UNIVERSITATEA TRANSILVANIA BRAOV

FACULTATEA DE LITERE
SPECIALIZAREA LMA

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES

LUCRARE DE DIPLOM

Student

Coordonator tiinific
Lector Dr. Mona Arhire
Asistent Lector Ileana Sireeanu
Braov
2007

TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY OF BRAOV

FACULTY OF LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES

B.A. PROJECT

Student

Supervisor
Lecturer
Assistant Lecturer
Braov

2007

ABSTRACT
The present paper deals with the problems intercultural communication conducts to.
Language correlated with cultural traits play a major role in determining the causes
but also the means of overcoming intercultural barriers. The theoretical part of the
present paper sustains the existence of intercultural communication difficulties,
pointing out their roots and determinants, while the practical part reveals the fact
that, along with an ever growing number of intercultural encounters, English
language has gained its position of intercultural communication mediator. The
research in the field of Internet communication and its language gives a much more
positive perspective on intercultural communication, showing the path to avoiding
cultural and linguistic misunderstandings.

CONTENTS
Introduction .. 7
CHAPTER ONE- Determinants of Culture and Identity 9
1.0. Introduction . 9
1.1. Cultural Identity and Diversity . 9
1.1.1. Language . 10
1.1.2. Tradition .. 14
1.1.3. Religion . 16
1.1.4. Society ... 17
1.2. Cultural Transformation and Acquisition ... 18
1.2.1. Family vs. Society 18
1.2.2. Economical and Political Surrounding .. 20
1.2.3. Media Influences .. 21
1.3. Global Identity- Globalization .. 23
1.3.1. Interchange Between Cultures ... 23
1.3.2. Emergence of a Cosmopolitan Culture .. 25
1.3.3. E.U. Integration 27
1.4. Conclusion 28
CHAPTER TWO- Different Communication Styles and Values .. 29
2.0. Introduction ... 29
2.1. Language Usage . 29
2.2. Verbal Communication . 33
2.3. Non-Verbal Communication 34
2.3.1. Body Language 35
2.3.2. Gestures and Mimics ... 38
2.3.3. Cultural Norms and Rules . 40
2.4. Paralanguage . 42
2.5. Conclusion .. 43

CHAPTER THREE- Intercultural Communication and Language Variation . 44

3.0. Introduction . 44
3.1. Differences in Language . 44
3.1.1. Language and Cultural Attachment ... 46
3.1.2. Linguistic Ethnocentrism . 46
3.2. Accents, Dialects and Regional Differences 47
3.2.1. International Regional Variables 47
3.2.2. Language and Dialect ... 49
3.2.3. Accent and Dialect 50
3.2.4. Accent Comprehension . 52
3.3. Cultural Aspects of Language Usage . 53
3.3.1. Recognition of Usage Differences 53
3.3.2. Stereotyping ... 54
3.3.3. High- vs. Low-Context Cultures .. 54
3.4. Intercultural Business Communication and the English Language ... 55
3.4.1. Sociolinguistical Approach to Business Communication .. 56
3.4.2. English and International Business . 57
3.4.3. Overcoming Language as a Barrier to Business Communication 59
3.4.4. Intercultural Business Blunders .. 61
3.5. Conclusion 62
CHAPTER FOUR- Internet English- New Means of Overcoming Intercultural Barriers
63
4.0. Introduction . 63
4.1. Online Media and Their Effect on Language ... 64
4.1.1. Email .. 64
4.1.2. Instant Messenger Programs ... 64
4.1.3. Blogging . 65
4.1.4. Usenet . 66
4.1.5. Netiquette for Non-native Speakers .... 66
4.2. Foreign Languages Online .. 68
4.2.1. Learning English Online . 69

4.2.2. The Rosetta Stone . 70

4.2.3. Word 2 Word . 70
4.3. English Internet Slang . 71
4.3.1. Acronyms and Abbreviations .. 72
4.3.2. Emoticons ( Smileys) 73
4.3.3. Noob ... 73
4.3.4. Format Tagging . 73
4.4. English Internet Jargon .. 74
4.4.1. Cyberlingo . 75
4.5. English- the Universal Language on Internet ... 84
4.5.1. Reasons .. 85
4.5.2. The Importance of the Internet and English .. 86
4.5.3. Breaking Down Barriers .. 87
4.6. Internet and the Future ... 89
4.7. Challenges and Opportunities 89
4.8. Conclusion 90
Conclusions ... 92
Glossary of Internet and Web Jargon 94
References ............................................................................................................................... 111

Introduction
The world today is characterized by an ever growing number of contacts resulting in
communication between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds.
This intercultural communication takes place because of contacts within the areas of
business, military cooperation, science, education, massmedia, entertainment,
tourism but also because of immigration brought about by labor shortage or political
conflicts.
In all these contacts, there is communication which needs to be as constructive as
possible, without misunderstandings and breakdowns. The goal of this project is to
present some causes which lead to intercultural communication problems, and the
means to overcome cultural and linguistic barriers. It is my belief that research on
the nature of linguistic and cultural similarities and differences can play a positive
and beneficial role in intercultural communication.
In the first chapter, I developped a number of variables that make cultures different. I
pointed out the determinants of culture and identity, reffering to both cultural
diversity, transformation and aquisition, as well as the effects of globalization on the
society we live in. The connection between culture and language is indestructible,
one influencing the other in the complex process of intercultural communication.
During the second chapter, I discussed a variety of communication styles, from
verbal communication to non-verbal communication, mentioning as well the
importance of paralanguage while communicating. Language is the core of any type
of communication, and referring to intercultural communication, proper language
usage is the main step in avoiding misunderstandings.
The third chapter looks at the process of language variation strictly related to
intercultural communication. Differences in the English language, such as dialects,
accents, regional differences, but also cultural aspects of language usage represent
possible risk factors which affects negatively intercultural communication. English
language has become in the last decades the language of business, facilitating
intercultural exchange. For the field of business and not only, learning English has

proved to be the easiest strategy in overcoming language barriers. The chapter ends
with some examples of intercultural communication blunders which have seriously
damaged intercultural collaboration and led to embarassing situations.
The fourth and last chapter deals with the very popular issue of Internet and a
language that makes its way out of the computer into the real life: Internet English.
Loosened rules of grammar, flexible terminology, informal register, are all traits that
make Internet English so popular, especially among youngsters. The new age of
Internet opened new doors to a much more simple and effective communication, the
advancing technologies transforming online intercultural communication into a
pleasant and interesting way of spending time. The flaws of Internet cannot be
denied, but the advantages of a more accesible way of communicating on an
intercultural level are more obvious.
Encounters between people of different cultural background have existed forever,
and equally forever, people were thinking about phenomena that were unusual in
other cultures. However, these intercultural encounters were relatively seldom in
early times, but in the 20th century society, they are part of everyday life. Along with
the growth of intercultural encounters, English has reached the level of universal
language, which facilitates intercultural communication, due to its approachable
characteristics and its global status.

CHAPTER ONE- Determinants of Culture and Identity

1.0.

Introduction

Human language arises from biological evolution, individual learning, and cultural
transmission, but the interaction of these three processes has not been widely
studied. In the present chapter, I will analyze cultural transmission, which allows
people to investigate how innate learning biases are related to universal properties of
language. I will show that cultural transmission can magnify weak biases into strong
linguistic universals, undermining one of the arguments for strong innate constraints
on language learning.
As a consequence, the strength of innate biases can be shielded from natural
selection, allowing these genes to drift. Furthermore, even when there is no natural
selection, cultural transmission can produce apparent adaptations. Cultural
transmission thus provides an alternative to traditional nativist and adaptationist
explanations for the properties of human languages.
1.1. Cultural Identity and Diversity
Cultural identityis a matter of becoming as well as of being. It
belongs to the future as much as to the past. It is not something which
already exists, transcending place, time, history and culture. Cultural
identities come from somewhere, have histories. But, like everything which
is historical, they undergo constant.1
As well as the more obvious cultural differences that exist between peoples, such as
language, customs and traditions, dress, there are also significant variations in the
way societies organize themselves, in their shared conception of morality, and in the
ways they interact with their environment. These differences can be considered
incidental artefacts arising from patterns of human migration or simply evolutionary
trait that is key to our success as a species. Cultural diversity may be vital for the
long-term survival of humanity, the conservation of indigenous cultures being as
1

Hall S. (1992) The Question of Cultural Identity. Cambridge: Polity Press. pg. 95

important to humankind as the conservation of species and ecosystems is to life in

general.
1.1.1. Language
From one point of view language is a part of culture, and yet it is more than that. It is
central to culture since it is the means through which most of culture is learned and
communicated. Only humans have the biological capacity for language, which
allows them to communicate cultural ideas and symbolic meanings from one
generation to the next and to constantly create new cultural ideas. The capacity for
language separates humans from the other primates. In any language, an infinite
number of possible sentences can be constructed and used to convey an infinite
number of cultural ideas. Because of this, human language is significantly different
from any other system of animal communication.
From the other point of view, cultures are continually undergoing some degree of
change, and since language is a part of culture, it is always changing as well. Of
course, during ones lifetime, one is not aware of linguistic change, except for
changes in vocabulary, particularly slang words and expressions. If we compare our
language usage with that of the language in Shakespeares plays, the extent to which
English has changed over the past centuries is obvious. It is apparent that presentday dialect differences represent developments from an earlier form of the language.
Speech communities are made up of members of a group within a society who
interact and speak frequently with one another. One speech community that is very
similar to its neighbor will develop slight differences in pronunciation or vocabulary
which will differentiate it from the neighboring speech community2. As these
differences increase, they become the basis for greater dialect differentiation.
Dialect differentiation, over time, leads to divergence and to the development of two
separate languages. If one examines French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian, one
can immediately recognize a host of similarities. Some languages, such as Spanish
and Portuguese, are more closely related than others, such as French and Portuguese.
Because of the higher degree of mutual intelligibility between Spanish and
2

Garfinkel H. (1967) Studies in Ethnomethodology. New York: Prentice Hall. p. 30

Portuguese, one could argue that these two languages are more like different dialects
of a single language. These languages, along with other languages like Romanian,
are daughter languages, descendants of the Latin spoken during the time of Julius
Caesar. This was the language spoken by the common people, and it differs from the
literary Latin familiar to us from the scholarly works of that time. Dialects of the
Latin language spread over large parts of Europe and the Mediterranean world as a
result of Roman conquest. These dialects of Latin later developed into separate
languages. The Latin of the Roman period is referred to as the Proto-Language, and
the present-day languages descended from it are known as Romance languages.
In parallel fashion, English, Dutch, German, and the Scandinavian languages
compose the Germanic language family-all descended from a common protolanguage called Proto-Germanic. Similarly, all the Slavic languages (Russian, Polish,
Czech, etc.) are descended from Proto-Slavic. The European languages we have just
mentioned, along with other European and Asian languages such as Persian, Hindi,
and Bengali, form a large family of related languages called the Indo-European
Language family. All these languages are descended from a common ancestor, ProtoIndo -European. Not all languages spoken in Europe are part of this family. Finnish
and Hungarian belong to the Finno-Ugric family, while Basque is completely
unrelated to any other language. For example, the languages of the indigenous
people of North and South America, Africa, and Oceania can be organized in terms
of language families in the same fashion as the European languages discussed above.
Some of these language families are very large, encompassing many languages,
whereas others may be very small or even isolates, like Basque. Until studied, these
languages had not been recorded in written form. For the languages of Europe,
where written records existed for millennia, the historical sequence is known. This
enables us to know what Proto-Roman looked like; it was the spoken language,
similar to the scholarly language3.
Languages thought to be related are systematically compared. Words that have the
same or similar meanings are examined. This can be illustrated with a simple
example from the Germanic languages. The English word dance has as its equivalent
the German word Tam, and the English word door has as its equivalent Tur. The
3

Myers L.M.( 1965) The Roots of Modern English. Boston: Little Brown. p. 86-100

forms that have been paired have the same meaning, and their phonemic structures
are similar but not identical. These pairs are referred to as cognates. The initial d in
English regularly corresponds to the initial t in German. These two forms represent
modern divergences from the original of this phoneme in Proto-Germanic. This
correspondence operates throughout the two languages, so that everywhere one finds
an initial d in English, one would expect to find an initial t in German. This is just a
single example of the many sound correspondences to be found between German
and English. The morphemic structure of the proto-language could be determined
through the same comparative approach. This also provides information about what
the culture of the speakers of this proto-language was like. Words in the protolanguage for plants, trees, and animals can be used to pinpoint the possible location
of the speakers original homeland before they dispersed.
Still another way in which languages change is a result of the diffusion or borrowing
from speakers of one language by speakers of another language. This may be the
borrowing of words, sounds, or grammatical forms. Contact and borrowing come
about in a number of different ways, some of them peaceful, others not. An excellent
example of this is what happened after the Norman conquest of England, in A.D.
1066. The Norman invaders, the conquering class, were speakers of an earlier
version of French, while the subjugated English spoke Anglo-Saxon, a Germanic
language. The effects of that invasion are present today in our own language. The
French, famous for their cuisine, introduced a series of terms into the Anglo-Saxon
language, referring to different kinds of cooked meat. The cow (Saxon),when
cooked, became beef (boeuf in French); calf (Saxon)became veal (veau in French);
sheep (Saxon) became mutton (mouton in French); and swine (Saxon) became pork
(porc in French).
As Geertz claimed that the difference in language is not a difference in sounds and
signs but a difference in worldviews4, a new theory emerged, emphasizing on the
fact that the worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds. The language
habits of a group create its social reality, no two languages being sufficiently similar
to be consider as representing the same reality.

Geertz C. (1973) The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books. pg. 143

The myths and the meanings of public symbols represent shared cultural knowledge.
This cultural knowledge is handed down from generation to generation and
constitutes an entity beyond the individual bearers of the culture. In all societies,
people exhibit individual personality differences, by means of language, as a result
of genetic differences, upbringing, and particular life experiences. Each individual
has a certain personality, a certain character, which is more or less stable over his or
her lifetime. This is not to say that individuals never change. An individuals
personality can change, sometimes through his or her own efforts and sometimes
with the help of others.
A range of personality types exists in our society, as well as in every society in the
world. Though there is a range of personality types in every society, there are
personality differences from one society to the next. In any one society a
preponderance of individuals with a particular kind of personality is to be found. The
attempt to characterize the dominant personality types of different societies and
tribes goes back to ancient times. Tacitus, the Roman historian, in his work
Germania: On the Origin, Geography, Institutions, and Tribes of the Germans,
written at the end of the first century A.D., characterizes the Germans as a race
without either natural or acquired cunning, they disclose their hidden thoughts in the
freedom of the festivity. He also notes that they represent a strange combination of
idleness and sloth and readiness to go to war. Tacitus tried to capture what was
distinctive about the personality characteristics of the Germans as a people.
Throughout history, such characterizations of different peoples have been made. One
must always be wary of stereotypes based on prejudice, as distinguished from
accurate characterizations based on data and observations. Earlier studies of
personality and culture focused on personality differences between various cultures,
the measures for determining and verifying these differences, the investigation of the
cultural institutions that bring about the development of these particular personality
types through time, and the other aspects of culture to which these personality
differences were related .

1.1.2. Tradition
People share society-organized life in groups-with other animals. Culture, however,
is distinctly human. Cultures are traditions and customs, transmitted through
learning, that govern the beliefs and behavior of the people exposed to them.
Children inherit these traditions by growing up in a particular society. Cultural
traditions include customs and opinions, developed over the generations, about
proper and improper behavior. Cultural traditions answer such questions as: How
should we do things? How do we tell right from wrong? How do we interpret the
world? A culture produces consistencies in behavior and thought in a given society,
because through culture people create, remember, and deal with ideas5.
The most critical element of cultural traditions is their transmission through learning
rather than biological inheritance. Culture is not itself biological, but it rests on
human biology. Human adaptation (the process by which organism cope with
environmental stresses) involves an interplay between culture and biology; and for
more than 1 million years , humans have had at least some of the biological
capacities on which culture depends: the abilities to learn, to think symbolically, to
use language , and to employ tools and other cultural features in organizing their
lives and adapting to their environments.
Cultures have been characterized as sets of control mechanisms-plans, recipes,
rules, constructions, what computer engineers call programs for the governing of
behavior (Geertz C., The Interpretation of Cultures, New York: Basic Books, 1973,
p. 44). These programs are absorbed by people through enculturation in particular
traditions. People gradually internalize a previously established system of meanings
and symbols which they use to define their world, express their feelings, and make
their judgments. Thereafter, this system helps guide their behavior and perceptions
throughout their lives. The cultural forms, institutions, values, and customs of the
past always influence subsequent adaptation, producing continued diversity and
giving a certain uniqueness to the actions and reactions of different groups.

Hall S., Lowe A., Hobson D.& Willis P. (1979)

Cultural Studies. London: Hutchinson. p. 22

Culture, Media, Language: Working papers in

Every person begins immediately, through a process of conscious and unconscious

learning and interaction with others, to internalize, or incorporate, a cultural tradition
through the process of enculturation. Sometimes culture is taught directly, as when
parents tell their children to say thank you when someone gives them something or
does them a favour. Culture is also transmitted through observation. Children pay
attention to the things that go on around them. They modify their behavior not just
because other people tell them to but as a result of their own observations and
growing awareness of what their culture considers right and wrong.
Culture as well as tradition is also absorbed unconsciously. North Americans acquire
their cultures notions about how far apart people should stand when they talk not by
being told to maintain a certain distance but through a gradual process of
observation, experience, and conscious and unconscious behavior modification.
Mentioning Latins, they are not taught to stand closer together than North Americans
do, but they learn to do so anyway as part of their cultural tradition.
High-context cultures and low-context cultures are the two variables which set the
cultural attributes of certain groups, strongly connected to tradition. The context in
which communication takes place affects the meaning and interpretation of the
interaction. In high-context cultures( like Asia, Africa, Middle East countries)
feelings and thoughts are not explicitly expressed, one having to read between the
lines from her/his general understanding and make assumptions about the meaning
of the message through her/his knowledge of the person or surroundings. In lowcontext cultures ( North America, Switzerland, Germany) communication must be
more explicit, feelings and thoughts being fully expressed in words and information
being more available. People in high-context cultures expect others to understand
subtle gestures, moods, or surrounding clues that people from low-context cultures
cannot perceive. While people from high-context cultures find those from lowcontext cultures as too talkative, too obvious, the ones from low-context cultures
consider high-context people as being sneaky and mysterious. Regarding crosscultural communication between high- and low-context people, misinterpretation and
misunderstanding often result, leading to the arise of conflicts6.
6

Gumperez J. (1982)
Press. p. 61-67

Language and Social Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University

1.1.3. Religion
Religion, a cultural universal capable of uniting or dividing social groups, consists of
belief and behavior concerned with supernatural beings, powers, and forces. Crosscultural studies have revealed many functions of religion. Religion helps maintain
social order, but it can also promote change. Revitalization movements incorporate
old and new beliefs and have helped people adapt to changing environments.
However, a different view of the supernatural also occurs in non-industrial societies.
This sees the supernatural as a domain of raw, impersonal power or force (called
mana in Polynesia and Melanesia). People can manipulate and control mana under
certain conditions. When ordinary technical and rational means of doing things fail,
people may turn to magic, using it when they lack control over outcomes. Religion
offers comfort and psychological security at times of crisis. In any case, rites can
also create anxiety. Rituals are formal, invariant, stylized, earnest acts that require
people to subordinate their particular beliefs to a social collectivity. Rites of passage
have three stages: separation, liminality or margin, and aggregation. Passage rites
can mark any change in social status, age, place, or social condition. Collective rites
are often cemented by communities, a feeling of intense solidarity.
The study of religion also leads to the cross-cultural analysis of myths and folktales.
These forms of creative expression reveal native theories about the creation of the
world and supernatural entities. Myths express cultural values, offer hope, and teach
enculturative lessons. The myths typically found in nation-states include cautionary
tragedies as well as hopeful tales. Levi Strauss, the inventor of the structural analysis
of myth, has argued that people universally classify aspects of nature and culture by
means of binary opposition. Such opposition makes phenomena that are continuous
seem more distinct. Structural analysis has the aim to discover the unrevealed
connections among aspects of culture.
The spiritual beliefs of a society are often so powerful that they transcend other
cultural aspects. Religion commonly underlies both moral and economic norms. In
the United States of America, the effects of religion upon the workers are limited,

excepting their generalized belief in hard work-stemming from the Protestant ethics,
whereas in other countries religious beliefs and practices are influencing every day
activities. For example, in Islamic countries, the idea of insha Allah, that is, God
willing, prevails. Buddhists, Hindus or some Muslims strongly believe in the
concept of faith, or destiny. Speaking about some Western countries, it can be
noticed the fact that religious organization, such as the Roman Catholic Church,
play a major cultural role through moral and political influence.
1.1.4. Society
Societies are grouped together: they contain families, classes, castes, status, elites,
etc. All these can still be found in all societies, even though is todays world social
structures go through a dynamic change. As well as interactions between groups can
vary drastically from culture to culture, also the relationship between the individual
and the group is equally instable, both depending on and interacting with each other.
Taking in consideration the cultural environment, the emphasis may be more on the
individual or on the group the individual belongs to.
The individual to individual interactions, their depth and extend can vary
enormously according to the specific type of society, whether it is an open- or
closed-society. While for example Americans are considered to be very open,
friendly, having a lot of friends, each one for a certain purpose, the Russians are said
to be colder, unapproachable, far more selective, but for them friendship extending
to a more sincere involvement.
In order to communicate, it is not enough just to know the language, the linguistic
system and to produce grammatically correct enunciations. One has to know how to
use them according to the social context; we speak differently with other people in
function of our intentions or purposes. The know-how of communication refers to
the knowledge people require/need to interact with others, to be able to communicate
successfully one with the other and to avoid misunderstandings7.

