ZULFIQAR ALI MIRANI

Radar Theory for Area/Approach

Radar Controllers

Info: neoindus@gmail.com

Radar Theory
For Area /Approach Controller

ZULFIQAR ALIMIRANI
Senior Electronics Engineer
Civil Aviation Authority - Pakistan
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Basic Principles
:
Radio waves
Radio wave
propagation
Radio wave
characteristics
Velocity, Time and Distance relationship
Microwaves

 Radio System Basics

1.3 Radar :
Principle of Operation
Range determination in Radar
Types of Radar
o CW Radar o
FM Radar o
Doppler Radar o
Pulse Radar
Standard Radar Frequencies and Wave Length
1.4 Basic Pulse Radar System
1.5 Types of ATC Radar :
Primary Radar
Secondary Radar
1.6 Use of Radar:
1.7 Standard Radar Frequencies and Wave Length
1.8 Primary Radar :
Primary Radar Construction: General Block Diagram
System Operation
Primary Radar Indicator
Evaluation of Radar Echoes to Identify Targets
Moving Target Indicator (MTI)
1.9 Main Characteristics of Primary Radar :
Pulse Repetition Frequency
Strikes per scan
Scan Rate
Beam Width
Pulse Width
Range Resolution
Sensitivity Time Control (STC)
Blind Speed
1.10

Radar Equation

1.11

Factors Affecting Radar Performance

1.12

Secondary Radar:
Secondary Radar SSR Composition
Principle Of Operation
Operating Frequencies
Interrogation
Modes of Transmission
Reply (from Transponder)
Code nomenclature
SSR Mode - S
Comparison of Primary and Secondary Radars

1.13
1.14
1.15

1.16

Radar Display System

General System Configuration
Functions of RDS Components
System Inputs received from radar head
Modern Radar Display system
Siting of radars

Radar Theory for Area/Approach Radar

Controllers

1.1

Introduction

RADAR is an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging. As it was originally

conceived, radio waves were used to detect the presence of a target and to
determine its distance or range.
Before RADAR could be born, scientists first needed to understand the
principles of radio waves. British physicist James Clerk Maxwell developed
equations governing the behaviour of electromagnetic waves in 1864. Inherent
in Maxwells equations are the laws of radio-wave reflection, and these
principles were first demonstrated in 1886 in experiments by the German
physicist Heinrich Hertz. In 1887, he found that radio waves could be
transmitted through different materials. Some materials reflected the radio
waves. He developed a system to measure the speed of the waves. The data
he collected, and the information he uncovered, encouraged further scientific
investigation of radio.
Experiments of Maxwell and Hertz were the foundation for the development of
radio communication, and, later, RADAR.
Some years later a German engineer Chistian Huelsmeyer proposed the use of
radio echoes in a detecting device designed to avoid collisions in marine
navigation. The first successful radio range-finding experiment occurred in 1924,
when the British physicist Sir Edward Victor Appleton used radio echoes to
determine the height of the ionosphere, an ionized layer of the upper
atmosphere that reflects longer radio waves.
The first practical radar system was produced in 1935 in England by Sir Robert
Watson-Watt (a Scottish origin physicist)
By the 1940s, and the outbreak of World War II, the first useful RADAR systems
were in place. Germany, France, Great Britain, and the United States all used
RADAR to navigate their ships, guide their airplanes, and detect enemy craft
before they attacked.
After the close of World War II, radar assumed a major role in civil aviation.

