and the individuals with whom I practice and train with will be learning
and practicing techniques designed to injure people. Injury or even death may
result. KNOWING ALL OF THIS, I HAVE NONETHELESS DECIDED TO
ENGAGE IN DESERT COMBAT ACTIVITIES FOR REASONS OF MY
OWN. _________________.
DESERT COMBAT is not in any respect assuming financial or legal
responsibility for any personal injury or other adverse consequences, which may
result. I understand that I must obtain my own medical, disability and other
insurance, and generally protect myself from the financial consequence of injury.
The specific types of physical harm, which may result from my participation in
DESERT COMBAT activities are too numerous to list specifically. By way of
example they may include: broken bones, serious soft tissue injuries, serious
internal injuries (including head and organ damage) and serious cuts. I understand
that my participation in DESERT COMBAT activities may result in serious
injury, paralysis, or other disabilities, disfigurement or death from these or other
causes. I am knowingly and willingly assuming these risks because even though I
am aware of the risks, I still choose to participate in DESERT COMBAT
activities. _____________________.
I am also aware that DESERT COMBAT activities are often conducted in close
contact with opponents and training partners. I understand that there is a
possibility that open wounds and other circumstances that may cause the
Transmission of Blood or other fluid-born diseases from others to me, and from
me to others. These diseases may include AIDS, Herpes, Hepatitis, and other skin
irritants. DESERT COMBAT is making no representations to the probability of
any such infection occurring. Even though I am aware of these risks, I still choose
to participate in DESERT COMBAT activities. _____________.
I consent, and willingly, voluntarily and expressly agree, to assume all of the risks
Involved in or arising from participating in DESERT COMBAT activities
conducted by DESERT COMBAT or on its premises, including, but not limited
to, those risks specifically described above, and further agree to release, discharge
and hold harmless DESERT COMBAT (including any director, officer,
employees, agent or other representative of DESERT COMBAT) from and
281

against any and all liability or judgments, described, however described, whether
known or unknown, foreseen or unforeseen, which may arise out of or be
connected in any way with participation in DESERT COMBAT
activities.____________.
I understand that, by signing this document, I am agreeing to discharge DESERT
COMBAT for now and forever, from possible claims, which others or I may
assert against DESERT COMBAT (or its agents and any other representatives).
Its or their negligence, other tortuous conduct, contractual undertaking, breach of
any expressed or implied warranties, intentional wrong doings, or any other
conductor omission, which may arise to a potential claim. I AGREE THAT IF I
DO GET INJURED OR OTHERWISE DAMAGED, NO SUIT WILL BE
BROUGHT OR MAINTAINED AGAINST DESERT COMBAT OR ANY OF
ITS AGENTS OR REPRESENTATIVES. _________________.
It is my intent that if any or part of this Agreement is invalid by a court, the other
parts should remain enforceable. I am signing this agreement for myself, for my
spouse and any marital community of which I am apart (if I am, or if I get
married) for my minor child if my minor child will be involved in DESERT
COMBAT activities, and for my heirs, successors, and personal representatives.
If the individual participating in DESERT COMBAT is my minor child, any
references to me in this agreement shall be deemed references to my child as
appropriate to make clear that I understand that my child and I assume the risks
which my child will be subject. _______________.
I am eighteen years of age or older, of sound mind and I enter into this Agreement
of my own free will and voluntary choice and without compulsion or advise from
any representative of DESERT COMBAT. DESERT COMBAT has made me no
promise or representation to induce me to sign this document. I recognize that this
document has serious legal consequences and understand that if I have any
questions about its meaning or effect, I should consult an Attorney of my choice.
I HAVE FULLY READ AND UNDERSTAND AND AGREE TO EACH AND
ALL OF THE ABOVE PARAGHRAGHS, AS FURTHER EVIDENCE OF MY
UNDERSTANDING AND AGREEMENT I AM GIVING MY SIGNATURE
BELOW.
Signature__________________________________ Date: __________________
Legal Guardian Signature: ____________________ Date: __________________

*Original name of the gym has been substituted with Desert Combat

282

APPENDIX F
BASIC MIXED MARTIAL ARTS GLOSSARY

283

GENERAL TERMS
MMA

No Holds Barred

Vale Tudo

Ultimate Fighting
Championship(UFC)
The Octagon/Cage

WAYS TO WIN
Submission

Knock Out
Technical Knock Out

Tap Out

An abbreviation for Mixed Martial Arts

- A combat sport in which fighters
from different martial disciplines
compete.
A popular term used to describe
"mixed martial arts" events. Due to the
evolution of the sport and
implementation of safety rules, the
term "no holds barred" is outdated but
remains popular among fans.
Portuguese for "anything goes." This
term is made in reference to "no holds
barred" fighting events that began in
Brazil.
Primary MMA organization established
in the United States responsible for
popularizing MMA.
An octagonal shaped ring or cage in
which mixed martial artists compete.
(The "Octagon" is a trademarkof the
UFC)
When a fighter taps out or verbally
concedes the match due to pain, to
avoid injury, being choked out, or a
desire to end the match.
When a fighter is knocked unconscious
due to strikes or other impact.
When a fighter is unable to continue,
usually due to injury. Reference stops
the fight.
A method in which a fighter submits to
his opponent by tapping his opponent,
himself or the mat. Verbal tap outs are
also allowed.

TECHNIQUES OF
COMBAT

284

Muay Thai Kickboxing

A form of kickboxing originating from

Thailand. Unlike traditional
kickboxing, Muay Thai allows low
kicks, elbows, and knees and is
considered among the elite striking
arts.

Grappling

Jujitsu

A general term used to describe

wrestling and ground oriented martial
arts or fighting on the ground / in close.
A Japanese martial art premised on
creating techniques to use an
opponents' against him/herself.

Brazilian Jiujitsu

Modified from Japanese Jujitsu, this art

established in Brazil focuses on
grappling and ground fighting
techniques.

Ground & Pound

This strategy consists of taking a

fighter to the ground, placing them in
an inferior position, and striking them
until they are knocked out, tap out, can
be submitted or the match is stopped.
A control position in which one fighter
is on top of another fighter.

Mount
SUBMISSIONS
Rear Naked Choke

A type of choke that is applied behind

an opponent, capturing his back. A rear
naked choke is the most advantageous
type of chokes as far as positioning.

285

APPENDIX G
MIXED MARTIAL ARTS FAN SURVEY

286

TABLE G.1 SURVEY PART ONE

287

TABLE G.1 SURVEY PART TWO

288

TABLE G.2 SURVEY PART ONE

289

TABLE G.2 SURVEY PART TWO

290