Scollon R. (1998) Mediated Discourse as Social Interaction: A Study of News Discourse.

London: Longman. p. 45-67

Language diversity is combined with social diversity. Inside a culture there has to be
a clear distinction between the people who use and the ones who dont use a specific
communication code, so that, taking in account the diversity of contexts, to notice all
the variants of interpretation of each socio-cultural group. This is not referring to a
community speaking the same language, but to a community that shares the same
rules which govern the development and interpretation of each act of
communication. For example, one can know English from the grammatical and
lexical point of view and still not to understand the message due to the ignorance of
cultural attributes. The American expression come and see us, which doesnt refer
at all to an invitation if it is placed in the end of the conversational act, can actually
be an invitation if placed in the middle of the conversational act. A stranger who is
not aware of this socio-cultural convention, might misunderstand the verbal
message, creating unpleasant situations.
1.2. Cultural Transformation and Acquisition
The world, in which we live, is in a continuous change, with the advancement of
technology, and changes in the political and economical structures. The cultural
adaptation has, for many, become part of everyday life, without it being almost
impossible to integrate and successfully adapt in a community, which has its own set
of cultural and social values.
1.2.1. Family vs. Society
The family is still the chief institution in society for transmitting from one generation
to another social possessions of all sorts. Property in the form of land or houses or
personal property, society permits the family to pass along from generation to
generation. Thus, also, the material equipment for industry, that is capital, is
transmitted in this way. While it is obvious that the material goods of society are
transmitted by the family from one generation to another, it is perhaps not quite so
obvious, but equally true, that the cultural possessions of the race are as well
transmitted. For example, language is very largely transmitted in the family.
Literature, ideas, beliefs on government, law, religion, oral standards, artistic tastes

and appreciation- all of these are still largely transmitted in society from one
generation to another through the family.
While public institutions, such as libraries, art galleries, universities, scientific
museums, and others, are often adopted to conserve and transmit these spiritual
possessions of the race, yet it is safe to say that if it were possible for society to
depend upon these institutions to transmit knowledge, artistic standards, and moral
ideals, there would be great discontinuity in social life. The family has been in the
past, and is still, the great conserving agency in human society, preserving and
transmitting from generation to generation both the material, but most of all the
cultural and spiritual possessions of the race.
The modern society family counts not only as the primary but also as the most
important human institution. The family, obviously, is charged by society with the
most important task, not only of producing the new individuals in society, but of
training each individual as he comes on the stage of life, adjusting him to society in
all of its aspects, such as industry, government, culture, tradition and religion. The
child gets born into a set of relationships, made up of her/his family members. With
their help and through them, the infant experiences the culture of the family. Values
like behaviors, norms and values, cultural attitudes, create the process of education.
Education is the great means of controlling habit and character in complex social
groups, and as such it is the chief means to which society must look for all
substantial social progress. It is the instrument by which human nature may be
apparently indefinitely modified, and hence, also, the instrument by which society
may be perfected. The task of social regeneration is essentially a task of education.
Along with the age, the individual enlarges her/his relationships outside the family,
getting in touch with other contexts like school, friendships, then work place. The
individual also enters the wider area of mass media and of politics, a totally different
area of influences- the immediate social surrounding. While the context of family is
highly personal, the social context and its changes will be reflected more in the
cultural attributes of the individual. These changes, of political, economical or social

nature, affect the individual directly or indirectly, through the group she/he belongs
to.
1.2.2. Economical and Political Surrounding
At the end of the 20th century, the authoritarian society of Latin America or Europe
was defeated by the Western model of liberal democratic society. In our societies, the
changes in political groups and activism are obvious: politics no longer presents
itself as a controlling mechanism and binding means of democratic legislation and
social cohesion, but as a regulator of the world economy. The way in which many
political and social elites think is strictly correlated to the terms of a cost-benefitanalysis and utility preferences regarding problems such as social integration and
democratic legitimacy.
Together with this new world-order, the cultural integrity and social reality of the
individual are threatened by new means of information flow and international
communication. The dominance of global players in the media is a phenomenon that
is continuously increasing. Modern media offers great support to the politic system,
economic interest factors, rather than intellectual matters, rule behind most TV
stations. Culture has suffered serious transformations, being regarded today as a
cost-benefit factor for the attainment of the global information society8.
Major political and economical changes have a big impact on national cultures. The
last century has seen a magnitude of rise and fall of economical and political power,
social and structural changes. Speaking about Europe, which went through rough
periods such the decline of the colonial power, the rise and fall of totalitarian,
nationalistic and socialistic regimes, the devastating World Wars, the birth of
democracy, experienced these fundamental changes as well as on a social level,
cultural identities and beliefs being radically changed. When it comes to America,
the series of events such as the Vietnam war, the Gulf war, and the most recent the
Iraq war, had a major impact upon the self-conscious of the nation, giving birth to a
sense of national integrity and moral regeneration.

Steinberg S. (1981) The Ethnic Myth, Race, Ethnicity and Class in America. Boston: Beacon Press. p. 101

The changes in communication technologies, the changing business environment,

political shifts, all these encourage the emergence of a global industry and
cosmopolitan markets. With the arise of a global economy, the export of business
interests as well as business culture is more and more visible, American or Asian
business culture, for example, and their respective values being massively exported.
1.2.3. Media Influences
A related form of communication is through mass media. This is paradoxically both
public and private communication. It is available to the public, but consumed more
often in the confines of the home. Thanks to the advancement of technology in the
last century new methods of mass communication have grown dramatically. Before
the late 19th century, there was only the printed word to convey information to the
masses. Since then, the world has seen the invention of radio, television, and most
recently the internet. One of the most powerful means of communicating ideas is
through the use of mass media.
The media works in many ways in our society. It is a tool for promotion, news,
information, a platform for sharing ideas as well as serving as a local and national
mouthpiece for many organizations. It is one huge factor in our environment that
influences decisions and acts to inspire our youth. Sometimes the messages that the
media projects, however, are not all positive. Many theorists suggest, with evidence,
that media has an influence on or affects our society, the way we think and the things
we do9. Examples are large billboards with ads that display the names or images of
alcohol, television or print ads that portray women as sexual objects, etc.
As it can be easily noticed, media represents an extremely powerful tool, a promoter
of social and cultural change, a role model for the society of the 21 st century. Given
its power potential, media is able to structure and shape reality, most of the times for
its own benefits. The objective of the media is not to send correct and precise
information, but to gain the audience. Persuasion is the successful attempt to

Hall S., Lowe A., Hobson D.& Willis P. (1979)

London: Hutchinson. p. 80-94

Culture, Media, Language: Working papers in Cultural Studies.

influence feelings, opinions and public actions, by means of manipulation, constraint

or simply shocking.
Referring to audience, the media plays a crucial role in forming and reflecting
public opinion: it reproduces modern society's self-image and presents the world to
the individuals. Critiques in the early-to-mid twentieth century suggested that the
media influences the individuals behavior and destroys her/his capacity to act
autonomously . Later empirical studies, however, suggest a more complex
interaction between the media and society, with individuals actively interpreting and
evaluating the media and the information it provides. Still the way that information
and images of reality is transmitted and displayed can have a significant impact on
people.
But the audience is the product. You have to sell a product to a market, and the
market is, of course, made up of advertisers (that is, other businesses). Whether it is
television or newspapers, or whatever, they are selling audiences. Corporations sell
audiences to other corporations. In the case of the media, its a big businesses. In the
commercial world, marketing and advertising are typically needed to make people
aware of products. When it comes to propaganda for purposes of war, for example,
professional public relations firms can often be involved to help sell a war. In these
cases, media management may also be used to promote certain political policies and
ideologies. Modern media offers audience-attracting programs featuring sex and
violence, all according to the market logic. The commercial media has become, out
of necessity for its own survival, the driving force behind the change of the public
sphere, its tendency towards banalization and depolitization10.
The real mass media is basically trying to divert people. Media presents itself as a
global form of entertainment, the concepts of talk shows, game shows, soap operas
and films mirror the same things, same characteristics of a multinational hybrid
culture. What works in one country is heavily exported throughout the world,
providing forms of global entertainment such as the famous soap opera Dallas or
Dynasty or game shows like The Price is Right which are examples of
universally distributed programs on TV.
10

Billing M. (1995) Banal Nationalism. London: Sage. p. 78

The cinema industry together with television is certainly one of the most powerful
types of media, having a significant impact on its audience. People like Brad Pit,
Pamela Anderson or Tom Cruise are role model for millions of people, their behavior
being thoroughly digested and imitated, while cultural values and norms, the morals
of the society being left aside.
1.3. Global Identity Globalization
The world is becoming more globalized, there is no doubt about that. While that
sounds promising, the current form of globalization, free trade and open markets are
coming under much criticism. The interests of powerful nations and corporations are
shaping the terms of world trade. In democratic countries, they are shaping and
affecting the ability of elected leaders to make decisions in the interests of their
people. Elsewhere they are promoting narrow political discourse and even
supporting dictatorships and the stability that it brings for their interests. This is to
the detriment of most people in the world, while increasingly fewer people in
proportion are prospering.
1.3.1. Interchange between cultures
Fundamental changes in an entire society have a big impact upon the individuals,
but, when exposed to a society with a fundamentally different culture, the individual
is exposed to 'foreign' concepts of life, such as, for example, a capitalist view of
economy, a hierarchically structured society with deep respect for authority, a deeply
individualistic society. While adaptation is not necessarily the outcome, the
individual will start reflecting on the concept, and may choose to adapt parts or all of
the new outlook.
Being exposed to new ideas or a new environment, the society culture changes
significantly at all levels, resulting in a shift in culture over time. Shifts in culture
can of course initiate in the own society, but are more likely to be brought in by an
outside culture, with a different set of assumptions, norms, values, etc. Shifts can of
course be significant, or subtle, they can be fast or slow. The significant shifts are

easily determined, changing society structure as a whole while taking place, and over
a relatively short period of time.
Slow shifts are those shifts that occur over a long period of time, at least relatively
spoken. The feminist movement is such a slower shift, taking some hundred years
and more to change the basic assumptions, the values and attitudes of society. Fast
shifts are dramatic like revolution developments: the end of the Third Reich was a
fast shift, the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe etc. The shift is abrupt, and
changes society values fundamentally over a very short period of time.
The encounter of the individual with foreign concepts of a diverse society can easily
give birth to serious complications and misunderstandings. A major problem of the
individual regarding intercultural encounters is language. Language can be
considered a barrier when it comes to communication, because conversation is
fundamentally interactive and it requires response. This in turn requires a mutual
understanding of conversational patterns/conventions. Conversational patterns are
highly structured and very difficult to shift. Even when one speaks another language
well, one probably still uses your native language conversation strategies.
Immigration, or the migration of a people into a country, along with its correlative
emigration, or the migration of a people out of a country, constitutes an important
social phenomenon. The issue of linguistic survival or the assimilation of individuals
and groups into another language continues to be one of the most debated subjects
regarding social and cultural matters11.
The language assimilation patterns of today are not precisely those of the early 20 th
century, but they do not appear to pose any threat to English as the language that sets
the bases of the nation and its culture. Bilingualism is more common today than in
the past. Most children of immigrants speak to some extent in the mother tongue at
home, especially if their parents have come from Latin America. However, if they
are born and raised in the U.S., they are highly likely to speak English well or very
well. We conclude that both the anxieties about the place of English in an
immigration society and the hopes for a multilingual society in which English is no
11

Stiglitz J.E. (2002) La Globalizzazione i suoi oppositori. Torino: Einaudi. p. 152-167

longer hegemonic are misplaced. Other languages, especially Spanish, will be

spoken in the U.S., even by the American born; but this is not a radical departure
from the American experience. Yet the necessity of learning English well is accepted
by virtually all children and grandchildren of immigrants.
It is compulsory to study the relationship between globalization and contemporary
culture, explaining the importance of time and space concerns, "deterritorialization,"
the impact of the media and communication technologies, and the possible growth of
more cosmopolitan culture. Differences between speakers in any of these elements
can lead to irritation, moral judgments, or misreading of intent. When there are
tensions between the participants already, these conversational differences can cause
serious confusions.
Cross cultural understanding simply refers to the basic ability of people to recognize,
interpret and correctly react to people, incidences or situations that are open to
misunderstanding due to cultural differences. Because, a genuinely cosmopolitan
culture is unlikely to emerge unless we respect cultural differences and share a
common sense of commitment about the world.
1.3.2. Emerge of a Cosmopolitan Culture
Globalization, the increasing mobility of people and ideas and the potential of
science and its applications hold out both promises and challenges for a constantly
evolving society. Globalization remains the dominant driving force in the world
economy, reshaping societies and politics as it changes lives. Moreover, an
expanding high-tech, information-based economy increasingly defines globalization
and shapes the business cycles within it. Much of the flow of capital, labour, service,
and goods among Asia, America, and Europe are technology- based. How nations
respond to globalization defines whether they prosper from it or not. At a minimum,
policymakers have to be able to devise and implement sophisticated macroeconomic
fiscal and monetary policies that control inflation and take advantage of global flows
of capital, direct investment, and trade12.

12

Barbulescu I.G. (2005) Uniunea Europeana - Aprofundare si Extindere. Bucuresti: Tritonic. p. 55

The big technologically advanced societies must be aware of the different cultures
and civilisations they get in touch with, in order not to give birth to conflicts, leaving
behind the usual arrogance and ignorance. The contemporary global situation, with
the accelerated mobility of innovations and merchandise floats, as well as
immigration and emigration, leads to a restless, continuous search of stability. The
world is aiming for a unique economical and political marketplace, as far as
countries economies are interdependent one of the other.
For a successful and prosperous business, companies must take in consideration the
cultural factor. An international market involves different cultural background
countries, with different sets of values, norms, traditions. One of the key changes this
has triggered is the need to communicate effectively with different people in
different languages and from different cultures. In order for companies to maintain a
proper relation with foreign countries in this international marketplace and to
function effectively in diverse and multiple cultures simultaneously, they must look
at intercultural communication trainings as to a necessity, for their own benefits and
prosperity.
It is obvious the need and importance of understanding different cultures and to
study their manifestations, in order to conclude successful business. The need for
increased intercultural understanding and improved intercultural communication has
become increasingly important to a world of blending cultures, experiences, and
business practices. It is now recognised that linguistic and cultural knowledge are
two of the most vital areas of knowledge that organisations must acquire if they are
to integrate, progress and succeed in the marketplace.
In order to be competitive in this global market, large companies must improve their
awareness and understanding of other cultures. Business strategies and
communication skills are vital when working with people representing foreign
companies. It is sometimes the simple mistakes we make, like showing the ok-sign
with our hands or giving a thumb up, when dealing with different cultures that can
ruin a relationship or months of hard work. Misunderstanding and unpleasant
situations can be easily avoided by learning the simple cultural do's and don'ts,
helping us set the grounds for respect and understanding.

Each culture has its own set of values, which determine what people think to be right
or wrong, good or bad, legal or illegal. It is difficult for many people to accept values
of another culture when they differ from theirs. For example, Americans like to take
quick decisions when it comes to concluding a business, while Japanese value time,
they like to think thoroughly until they take a decision. To communicate competently
and fit in is equally important for us to understand what characterize the culture, as
well as the language. To fully understand a culture, one needs to be aware and fully
understand all the experiences that guide its individual members through life, such
things as language and gestures, social relationships, cultural values, religion, family
customs, lifestyle, education, work, health, politics, etc.
1.3.3. Globalization- EU Integration
The efforts for maintaining the peace at the end of the second World War were based
on the facts that only through the European union we could put an end to a period
represented by wars, blood baths, sufference and destruction all over Europe. That is
why the fundamental aim of the European Union formulates as supreme objectives,
on one hand maintaining and ensuring peace all over its territory, and on the other
hand, the economical unification, for all the Community citizens. Regarding the
fulfilling of the mentioned objectives, the European Community thought of the birth
of an internal European market, the path to a political union and of the
reinforcement of its social and economical cohesion13.
The European merge refers also to elements of a social and political nature. The
Communities objectives include also policies which insure a better life style and
work places. But there were problems regarding the so-called communitarian social
politics, defining the differences of opinion about the birth of the common market
which will automatically lead to a global adjustment of the social costs, to the
adjustment of the social and national structures, and to the social identity of the
European community.

13

Rosneau J.N. (1992) Governance without Government. Order and Change in World Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. p. 123-126

Experience proved that the economical mechanisms of the common market do not
automatically produce social progress or insure for example the extinction of
unemployment. The European members realized that, to reach a common social
concept the answer is represented by the community transformation, from
economical issues to political ones. The social politics started to be directly
connected to the internal market, referring to the fact that an economical growth as
well as a more rough competition must come along with a more just benefits
distribution around the Community.
The advent of the global economy is changing the fundamental nature of our
governments, businesses, organisations and populations. In short, we are no longer
constrained by state boundaries but have all become part of an interdependent
international network. The European Union will definitively continue to be the
merging idea which represents the answer to a common, coherent and global
conception on the progressive integration process of the European people and
countries, from economic to politic, and from national to federal.
1.4. Conclusion
Just as natural selection does not select for or against a species, it does not select for
or against a culture. However, also as biological evolution may have trends that
allow one species to thrive and another to go extinct, cultural evolution has trends
that allow certain cultures to supplant other when they compete for the same
"resources" of adherents.The same process happens with language, due to its strong
connection to culture. This phenomenon can be seen in the "Americanization" of
immigrants and in the adoption of Western (i.e. American) cultural and linguistic
traits by many non-Western nations.
Cultural changes compel us to accept linguistic change as well. Cultural and social
surroundings define our future mentality and attitude towards intercultural
encounters, while globalization sets the grounds for new interchange between
cultures. All these items emphasize on the fact that cultural and linguistic awareness
and sensitivity show the path to satisfying intercultural communication.