1/3
3

1.2

Basic Principles

Radar is a variant of radio technology and shares many of the same basic
concepts. It is useful to discuss fundamental concepts of radio operation to
provide a basis for discussing fundamental concepts of radar operation.
1.2.1

Radio Waves

High frequency currents when pass through a radiator (antenna) produce

magnetic and electric fields which radiates in all directions over a long
distance. The waves so produced are called Radio Waves or Electromagnetic
waves.
1.2.2

Radio Wave Propagation

Electromagnetic radiation is in the form of waves. The two components of radio

waves i,e electric field and magnetic field are perpendicular to each other. The
direction of propagation of radio waves is perpendicular to both electric and
magnetic fields. The propagation of radio waves is illustrated in figure 1.2-1

Electric Field

Direction of
Propagation

Magnetic Field
Radio wave propagation
1.2.3

IIlMAtratioH: Z Ml RANI

Figure 1.2-1: Radio Wave Propagation

Radio Wave Characteristics

Since electromagnetic radiation is a wave phenomenon, it has certain

characteristics associated with waves. The oscillations of an electromagnetic
wave occur back and forth across the direction of the wave's propagation.
Thus, an electromagnetic wave completes ONE cycle after it has made TWO
alterations, one in positive direction and one in negative direction, as illustrated
below in figure 1.2-2

a) Frequency
Number of cycles in one second (of a radio wave) is called its frequency. It is
expressed in Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second (c/s or cps).
The entire frequency range is called frequency spectrum, which is divided
into sections called frequency bands.

wavelength

T ime

270

Radio Wave Characteristics

muitration: z MIRAHI

Figure
1.2-2
The division of frequency spectrum is given in Table 1-1 below.
Table 1-1: Division of Radio Frequency spectrum
Description

Ban
d

Frequency

Wavelength (meters)

Very Low Frequency

Low Frequency
Medium Frequency
High Frequency
Very High Frequency
Ultra High Frequency
Super High Frequency
Extremely High Frequency

VLF
LF
MF
HF
VH
F
UH
F
SH
F
EH
F

Below 30 KHz
30 - 300 KHz
300 - 3,000 KHz
3,000 - 30,000 KHz
30 - 300 MHz
300 - 3,000 MHz
3 - 30 GHz
30 - 300 GHz

30,000 - 10,000
10,000 - 1,000
1000 - 100
100 - 10
10 - 1
1 - 0.1
0.1 - 0.01
0.01 - 0.001

b) Wavelength I

I kHz (Kilo Hetz) = 1000 Hz MHz (Mega Hertz) = 1,000,000 Hz or 1,000 kHz GHz (Giga Hertz) = 1,000,000,000 Hz or
1,000 MHz

The distance that a radio wave travels in the time of one cycle is called its
wavelength. It is expressed in meters.
c) Amplitude
The size of the wave form, measured from the mean to the crest or trough is
known as amplitude of the signal.
d) Velocity
The rate of change of position per unit of time is called velocity. It is the product
of the number of cycles per second (Hertz) and the wavelength. Radio waves
travel at the speed as of the light i,e 186,000 miles/sec or 300,000 km/sec or
162,0
NM/sec.
1.2.4

Velocity, Time and Distance relationship

These four radio wave characteristics, as given above, are connected one with
the other and obey the Law of Motion, which states:
Distance = Velocity x Time
Since T <x1, therefore, the above formula may be expressed as :
Wavelength (in meters) = Velocity (in m per sec) x Time for One cycle (seconds)
sym bolical ly A = cx11
c
which simplified A =2
As velocity is a constant it therefore follows that given the wavelength, the
frequency can be calculated or conversely, given the frequency, the wavelength
can be calculated, since if:
A=-3f
then f = 4 A
Where c is the velocity of the light (or radio waves), f is frequency in Hz (or
cycles per second) and A is the wavelength in meters.