CHAPTER TWO- Different communication styles and values

2.0. Introduction
Human communication has a dual nature; it develops on two distinctive levels: the
level of contents and the level of

relation. This two levels of communication

explain, for example, why two different people can or cannot like each other, even
though words and language are used in a positive way. In practice, language deals
with a complex set of stimuli, made up of three big categories of communication:
- verbal communication (words, phrases)
- non-verbal communication (body language, gestures and mimics)
- paralanguage ( the tone, volume and rhythm of the voice)
This extension of the sphere of comprehension of language is signaling the fact that
the human voice and body add, to the process of communication, something more
than just the actual meaning of the words and of the verbal contents. When
communicating with the others, words transport ideas and concepts, while the body
language, the gestures transmit attitudes, emotions and feelings.
2.1. Language Usage
Language and culture are at the core of all human society. When dealing with crosscultural and intercultural communication, one can notice the multitude of ways
people use language to communicate. Through language, human beings generate
collective meanings, actions, thoughts, feelings, social organization, they record,
store, disseminate that knowledge across time, across space, between people.
Language is an endlessly creative vehicle for self expression, group expression, and
entertainment, and gives people the opportunity to express information, ideas,
emotions, attitudes. With the help of language, people form an identity, belong to a
group, maintain boundaries between groups.
Another characteristic of language is that it offers frames for taking in the reality of
the world one lives in. By means of language, children develop cognitive skills,

while adults develop concepts and theories. But one of the most important trait of
language is that human beings use it to act, perform and control the reality. For
example, the phrase I pronounce you husband and wife is preceded by the words
I do14.
We are all aware that different languages have different words for the same concept,
as when French 'chien' shows up in Spanish as perro or in Japanese as inu. And
we are all aware that different languages are pronounced in different ways, so that
the strongly trilled 'r' of French arroser is alien to most varieties of English. But
equally important is the fact that languages differ from one another in grammar.
A straightforward illustration of this can be seen by comparing the way in which
different languages order the various parts of a sentence. In an English sentence, the
usual order is for the subject to come first, then the verb, then the object. In
Japanese, by contrast, the usual order is first subject, then object, then verb:
gakusei ga hon o katta.
student (subject) book (object) bought (predicate)
The student bought the book.
In Welsh, the usual order is for the verb to come first, followed by the subject,
followed in turn by the object:
prynodd y myfyriwr y llyfr
bought (predicate) the student (subject) the book (object)
The student bought the book.
These differences would surely be soon noticed by anyone involved to any depth
with the languages in question. But there are other differences in grammar between
languages that are much more subtle. Let us take the English sentence I saw you,
and came here. The first part of the sentence (before the 'and') is a complete
sentence in its own rightthe subject of the verb saw is overt, appearing as the
14

Duranti, A. & Goodwin, C. (1992) Rethinking Context: Language as an Interactive Phenomenon. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. p. 153

word I. But the second part of the sentence is not complete in itself; its subject is
missing. However, as speakers of English we have no hesitation in interpreting the
second part to mean I came here, and not to mean you came here, although there
is no logical reason, other than the requirements of English grammar, that this
second interpretation should be excluded15.
In Dyirbal, an almost extinct Australian Aboriginal language of northeast
Queensland, the sentence Ngadya nginuna buran, baninyu looks very much like
the English sentence. Indeed, the first part of the sentence, before the comma, does
mean I saw you. However, the second part is interpreted to mean you came here,
not I came here16:
ngadya nginuna buran, baninyu
I you saw came here
I saw you and you came here.
Dyirbal is just as strict in insisting on this interpretation as English is in insisting on
the other interpretation: both languages have strict conventions that are followed by
speakers of the language; it just happens that the conventions are different in each of
these two languages.
As far as languages can differ from one another in these ways, there are some
general properties that are common to all human languages. For instance, many
languages use differences in the order of elements to carry differences in meaning. In
English, one difference between the statement My mother cooks peaches cake. and
the question Can my mother cook peaches cake? is a difference in the order of
elements of this kind, more specifically inversion of the subject and the auxiliary
verb. But no language is known to relate sentences by inverting the order of
sentences of indefinite length (so that the question would appear as peaches cake
cook can mother my?). Linguists believe that such a relation would violate
constraints on humans' linguistic ability. In other words, while languages can be
15

Duranti, A. & Goodwin, C. (1992)

Rethinking Context: Language as an Interactive
Phenomenon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 169-172
16

Hall, E. T. (1966)

The Hidden Dimension. New York: Doubleday Press. p. 95

astonishingly different from one another, there are nonetheless features that unite all
languages as different manifestations of the human language ability17.
Speaking about resemblances and differences between languages, the subject of
misuse of words and expression must not be left aside. Intercultural encounters
constraint people to speak other languages than their native ones, leading to the
misuse of unknown or unfamiliar terms. For example, the words affect and effect. In
common usage affect is always a verb. It is used as a noun only in fields like
psychology and psychotherapy. Affect means to influence or to make a show of or to
pretend (e.g. She affected cheerfulness to hide her concern.). Effect is most often
used as a noun. It means result (e.g. His warning had no effect.). As a verb, effect
means to bring about or to accomplish (e.g. We can effect change only through
compromise.). Or, for instance, the modal verbs can and may, where confusion is
extremely common. Can is used to indicate ability to do something and may to
indicate permission to do it.
Other similar confusions take place when the words from the foreign language are
pronounced or spelled similarly, but they are different in meaning. The below set of
words demonstrate it:
- to allude (refer to indirectly) - to elude (avoid)
- council (assembly of persons) - counsel (advice; lawyer) - consul (foreign
service officer)
- to flounder (to move clumsily) to founder (to fail utterly; to collapse)
- principle (basic truth) - principal (foremost in importance; chief or head)
Nevertheless language is merely a discipline where meaning is created by the
universal adoption of the rules of spelling and grammar. When it comes to
intercultural communication, one should be aware of these rules, and try to follow
them as much as possible in order to achieve a better understanding and cooperation.

17

Duranti, A. & Goodwin, C. (1992)

Rethinking Context: Language as an Interactive
Phenomenon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 228

2.2. Verbal Communication

Verbal communication is situated at the center of the social performance and
competence. Most parts of the signals and gestures are verbal, being incorporated in
a conversational sequence. Even the shortest sentence must be comprehensible for
the receiver, as to ensure complete understanding. Conversations between two
people with two different cultural backgrounds infers the adoption of a common
verbal style, a change in voice, mimics, body language.
The casual exchange of opinions that occurs as part of daily life is represented by
conversation. By communicating an individual discovers the reality he lives in or his
interlocutors reality. In the same time through conversation people confirm their
identity (the image of ourselves is revealed by the opinion of others). The impression
of ones senses is confirmed or corrected by the responses of others, who reveal if it
was an invention or a fevered imagination, or if it actually occurred. The responses
of others help people determine their opinions, feelings18.
Conversation is fundamentally interactive. It requires response. This in turn requires
a mutual understanding of conversational patterns/conventions. Conversational
patterns are highly structured and very difficult to shift. Even when one speaks
another language well, one probably still uses her/his native language conversation
strategies.
Every culture has its rituals for entering or closing a conversation. One can't just
launch into a subject without preamble or suddenly hang up. Timing when to jump in
or out of a conversation can be difficult if one doesnt know the local rhythms and
rules19. Here are some of the cues used to get out of a conversation in mainstream
American culture:
- Give less frequent feedback and eye contact
- Sigh, cough, shift gaze away, glance at your watch
- Shift intonation
18

Gumperez, J. (1982) Discourse Strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 56

Glenn, F.(1997) Mindsets: The role of culture and perception in international relations. New
York: Intercultural Press. p. 138
19

- Indicate urgency (invoke the polite fiction " We're both busy people" )
- Reprise of the main points of what people promise to do next
- Say "I have to go" or "bye-bye" but add reassurance that you intend to
continue a pleasant connection, such as "See you soon." "Call me sometimes."
An exceedingly polite conversation ending can draw out for many minutes.
American conversation resembles a volleyball match. One can either serve a new
idea, or aim for the ball another player just hit. One has to move quickly, otherwise
someone else may get there first. In contrast, Japanese conversation is like bowling.
Everybody watches respectfully and quietly and takes turns. One is not expected to
respond to the previous statement, but to aim at the conversation goals20.
Verbal communication is an imperative social action. Communication by means of
language is a human characteristic which must not be disregarded. People who stop
using language as means of communication lose the ability to speak in words, and as
words are understanding, this suggests that our ability to think clearly needs exercise
through communicating with others, otherwise it atrophies.
2.3. Non-Verbal Communication
Non-verbal communication might be thought of as any form of communication
which is not directly dependent on the use of language. Generally speaking, it is very
difficult to separate the verbal and the non-verbal forms of communication. But,
most of the non-verbal aspects of communication, like for example nodding the head
in approval or disapproval, most often accompany speech and are an integrated part
of the verbal system of language use.
Communication can also take place without the use of words, behavior or
presentation being perceived as a means of communication. The way a person
dresses for a meeting , for example, may suggest to the other participants how she or
he is prepared to participate in it.

20

Glenn, F.(1997) Mindsets: The role of culture and perception in international relations. New
York: Intercultural Press. p. 151-155

2.3.1. Kinesics
Kinesics is the interpretation of body language such as facial expressions and
gestures or, more formally, non-verbal behavior related to movement, either of any
part of the body or the body as a whole. Nonverbal communication takes place by
means of facial expressions, head movements, eye contact, hand gestures, body
positions and acts, tones of voice, and so on. In general, body language expresses an
individual's emotions, feelings, and attitudes21.
Kinesics is an important part of non-verbal communication behavior. The movement
of the body, or parts thereof, conveys specific meanings, and many interpretations
are culture bound. As many movements are carried out at a subconscious or lowawareness level, kinesics movements carry a significant risk of being misinterpreted
in an intercultural communication situation. Sometimes body language even
contradicts the messages conveyed by spoken language. Some nonverbal expressions
are understood by people in all cultures; other expressions are particular to specific
cultures22. A significant example is the one of the so popular American OK sign,
which in Tunisia means Ill kill you and in Japan means money. Or, if one rubs
the lower part of her/his ear, in Spain this means you rotten sponger, in Greece it
means youd better watch it, while in Italy it is considered an insulting gesture.
People send and receive non-verbal signals all the time, although they are generally
not aware of it. These signals can indicate what they are truly feeling. The technique
of 'reading' people is used frequently. For example, the idea of mirroring body
language to put people at ease is commonly used in interviews. It sets the person
being interviewed at ease. Mirroring the body language of someone else indicates
that they are understood.
Regarding daily life, one may encounter many forms of kinesics gestures, these are a
few examples:

21

Birdwhistell, R. L. (1970) Kinesics and Context: Essay on Body-Motion Communication.

Philadelphia: Pennsylvania U. P. p. 21-39
22

Hall, E. T. (1976)

Beyond Culture. New York: Anchor Press. p. 177-180

- Defensive: crossing of arms is often considered to be a defensive, closed

posture
- Self-confidence: hands behind the back, hands clasped in front
- Stress: shaking of legs
- Superiority: hands clasped behind the head
Communication by means of kinesics is one of the most obvious non-verbal
communication form. Unfortunately, it is also one of the most confusing areas of
non-verbal communication behavior as the various meanings communicated through
body movements seem endless across cultures. Often, body movements that are
clearly understandable in one culture make no sense in another. Yet often enough,
frequently used kinesics movements in one culture may be highly offensive in
another culture. Keltner and Ekman in their work on kinesics Facial expression of
emotion23 classify kinesics into five categories: emblems, illustrators, affect displays,
regulators

and

adaptors,

which

will

be

shortly

presented

below.

Emblems are non-verbal messages that have a verbal counterpart. For example, the
British sign for victory (forefinger and middle finger erect) symbolizes the letter V, a
sign for victory often seen painted onto house walls during the second World War.
However, the same movement may symbolize the number two in America and may
be seen as insulting in Australia.
Illustrators on the other side are less clearly linked to specific sayings or words
being used. Illustrators are used more consistently to illustrate what is being said.
Again, the usage and the amount of illustrators used is different from culture to
culture. For example Latin cultures in general make more use of illustrators than
Anglo-Saxon cultures. And again, Anglo-Saxon cultures make more use of
illustrators than many Asian cultures. In terms of influence on business
communication the importance of illustrators usage is quite significant. Dealing with
certain Asian cultures, the extensive use of illustrators is often interpreted as a lack
of intelligence, whereas in Latin cultures, the absence of illustrators is easily
construed as a lack of intelligence.
23

Keltner, D. & Ekman, P. (2000) Facial expression of emotion. New York: Guilford Publications
Inc. p. 236-261

Affective displays are body, or more frequently facial, movements that display a
certain affective state, such as emotions. Affective displays are often less conscious
than illustrators, but also occur less frequently. A lack of such affective displays may
well be understood as a lack of emotion, which in turn is probably wrong. There has
been a long standing stereotype of hot-tempered and cold cultures, much of which
can be attributed to the extend to which emotions are expressed, especially by using
affective displays. An Italian, for example, who makes extensive use of affective
displays to express his anger at a certain situation, may well have the same degree of
anger as a Japanese person. Yet, a Japanese person in this situation would be
expected to show significantly fewer affective display movements than his Italian
counterpart. This, however, does not suggest or infers that the Japanese person is less
angry than his Italian counterpart, or not at all angry.
Regulators are non-verbal signs that regulate, modulate and maintain the flow of
speech during a conversation. These can be both kinesics, such as the nodding of a
head, as well as non-kinesics, such as eye movements. Regulators are vital to the
flow of information. Therefore a misinterpreted regulatory non-verbal sign may be
highly confusing in international business communication, and lead to serious
problems.
Adaptors include postural changes and other movements at a low level of awareness,
frequently made to feel more comfortable or to perform a specific physical function.
Because adaptors are usually carried out at a low level of awareness, they have been
hailed as the secret to understanding what the conversation partner really thinks. The
importance given to adaptors seems however overstated, as well as oversimplified.
Many adaptor movements, such as moving in a chair, may be employed more
frequently to resolve a specific physical situation, rather than being an indicator of
someones secret thoughts.
2.3.2. Gestures and mimics
Body language encompasses along with gestures, also mimics, facial expressions,
eye-contact, which provide important social and emotional information; people,

perhaps without consciously doing so, probe each other's eyes and faces for positive
or negative mood signs. Intercultural encounters, such as the one presented below,
are endless sources of interpreting human feelings strongly connected to gestures and
mimics.
Mr. Smith: My name is Jonathan Smith, my friends call me Johnny. Pleased
to meet you.
Mr. Won: Pleased to meet you too, Mr. Smith. My name is David Won. This
is my business card.
Mr. Smith: No, no, call me Johnny. I think well be doing good business
together.
Mr. Won: Yes, I hope so.
Mr. Smith ( reading Mr. Wons card) : Won, Hon-fai. Hon-fai, Ill give you
a call tomorrow to discuss some other details.
Mr. Won ( smiling): Yes. Ill expect your call24.
From one cultural group to another there is a great deal of variability about when one
smiles or laughs, and what it should be takes to mean 25. When these two men
separate, they leave each other with two very different impressions about the
situation. While Mr. Smith feels like having gotten off to a very good start, being
reassured by his interlocutors smile, Mr. Won feels rather uncomfortable with Mr.
Smith, considering him in sensitive to cultural differences. When Mr. Smith thinks
he had treated Mr. Won with respect for his Chinese background, calling him Honfai rather than using his western name, David. Mr. Won is bothered that Mr. Smith
used his given name, Hon-fai, instead of David or Mr. Won. That name is rarely used
by anyone, Chinese having a complex structure of names which depends upon
situations and relationships. It was this embarrassment that cause Mr. Won to smile26.
Shaking hands is considered the most common form of greeting in western countries,
especially when being introduced to somebody, while in Asia there is a considerable
variety in practices, which includes bowing as the main form of greeting in Korea

24

Smiling. London: Oxford University Press. p. 88-101

Ekman, P. (2001) Smiling. London: Oxford University Press. p. 88-101
26
Hofstede, G. (2001) Culture's Consequences, Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and
Organizations Across Nations. California: Sage Publication. p. 206-214
25

Ekman, P. (2001)

and Japan, clasping ones hands before the chest while making a short bow in China,
but also sometimes shaking hands when westerners are involved.
In some parts of the world, particularly in East Asia (Korea, Japan, and China), eye
contact can provoke major misunderstandings between people of different
nationalities. Keeping direct eye contact with elderly people leads them to assume
one is being aggressive and rude - the opposite reaction of most Americans or
British, who assume that people avoiding eye contact cannot be trusted and they are
less open. Hence, people from Asia may tend to shift their eyes during conversations
much more than some Westerns expect.
Emphasizing differences between cultures, in Islam, eye-contact is considered taboo
for the Muslim people. They must lower their gaze and try not to focus on the
opposite sex's faces and eyes after the initial first eye contact, other than their family
members or partner, in order to avoid potential unwanted desires. Eye contact
between any man and woman is allowed only for a second or two. This is a must in
most Islamic schools, with some exceptions depending on the case, like when
teaching, testifying, or looking at a girl for marriage.
In many cultures, it is a sign of respect not to look the dominant person in the eye,
but referring to Western culture, this may be interpreted as being shifty-eyed, and
the person misjudged because of the lack of eye contact.
Facial expressions can provide important information that may not be contained in
the verbal portion of the communication. Facial expressions are especially helpful as
they may show hidden emotions that contradict verbal statements 27. For example, an
employee may deny having knowledge of a problem, but also have a fearful
expression and glance around guiltily. Or, a manager who puts his feet up on the
desk may convey an impression of status and confidence, while an employee who
leans forward to listen may convey interest.
Gestures can add emphasis and improve understanding when used sparingly, but the
continual use of gestures can distract listeners and convey nervousness. Cultural and
27

Argyle M. (1978 ) Il corpo e il suo linguaggio: studio sulla comunicazione non verbale. Bologna: Zanichelli. p. 67

linguistic differences between speakers can lead to irritation, moral judgments, or

misreading of intent. Being involved in a cross-cultural or high conflict situation,
one must try to be aware of how her/his conversational habits may be affecting the
situation.
2.3.3. Cultural norms and rules
Cultural norms are behavior patterns that are typical of specific groups. Such
behaviors are learned from parents, teachers, peers, and many others whose values,
attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors take place in the context of their own organizational
culture. Some norms are healthy and some are not. Some contribute to the betterment
of individuals, families, and communities, others are precisely the kinds of high-risk
behaviors that societies would like to reduce or eliminate.
Cultural norms often are so strongly ingrained in an individual's daily life that the
individual may be unaware of certain behaviors. Until these behaviors are seen in the
context of a different culture with different values and beliefs, the individual may
have difficulty recognizing and changing them.
Some common traditional Asian, Hispanic and European cultural values are
presented below28:
Asian cultural norms:
- family is very important - family, rather than the individual, is the basis of
society
- a deep respect for elders - age is approached with dignity, pride, and respect
- men are considered more important than women - men are the decision
makers, women are very modest
- sisters and brothers never touch or kiss each other
- when talking, people must not look directly into a respected person's eyes

28

Hofstede, G. (2001) Culture's Consequences, Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and

Organizations Across Nations. California: Sage Publication. p. 256-273

- people don't show emotions, taught to conceal stress - there are definite
nonverbal cues, but you need to know what they are to be able to recognize
them
- time is flexible - there is no need to hurry except for extreme cases
- education is highly valued, politeness is situated before progress
- spirituality is extremely important, harmony with nature, not dominance
- patience, perseverance, avoiding conflict
- dignity, pride, respect, duty - all key words
Hispanic cultural norms:
- being a mother infers pride, virtue, respect associated with it
- husband subordinate in home except for public view - woman has her
power behind closed doors
- family is extended - multi-generational, even beyond blood
- godparents extremely important
- respect is very important - of many by his family, of elders, of people in
general
- machismo a term which means taking responsibility for providing food,
shelter, and protection for family
- people are very physical - ritualistic handshakes and hugs
- both Catholic Church and native spirituality very important
White cultural norms:
- nuclear family is ideal unit - man is seen as the head of household, female is
seen as homemaker and subordinate to husband
- parent/child interactions are based on democratic ideal: parents have rights,
children have rights, but structures hierarchical, with parents above children
- physical contact is limited, emotions are controlled, strong emphasis on
written tradition, direct eye contact is used
- "time is money" - working hard brings success
- individualism, independence, autonomy
- status is measured by economic possession, credentials, titles, positions

- people must master and control nature, to have a pragmatic view of life
- older people are not held in high esteem - youthfulness is emphasized
- competition is highly valued
- religion is head-centered, intellectual
2.4. Paralanguage
Paralanguage refers to the non-verbal elements of communication, used to convey
emotions and to modify meaning. Paralanguage may be expressed consciously or
unconsciously, and it includes volume, pitch and intonation of speech. The definition
may be restrained to vocally-produced sounds29.
The tone, rate, and volume of a speaker's voice can convey different meanings, as
can sounds like laughing, throat clearing, or humming. It is also important to note
that perfume or other odors contribute to a listener's impressions, as does physical
contact between the speaker and the listener. Silence, or the lack of sound, is a form
of nonverbal communication as well. Silence can communicate a lack of
understanding or even hard feelings in a face-to-face discussion.
For instance, the example used by Watzlavick in his book Une logique de la
communication (1972) refers to a dialogue between two women, one of them
wearing a pearl necklace, the other one uttering the following words: genuine
pearls. Until the tone and gestures which accompanied this utterance are unknown,
one cannot be sure of its real meaning. It could mean: genuine pearls? (question),
genuine pearls?!(irony), genuine pearls!!(amazement) . Another significant
example is the one of the next set of words: forgive him we cannot condemn him to
death. Two different situation come out of this utterance: either the case where the
subject is condemn to death forgive him we cannot, condemn him to death!, or the
case where the subject is not condemned to death forgive him, we cannot condemn
him to death!. It is obvious that without knowing the intonation, the tone of voice,
or the gestures made, one can only suppose the real meaning of these words30.