1.2.5

Examples

a) Frequency 6250 KHz, find wavelength:

5
f
300000 _
6
6250
48 meters 7
Frequency 118.1 MHz, find wavelength:

b)

^8
f
300
118.1

2
2

2.54 m 9

In these two examples it is convenient to use a modified constant

according to whether the frequency is expressed in KHz or MHz.
c) Wavelength 1500 M, find frequency:
C
F = C 10 2
3xi08 ^ f
1500
=

f = 200,000 Hz or 200 KHz

d) Wavelength 10 CM (a common radar wavelength), find frequency:
f

f = 3,000 MHz

3x108
13
0.1

3x109
14
1

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Cosmic

Rays

Gamma Rays
X-Rays
Ultraviolet

l\3

6/
33

Violet
Blue
Green
Yellow
Red

P band (100 cm)

L band (30 cm)
EH F - Extremely High Frequency
SHF - Super High Frequency
UHF - Ultra High Frequency -

VHF - Very High Frequency HlF High Frequency

MF - Medium Frequency

Q
i

OU

Very Low Frequency

Frequency Wavelength

S band (10 cm)

C band (6 cm)

X band (3 cm)
K band (Ku+Ka)
Q band (8 mm)
V band (6 mm)
W band (+ mm)

r
Radar

LF - Lew Frequency VLF -

CD
w
it
tt
tt
if
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A
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Microwaves
(1 GHz - 300 GHz)

fvoice Frequency (300

Hz - 3 KHz)

R
a
d
ar
T
h
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or
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fo
r
Ar
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a/
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pr
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1.2.6

Microwaves

Electromagnetic Waves within range of a band of frequencies ranging from 1.0 GHz to 300 GHz are called Microwaves. Figure 1.2-3
D
shows position
of microwaves in the frequency spectrum.
i
1.2.7

i System Basics
Radio

s
i
A radio system
consists of a "transmitter" that produces radio waves and one or more "receivers" that pick them up,
o
n
transmitter and receiver(s) fitted with antennas or connected to a single antenna system as shown in figure 1.2-4.
o
f
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
S
p
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c
tr
u
m
Figure 1.2-4: Basic Radio System
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;
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R
A
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3

with both

1.3 Radar
1.3.1

Principle of Operation

Radar is a method whereby radio waves are transmitted into the air in a specific
direction and are received when they are reflected by an object in the path of the
beam.
RANGE in RADAR is determined by measuring the time, radio wave takes, from
radiation to return of its echo; whereas DIRECTION is determined from the
position of antenna at the time of reception of signal.
1.3.2

Range determination in Radar

The distance of an object from a Radar station is called "slant range or simply
"range. Range in Radar is determined by an expression given below.
Range =

cxt
2

Where c is speed of radio waves and t is the time elapsed from transmission of
radio waves to the reception of echo.
Example
If total time elapsed, from transmission of radio waves to the reception of echo, is
1000 microseconds. Velocity of radio waves is constant and given as 161,800 NM
per second.
Then
161,800 x 1000 \i
Range
2
Range
80.9 or 81 NM
Time elapsed from transmission to reception of radio waves to travel for one
nautical mile or simply range time for one nautical mile is
Time

=
=

2 x 1 NM / 161,800 NM per sec

12.36 microseconds

Therefore, range of a target can also be determined by dividing the time elapsed
from transmission of radio waves to the reception of echo by range time of one
NM.
Range =
=

1000 microseconds / 12.36 microseconds

80.9 NM or 81 NM

1.3.3

Types of Radar

There are various techniques used in radar systems to detect the objects by
using radio waves.
1.3.3.1

CW Radar

Continuous wave radar (CW radar) continually transmits energy in the direction
of the target and receives back reflection of the continuous wave. A continuous
wave radar can provide velocity information by comparing the differences in the
transmitted and received waves and making use of the Doppler effect.
1.3.3.2

FM Radar

CW radar cannot determine target range because it lacks the timing mark
necessary to allow the system to time accurately the transmit and receive cycle
and convert this into range. To overcome this deficiency CW radars make use of
FM, hence, called FM CW Radar.
1.3.3.3

Doppler Radar

Doppler radar is basically CW radar that allows the speed of a target to be

measured using the Doppler effect. When a signal from a radar is scattered by a
target, its frequency is changed in proportion to the speed of the target. By
measuring this change in frequency, a doppler radar is able to infer the target's
speed.
Doppler RADAR can detect the location and intensity of storms (reflectivity), the
speed and direction of wind (velocity), and the total accumulation of rainfall (storm
total).
1.3.3.4

Pulse Radar

A pulse radar transmits pulses of short duration of RF energy. The time delay of
reflections (or echo) of these pulses is measured and converted into distance to
that target.
1.4 Basic Pulse Radar System
The major components of a pulse radar are the transmitter, the antenna system,
the receiver and the display as shown in the figure 1.4-1.
Pulses of RF energy are transmitted in a particular direction by radar transmitter.
A portion of this energy is reflected by the objects, which comes into the path of
the radar radiation, and collected by the radar receiver. The range information is
calculated by using delay time of the received signal. This range information is
displayed on the Radar Scope along with bearing of the object, which is
determined from direction of antenna at the time of reception of echo.

1.5 Types of ATC Radar

1.5.1

Primary Radar

It provides "Range and Bearing information to the Air Traffic Control Center. It
does not need cooperation of the aircraft for it depends upon reflection of the
radio waves transmitted by the system itself.
1.5.2

Secondary Radar

It provides "identification and altitude information to ground ATC. It works with

cooperation of the aircraft. The information produced by the Secondary Radar is
therefore function of both ground equipment and airborne equipment.

Figure 1.4-1: Basic radar system

1.6 Use of Radar
Radars are used in many applications such as:
MET (Observation & Forecasting)
Missile Guidance Speed Tracking Land Mine
Detection
Geological Exploration (Ground Penetrating Radar)
Air Traffic Control (ATC)

The radars used in ATC can be broadly classified as

En-route Radar
Terminal Approach Radar
Precision Approach Radar
Ground Movement Radar

Because of different design parameters, no single radar set can perform all of
radar functions.
1.7 Standard Radar Frequencies and Wave Length
Band designation

Wave length

Frequency range

Application

HF (high frequency) Decametric

100 - 10 m

3-30 MHz

Radio, broadcast

VHF (very high frequency) Metric

10 - 1 m

30-300 MHz

Radio, TV

UHF (ultra high frequency)

Decimeter

1m - 30 cm

300-1000 MHz

RADAR, TV

L, microwave region

30 - 15 cm

1000-2000 MHz

RADAR, TV

S, microwave

15 - 7.5 cm

2000-4000 MHz

RADAR

C, microwave

7.5 - 3.8 cm

4000-8000 MHz

RADAR

X, microwave

3.8 - 2.5 cm

8000-12,000 MHz

RADAR

30 - 15 cm

1000-2000 MHz

RADAR, TV

S, microwave

15 - 7.5 cm

2000-4000 MHz

RADAR

C, microwave

7.5 - 3.8 cm

4000-8000 MHz

RADAR

X, microwave

3.8 - 2.5 cm

L, microwave region

8000-12,000 MHz

RADAR

1.8 Primary Radar

1.8.1

Construction

Practical Primary Radar system is composed of following essential components.

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)

Timer or Synchronizer
Modulator
Transmitter
Antenna
Duplexer or TR switch
Receiver and
Indicator or Radar Scope

T-R Switch
or
Duplexer

Azimuth Inc

Transmitter

Receiver

illustration: Z. MIRANI

Modulator *

Timer or
Synchronizer

Primary Radar System - Block diagram

Figure 1.8-1: Block diagram of Primary Radar System

Radar Display

Radar Theory for Area/Approach Radar

Controllers

1.8.2

System Operation

Timer or Synchronizer generates small triggering pulses for start and control of cycle of
operation. These pulses are supplied to the Modulator and Indicator units.
Modulator produces larger pulses for excitation of Transmitter (Oscillator: Magnetron or
Klystron). The transmitter then sends a burst of RF energy to the Duplexer unit. For
transmission of RF signal Duplexer will be switched to provide passage to RF energy from
transmitter to antenna, which in turn radiates the energy in the specific direction. After the
pulse has been transmitted Duplexer closes transmitter path and allows receiver to pick up
echoes.
A small portion of energy reflected back by the object(s) in the path of radar beam (called
echo) is collected back by the Receiver and fed to the Indicator (Display) unit.
The Radar Display unit, also called Radar Scope, has a dual function:
a) It measures the elapsed time between transmission and reception of radar signal and
converts it into the range information; and
b) Displays information into a useable form for ATC purpose.