29

Argyle M. (1978 ) Il corpo e il suo linguaggio: studio sulla comunicazione non verbale. Bologna: Zanichelli.
p. 150-157
30
Watzlavick B. (1972) Une logique de la communication. Paris: Edition du Seuil. p. 83-89

2.5. Conclusions
Words people utter when communicating, even if they bear informational contents,
represent just one face of the speech. The way people utter words, meaning the tone,
rhythm and voice modulation, as well as gestures of the body make up the other face
of the speech, which is far more complex and complicated than the simple meaning
of the used words.

CHAPTER THREE- Intercultural Communication and

Language Variation
3.0. Introduction
Forget the saying the world is getting smaller - it has gotten smaller. Advances in
transport and communications technology combined with the development of a
world economy have resulted in people from different nations, cultures, languages
and backgrounds now communicating by means of English language, meeting and
doing business with one another more than ever.
Few businesses can escape the need to at some point in time deal with foreign
colleagues, clients or customers. Business is international and if an organization
wants to develop and grow it needs to harness the potential an international stage
offers. Twenty years ago British, European and American organizations doing
business abroad had very little competition due to the lack of rival industrialized
nations. Back then it was easy to do business our way. Today some of the worlds
largest economies include Japan, China, Mexico, Brazil, India and Korea. As a result
there has been a small shift from our way to lets try and understand your way.
Why? Because western organizations are feeling the impact a lack of cultural
sensitivity can and does have upon business performance.
The main focus of this chapter is represented by the impact of English language on
intercultural business communication. Dealing with the

regional differences in

language, such as dialects and accents, the first two sub-chapters set the grounds for
the third and fourth sub-chapter, where Ill discuss the influence of culture on
business encounters, offering as well some hints/directions on how to overcome
language barriers in intercultural communication.
3.1. Differences in language

Perhaps no other element of international business is so often noted as a barrier to

effective communication across cultures than differences in language. Language is
neither the only, nor even the most important communication impediment in crosscultural and intercultural encounters. Nevertheless, it remains the most obvious
difference that international business communicators are likely to face. Language is
so significant an obstacle in international as well as domestic cross-cultural business
dealings precisely because it is so fundamental. Unless the two parties understand a
common language, communication is essentially impossible without a translator or
interpreter. Without a shared language, direct communication is at best filtered
through a third party and at worst altogether impossible.
Although the inability to understand what one party communicates in a foreign
language is the most fundamental problem that differences in language pose, lack of
a shared language presents many less obvious pitfalls as well. While a set of minor
problems may occur when crossing linguistic lines, four of these are most likely to
affect business. First of all, language shapes the reality of its speaker. Certain
phrases and turns of thought depend on the many associations linked to a specific
language and to the culture intertwined with it. As a result, the subtle nuances of a
language are often lost in translation, even when the speaker of the second language
is fluent.

Secondly, the usage of a language may carry social implications of

belonging to a common group that for many cultures establishes the trust necessary
for long-term business relationships. This trust is often delayed or never available to
the business people who do not speak the language and who are viewed with
suspicion as outsiders or, at the least, as not committed to the home market of the
native speaker. Thirdly, the degree of fluency among speakers of any foreign
language varies, even among the best of translators and interpreters. But unless the
speaker of the second

language makes frequent grammatical errors, any lack of

comprehension on his or her part may go unrecognized. It is easy, therefore, for

native speakers of English to assume erroneously that anyone speaking their
language fully understands the conversation31.
Finally, cultural attachment to variants or dialects of English often communicate
messages of which the person who learns the language as a second tongue is
31

Hall, E. T.& Hall, M.R. (1990)

Understanding Cultural Differences. Yarmouth: Intercultural Press. p. 21-24

unaware. Even though the words exchanged are understandable to both parties, the
underlying sociolinguistic implications conveyed by the accent used or the choice of
words may communicate unintended messages.
3.1.1. Language and Cultural Attachment
Barriers other than simple accuracy of communication exist when dealing with
speakers of different languages. Even in situations in which excellent interpreters or
translators are employed or in which all parties speak English with fluency, the
social implications of the language used still remain a factor. Thus even where
language differences pose no problem in comprehension, the selection of one
language over another, such as English instead of French, may create goodwill or
resentment independently of any message actually spoken or written.
Cultural attachment to language most often manifests itself, at least in intercultural
business communication, in three variations: linguistic ethnocentrism, insideroutsider relationships, and alliances in linguistically determined group dynamics.
3.1.2. Linguistic Ethnocentrism
All people are subject to some degree of ethnocentrism, or the belief that their own
culture is better than other cultures. To some extent, linguistic ethnocentrism, or the
belief in the superiority of ones native language to other tongues, is less delimiting
than many other forms of ethnocentrism. The reason is that in many cases, the
language spoken by the members of a particular society is not confined to that
culture alone. For example, while Spain, Bolivia, and Mexico differ culturally, they
all share Spanish as their native tongue. A Bolivians linguistic ethnocentrism
therefore would not apply to a Spaniard or a Mexican. Indeed, the belief in the
superiority of Spanish may actually persuade the Bolivian to look beyond the
countrys borders to other Spanish-speaking cultures. Linguistic ethnocentrism in
this case may have a broadening rather than a narrowing effect.
Some cultures demonstrate a stronger attachment to their language than do others. It
is relatively easy for businesspeople who rely on an interpreter to attribute to him or
her an understanding of their negotiation strategies, product or service, and other

business knowledge. As the expertise of most interpreters is in language skills rather

than in business, this is a dangerous assumption.
When the two sides appear to be equally fluent in each others languages, the
difficulty arises as to which language both parties should use. The issue of cultural
attachment and, to a lesser extent, of ethnocentrism may provide a stumbling block
to effective interaction unless the communicator approaches this matter cautiously.
Regardless of the degree of fluency, it is important to remember that in any
interaction involving participants who speak different languages, the possibility for
misunderstanding exists. In any of the configurations described or in any variation of
them, international business communicators should be aware that they may receive
no feedback that what they have said or written may not have been fully understood
by the speaker of a foreign language.
3.2. Accents, Dialects and Regional Differences
The dialects and accents used among speakers of English often vary from region to
region. How the individual views these differences may colour the communication
between the two speakers of the language: speakers of one dialect may differentiate
themselves from speakers of a different dialect by the usage of certain
pronunciations, words, and grammatical forms32. The frequent first reaction of a
person who hears un unfamiliar dialect is that the strange sounds and words are a
chaotic mess.
Dialects, far from being a "chaotic mess," represent a means for people to identify
other members of their geographical group. Such regional variations can exist
between national cultures (internationally) or within the same nation (subnationally).
3.2.1. International Regional Variables
Modern developments in communications - telephone, radio, motion picture, tape
recordings, satellite television, the Internet - have united English speakers, retarding
32

Brook, G.L. (1973)

Varieties of English. London: Macmillan. p. 50-90

dialectal differences, familiarizing all speakers with the sound of other English
varieties, and superimposing a kind of world standard over regional varieties. All
that does not mean that there are no differences among the English varieties used
around the world. Differences in phonology (especially of vowels and of intonation
patterns) and differences in vocabulary as well as in semantics of the same
vocabulary are more extensive than variation in morphology and syntax, and they
affect mutual intelligibility more seriously than grammatical differences.
English has been affected by its division throughout the world; phonologically, one
can discern the influence of other languages spoken or formerly spoken in the
regions, which have affected the pronunciation of English sounds and modulated the
contours of the intonation in terms of pitch of voice and rhythm. The vocabulary has
been enriched with terms that have not only entered a particular regional variety of
English but also the common vocabulary of all varieties of English. As for grammar,
a neat division can be drawn between standard grammar, which displays little
variation from one country to another, and the grammar of non-standard varieties,
which, in their turn, surprisingly share many features.
Mutual understanding is complete in written form, provided, of course, the decoder
is familiar with the register used by the author of the written message. The case of
differences between standard varieties, where the pronunciation differences can
easily be recognized and accepted as such in a face-to-face conversation.
International variables consist of those dialects and accents that vary among
countries. In most instances these regional variations are readily recognizable. As a
result, the listener categorizes the speaker of the foreign dialect as part of the foreign
culture. In some respects, speakers with foreign language accents and speakers with
regional dialects can be categorized together. To the extent that many speakers of a
second language retain a foreign accent, speakers with regional variations of a
common language are treated like other foreigners. For example, an Italian speaker
of English as a second language is likely to have a specific accent that most speakers
of English would recognize as Italian. Similarly, a Briton speaking English is likely
to be identified as a Briton-by her or his native accent by other Britons and by her or
his foreign regional accent by other speakers of English.

One major factor, however, differentiates the Britons national accent and the
Italians foreign accent. The Briton probably would not attempt to eliminate her or
his accent when among speakers of different regional dialects of English (and
possibly even take pride in her or his regional accent). For most Britons, the proper
way to speak English is both with a British accent and with British figures of speech.
An Italian speaking English, by contrast, is likely to be aware that no speaker of
English as a native language would consider as proper the usage of Italian-accented
English combined with Italian constructions and figures of speech. As a result, the
Italian might try to make her or his English conform to the dialect used by those with
whom she or he interacts. Regional differences within the same language may also
pose problems for the international business communicator: accent comprehension,
recognition of usage differences, and stereotyping.
3.2.2. Language and dialect
Theoretically, dialects are mutually intelligible versions of one language. When
mutual intelligibility is lost, then the two versions are separate languages. A dialect
comes to be called language for purely linguistic reasons or for social, cultural and
political reasons. A historical language is a language whose limits are established in
the course of history and is recognized as such by its own speakers and by the
speakers of other languages. It does not necessarily coincide with a national
language, the latter label being also a matter of political decision. The national
languages of the United States, Great Britain, New Zealand, Australia and so on are
all called English for linguistic reasons: given a little practice, speakers of any one of
them can understand and communicate with speakers of any other. On the other
hand, within the same country - the United Kingdom -there are great differences
between the speech of inhabitants of different regions, e.g. between the northerners
speech and the southerners speech. Actually, geographic variation leads to the
existence of dialectal continua rather than well- delimited dialects33.
However, political boundaries often influence the terminology. Danish and Swedish
are mutually intelligible, but are called separate languages because Denmark and
33

Brook, G.L. (1973)

Varieties of English. London: Macmillan. p. 120-135

Sweden are separate countries. Conversely, the speech of a Cantonese is totally

incomprehensible to a native of Shanghai, yet because both Canton and Shanghai are
within the boundaries of the same country, they are both labelled as Chinese.
Just as the limit between languages is largely a matter of convention, so is the limit
between dialects. Actually, linguistic studies often contain references to dialects and
dialects systems rather than to languages.
Returning to the English language spoken in the British Isles, particularly Great
Britain, the great differences between the southern and the northern dialects have
often been remarked upon by outsiders and thoroughly analysed and described by
specialists34. The history of the language accounts for this differentiation, as well as
for the similarities between British local varieties and Irish, American or Australian
varieties.
3.2.3. Accent and dialect
The notion of accent is clearly distinguished from the notion of dialect in Trudgills
book on sociolinguistics, where he states:
The term dialect refers, strictly speaking, to differences between
kinds of language which are differences of vocabulary and grammar as well
as pronunciation. The term accent, on the other hand, refers solely to
differences of pronunciation35.
In the course of time , economic, social, cultural and political circumstances lead to
the selection and acceptance of one of the varieties of a language as the prestigious
form, used in writing by an elite of a speech community, gradually institutionalised
as the best, further spread and imposed by education, mass media and official
relations. A similar process imposes a pronunciation model but to a lesser extent.

34
35

McArthur, T. (1998)
Trudgill, P. (1983)

The English Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pg. 35-40

Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. London: Penguin Books. pg. 55

The accent preserved as a model wherever British English is taught, is received

pronunciation, whose nineteenth century sense was accepted in the best society.
Received pronunciation has its origin in the south-east of England (London and
surrounding areas) but is now a social accent because it is associated with the BBC,
the Public Schools in England, and with members of upper and upper-middle
classes. They say that only three percent of the English population speak received
pronunciation. Nevertheless, it is the accent most frequently taught to foreign
learners in European countries for several reasons:
- it is the most thoroughly described of the British accents;
- it is largely used by radio and TV;
- it is associated with social prestige (using the "best" accent may give one a
better chance to climb up the social scale).
In the United States one speaks of General American, which, like received
pronunciation, applies to the pronunciation of the people who do not have a
recognizable local accent but which, unlike received pronunciation, is used by a
larger segment of the population -about two-thirds, according to some authors.
The corresponding dialect used as a model is labelled as Standard English, which is
spoken by the educated people throughout the British Isles and which can be better
described as Standard British English. It is the variety normally used in writing;
normally used for teaching in schools and universities; and normally heard on radio
and television. Standard English is not restricted to the speech of a social group.
Actually, the speech of most speakers of Standard English is marked by the influence
of regional accents. Moreover, there is also slight regional lexical and grammatical
variation, which justifies linguists to speak of the following varieties of Standard
English (spoken in England and Wales):
- Standard Scottish English;
- Standard Irish English.
Here is one illustrative example: in Standard Scottish English the following
expression is used They hadnt a good time or You had a good time, hadnt

you?, whereas in Standard English the auxiliary did is used: They didnt have a
good time and You had a good time, didnt you?.
There is hardly any difference between the British and the American Standards,
especially in their written forms. Minor spelling differences are insignificant.
American sociolinguists who use the term Standard with regard to American English
speak of cultural levels and summarize the different cultural levels in two subclasses,
substandard/ non-standard and standard, the latter presenting itself in a number of
regional varieties that follow the main dialectal areas.
3.2.4. Accent Comprehension
For some listeners, all unfamiliar accents may be difficult to understand -thus
regional accents among speakers of the same language may be as much of a
stumbling block as foreign accents. To illustrate, let us refer to the example of the
Italian and the Briton in North America. For many North Americans, both the
accents may represent problems linked to pronunciation. People speaking English
with strong Italian accents are likely to use open vowel sounds and to add vowel
sounds at the end of words ending in consonants. As with any speaker of English as a
second language, they may also have difficulty in placing the accent on the
appropriate syllable. All these accentual traits affect comprehension, the Italian may
try to correct her or his accent36.
The Britons pronunciation would also differ from an Americans. The Briton would
pronounce several vowels as flat or open that the American would nasalize or
pronounce as closed. In many words, British English places the accent on different
syllables than the same word rendered with an American accent. And several words
would receive entirely different pronunciations. Thus the Briton would pronounce
the word lieutenant as lef-ten-ant, while the American pronounces the same word
as loo-ten-ant. As the Briton and American were unfamiliar with these differences,
some comprehension difficulty could occur. In significant contrast to the Italian,
however, the British speaker of English is unlikely to modify his or her accent to
36

Ronowicz, E. & Collin, Y. (1999)

p. 110-118

English: One Language, Different Cultures. London and New York: Cassell.

accommodate the needs of the American. The Italian is aware that her or his usage of
English is not standard. But both the Briton and the American, even if they have
trouble understanding each other, are likely to believe that their pronunciation is the
correct version. While people can, to some extent, consciously modify their accents,
neither the Briton nor the American would attempt to conform to the accent of the
other (Petyt 1980: 84).
Comprehension differences caused by accents are, on the whole, of relatively little
importance. Still, to the extent that they interfere with comprehension or breed
resentment and annoyance, they should concern the international business
communicator.
3.3. Cultural Aspects of Language Usage
Spoken or written language is a frequent cause of miscommunication, stemmed from
a persons inability to speak the local language, a poor or too literal translation, a
speakers failure to explain idioms, or just the simple lack of cultural sensitivity.
Even among countries that share the same language, problems can arise from the
subtleties and nuances inherent in the use of language.
3.3.1. Recognition of Usage Differences
Many languages have significant differences in the phrases used or in the variant
meanings of shared words. In many cases, a speakers regional expression has no
counterpart in another region, and so the listener simply cannot understand a familiar
expression. In British English, an international call is known as a trunk call; in the
United States it is a long distance call. The phrases are likely to be
incomprehensible to speakers of the other version of English. More dangerously,
many words and phrases take on identifiable but different meanings from region to
region(Quirk 1995: 132). For this reason the international business communicator
should be sensitive to the possibility of misinterpretation. Ones first understanding
may not reflect what ones foreign counterpart may have actually meant. For
example, more than one business deal has been scuttled by the U.S. businesspersons
reaction to a Britons usage of the phrase "to table a proposal." In British English

when business people wish to act on a proposal immediately, they speak of "tabling
the proposal." In U.S. vocabulary, the same phrase means exactly the opposite-that is
to delay the idea indefinitely.
Regional differences are even more likely to surprise non native speakers of a
language than native speakers who may have had greater exposure to regional
differences. For instance, the Swedish manufacturer Electrolux used the slogan
"Nothing sucks like an Electrolux" to promote its vacuum cleaners in Great Britain.
This slogan proved unusable in the United States, where it means in slang that the
vacuum cleaners were of terrible quality while also carrying an obscene overtone.
3.3.2. Stereotyping
Frequently, regional accents, like any intercultural indicator, may suggest prejudices
and stereotyped images. Historical interactions between different regions often lead
to stereotypes and preconceptions. Such preconceptions should concern the business
communicator because they may represent cultural inferences of which she or he is
unaware.
Thus Parisian speakers of French may believe that those with accents from the south
of France are unbusinesslike, while those from the south of France may find those
with Parisian accents pushy or arrogant. Similar tensions exist in the United States
between those with Southern and those with Northern accents. Still, such differences
can have major effects on business communication.
3.3.3. High- vs. Low-Context Cultures
Contexting can be categorized as being either high or low. When individuals have
considerable knowledge and experience in common, their communication is
generally highly- context. In highly-context communication, what individuals choose
not to put into words is essential to understanding the actual message intended. In
highly-context interactions, the communicators commonly anticipate that what is not
actually said is already understood. When negotiators rely relatively little on shared
knowledge and experience, their communication is called low context. Hints based

on inferred messages between low context communicators are less apparent than
between high context communicators37.
As a result, more information must be explicitly stated in low-context exchanges
than in high-context ones. Emphasis is placed on verbal self-disclosure. To the extent
that members of low-context cultures rely on verbal self-disclosure to communicate
their primary message, they can be seen as direct; to the degree that members of
high-context cultures rely on means other than verbal self-disclosure to communicate
their message, they can be seen as indirect. Moreover, in low-context cultures,
directness is often considered a virtue and indirect communication a waste of time or
a strain on the receivers patience. Most introductory business communication
textbooks used in the United States, for example, stress the benefit of the so-called
direct plan message, in which the content of a message is delivered early on.
By contrast, in high-context cultures, directness is often considered rude and
offensive, while indirect communication is recognized as a means to smooth over
interpersonal differences and as a means to keep from losing face in conflict
situations. Awareness of the two types can be crucial: cultures differ in the extent to
which people are direct or indirect, the way in which they use language- how
requests are made, and more importantly, how requests are denied or refused38.
Comparing American culture with Japanese culture from the point of view of highand low-context, Americans tend to be explicit and direct in communication, and to
emphasize on the content of the text- the meaning found in words. Referring to
Japanese, they show opposite characteristics, such as emphasis on the context- the
meaning found around the words, as well as an indirect, implicit style of
communication.
3.4. Intercultural Business Communication and the English Language

37

Hymes, D. (1964) Language in Culture and Society. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania

Press. p: 73-82
38

Hymes, D. (1964)

Language in Culture and Society. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p: 90-95

It is an acknowledged fact that English is the present-day lingua franca of the planet.
Some take it as a blessing, others as a form of linguistic imperialism, but this
phenomenon cannot be denied, whether it is called International English or Global
English. Since one may speak of different standards at different times, at different
places, and on different occasions, it is appropriate to speak about successful usage
of this language. This is a matter of combining rules of grammar with acceptable
meanings of words, as well as taking in account the particularities of the context and
of the relationships with the interlocutors.
Terminology can be negotiated, grammar differences can be overlooked, and people
can still understand each other in English, despite all the differences. When dealing
with intercultural business communication, there can however appear problems
which may lower the degree of mutual intelligibility between two people coming
from two different speech communities.
3.4.1. Sociolinguistical Approach to Business Communication
Sociolinguistics, or the social patterning of language, is an often overlooked issue
that the international business communicator should consider. Sociolinguistics
involves the way dialects and accents are used to reinforce social roles within the
cultural framework of a language. Not all speakers of a language speak the language
in a manner that is considered proper. Class differences may be revealed by phrasing
and accent. Such differences are often severe, as was dramatized in the popular
musical My Fair Lady- in which an upper-class Briton attempts to change the
accent of a Cockney woman in order to transform her into a member of his class.
Referring to the English language and not only, the usage of certain expressions,
though wholly understandable, conveys hidden messages linked to class. Thus the
contraction aint for is not indicates a low social status in Great Britain or a lack
of education in the United States. Similarly, the title commendatore in Italian is
often used by those of lower class to show respect for a person without any real title.
Generally speaking, people from lower-class backgrounds exhibit more pronounced
regional differences in accent. Regarding the United States, the speech of people
with relatively high incomes and educational backgrounds tends to be quite similar

no matter which region of the country they live in. Sociolinguistic differences can
affect international business communication in two ways. First, a business
communicator who remains unaware of these hidden messages is at a disadvantage
in understanding fully what others in the communication exchange may easily
interpret. Second, the business communicator may inadvertently select a translator or
interpreter who is unable to adjust to the class level indicated by sociolinguistically
determined accents and phrasing. As a result, the business communicator, through
the translator or interpreter, may seem to be of a lower class than he or she might
wish to appear or, conversely, may seem to be putting on airs by using the accent and
phrasing of the upper class in an inappropriate setting39.
3.4.2. English and International Business
It is impossible to examine the role of language in international business
communication without discussing the enormous popularity of English as the
universal language of business. Eight of the worlds leading trading nations either
speak English as a native language or were nations in which English was spoken in a
pre-independent colonial period: Australia, Anglophone Canada, Great Britain, India,
Malaysia, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United States. Together, these eight
countries represent well over 25 percent of global imports. The company that cannot
sell in English, therefore, faces a major barrier to over a quarter of the worlds
buying market. By comparison, the next largest linguistic bloc of trading powers-the
French-speaking (Belgium, French Canada, France, and Switzerland)-represent only
about 15 percent of global imports. English is the international language of air
traffic. Thus a plane taking off in Portuguese-speaking Brazil and landing in
German-speaking Austria uses English as it leaves the ground in South America and
touches down in Europe, as well as in any communication that takes place between
the two. When the radio replaced signal flags at sea, the language agreed on for
transmission was English, even though most sailors do not speak English even as a
second language.
English is the most popular second language taught in Europe, the Middle East and
Africa, Japan, and, recently replacing Russian, China. Such multinational Japanese
39

Trudgill, P. (1983)

Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. London: Penguin Books. p: 97-99

corporations, as Nissan, compose their international memoranda not in the Japanese

of the company headquarters but in English. This is not limited just to Japan. The
language of many key industries is dominated by English. This is particularly true in
science and technology. Recent rapports indicate that 88 percent of scientific and
technical literature is either published in English initially or translated into English
shortly after its appearance in such languages as Russian, German and French.
Regardless of its unquestioned importance, however, English ought not to be
considered the only language of world business. Indeed, the very fact that English is
the most widely spoken language in commerce represents to its native speakers its
most significant handicap. Virtually no other language group believes, as do the
English speakers, that its members can effectively compete on a global scale with
only their own language. Even among the French-speaking cultures, the next most
widely used commercial language, almost all major global competitors use
languages other than French. English speakers unfamiliarity with other languages
places them at a disadvantage despite-or arguably because of- the widespread usage
of their native language.
For English speakers in particular, foreign languages represent a trade barrier. To the
extent that English speakers cannot communicate in the language of the people
whose markets they enter, they may find themselves treated as more foreign than
other foreigners who do speak the native language. Since English speakers are less
likely to understand foreign languages, they are probably not familiar with their
foreign markets firsthand. Moreover, they do not usually have access to the
magazines, television, films, and other conveyors of popular culture that would
acquaint them with the foreign markets they enter.
Conversely, since the distribution of English- language magazines, television, films,
and so on is common in other countries, companies in English-speaking markets may
find that they are competing on an uneven playing field when it comes to cultural
familiarity. Non-English-speaking cultures are much more likely to understand the
nuances of U.S. or British culture than U.S. or British companies are to understand
non-English-speaking cultures. As a result, foreign competitors may enter such
English-speaking markets as the United States and Great Britain more successfully

than U.S. and British companies are able to enter markets in which English is not the
first language.
Another factor to consider is the diminishing economic power of the Englishspeaking nations. With the growing economic power of such non-English-speaking
nations as Japan, South Korea, Singapore, and other Asian nations, as well as the
continued strength of the European trading powers, the relative importance of
English may dwindle. This is particularly likely if the trend toward the service
economy- in the fields of managerial and technological expertise- continues. Service
and expertise as commodities requires first-rate communication. Since language
barriers constitute an obstruction to communication, the usage of a foreign language
(i.e. English) to convey the necessary information may become untenable if
competitors offer their services and expertise in the native tongue.
To some extent, the monolingualism of the United States has already provided a
competitive edge in the export of technological expertise in world markets to
bilingual Canadians, since recent gains have occurred where language has proved the
deciding factor.
3.4.3. Overcoming Language as a Barrier to Business Communication
The most effective means for improving international business communication is to
increase ones awareness. Recognizing intercultural differences and similarities
between ones own culture and the foreign cultures with which one conducts
business allows the flexibility and empathy needed in international negotiations. It is
for this reason that most of this chapter has focused on matters affected by language.
Still, business people, in addition to increasing their sensitivity to the barriers
language poses in international communication, can take five specific steps to reduce
the risk of related misunderstanding or pseudo conflic 40t. These steps should not be
seen as taking the place of alertness to the possible sources of difficulty described in

40

John, D.D., Lee, H.R.& Sullivan D.P. (2004)

London: Pearson Education. p: 154

International Business: Environments and Operations 10th ed.

the above lines. Nevertheless, they may help to overcome the roadblocks to business
communication that English language often creates.

The five steps are:

- adjustment of untranslated communication
- careful selection of translators and interpreters
- personal review of translated documents
- attention to names and key terms
- back-translation.
Although it is almost always preferable to communicate in the foreign language of
ones counterpart, it is not always possible to do so. As a result, international
business communicators must often decide whether to use their own language,
generally speaking English, or to employ a translator or interpreter. If the other
party does not understand the business communicators language, the answer is
simple; a translator or interpreter must be employed. If the other party does
understand that language (as is often the case with English), the business
communicator is faced with a choice. In some situations, it is appropriate and less
expensive to conduct business in your own language. Ideally, one should decide to
use her or his own language only if one is certain that all the participants are fluent
and the material communicated does not involve sensitive issues. Nevertheless, the
possibility for misinterpretation increases when information is not communicated in
the primary language of all the participants. To reduce the chance of
misinterpretation, use language designed for the speaker of a second language.
The business world is littered with poor translations that have caused great
embarrassment to their perpetrators due to their lack of cultural sensitivity. When
communicating with speakers of a second language, it is indicated to avoid idiomatic
speech, slang, and colloquialism that are so often used in English. Idioms, slang, and
most informal, colloquial terms usually defy translation. For example, in English we
talk about "sitting on the fence," which makes no sense at all in French. The French
instead use the expression mnager la chvre et le chou, or "to manage the goat

and the cabbage," which has little meaning for English speakers. Similarly, in the
United States people often indicate a desire "to touch base" on this or that matter.
Such a phrase is meaningless in societies where basebal1 is not played. A famous
example of the failure of idioms to translate involved Pepsis "Come alive with
Pepsi" campaign. The popular English language advertisement was mistranslated in
German as "Come out of the grave" and in Asia as "Bring your ancestors back from
the grave" (Hall, E. T.& Hall M.R. 1990: 87-91).
Another hint would be to speak slowly. It is difficult even for fluent speakers of
English to think in another language. Talking slowly helps the listener to translate.
Doing so is often more problematic than it appears.
3.4.4. Intercultural Business Blunders
Culture comes in many shapes and sizes. It includes areas such as politics, history,
faith, mentality, behaviour and lifestyle. The following examples demonstrate how a
lack of cultural sensitivity and improper usage of language ( related mainly to poor
translation) led to failure41.
- The concept of Big Brother was somehow taken to the Middle East. The
show was pulled of the air after its first few episodes due to public protests
and pressure from religious bodies stating the show's mixed sex format was
against Islamic principles.
- A golf ball manufacturing company packaged golf balls in packs of four for
convenient purchase in Japan. Unfortunately, the number 4 is equivalent to
the number 13 due it sounding like the word "death". The company had to
repackage the product.
- A new facial cream with the name "Joni" was proposed for marketing in
India. They changed the name since the word translated in Hindi meant
"female genitals."
41

Philip, R.H. & Robert, T.M: (2000)

Company. p. 134-151

Managing Cultural Differences Fifth Edition. Houston: Gulf Publishing

- Coors had its slogan, "Turn it loose," translated into Spanish, where it
became "Suffer from diarrhea."
All the examples cited above could easily have been avoided by conducting some
basic research in respect to checking the concept, design, shape, colour, packaging,
message or name in the target culture. In the majority of cases it is simply assumed
that 'if it is OK for us it is OK for them'. If businesses want to succeed
internationally, cultural sensitivity must be at the heart of everything they do; from
their personal interaction and relationships with clients to the products and services
they develop.
3.5. Conclusion
Many organizations are now investing heavily in providing staff with English
language lessons in order to be able to crack foreign markets as well as providing
cultural sensitivity training to address issues such as etiquette, protocol,
communication styles and negotiation approaches. In a competitive world such
businesses appreciate that greater cultural sensitivity will assist them in forging
longer and more prosperous relationships. Yet progress is slow. Unfortunately a
subconscious sense of cultural superiority still seems to reign; one that assumes the
rest of the world does business like us and if they dont then they should.
The worlds inhabitants however come from many faiths, cultures, world views and
experiences. We are all different and as a result doing business across borders
(whether political, religious, cultural or linguistic) requires cultural sensitivity,
meaning a sense of empathy, flexibility and creativity informed by cultural
knowledge.

CHAPTER FOUR- Internet English- New Means of Overcoming

Intercultural Barriers
4.0. Introduction
Since the beginnings of humanity, people have communicated with each other and
along the years tried to enhance the methods of doing so. The inventions of the
printing press, the telegraph, and the telephone each demonstrate a landmark
improvement in long-distance, instantaneous communication. Throughout its more
than twenty years of existence, the Internet has seen and orchestrated many
differences in the way people communicate, including the language they use, the
style with which they write, the way they learn new languages, and the format in
which they write.
The growth of the Internet today has exploded into the latest craze. It is the newest
wave of communication through electronic mail, file transfer, telnet access,
transaction applications, and much more. The most popular part of the Internet is the
World Wide Web, where anyone can access hypertext pages with the click of a
button. The popularity of the Internet has launched many social and ethical issues.
Recently, the Internet has been criticized for its uncensored information, but has
been praised for its educational value. Although the Internet appears to be very
convenient to its users, there are many technical issues surrounding this vast network
of computers. Technical issues range from network protocols, which is used to
communicate information, to display or markup languages, which is used for
displaying information.
In particular, the new media of e-mail, instant messenger programs, and blogging,
have greatly affected the way messages are presented and read, introducing new,
looser confines of formality, a generally-accepted flexibility in spelling and

grammar, and the notion of writing and reading in a nonlinear context. Also, with
programs such as Rosetta Stone, Word 2 Word, and Babelfish, a myriad of websites
on foreign language help, and instant translate buttons with which many Internet
browsers are equipped, the difficulty of communicating with someone who speaks a
foreign language is overcome in many different ways.
4.1. Online Media and Their Effect on Language
The Internet has introduced many ways to communicate online, which have greatly
affected the languages and styles we use to communicate. Among these media are email, instant messaging, and blogging42.
4.1.1. E-mail
Nowadays, e-mail has almost entirely replaced the postal system in terms of simply
communicating (as opposed to transferring materials). Electronic mail, or e-mail,
allows people to send letters to each other instantly through an online provider rather
than through the postal system. For the purpose of communicating with friends and
family informal notes and letters have been all but replaced by e-mail. The efficient
transfer of e-mails has also created the expectation of equally efficient replies. Also,
the formalities expected in letters have been dropped for e-mails, in order to lend
themselves to the efficient method of correspondence.
4.1.2. Instant Messenger Programs
One of the first popular forms of online communication was America Online, or
AOL. Originally launched for Macintosh computers in 1989 and expanded to
personal computers by 1993, America Online offered customers online video games,
where viewers could play various games online for an hourly fee. They also
provided chat rooms of different sizes and subjects where members could enter and
type to other members, holding a conversation by means of reading and writing
instead of hearing and speaking. Both the video game format and the chat rooms
would remain, but they soon gave way in popularity to AOLs Instant Messaging
(AIM) field. Here, members could add other members as friends and put them on a
42

Kahin, B.& Keller J. (1995 )

Public Access to the Internet. Cambridge: MIT. p. 50-74

friend list, and then talk with them one-on-one in real time. Since then, the company
and program has dropped its full name and simply goes by the acronym: AOL.
Having the possibility to type to friends at real time has vastly changed the language
of every country in which AIM exists. In order to quickly produce a message to be
read, typing had to improve, shortcuts had to be found, and rules had to be lifted. It is
the abbreviations, Internet slang, and loosened grammar rules that have greatly
affected languages, mainly the English language which use is getting more and more
intense. Perhaps the most popular and widely-known Internet slang is that which is
used to indicate laughter, LOL, or laughing out loud. This is, however, just one
of hundreds of abbreviations in common usage online today. If one is unaware of
their meaning, many online intercultural conversations will definetively become
incomprehensible.
The loosened rules of spelling and grammar have also greatly influenced language.
Being more focused on the content and subject and having to respond as quickly as
possible to friends online has allowed for very common misspellings of words to
become acceptable if the message still pulls through. Also, an entire new alphabet,
known as leet, or 1337, has been created. Short for elite, this alphabet rewrites
words using numbers and symbols that resemble the shapes of the letters in the
English alphabet. Although this alphabet is more prevalent in online video games, it
is making its way into AIM and other online instant message devices as well.
4.1.3. Blogging
During the late 90s, various people started writing their journals and diaries online,
publishing them not only for personal use, but placing them in the public domain.
This small and simple notion, known as blogging (blog being short for web log),
has grown to become one of the Internets most popular and powerful forms of
communication. Blogging is now a main attraction of the Internet, and is used for
journals, political polls, news reports, photo albums, travelogues, and a general
collection of information and opinions.

Keeping a blog affects language similarly to how keeping a journal affects language:
it invokes practice. As opposed to instant messaging, blogging has no time restraints,
therefore the common slang found in instant messaging is not as prevalent in blogs.
Instead, people practice their writing and reading skills using an English that is more
grammatically correct. Another important aspect to consider, however, is the legal
ramifications of putting explicit descriptions of ones life into the public domain. As
the popularity of blogging has increased, so have cases of defamation/slander. For
instance, employees have been fired for discussing their employers in blogs.
4.1.4. Usenet
During the past several decades there have been important technological
breakthroughs. The personal computer, a science fiction dream for generations, is
now available as a household appliance in a way that the typewriter or TV were just
a few years ago. Also, a public conferencing network called Usenet, transported via
physical networks like the Internet, encourages public discussion and the free
exchange of ideas on a world wide scale.
Usenet is a world wide public conferencing network that makes it possible for
computer users around the world to have public discussions, raise questions or
problems so they can get help, or send e-mail to each other often instanteously. One
user explains that it is like a newspaper where "everyone's letter to the editor is
printed.". Usenet has also been described as a series of electronic magazines. These
magazines, called newsgroups , are devoted to particular topics, ranging from
questions about programming languages, and computer systems to discussions of
politics, philosophy, science, and recreational activities. Usenet has been compared
to an electronic town meeting of the world. Others have observed that it had become
a sort of printing press or even better a publishing house.
Computer users with access to Usenet can read articles on a broad range of topics.
They can contribute their responses or post articles of their own on any subject in an
appropriate newsgroup. Their submissions are then copied electronically to
computers around the world which are also part of the Usenet network. Usenet

demonstrates what happens when people are encouraged and allowed to develop
computer technology.
4.1.5. Netiquette for Non-native Speakers
One of the major issues surrounding current Internet technolog is represented by the
lack of paralinguistic tools available to online users. This becomes particularly
apparent when studying the online communication of users that are using English
despite the fact that it is not their native language. Studies regarding non-native
speakers

communicating

in

their

second

language

compared

the

email

communications of native and non-native speakers in various graduate programs. It

has been discovered that in non-native speakers emails there was an overall lack of
socio-culturally accepted guidelines. This is most likely due to the fact that online
communication requires more than simply language proficiency. It requires users to
have an intimate sense of not only how language is used but also to have a sense of
the culturally accepted standards of that language that many native speakers are still
not aware of.
The fact that not all native speakers have been apprised of the etiquette required on
the web can bee seen in the numerous web pages and texts devoted to the subject.
The so called Netiquette is the umbrella term used to describe the rules and
policies to follow while online. For example, when typing, refrain from typing in all
capital letters as this is an indication that you are screaming at your correspondent.
While some rules appear to be obvious there are others that are far more intricate,
such as the fact that while netiquette does not discourage flaming (heated online
messages) it does discourage flame wars (repeated, back and forth flaming). In
addition, although the web appears to be developing its own set of rules, many
traditional rules of etiquette are also being upheld concurrently.
It is obvious that these newly-presented rules would present challenges to a nonnative speaker. Whereas most native speakers are at least moderately aware of social
norms and etiquette, it is much more difficult for non-native speakers to pick up on
these idiosyncratic rules. This can be seen in many of the studies done on non-native
English speakers e-mail communication. Generally speaking, non-native speakers of

English were far more likely to use direct request statements. While direct request
statements utilize phrases such as I need or I want, symbolizing their desire that
the reader carries out a direct request, phrases such as would you and could you
please are recommended in these situations. While a native speaker can almost
immediately sense the differences in the two types of phrases, it would be difficult
for a non-native speaker to sense the fact that the latter phrases are less direct and
therefore considered more appropriate.
However, despite the fact that there are difficulties for non-native speakers of
English in learning to communicate in an online environment, the benefits far
outweigh the costs. For instance, without this online technology it would be almost
impossible for non-native speakers who have never lived in the United States or in
the United Kingdom to infer the intricacies of the English language, in this case.
Through online communication individuals now have the opportunity to experience
and practice immersion in a language and culture without ever leaving their living
room.
4.2. Foreign Languages Online
Before the Internet, communication amongst different countries was limited. Only
those who visited other countries or were fluent enough in another language to write
or speak on a telephone could communicate. With the birth of the Internet, all of that
changed. Suddenly communicating with the world was virtually at everyones finger
tips twenty-four hours a day. Now the only problem standing in everyones way was
the language barrier amongst countries. Not everyone had the time to enroll in
classes with their busy lives in order to learn new languages, such as English which
is the most commonly used language on the Internet. With this need for the world to
start communicating and break the language barriers, the Internet seemed to come to
the rescue when it began creating online foreign language programs to start teaching
people other languages.
Through these programs, people could pick any language they wanted to learn and
learn it right there in their own homes, at their own pace, any time of day. There are
now countless such products on the market, most of them available on the online
forum. It has now become increasingly easier to avoid the traditional methods of

actual courses or self-help tapes and books to understand other languages. As in any
new program though, there are both negative and positive factors to learning
languages through the Internet, but no one can doubt that these programs have
definitely made it possible for many people to learn different languages who would
have never had a chance to do so otherwise.