Magnetic
Radar Blips

Radar Sweep

ange Marks

Radar Scope
Plan Position Indicator (Display)

illustration:

Figure 1.8-2: Plan Position Indicator (Display)

1 3/33

Z. Ml RAN I

Radar Theory for Area/Approach Radar

Controllers

1.8.3

Primary Radar Indicator

Information made available by the primary radar may be presented to an operator

in a number of ways. The presentation on an indicator showing all targets within
range that are detected as the antenna rotates is called a Plan Position Indicator
(PPI).
Cathode ray Tube (CRT) is found suitable to be used as PPI to display radar
information as close as the real situation. It makes interpretation of radar easier
than other types of indicator.
In PPI the scanning (sweep) starts from the center of the screen and moves
outward. The distance between the center and the circumference of the screen
represents the maximum range at which the radar is required to provide
coverage. When the spot reaches the edge of the screen, it returns to the center
extremely fast to start the next scan. This action is known as Flyback.
To display the range of an object, the spot starts its sweep as the pulse is
transmitted (by the antenna) and a blip is shown at the time when echo of the
transmitted signal is received.
The sweep is arranged to rotate in steps with the rotation of the radar antenna, to
show the bearing of the objects appearing in the path of the radar beam.
Radar Echo is the signal received (reflected) from an object that appears in the

path of the radar beam.

Radar Blip is a visual indication on a display of a signal reflected from an object.

Range Marks appears as concentric rings with their center at the beginning of the

time base. Each range mark corresponds to a specified distance from the center
of the scope say 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and so on. The range mark generator produces
a series of regularly spaced pulses at intervals corresponding to the range marks.
Video map is presentation of useful information (such as airways, reporting points,

boundaries etc) on a radar scope.

1.8.4

Evaluation of Radar Echoes to Identify Targets

Targets are distinguished with respect to the following factors:

Target Velocity
Target Intensity and Fluctuations
Behavior Relative To Other Targets

14/
33

1.8.5

Moving Target Indicator (MTI)

MTI is an electronic device which permits radar scope presentation only from
targets which are in motion and suppress echoes from fixed targets i,e ground
echoes.
1.9 Main Characteristics of Primary Radar
1.9.1
Pulse Repetition Frequency
A pulse radar system transmits a burst of RF energy in one direction, listens for
the echo for a given time interval following transmission and then repeats the
same cycle in other directions.

Illustration: Z. MIRANI

Pulse Repetition Frequency

Figure 1.9-1: Pulse Repetition Frequency

The pulse of RF energy has a certain peak power level that lasts for a certain
duration of time. The amplitude of the pulse is denoted in terms of peak power
P t and the pulse duration or the pulse width as Tp. The time interval from the
start of one pulse to the start of the next pulse is called pulse interval or Pulse
Recurring Interval (PRI) and denoted by T. The energy wave form is illustrated
in figure 1.9-1.
Number of pulses generated per second is called Pulse Repetition Frequency
(PRF) of the system which is reciprocal of the time interval T.
PRF is therefore given by: PRF =
Example: If the pulse interval is 1000 psec, the PRF of the system will be
PRF =
1

1000 p

PRF = 1000 pps

When pulses are transmitted at a high rate, the receiver listening time between
pulses for return echoes is reduced as well as the corresponding distance to
which the energy can travel and return.
The maximum working range required of a radar is specified when deciding the
function of the radar. Relationship between maximum (theoretical) range of a
radar and its PRF is given by:
3xio8
Max. theoritical range =
meters 15
2xPRF
The above relationship indicates that any increase in the PRF will reduce the maximum
range, and a lower PRF will increase it.