4.2.1. Learning English Online

Many studies have been done in the United States following people in this country
who are limited in their English proficiency and are trying to learn English through
technological tools such as the Internet. One particular study was done following
limited English proficient Latino students. Researchers studied how well a group of
Latinos were grasping English by using instructional technology. The research
highlighted many benefits to learning a language online such as allowing students to
have the most control over the direction of their learning by controlling their time,
speed of learning, autonomy, choice of topics or even their own identity. In a
classroom these Latino students would have had to go at the pace of their English
teacher, where online each student could choose her/his pace. This allows the
students to really grasp a concept before they move on. Also they do not have to be
worried about being embarrassed in a classroom if they are called on and do not
know the answer.
It is obvious that students involved in the online learning process have more
confidence in their abilities because they do not feel pressured with the rest of the
class abilities and are able to solely focus on their own. Online programs also offer
immediate feedback that many students benefit from rather than awaiting a teacher
to grade papers. The computer tells its students right away which answers were
wrong, giving the students the opportunity to go back and fix mistakes. This helps
limit the amount of time that students go having misconceptions about the new
language they are studying.
However, even though there are a lot of positives to online learning, research also
has indicated that technology really shouldnt be used without the integration of

professional assistance. Technology is most useful when it is integrated into a

teaching program as a whole. Interaction with a teacher when learning a foreign
language such as English, at a certain point becomes vital in order to have someone
to communicate with and practice speaking to. Students can not correct their own
speaking in a new language. Also online learning can cause lots of frustration to
students when there is a subject that they come across that is unclear to them. It is
almost always more efficient for students to spend one-on-one time with a teacher
when they dont understand something rather than trying to solve his/her problems
for himself. Students teaching themselves material without interaction with a teacher
only promotes passive learning, which could backfire once a student is forced to
leave their computer with the new knowledge and go out into the world
communicating with others.
4.2.2. The Rosetta Stone
One such online program that is currently being used to teach thousands of people
different languages is called the Rosetta Stone. This program offers 30 different
languages to choose from spoken by over 90 percent of the worlds population. The
program focuses on tapping on individuals innate ability in order to learn another
language. It associates new words with familiar objects and ideas and avoids having
people memorize. It also focuses on the use of gradual repetition providing real
learning rather than having to study rules to grasp the material. This program is one
of the many now offered online and as time passes there will be more technological
advancements geared towards helping people pick up new languages, mainly
English, and continuing to break the intercultural barriers.
4.2.3. Word 2 Word
Word2Word.com offers a website where people can learn other languages online,
and there is no shortage of languages available. The site covers everything from
English to Afrikaans, with each language available through a separate online thread.
There are multiple ways to view such availabilities. Some would argue that this is a
fantastic innovation, allowing people who are unable for whatever reason to take an
actual academic course to learn another language, and to do so at their own

convenience. Technophiles who prefer to achieve knowledge through the Internet

have the ability to do so with sites like Word2Word. I consider that this takes away
from true understanding of language. For instance, how can someone truly master a
language without engaging in discourse with native speakers of the language? Can a
person truly understand English without hearing others speak the tongue and
communicating with them one-on-one?
One cannot argue, though, that in a short time-frame such technology can be
infinitely beneficial in that a person could pick up the language very quickly if they
are devoting their free time to it constantly. One can learn a language while on a
cross-country flight, for instance. Nonetheless, the lack of interpersonal contact
while learning a foreign language will always be a drawback to such technological
advances.
4.3. English Internet slang
Internet slang is slang that Internet users have coined and promulgated. Such terms
typically originated with the purpose of saving keystrokes, and many people use the
same abbreviations in text messages. They are also very commonly used in instant
messaging. The terms often appear in lower case, with capitals reserved for
emphasis; for example, the pronoun "I" often appears simply as "i". People also use
"u" to mean "you", "r" to mean "are", and "gy" to mean "gay". A very popular, and
current, abbreviation is "wth ?!" to express someone's annoyance, anger or confusion
- this stands for "what the hell ?!"43.
Like most slang, Internet slang makes authors and readers

appear as having

specialized knowledge of an already complex medium. However, there are cases

where using Internet slang with a straight face is considered ridiculous, due to
association with the stereotype of the Internet noob. Because of this, several Internet
slang abbreviations and spellings are most often used ironically.
Some other Internet slang includes the folowing. If you are called a "tker" it means
that you are a typekiller. For instance, if at any given time during an action game you
43

Internet Slang at www.wikipwedia.com

need to type, and a person kills you, that's a type kill, or "TK." (TKER can also be
used to mean team killer) Another slang term is used when the person has to go away
from his keyboard- "AFK" (this means you are not at your computer). He or she may
say "BRB" or "be right back". One more is the saying, "OMG". This term is usually
used out of stress or anger and it means "Oh my God !!" and is frequently used when
the connection is bad or slow.
Many of them can seem confusing, obscure, or even without sense. For example,
LMAO stands for Laughing My Ass Off. Another feature common to Internet
communication involves the truncation and morphing of words to forms that users
can type more readily, and quickly. When new terms of Internet slang are created, it
takes time for them to become widely accepted. The small ring of friends using an
instant messaging client most of the time is not enough. Web forums are a way to get
new terminology out on the net, and accepted and used by a wide range of members
of the Internet community.
4.3.1. Acronyms and abbreviations
Abbreviations are probably the most used variation of Internet slang. As opposed to
typing out a long character string of multiple words, a simple three or four letter
abbreviation can be used to express your point. A good example is "TTYL", which
means "talk to you later.". Probably the most commonly used example of this is
"LOL", which means "Laughing out Loud." or "Lots of Laugh."
Abbreviations vary considerably depending on the Internet group, particularly in the
case of online games where each game develops its own acronyms within its subculture. For example within the context of the online game World of Warcraft, AP
generally refers to "Attack Power" while in Maple Story it refers to "Ability Points".
This can lead to considerable confusion for the new user who is often incapable of
understanding other users' messages.
The words acronym and abbreviation are commonly confused with one another.
Acronyms are a subset of abbreviations. An abbreviation is the mere shortening of a
word while an acronym is the shortening of a word to form a new, pronounceable

word. For example: NASA and SCUBA are acronyms while things like LOL, BRB,
OMG, and others are all abbreviations and slangs. However, some of these
abbreviations are used, or even pronounced, as acronyms. For instance, the
abbreviation LOL is finding its way into normal conversations outside of Internet
use, being pronounced either letter by letter, as an abbreviation, or phonetically, as an
acronym ("Lawl"). Some other forms of "Lawl" are followed by a noun such as
"Lawlsauce" or "Lawlcakes"44.
4.3.2. Emoticons (smileys)
Emoticons- also known as smileys- are used to resemble a facial expression and
convey an emotion by means of a short sequence of printable characters. Emoticons
most probably found their origins in the early days of e-mail as a method of avoiding
a potentially embarrassing or emotionally damaging misunderstanding by clarifying
intent.
The basic "western style" smiley is :), where the colon represents the eyes and the
parenthesis for the mouth, forming a rough approximation of a "happy face". Many
emoticons may be more easily recognized by tilting one's head to the left.
4.3.3. Noob
The word "noob" is used a lot in Internet slang for people who are new at things
(from the word newbie). Generally, when the term "noob" is used, it is used as an
insult to a person who is a newbie, but thinks they know everything there is to know
about the game or other subject matter when they clearly do not. There are also
many variations of the word "noob", such as newb, nub, and n00b. In some places
this can be attributed to someone whom has been in a certain place for a long time,
and who is no longer familiar to the matter in business.
4.3.4. Format tagging

44

Internet Slang at www.wikipwedia.com

A variation of tagging meant to resemble XML or HTML code is used to give

emphasis on posts on blogs, forums, or message boards. For example, in HTML,
when "<b>" and "</b>" are placed around text, a web browser will display it in
boldface. Because emotions and inflection do not apply to text, Internet users will
use XML tags for such emphasis, such as "<sarcasm></sarcasm>" "<rant>
</rant>" or "<white lie></white lie>". These "tags" are often meant to be
generally humorous or informative. The opening tag may also sometimes be omitted
when a block of text's designation as such is not meant to be known at first, such as
when a sarcastic comment is made and only after the reader finishes it do they see
the closing </sarcasm> tag and realize the intent of the message.
4.4. English Internet Jargon
Internet users are being left confused and more vulnerable to online risks because of
the incomprehensible jargon in use, studies revealing that jargon such as 'phishing',
'rogue dialler', 'Trojan' and 'Spyware' are a mystery to most Internet users, despite
being commonly used in connection to serious online security threats.
For example, while a recent wave of financial scams via email has tricked some
consumers into handing over their bank account details and even cash, the America
Online survey revealed that 84 per cent of home Internet users do not understand the
term phishing, commonly used to describe such scam emails.
Once respondents were given a plain English definition of terms such as phishing
and spyware, the majority were easily able to understand the issue at hand,
confirming that part of the solution is avoiding geeky jargon and providing clear
definitions of the risks. However, a quarter of those claiming to know what spyware
is, were not actually able to identify the correct definition, with almost 1 in 10
guessing that it is specialist software to keep an eye on unfaithful partners.
It is hardly surprising that people are becoming increasingly confused when it comes
to Internet jargon, with new terms being introduced all the time. In the last years,
terms such pharming and keylogging have entered the parlance, most of the
times creating misunderstanding or confusion.

Some terms used in Internet jargon

will be explained in the following lines:

Firewall - Firewall software helps to protect your computer or home network against
hackers who might try to access your account without your authority;
Keylogging - Fraudsters use a piece of software or hardware to monitor keystrokes
on a computer, enabling them to gather passwords, credit card numbers, and other
private details ;
Pharming - Fraudsters redirect large numbers of Internet users from legitimate to
fake Web sites ;
Phishing - Fraudulent emails and pop-ups designed to fool you into revealing
personal information, such as passwords, credit card details, and account numbers,
for criminal gain;
Rogue dialler - A software application that can install itself on your computer and
change your settings to dial a premium rate telephone number for Internet access,
resulting in larger-than-expected phone bills;
Spam - Unsolicited emails, often offering products or services in which you have no
interest

Spyware - Small programmes that secretly monitor the Web sites you visit,
potentially violating your privacy and causing computer slowdowns;
Trojan - A virus disguised as a harmless programme, such as a downloadable game ;
Virus - A malicious computer programme designed to damage your data, usually
spread via infected email attachments;
4.4.1. Cyberlingo

Spending time involved in any sort of text chat, one has probably seen a lot of letters
that seem totally incomprehensible. Cryptic letters, like DD, 886, KPM, MM, are
very popular among the younger generation. If today's pre-teens and teens didn't use
this sort of Internet jargon in chat rooms and on IM (instant messaging), they would
be considered "weird" and wouldn't be accepted by other teens45.
The use of Internet English jargon is no longer confined to cyberspace, it has gone
from the virtual world to the real world. This language used by Internet addicts has
different names- cyberlingo, Internet jargon, Internet language. Opinions vary about
this new language used online. Some people believe that cyberlingo fully reflects the
creativity and personality of young people. Every industry has its own jargon for
people in the industry to communicate with each other. Online chat has its own
language - cyberlingo.
Whether cyberlingo is a normative language or not depends largely on whether it
will gain wide acceptance. Whether a neologism is a correct word or not should not
be judged by linguistic standards but rather by the test of time. If it is a good
neologism it will slowly spread and become widely accepted, if not it will not
survive.
In the second place, new words are needed to describe new things and new concepts.
New words will continually emerge in parallel with socioeconomic development and
human progress, and the traditional language will be continually enriched with the
emergence of new words. A living language both accumulates new words of value
and preserves what is old and of value. Some Internet neologism, such as
webaholic, hacker and e-mail, have gained widespread familiarity and
acceptance.
Questions like Why invent new terms when the vocabulary already exists? are
often raised by lots of people. However, these people are not aware that Internet
jargon is a feature of the online culture, crossing race, gender and geography. As
there is legal jargon for lawyers, there is Internet jargon for Internet users. For

45

Cyberlingo at www.glantzberg.us

Internet users, cyberlingo somewhat extends and enriches vocabulary, serving to

enliven conversation.
However, the special Internet English jargon is mostly used inside chat rooms, where
communication needs to be easy and fast. All in all, people must be cautious about
using Internet jargon in real life. Inappropriate use or misuse of Internet English
jargon can give rise to misunderstanding, misinterpretation and other communication
problems.
The following texts, belonging to the same chat room, are conclusive to my previous
statements regarding Internet English and Internet jargon and slang. The chat room
participants are only women, of different ages.
Desperately seeking Leo
1

Angelfire: Hello is that you Leo?

RosieD.: You are nuts if you think Leo is ever going to come in this chat room.
Angelfire: well they say he goes out on the web all the time
Toughgal4: U need a margarita gurlfriend- let me make u one

Leolover: here she goes again. Make me one 2 TG4

DrPlay: How would you know if Leo was in this chat room?
Angelfire: I would know
Toughgal4: TG pulls out her blender. Plugs it OUCH what a shock
Leolover: You okay GF? LOL

10

DrPlay: Why do you guys always say Love Our Leo?

RosieD.: 1st we are gals NOT guys
Angelfire: Who says Love Our Leo?
DrPlay: deepest apologies
Toughgal4: Adding ingredients a secret ingred

15

DrPlay: LOL Love Our Leo right?

RosieD.: LOLLOLLOLLOL
Angelfire: LOL
Leolover: LOL
Toughgal4: TG stops blending to LOL !

20

Leolover: LOL means LAUGH OUT LOUD

DrPlay: I am so embarrassed. See me blushing. Watch me crawl in a hole.

Angelfire: ok ok ok I like DPs idea better .
Leolover: LOVE OUR LEO
Playing with language is something common in chat rooms. I observed that young
children and teenagers play with language through rhythm, rhyme, abbreviations and
predictable texts. In the above text, we can notice a group of subjects whose main
concern is having fun and chatting about certain topics- such as their favourite actor
Leonardo DiCaprio.
The language they use is an informal English enriched with abbreviations, slang and
new words- especially Toughgal4. She appears to enjoy a lot playing with words
and walking the edge of what might be seen as acceptable in this chat room
community. Several terms appear in lower case, for example, the pronoun you
appears in line 4 as u, or the word ingredient in line 14, where Toughgal4 uses it
as ingred . Informal words like gurlfriend (line 4)or gals (line 11) give a sense
of belonging to a certain group or community, strictly referring to the users of this
chat room.
To avoid typing out long phrases, such as LAUGH OUT LOUD, the participants
to the discussion use the three letter abbreviation LOL, expressing their amusement
or irony. These abbreviations caused a slight missunderstanding; DrPlay, being
unfamiliar with the language used, found herself in an akward position, giving a new
meaning to the famous abbreviation: LOL Love Our Leo (line 10). Because the
chat room community is small, no importance was given to this misunderstanding,
but in larger chat room communities people may feel embarrassed if such situations
occur.
The use of words in capital letters confers emotional implication and nuances to the
statement, even though there are no verbal elements of communication. In line 8,
Toughgal4 uses the word ouch in capital letters trying to get attention and to stress
on the fact that she got hurt. In line 11, RosieD. gives a straight forward response to
DrPlay 1st we are gals NOT guys, using capital letters in order to show her
disagreement towards DrPlays previous statement.

Here I noticed again that feeling of belonging of RosieD. to this chat room
community, consisting of gals only (line 11), who use a common terminology and
share common beliefs.

Teachers, are you *N Sync?

1

Angelfire: Hey, wassup DP.

DrPlay: Did I miss anything?
RosieD: TG4 just told us shes flunking school.
Angelfire: Im waiting for Leo

DrPlay: True fact?

Toughgal4: Yep.
RosieD.: She is forever waiting or Leo poor baby you need to find yourself a real
man.
Leolover: Shes flunking writing
Toughgal4: And everything else.

10

Angelfire: Hey, leo is a real MAN. And HES MINE!

DrPlay: Well, I teach writing at university
Leolover: WHAT?
Angelfire: NO WAY!
RosieD.: So youre a real doctor?

15

Toughgal4: I knew it she is the enemy!

DrPlay: Yes, I am a teacher doctor I guess you could say
Toughgal4: well, you can come FIX my dam teacher
DrPlay: now, now what is the problem with your writing?
Toughgal4: Need to be more descriptive what ever

20

DrPlay: Hmmmmm
DrPlay: Thats easy help her out girls describe Leo.
Angelfire: Hes fine.
Leolover: What a gorgeous man
RosieD.: I think she means details. Beautiful baby blue eyes

25

Leolover: Sweet soft smile that makes you wonder what he is thinking.
Angelfire: Sandy brown hair that flops over his left eye

Toughgal4: Eyes that have attitude, soft dimples that are irresistible
DrPlay: Welcome to the world of description TG4
Toughgal4: Great, now help me describe my pen whoopee.
The truncation and morphing of words in order to create forms that users can type
faster and easier, using less letters, are common features of Internet communication.
Such an example can be seen in the first line, where Angelfire uses the term
wassup to replace the longer phrase whats happening. It happens the same thing
with the names of certain participants, which are reduced to two or three letters:
DP for DrPlay, and TG4- for Toughgal4. All these truncations and morphings
have the purpose to save time while typing, and it is very common in these chat
rooms.
Grammar rules are totally omitted in this text, where there is no clear separation
between nouns and verb. Lines 10 and 23 prove it: HES instead of he is or
hes. Line 19 Need to be more descriptive shows that subjects are no longer
necessary in order for statements to make sense. These grammar mistakes are
overlooked by the Internet users, who consider them useless or not so important.
Capital letters are means of expressing emotions and feelings, giving more meaning
to the simple written words. In the case of Leolovers and Angelfires reactions
( lines 12 and 13) when finding out that DrLove is a teacher, capital letters along
with exclamation points accentuate the surprise and amazement of the two women:
WHAT?, NO WAY!. Toughgal4s words in line 17 well, you can come FIX my
dam teacher show that irony doesnt fail to make its appearance. Capital letters
again prove to have a big influence when interpreting online text messages.
Just Playin Around!
1

DrPlay: Hello?
Leolover: yeah you got it DP newbie huh?
DrPlay: Yes.
RosieD.: Ooooh so proper. LOL

Angelfire: So did anyone see how hot Leo looked at the Golden Globes?
RosieD.: Ooooooh , baby?

Leolover: Hes mine ladies eat your heart out he likes blonde and Im the only one
in the house !
DrPlay: How does she know that?
10

Toughgal4: TG4 enters the room and decides if she wants to talk to the Leo pansies.
Leolover: hey, Toughgal4, wassup?
Toughgal4: TG4 decides to get up --- tromp, tromp, tromp, --- and go to the
bathroom.
DrPlay: Did she really leave?
RosieD.: Wait it gets better?

15

DrPlay: what?
Toughgal4: Pssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss.
Toughgal4: Plop. Plop.
DrPlay: Is she doing what I think she is doing?
RosieD.: Ignore her what brings you to our chat room DP?

20

DrPlay: Well, I just saw the movie Titanic and I am pretty impressed with Leo Id
like to know more about him.
Toughgal4: Mom! Wheres the toilet paper.
Angelfire: Have you seen any of his other movies.
RosieD.: You know he has a GF?

25

Toughgal4: WHOOOOSH, glug. Glug. Darn, clogged again.

DrPlay: GF?
Leolover: Girl Friend, girlfriend.
DrPlay: uh, I have seen several of his movies um, the Gilbert Grape one, Romeo
and
Angelfire: You are a leo lover dah ling. Welcome to the club.

30

Toughgal4: Plunge. Plunge. Plunge. Great now I smell like

DrPlay: What club is that?
RosieD.: Watch it TG cmon and join the world of the sane you wacko !
Toughgal4: TG returns to the conversation, releved and refreshed Pfffffffft
oops.

As well as in the other two texts, abbreviations like LOL, or DP and TG4 are used
without any problem, but new characteristics of Internet language tend to be more
aggressive. Im referring to Toughgal4, who is creating new words and sounds, such

as tromp, tromp, tromp, (line 13)Plop. Plop. (line 17) , WHOOOOOSH! and
Glug(line 25), Plunge. Plunge. Plunge (line 30) or Pfffffffft (line 34). She
creates this language but must do so in such a way that she will still be understood
within this chat community.
All these women are making use of what they learned in their social environment
taking in consideration not only language and literacy but also social roles and
gender issues. Toughgal4 is practicing and modifying her language including the
rules society presents to her and the roles she can play in this particular environment.
She feels safe so she is willing to try new things, practicing what is familiar and
known to her, but still stretching her linguistic boundaries. She knows her audience
and she affords to use language in a manner that might seems rude or inappropriate
for others.
Within this on-line community, Toughgal4 has invented her own personal style of
communicating but she is following a language convention otherwise none of us
would be able to understand her.

She is inventing language but using the

conventional sign system, her knowledge about sentence structure and grammar, and
of course, her need to make sense and her messages to be meaningful.
Internet jargon is used to describe one of the participants to the dialogue yeah you
got it DP newbie huh? (line 2). DrLove is still new with the language used by
these women, but in this case Leolover doesnt use the term newbie with
pejorative connotations. It has to be taken in consideration the fact that this chat
community is rather small, and participants to the dialogues are tolerating and
accepting DrLoves lack of knowledge regardin Internet language.
Disturbing pleasures
1

Angelfire: who do you think is cuter Leo or Nick from BSB?

Toughgal4: I vote none of the above give me OSCAR the grouch
Angelfire: Fine, grouch.
DrPlay: Hey, TG has something here. Would we still listen to BSB and N Sync if
they werent good looking?

Leolover: NO WAY.

Angelfire: well, thats not really fair but I dont know

RosieD.: Good question, DP.
Toughgal4: Give me 5 guys that look like the grouch man Id be !
10

Leolover: Change the subject.

DrPlay: Hey, women. Talk to me. How do you stay safe out here in CYBERSPACE?
Toughgal4: we dont talk to drs like you
Angelfire: BE NICE.
RosieD.: that is a big issue. What do they call them internet predators?

15

Toughgal4: WHAT that sounds like a slammin movie can I get tickets?
Leolover: what is an IP
DrPlay: well, from what I understand, it is someone who comes into chat rooms or
contacts you over the email
Angelfire: yeah, they try to get you to give them personal info

20

DrPlay: never give out your actual name, address or phone number.
RosieD.: What if there is someone you have been talking to for months and you
would like to meet them in person?
Leolover: Talk to your mom.
RosieD.: That works. Im a thirty something MOM !

25

Angelfire: Meet them in a public place - right?

DrPlay: Take someone with you?
Toughgal4: WOW ruff world out there still would be a great movie LOL

Because verbal communication elements are not present in online text messaging
and in chat rooms, there is a desperate need to be as expressive as possible. In this
case, making use of capital letters is an accesible way of emphasizing the meaning of
simple words. Toughgal4 clearly expresses her choice in line 2, when she writes in
capital letter the name of a man OSCAR, a strong proof of her beliefs and
determination. In line 6 we deal with the same matter: Leolovers clear statement
NO WAY.. Lines 13, 15, 24, and 27 reinforce the position of capital letters
correlated to expressing feelings and emotions: BE NICE, WHAT, MOM,
WOW.
In order to spare time, abbreviations like BSB (line 1 and 4) or DP (line 8)
werent forgotten, but no misunderstandings occurred due to the fact that all

participants to the dialogue were aware of the specific terminology used. As a means
of expressing happiness or joy, one of the paticipants to the dialogue used an
emoticon Id be instead of writing Id be happy, because it is attention
grabbing as well as neutral to interpretations.
The text ends with the abbreviation LOL, as a sign of irony and lack of interest
towards the topic of the dialogue.
Chatting and Internet slang are gravitating around the word play. People play
with words, letters and numbers, and they enjoy spending their time speaking
freely. There is no limit in how somebody express her/his feelings or opinions.
The dialogues in the above texts are dynamic, growing and evolving with each
statement made by a member of the chat.
My opinion is that "chatting" offers an entirely new style of writing and
communicating to children and adults. People are asked to stretch their thinking
about letters and words, and the way they put them on the page. Using Iternet slang
or cyberlingo means breaking new ground learning to overcome conventional and
formal ideas about gender, technology and what is the most important language
use.
The conventions set forth by the social environment are the basis for the invention of
language. People have histories embedded in family, school and community. Whithin
these worlds there are people that we need to communicate with, and they provide
the impulse necessary for us to continue learning about language.
4.5. English the Universal Language on Internet
On a overall view, the universal language on the Internet is English, or more exactly
a vague collection of languages called "English" because their common origin is the
national language spoken in England. That national language has spread over the
world, and several variants such as American (US) English, Australian English, etc
exist. A great number of people whose native language is none of the variants know
English as a foreign language. They typically use a more or less simplified variant,

excluding most of the idioms of British, American, Australian English. Of course,

they make mistakes, and sometimes the "English" used by people as a foreign
language on the Internet is almost incomprehensible to anyone else. In addition,
there are cases where people who use English as their native language do not know
how to spell difficult words, since they basically know English as a spoken language.
There are exceptions, most importantly national newsgroups in such countries where
English is not the native language of the majority. Even in such groups English is
used, for instance when people from other countries wish to participate. And a few
international groups have a theme like discussing a particular language or culture so
that it is natural to assume that the participants have a common language other than
English. Moreover, a group which is partly international in the sense of not being
purely national might use a language other than English, for instance if the group is
intended for people in German-speaking countries.
4.5.1. Reasons
Generally speaking, when a languages has got the position of a universal language,
the position tends to be affirmed and extended by itself. Since almost everyone
knows and uses English, people are almost forced to learn English and use it, and
learn it better.
Even if one expects the majority of her/his readers to understand her/his native
language, one may be tempted to use English when writing, for example about
research work. Usually researchers all over the world know English and use it a lot,
and often the relevant terminology is more stable and well-known in English than in
ones own language. Thus, to maximize the number of interested people that can
understand ones text, one often selects English even if the great majority of ones
readers share the same native language.
Alternatively, one might write her/his texts both in her/his native language and in
English, but this doubles the work needed for writing a document and possibly
maintaining it. The maintenance problem is especially important for documents on
the World Wide Web- the information system where one crucial feature is the ability

to keep things really up to date. Consequently, the use of English in essentially

national contexts tends to grow.
In the news system, the position of English in most international groups is regarded
as so obvious that people who post non-English articles to such groups - by accident
or by ignorance - typically get flamed quickly. This is the sort of control that
newsgroup communities exercise in other matters than language, too. It is often
regarded as an example of the "democratic" nature of the news system. However,
things are changing fast. The flame control- that is control by flaming - has worked
to a great extent because people have had relatively compatible status, background,
and values of life.
Once gained, the universal language position tends to be strong. During the history
of mankind, there have been several more or less universal languages or lingua
francas, such as Latin and Greek in the Roman empire, mediaeval Latin in Western
Europe, later French and English. Uiversality is of course relative; it means
universality in the "known world" or "civilized world", or just in a large empire. No
language has been really universal global, but the current position of English comes
closest.
4.5.2. The Importance of the Internet and English
The importance of the Internet grows rapidly in all fields of human life, including
not only research and education but also marketing and trade as well as
entertainment and hobbies. This implies that it becomes more and more important to
know how to use Internet services and, as a main part of this, to read and write
English.
Of course, the majority of mankind cannot use the Internet nowadays or in the near
future, since they live in countries which lack the necessary economical and
technological infrastructure. But the Internet causes polarization in developed
countries, too: people are divided into Internet users and Internet illiterates, and as
the use of the Internet grows and often replaces traditional methods of
communication, the illiterates may find themselves in an awkward position.

In general, it is easy to learn to use Internet services. The worst problems of Internet
illiteracy are, in addition to lack of economical resources of course, wrong attitudes.
Older people are usually not accustomed to live in a world of continuous and rapid
change, and they may not realize the importance of the Internet or the easiness of
learning to use it.
Even though Internet services themselves are, generally speaking, easy to learn and
use, one may find herself/himself isolated on the Internet if not familiar with
English. This means that knowledge or lack of knowledge of English is one of the
most severe factors that cause polarization. Learning to use a new Internet service or
user interface may take a few hours, a few days, or even weeks, but it takes years to
learn a language so that you can use it in a fluent and self-confident manner. Of
course, when one knows some English, one can learn more just by using it on the
Internet, but at least currently the general tendency among Internet users is to
discourage people in their problems with the English language. Incorrect English
causes a few flames much more probably than encouragement and friendly advice.
In different countries and cultures, English has different positions. There are
countries where English is the native language of the majority, there are countries
where English is a widely known second language, and there are countries where
English has no special position. These differences add to the above-mentioned
polarization. Specifically, it is difficult for people in previous colonies of other
countries than Great Britain, such as France, Spain, the Netherlands, to adapt to the
necessity of learning English. Locally, it may be necessary to learn the language of
the previous colonial power since it is often an official language and the common
language of educated people; globally, English is necessary for living on the Internet.
4.5.3. Breaking Down Barriers
The main advantage of any new technology is that it amplifies human potential. In
the 20th century, electricity, the telephone, the automobile and the airplane all made
the world more accessible to more people, transforming our economy and society in
the process. The Internet has the same revolutionary impact: individuals and

businesses can overcome geographical, cultural and liguistic barriers and improve
the way they live and work.
The Internet makes the world smaller. The ability to communicate and exchange
information instantaneously and across vast distances has enabled more individuals
and businesses to participate in the economy, regardless of their location. Large
companies can connect with employees, suppliers, and partners around the globe,
and small businesses can find their customers anywhere in the world. Businesses can
hire knowledge workers almost regardless of where they are, greatly expanding
employment opportunities for people all over the world, and giving developing
nations the ability to become economic powerhouses by providing information
technology services to the rest of the world. The Internet, along with other computer
technologies, is literally enabling some developing countries to leave beside the
industrial revolution and jump straight to the Internet Age.
The Internet brings people closer together. Before the Internet, it was possible to
keep in touch with relatives and friends across the country or around the world, but it
was also expensive. Today, communicating in English with a friend in Japan is as
easy and cheap as communicating with a friend across town, and families regularly
use the Internet to keep in touch with far-flung relatives. Millions of people with
shared interests exchange information and build communities through Web sites,
email and instant-messaging software. Using innovative accessibility aids, people
with disabilities can use the Internet to help overcome barriers that prevent them
from leading more productive and fulfilling lives.
The Internet makes the world simpler. For businesses, the Internet breaks down
logistical barriers, offering greater flexibility and power in the way they do business.
It shrinks time and distance, simplifies complex business processes, and enables
more effective communication and collaboration- a giant corporation can now be as
nimble as a tiny startup, while a family firm located in a remote rural village now has
the world as its marketplace. Combined with advanced productivity software, the
Internet enables individual knowledge workers to use their time more efficiently, and
to focus on more productive tasks. And it gives consumers the ability to shop
smarter, to find the best products at the right prices. In fact, it empowers them in

ways that once were available only to large companies, enabling them to join with
others to buy products at lower prices, and bid competitively around the world.
4.6. Internet and the Future
The Internet has already revolutionized the way we live and work, but it is still in its
infancy. In the coming years, a combination of cheap and powerful computing
devices, fast and convenient Internet access, and software innovations could make
the Internet a resource as common and powerful as electricity is today.
Today, most people access the Internet through their home or office personal
computer, but as microprocessors become cheaper and more powerful, Internet
access will also be available from a wider range of smart devices, from tablet-sized
personal computers to smart cellular phones- even familiar household appliances.
People will be able to share information without boundaries across devices and
interact with them in a more natural way, using speech, handwriting and gestures.
Eventually, they will be able to interact with a computer almost as easily as they do
with each other.
And all this computing power will be interconnected, as high-speed Internet access
becomes available in more areas and in many different ways, both wired and
wireless. Advances in communications technologies, along with increasing public
demand for Internet access, will eventually ensure that Internet connectivity will be
commonplace at home, at work or on the move. While today's Internet consists of
isolated "islands" of data that are difficult to edit, share and integrate, tomorrow's
Internet will break down those barriers and enable people to access and share the
information they need, regardless of whether they're accessing the Internet from their
personal computer or any other device.
4.7. Challenges and Opportunities
Whenever a new technology emerges with the potential to change the way people
live and work, it sparks lively debate about its impact on our world and concern over
how widely it should be adopted. Some people will view the technology with

tremendous optimism, while others will view it as threatening and dangerous. When
the telephone was first introduced, many critics thought it would disrupt society,
dissolve communities, erode privacy, and encourage selfish behaviour. Others
thought the telephone was a liberating and democratizing force that would create
new business opportunities and bring society closer together.
The Internet brings many of these arguments back to life. In my opinion, Internet
may be seen as humanity's greatest invention, an invention on the scale of the
printing press. I strongly believe the Internet will bring about unprecedented
economic and political empowerment, richer communication between people, a
cultural renaissance, and a new era of economic prosperity and world peace. But
there are also negative opinions about the Internet era. Pessimists think that the
Internet will result in economic and cultural exploitation, the death of privacy, and a
decline in values and social standards.
In any case, the Internet will have a profound and overwhelmingly positive impact
on the way we work, live and communicate. But it will not change the fundamental
aspects of business and society, companies will still need to make a profit, people
will still need their social framework, education will still require great teachers.
4.8. Conclusion
The Internet today is a way to transfer and share information. On the whole, it is a
benefit to the education of individuals of all kinds. There are problems surrounding
the Internet that need to be solved, but as with all new technologies there are debates
and opinions that affect the surrounding communities. Since the Internet technology
is spreading, it will soon become as popular as all other forms of communication.
The Internet gives people the opportunity to put their knowledge to work and take
advantage of greater opportunities to lead productive and fulfilling lives. It is the
gateway to vast amounts of knowledge, art and culture. It provides equal access to
information and communications, allowing the formation of rich communities and
forging real connections between people. It breaks down barriers between and within
nations, opening up economies and democratizing societies. And as cheap computing

power becomes more pervasive, the Internet can bring all these benefits to more and
more people around the world.
The Internet has a great effect on our communities. It enables us to access and share
information, to communicate with anybody with the click of a button. It provides the
academic community with items such as lesson plans, topics of research, and a host
of other educational ideas from across the world. Students benefit because the
Internet provides a resource to supplemental information for any subject. Educators
benefit because the Internet provides a vast knowledge base to prepare for topics.
Intercultural communication reaches a new level, where a common used Internet
English facilitates better understanding and avoids cultural conflicts.

Conclusions
This project has aimed to give an overview of the complexities of culture and
language, and their impact on intercultural communication. There is no doubt that
intercultural communication involves challenges, such as mutual understanding and
collaboration. The linguistic and cultural barriers are the ones that affect the most
intercultural communication. English language has succeeded in breaking these
barriers, its popularity transforming it into the 21st century lingua franca.
Language is the expression of thought, and the act of translating thoughts into words
is the refining of understanding, hence the crucial importance of the ability to use a
language, both to the individual and to the community. Maintaining regular exercise
is a key to mastering and, what is more important, a key to understanding a
language. That is by frequent discussion, reading, writing or speeches.
Language is tradition, for it is tradition that establishes the words, spelling and
grammar; hence it is tradition that forms the basis of common understanding. As
words are the currency of thought, the use of language is critical to both private and
public understanding, with the particular choice of words revealing the nature of an
author's understanding.
Grammar differences can be overlooked, terminology achieves flexibility, and still
people with different linguistic and cultural background can understand each other in
English. Even though the existence of dialects and accents is considered an
impediment in intercultural encounters, English acts as as a commonly shared notion
which shows the path to successful communication.
And yet, intercultural communication shows itself to be a slippery field, due to its
numerous possibilities for failure in comprehensibility. Depending on a cultures
pattern of communication, individuals may not show when their expectations or
norms have been violated or when they are offended, or at least they may not show it
in a way easy for the others to perceive or understand. The unknown or invisible

differences in communication style and values also create difficulties because they
may be presumed to be individual personality or ethical issues. Cultural sensitivity
and awareness are musts in nowadays society. Correlated with incorrect use of
language, they led to misunderstandings and even conflicts.
English has proved to be a connector between different cultures, its universal
language status pointing it as the intermediator of intercultural communication, a
means to avoid misunderstandings and to ensure better collaboration.
Further reasearch could be done in the area of intercultural communication, referring
to the linguistic similarities between different European languages, in this way
demonstrating that intercultural communication doesnt need to be classified as
problematic. It is the almost unlimited human capacity for adaptation and selforganization that makes the area of intercultural encounters and cultural convergence
so interesting.

Glossary of Internet and Web Jargon

BACK / FORWARD
Buttons in most browsers' Tool Button Bar, upper left. BACK returns you to the
document previously viewed. FORWARD goes to the next document, after you go
BACK. If it seems like the BACK button does not work, check if you are in a new
browser window; some Web pages are programmed to open a new window when
you click on some links. Each window has its own short-term search HISTORY. If
this does not work, right click on the BACK button to select the page you want
(some Web pages are programmed to disable BACK).
BLOG or WEB LOG
A blog (short for "web log") is a type of web page that serves as a publicly accessible
personal journal (or log) for an individual. Typically updated daily, blogs often
reflect the personality of the author. Blog software usually has an archive of old blog
postings. Many blogs can be searched for terms in the archive. Blogs have become a
vibrant, fast-growing medium for communication in professional, political, news,
trendy, and other specialized web communities. Many blogs provide RSS feeds, to
which one can subscribe and receive alerts to new postings in selected blogs.
BOOKMARK/FAVORITES
Way in browsers to store in your computer direct links to sites you wish to return to.
Netscape, Mozilla, and Firefox use the term Bookmarks. The equivalent in Internet
Explorer (IE) is called a "Favorite." To create a bookmark, click on BOOKMARKS
or FAVORITES, then ADD. Or left-click on and drag the little bookmark icon to the
place you want a new bookmark filed. To visit a bookmarked site, click on
BOOKMARKS and select the site from the list. One can download a bookmark file
to diskette and install it on another computer. In most browsers now, one can do this
with an Import and Export... set of commands which can be found under FILE or
in the Manage Bookmarks window's FILE.

BOOLEAN LOGIC
Way to combine terms using "operators" such as "AND," "OR," "AND NOT" and
sometimes "NEAR." AND requires all terms appear in a record. OR retrieves records
with either term. AND NOT excludes terms. Parentheses may be used to sequence
operations and group words. Always enclose terms joined by OR with parentheses.
BROWSE
To follow links in a page, to shop around in a page, exploring what's there, similar to
window shopping. The opposite of browsing a page is searching it. When you search
a page, you find a search box, enter terms, and find all occurrences of the terms
throughout the site. When you browse, you have to guess which words on the page
pertain to your interests. Searching is usually more efficient, but sometimes you find
things by browsing that you might not find because you might not think of the
"right" term to search by.
BROWSERS
Browsers are software programs that enable you to view www documents. They
"translate" HTML-encoded files into the text, images, sounds, and other features you
see. Microsoft Internet Explorer (called simply IE), Mozilla, Firefox, Safari, and
Opera are examples of "graphical" browsers that enable you to view text and images
and many other www features. They are software that must be installed on your
computer. For more information about browsers, consult the introductory pages of
the Teaching Library tutorial.
CACHE
In browsers, "cache" is used to identify a space where web pages you have visited
are stored in your computer. A copy of documents you retrieve is stored in cache.
When you use GO, BACK, or any other means to revisit a document, the browser
first checks to see if it is in cache and will retrieve it from there because it is much
faster than retrieving it from the server.

CACHED LINK
In search results from Google, Yahoo! Search, and some other search engines, there
is usually a Cached link which allows you to view the version of a page that the
search engine has stored in its database. The live page on the web might differ from
this cached copy, because the cached copy dates from whenever the search engine's
spider last visited the page and detected modified content. Use the cached link to see
when a page was last crawled and, in Google, where your terms are and why you got
a page when all of your search terms are not in it.
CASE SENSITIVE
Capital letters (upper case) retrieve only upper case. Most search tools are not case
sensitive or only respond to initial capitals, as in proper names. It is always safe to
key all lower case (no capitals), because lower case will always retrieve upper case.
CGI
"Common Gateway Interface," the most common way Web programs interact
dynamically with users. Many search boxes and other applications that result in a
page with content tailored to the user's search terms rely on CGI to process the data
once it's submitted, to pass it to a background program in JAVA, JAVASCRIPT, or
another programming language, and then to integrate the response into a display
using HTML.
COOKIE
A message from a WEB SERVER computer, sent to and stored by your browser on
your computer. When your computer consults the originating server computer, the
cookie is sent back to the server, allowing it to respond to you according to the
cookie's contents. The main use for cookies is to provide customized Web pages
according to a profile of your interests. When you log onto a "customize" type of
invitation on a Web page and fill in your name and other information, this may result
in a cookie on your computer which that Web page will access to appear to "know"
you and provide what you want. If you fill out these forms, you may also receive email and other solicitation independent of cookies.