1.9.2

Strikes per scan

When an echo returns from a target, the CRT spot brightens at the appropriate
range and bearing. One "bright up, however, is insufficient to be seen by the
human eye. As the beam sweeps through the target, more pulses "strike" it and
return, causing multiple bright up of the spot. This makes the echo visible to the
eye as a "blip". The number of strikes can be calculated by the formula given
below.

No. of strikes

BeamwidthxPRF
RPMx6

16

The number of strikes per scan is always quoted as a whole number, i.e.: if, for
instance, a result of 11.8 is yielded by the above formula it would be assumed as 12.
1.9.3

Scan Rate

Scan Rate is usually quoted in revolutions per minute (RPM). The scan rate
controls the rate of renewal of displayed information - i.e higher the scan more
rapid will be the rate of renewal of information. A rapid rate of renewal of
information is particularly required for the short-range approach functions, and
is of less importance for the longer range area and TMA functions.
It can be stated, in general, that the longer the working range, the lower the
scan rate acceptable.

1.9.4

Beam Width

The beamwidth controls the Bearing Resolution of a radar, which is measured

as the minimum separation distance at which two aircraft at the same range can
be seen as two separate targets. High azimuth or bearing resolution requires a

narrow beamwidth and vice versa. The figure 1.9-2 shows beamwidth
relationship with bearing resolution.
1.9.5

Pulse Width

The pulse length is the duration of the transmitted pulse, measured in micro
seconds (gs). The longer the length of a pulse, greater the energy that it
contains, thus the longer the range that can be achieved, or alternatively, the
stronger the signal from a given range.
A long pulse length is not, however, suitable for all radar functions, as pulse
length is the major factor when considering:
Minimum range
Range resolution

Beamwidth

Antenna Lobes

Beamwidth

Bearing
Resolution

1.9.6

Illustration: Z. Ml RANI

Figure 1.9-2: Relationship of Beam width with Bearing Resolution

Range Resolution

Range resolution is a measure of the minimum distance at which two aircraft on

the same bearing can still be seen as two separate targets.
Possibility of distinguishing two targets, which are at the same bearing and with
small range separation, depends on the length of the radar pulse.
High range resolution requires narrow pulse width.

1.9.7

Sensitivity Time Control (STC)

The receiver echo pulse power is strongly dependent upon the distance to the
target. In order to have same brightness on the PPI for echoes at all distances,
echoes at long distances must be amplified more than echoes at short
distances. The receiver of radar, therefore, has Sensitivity Time Control (STC),
which is distance dependent amplification.
1.9.8

Blind Speed

Cancellation of echoes from fixed targets is made on the basis of comparison of

echoes on pulse to pulse basis. Only targets whose distance to the radar is
changed are separated this way. In cases where radar cannot measure speed
of a target, will suppress it assuming as a fixed target. Such type of problem
with pulse to pulse MTI is called Blind Speed. Targets with specific speed in
relation to PRF will be suppressed. This problem is solved through varying PRF
called staggering.
1.10

Radar Equation

Other important operating characteristics of radar are its transmitted power and
wavelength (or frequency). The strength of an echo from a target varies directly
with the transmitted power. The wavelength is important in the detection of
certain types of targets such as those composed of many small particles. When
the particles are small relative to the wavelength, their detectability is greatly
reduced. Thus drizzle is detectable by short wavelength (0.86 cm.) radars but is
not generally detectable by longer (23 cm.) wavelength radars.
Maximum range in radar depends on various factors and is given by
Where R is maximum radar range, Pt is transmitted power, G is power gain of the
R max

PtGcAr
16^2Pr(min)

meters

antenna, c
is echoing area of the target, Ar is absorbing area of the antenna and Pr is received power.
It can be observed from the above equation that doubling the transmitted power will result
in increase of 19% range and in order to double the range transmitter power is required 16
fold increase.