CRAWLER or WEBCRAWLER
Same as Spider.
DOMAIN, TOP LEVEL DOMAIN (TLD)
Hierarchical scheme for indicating logical and sometimes geographical venue of a
web-page from the network. In the US, common domains are .edu (education), .gov
(government agency), .net (network related), .com (commercial), .org (non-profit
and research organizations). Outside the US, domains indicate country: ca (Canada),
uk (United Kingdom), au (Australia), jp (Japan), fr (France), etc.
DOMAIN NAME, DOMAIN NAME SERVER (DNS)ENTRY
Any of these terms refers to the initial part of a URL, down to the first /, where the
domain and name of the host or SERVER computer are listed (most often in reversed
order, name first, then domain). The domain name gives you who "published" a
page, made it public by putting it on the Web. A domain name is translated in huge
tables standardized across the Internet into a numeric IP address unique the host
computer sought. These tables are maintained on computers called "Domain Name
Servers." Whenever you ask the browser to find a URL, the browser must consult the
table on the domain name server that particular computer is networked to consult.
"Domain Name Server entry" frequently appears a browser error message when you
try to enter a URL. If this lookup fails for any reason, the "lacks DNS entry" error
occurs. The most common remedy is simply to try the URL again, when the domain
name server is less busy, and it will find the entry (the corresponding numeric IP
address). For more information, see "All About Domain Names."
DOWNLOAD
To copy something from a primary source to a more peripheral one, as in saving
something found on the Web (currently located on its server) to diskette or to a file
on your local hard drive.

EXTENSION or FILE EXTENSION

In Windows, DOS and some other operating systems, one or several letters at the end
of a filename. Filename extensions usually follow a period (dot) and indicate the
type of file. For example, this.txt denotes a plain text file, that.htm or that.html
denotes an HTML file. Some common image extensions are picture.jpg or
picture.jpeg or picture.bmp or picture.gif
FAVORITES
In the Internet Explorer browser, a means to get back to a URL you like, similar to
Bookmarks.
FEED READER
A software package that enables you to easily read the XML code in which RSS
feeds are written. Bloglines is currently the most popular feed reader but there are
many competitors.
FIELD SEARCHING
Ability to limit a search by requiring word or phrase to appear in a specific field of
documents (e.g., title, url, link). See LIMITING TO FIELD.
FIND
Tool in most browsers to search for word(s) keyed in document in screen only.
Useful to locate a term in a long document. Can be invoked by the keyboard
command, Ctrl+F.
FRESHNESS
How up-to-date a search engine database is based primarily on how often its spiders
recirculate around the Web and update their copies of the web pages they hold, and
discover new ones. Also determined by how quickly they integrate new sites that
web authors send to them. Two weeks is about as good as most search engines do,
but some update certain selected web sites more frequently, even daily.

FRAMES
A format for web documents that divides the screen into segments, each with a scroll
bar as if it were as "window" within the window. Usually, selecting a category of
documents in one frame shows the contents of the category in another frame. To go
BACK in a frame, position the cursor in the frame an press the right mouse button,
and select "Back in frame" (or Forward). You can adjust frame dimensions by
positioning the cursor over the border between frames and dragging the border
up/down or right/left holding the mouse button down over the border.
FTP
File Transfer Protocol. Ability to transfer rapidly entire files from one computer to
another, intact for viewing or other purposes.
FUZZY AND
In ranking of results, documents with all terms (Boolean AND) are ranked first,
followed by documents containing any terms (Boolean OR) are retrieved. The
farther down, the fewer the terms, although at least one should always be present.
HEAD or HEADER (of HTML document)
The top portion of the HTML source code behind Web pages, beginning with
<HEAD> and ending with </HEAD>. It contains the Title, Description, Keywords
fields and others that web page authors may use to describe the page. The title
appears in the title bar of most browsers, but the other fields cannot be seen as part
of the body of the page. To view the <HEAD> portion of web pages in your browser,
click VIEW, Page Source. In Internet Explorer, click VIEW, Source. Some search
engines will retrieve based on text in these fields.
HISTORY
Available by using the combined keystrokes CTRL + H, a more permanent record of
sites you have visited/retrieved than GO. You can set how many days your browser
retains history in Edit | Preferences, or in Tools | Options.
HOST
Computer that provides web-documents to clients or users.

HTML
Hypertext Markup Language. A standardized language of computer code, imbedded
in "source" documents behind all Web documents, containing the textual content,
images, links to other documents (and possibly other applications such as sound or
motion), and formatting instructions for display on the screen. When you view a Web
page, you are looking at the product of this code working behind the scenes in
conjunction with your browser. Browsers are programmed to interpret HTML for
display. HTML often imbeds within it other programming languages and
applications such as SGML, XML, Javascript, CGI-script and more. It is possible to
deliver or access and execute virtually any program via the WWW.
HYPERTEXT
On the World Wide Web, the feature, built into HTML, that allows a text area,
image, or other object to become a "link" (as if in a chain) that retrieves another
computer file (another Web page, image, sound file, or other document) on the
Internet. The range of possibilities is limited by the ability of the computer retrieving
the outside file to view, play, or otherwise open the incoming file. It needs to have
software that can interact with the imported file. Many software capabilities of this
type are built into browsers or can be added as "plug-ins."
INTERNET
The vast collection of interconnected networks that all use the TCP/IP protocols and
that evolved from the ARPANET of the late 60s and early 70s. An "Internet" (lower
case i) is any computers connected to each other (a network), and are not part of the
Internet unless the use TCP/IP protocols. An "intranet" is a private network inside a
company or organization that uses the same kinds of software that you would find on
the public Internet, but that is only for internal use. An intranet may be on the
Internet or may simply be a network.
IP Address or IP Number
(Internet Protocol number or address). A unique number consisting of 4 parts
separated by dots, e.g. 165.113.245.2. Every machine that is on the Internet has a
unique IP address. If a machine does not have an IP number, it is not really on the

Internet. Most machines also have one or more Domain Names that are easier for
people to remember.
ISP or Internet Service Provider
A company that sells Internet connections via modem (examples: , Mindspring thousands of ISPs to choose from; not easy to evaluate). Faster, more expensive
Internet connectivity is available via cable, DSL, ISDN, or web-TV. Often these
companies also provide Web page hosting service (free or relatively inexpensive web
pages - the origin of many personal pages).
JAVA
A network-oriented programming language invented by Sun Microsystems that is
specifically designed for writing programs that can be safely downloaded to your
computer through the Internet and immediately run without fear of viruses or other
harm to our computer or files. Using small Java programs (called "Applets"), Web
pages can include functions such as animations, calculators, and other fancy tricks.
We can expect to see a huge variety of features added to the Web using Java, since
you can write a Java program to do almost anything a regular computer program can
do, and then include that Java program in a Web page. For more information search
any of these jargon terms in the PC Webopedia.
JAVASCRIPT
A simple programming language developed by Netscape to enable greater
interactivity in Web pages. It shares some characteristics with JAVA but is
independent. It interacts with HTML, enabling dynamic content and motion.
KEYWORD(S)
A word searched for in a search command. Keywords are searched in any order. Use
spaces to separate keywords in simple keyword searching. To search keywords
exactly as keyed (in the same order), see PHRASE.

LIMITING TO A FIELD
Requiring that a keyword or phrase appear in a specific field of documents retrieved.
Most often used to limit to the "Title" field in order to find documents primarily
about one or more keywords.
LINK
The URL imbedded in another document, so that if you click on the highlighted text
or button referring to the link, you retrieve the outside URL. If you search the field
"link:", you retrieve on text in these imbedded URLs which you do not see in the
documents.
LINK "ROT"
Term used to describe the frustrating and frequent problem caused by the constant
changing in URLs. A Web page or search tool offers a link and when you click on it,
you get an error message (e.g., "not available") or a page saying the site has moved
to a new URL. Search engine spiders cannot keep up with the changes. URLs change
frequently because the documents are moved to new computers, the file structure on
the computer is reorganized, or sites are discontinued. If there is no referring link to
the new URL, there is little you can do but try to search for the same or an equivalent
site from scratch.
LISTSERVERS
A discussion group mechanism that permits you to subscribe and receive and
participate in discussions via e-mail. Blogs and RSS feeds provide some of the
communication functionality of listservers.
META-SEARCH ENGINE
Search engines that automatically submit your keyword search to several other
search tools, and retrieve results from all their databases. Convenient time-savers for
relatively simple keyword searches (one or two keywords or phrases in " ").
NESTING
A term used in Boolean searching to indicate the sequence in which operations are to
be performed. Enclosing words in parentheses identifies a group or "nest." Groups

can be within other groups. The operations will be performed from the innermost
nest to the outmost, and then from left to right.
NEWSGROUP
A discussion group operated through the Internet. Not to be confused with
LISTSERVERS which operate through e-mail.
PERSONAL PAGE
A web page created by an individual (as opposed to someone creating a page for an
institution, business, organization, or other entity). Often personal pages contain
valid and useful opinions, links to important resources, and significant facts. One of
the greatest benefits of the Web is the freedom it as given almost anyone to put his or
her ideas "out there." But frequently personal pages offer highly biased personal
perspectives or ironical/satirical spoofs, which must be evaluated carefully. The
presence in the page's URL of a personal name (such as "jbarker") and a ~ or % or
the word "users" or "people" or "members" very frequently indicate a site offering
personal pages.
PACKET, PACKET JAM
When you retrieve a document via the WWW, the document is sent in "packets"
which fit in between other messages on the telecommunications lines, and then are
reassembled when they arrive at your end. This occurs using TCP/IP protocol. The
packets may be sent via different paths on the networks which carry the Internet. If
any of these packets gets delayed, your document cannot be reassembled and
displayed. This is called a "packet jam." You can often resolve packet jams by
pressing STOP then RELOAD. RELOAD requests a fresh copy of the document,
and it is likely to be sent without jamming.
PDF or .pdf or pdf file
Abbreviation for Portable Document Format, a file format developed by Adobe
Systems, that is used to capture almost any kind of document with the formatting in
the original. Viewing a PDF file requires Acrobat Reader, which is built into most
browsers and can be downloaded free from Adobe.

PHRASE
More than one KEYWORD, searched exactly as keyed (all terms required to be in
documents, in the order keyed). Enclosing keywords in quotations " " forms a phrase
in AltaVista, , and some other search tools. Some times a phrase is called a
"character string."
PLUG-IN
An application built into a browser or added to a browser to enable it to interact with
a special file type (such as a movie, sound file, Word document, etc.)
POPULARITY RANKING of search results
Some search engines rank the order in which search results appear primarily by how
many other sites link to each page (a kind of popularity vote based on the assumption
that other pages would create a link to the "best" pages). Google is the best example
of this. See also Subject-Based Ranking.
+REQUIRE or -REJECT A TERM OR PHRASE
Insert + immediately before a term (no space) to limit search to documents
containing a term. Insert - immediately before a term (no space) to exclude
documents containing a term. Can be used immediately (no space) before the " "
delimiting a phrase. Functions partially like basic BOOLEAN LOGIC. If + precedes
more than one term, they are required as with Boolean AND. If - is used, terms are
excluded as with Boolean AND NOT. If neither + no - is used, the default if Boolean
OR. However, full Boolean logic allows parentheses to group and sequence logical
operations, and +/- do not.
RELEVANCY RANKING of search results
The most common method for determining the order in which search results are
displayed. Each search tool uses its own unique algorithm. Most use "fuzzy and"
combined with factors such as how often your terms occur in documents, whether
they occur together as a phrase, and whether they are in title or how near the top of
the text. Popularity is another ranking system.

RSS or RSS feeds

Short for "Really Simple Synication" (a.k.a. Rich Site Summary or RDF Site
Summary), refers ti a group of XML based web-content distribution and
republication (Web syndication) formats primarily used by news sites and weblogs
(blogs). Any website can issue an RSS feed. By subscribing to an RSS feed, you are
alerted to new additions to the feed since you last read it. In order to read RSS feeds,
you must use a "feed reader," which formats the XML code into an easily readable
format (feed readers are to XML and RSS feeds as web browsers are to HTML and
web pages.
SCRIPT
A script is a type of programming language that can be used to fetch and
display Web pages. There are may kinds and uses of scripts on the Web. They can be
used to create all or part of a page, and communicate with searchable databases.
Forms (boxes) and many interactive links, which respond differently depending on
what you enter, all require some kind of script language. When you find a question
marke (?) in the URL of a page, some kind of script command was used in
generating and/or delivering that page. Most search engine spiders are instructed not
to crawl pages from scripts, although it is usually technically possible for them to do
so (see Invisible Web for more information).
SERVER, WEB SERVER
A computer running that software, assigned an IP address, and connected to the
Internet so that it can provide documents via the World Wide Web. Also called
HOST computer. Web servers are the closest equivalent to what in the print world is
called the "publisher" of a print document. An important difference is that most print
publishers carefully edit the content and quality of their publications in an effort to
market them and future publications. This convention is not required in the Web
world, where anyone can be a publisher; careful evaluation of Web pages is therefore
mandatory. Also called a "Host."
SERVER-SIDE
Something that operates on the "server" computer (providing the Web page), as
opposed to the "client" computer (which is you or someone else viewing the Web

page). Usually it is a program or command or procedure or other application causes

dynamic pages or animation or other interaction.
SHTML, usually seen as .shtml
An file name extension that identifies web pages containing SSI commands.
SITE or WEB-SITE
This term is often used to mean "web page," but there is supposed to be a difference.
A web page is a single entity, one URL, one file that you might find on the Web. A
"site," properly speaking, is an location or gathering or center for a bunch of related
pages linked to from that site. For example, the site for the present tutorial is the toplevel page "Internet Resources." All of the pages associated with it branch out from
there -- the web searching tutorial and all its pages, and more. Together they make up
a "site." When we estimate there are 5 billion web pages on the Web, we do not
mean "sites."
SPIDERS
Computer robot programs, referred to sometimes as "crawlers" or "knowledge-bots"
or "knowbots" that are used by search engines to roam the World Wide Web via the
Internet, visit sites and databases, and keep the search engine database of web pages
up to date. They obtain new pages, update known pages, and delete obsolete ones.
Their findings are then integrated into the "home" database. Most large search
engines operate several robots all the time. Even so, the Web is so enormous that it
can take six months for spiders to cover it, resulting in a certain degree of "out-ofdatedness" (link rot) in all the search engines.
SPONSOR (of a Web page or site)
Many Web pages have organizations, businesses, institutions like universities or
nonprofit foundations, or other interests which "sponsor" the page. Frequently you
can find a link titled "Sponsors" or an "About us" link explaining who or what (if
anyone) is sponsoring the page. Sometimes the advertisers on the page (banner ads,
links, buttons to sites that sell or promote something) are "sponsors." WHY is this
important? Sponsors and the funding they provide may, or may not, influence what
can be said on the page or site -- can bias what you find, by excluding some

opposing viewpoint or causing some other imbalanced information. The site is not
bad because of sponsors, but you they should alert you to the need to evaluate a page
or site very carefully.
SSI commands
SSI stands for "server-side include," a type of HTML instruction telling a computer
that serves Web pages to dynamically generate data, usually by inserting certain
variable contents into a fixed template or boilerplate Web page. Used especially in
database searches.
STEMMING
In keyword searching, word endings are automatically removed (lines becomes line);
searches are performed on the stem + common endings (line or lines retrieves line,
lines, line's, lines', lining, lined). Not very common as a practice, and not always
disclosed. Can usually be avoided by placing a term in " ".
STOP WORDS
In database searching, "stop words" are small and frequently occurring words like
and, or, in, of that are often ignored when keyed as search terms. Sometimes putting
them in quotes " " will allow you to search them. Sometimes + immediately before
them makes them searchable.
SUBJECT-BASED POPULARITY RANKING of search results
A variation on popularity ranking in which the links in pages on the same subject are
used to in ranking search results.
SUBJECT DIRECTORY
An approach to Web documents by a lexicon of subject terms hierarchically grouped.
May be browsed or searched by keywords. Subject directories are smaller than other
searchable databases, because of the human involvement required to classify
documents by subject.

SUB-SEARCHING
Ability to search only within the results of a previous search. Enables you to refine
search results, in effect making the computer "read" the search results for you
selecting documents with terms you sub-search on. Can function much like
RESULTS RANKING.
TCP/IP
(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) -- This is the suite of protocols
that defines the Internet. Originally designed for the UNIX operating system, TCP/IP
software is now available for every major kind of computer operating system. To be
truly on the Internet, your computer must have TCP/IP software. See also IP
Address.
TELNET
Internet service allowing one computer to log onto another, connecting as if not
remote.
THESAURUS
In some search tools, the terms you choose to search on can lead you to other terms
you may not have thought of. Different search tools have different ways of
presenting this information, sometimes with suggested words you may choose
among and sometimes automatically. The terms are based on the terms in the results
of your search, not on some dictionary-like thesaurus.
TITLE (of a document)
The official title of a document from the "meta" field called title. The text of this
meta title field may or may not also occur in the visible body of the document. It is
what appears in the top bar of the window when you display the document and it is
the title that appears in search engine results. The "meta" field called title is not
mandatory in HTML coding. Sometimes you retrieve a document with "No Title" as
its supposed title; this is caused when the meta-title field is left blank. In Alta Vista
and some other search tools, title: search also matches on the "meta" field, which
contains document descriptors not displayed on the Web. See also LIMITING TO A
FIELD.

TRUNCATION
In a search, the ability to enter the first part of a keyword, insert a symbol (usually
*), and accept any variant spellings or word endings, from the occurrence of the
symbol forward. (E.g., femini* retrieves feminine, feminism, feminism, etc.)
URL
Uniform Resource Locator. The unique address of any Web document. May be
keyed in a browser's OPEN or LOCATION / GO TO box to retrieve a document.
There is a logic the layout of a URL.
USENET
Bulletinboard-like

network

featuring

thousands

of

"newsgroups."

Google

incorporates the historic file of Usenet Newsgroups (bzck to 1981) into its Google
Groups. Yahoo Groups offers a similar service, but does not include the old "Usenet
Newsgroups." Blogs are replacing some of the need for this type of community
sharing and information exchange.
WORD VARIANTS
Different word endings (such as -ing, -s, es, -ism, -ist,etc.) will be retrieved only if
you allow for them in your search terms. One way to do this TRUNCATION, but
few systems accept truncation. Another way is to enter the variants either separated
by BOOLEAN OR (and grouped in parentheses). In +REQUIRE/-REJECT nonBoolean systems, enter the variant terms preceded with neither + nor -, because this
will allow documents containing any of them to retrieved.
XHTML
A variant of HTML. Stands for Extensible Hypertext Markup Language is a hybrid
between HTML and XML that is more universally acceptable in Web pages and
search engines than XML.
XML
Extensible Markup Language, a dilution for Web page use of SGML (Standard
General Markup Language), which is not readily viewable in ordinary browsers and

is difficult to apply to Web pages. XML is very useful (among other things) for pages
emerging from databases and other applications where parts of the page are
standardized and must reappear many times.

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Internet Slang
at www.wikipwedia.com
Glossary of Internet and Web Jargon
at www.lib.berkeley.edu
Disturbing pleasures
at www.education.twsu.edu/just4girls
Just Playin Around!
at www.education.twsu.edu/just4girls
Teachers, are you *N Sync?
at www.education.twsu.edu/just4girls
Desperately seeking Leo
at www.education.twsu.edu/just4girls
Internet Jargon Glossary
at www.lib.berkeley.edu
Cyberlingo
at www.glantzberg.us
Cyberlingo!
at www.goodchatting.com