G)i
Substituting value of Ar from equation Ar =---------- , we obtain

4n
R max

PtG 2A2a
64^3 Pr(min)

meters

It can be noticed that wavelength has been introduced into the equation.
Increase in range can easily be achieved by increasing antenna gain for a
given wavelength by applying this new relationship instead of the transmitted
power.
1.11

Factors Affecting Radar Performance

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

The power of transmitter

The frequency of the transmitter
Noise generated within the receiver
The sensitivity of the receiver External
The time interval between pulses and pulse width.
The shape and dimensions of the radar beam
The size and shape of the object and the material of which it is made
Radio Frequency Interference (caused by radiation of spurious and/or
undesired radio frequency signals from other non-associated electronic
equipment, such as navigational aids, data processing computers, voice
communication systems, other radars, and from more common sources,
such as ignition and electric motor control systems)
9. Noise caused by natural phenomenon (eg. by Thundering, Lightening)
10. Signals reflected by natural phenomenon (eg. Precipitation: snow, rain,
mist, clouds with high humidity)
11. Distant ground returns and "Angels (eg. Returns from Insects, Birds,
different local developments at terrain, sea and ocean )
12. The curvature of the earth
13. Returns from the side and back lobes

1.12

Secondary Radar

Secondary Radar, or Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) as generally called

nowadays, was originally named as IFF Identification Friend or Foe system.

Altimeter
Code Selector

Code Generator

Transmitter
Azimuth
Inc

Antenna

109 MHz
0
Assembly
Transmitter
Mode

Generator

Syn

Timer or
c
Synchronizer

Receiver

103 MHz
0
Receiver
Decoder
Sync

Radar Display

Mode

Secondary Radar System

[ration: Z. Ml RANI

Figure 1.12-1: Secondary Surveillance Radar System

1.12.1

SSR Composition

It is composed of two main equipments; one installed at Ground called

INTERROGATOR and other fitted in the aircraft called as TRANSPONDER.
The system is illustrated in Figure 1.12-1.

Radar Theory for Area/Approach Radar

Controllers
1.12.3 Principle Of Operation
The interrogator transmits a series of pulses with specific time intervals, as standardized by
ICAO, over a directional antenna. The pulses are received by the Transponder, which after
fixed time delay responds with a series of pulses which are coded with information about
identity and altitude of the aircraft.
1.12.4 Operating Frequencies
1030 MHz is used as the carrier frequency of the interrogation and 1090 MHz is used as the
carrier frequency of the reply transmission.
1.12.5 Interrogation
The interrogation consists of two transmitted pulses designated as P1 and P3. A control
pulse P2 is transmitted following the first interrogation pulse P1. The interval between P1
and P3 determines the mode of interrogation and shall be as follows:
Mode A 8 0.2 microseconds Mode C 21 0.2 microseconds.
The interval between P1 and P2 shall be 2.0 microseconds. The duration of pulses P1, P2
and P3 shall be 0.8 plus or minus 0.1microsecond.
1.12.6 Modes of Transmission
Six different combinations of interrogation pulses are standardized, each having a specific
meaning. These combinations are termed as MODES in SSR system. The Figure 1.12-2
shows the position of P1, P2 and P3 pulses for each mode of interrogation.

Mode A: to elicit transponder replies for identity and surveillance.

Mode C: to elicit transponder replies for automatic pressure-altitude transmission and
surveillance.

Inter-mode:
a) Mode A/C/S all-cal l: to elicit replies for surveillance of Mode A/C transponders and for
the acquisition of Mode S transponder.
b) Mode A/C-only all-call: to elicit replies for surveillance of Mode A/C transponders;
Mode S transponder does not reply.

Mode S:
a) Mode S-only all-call: to elicit replies for acquisition of Mode S transponders.
b) Broadcast: to transmit information to all Mode S transponders. No replies are elicited.

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c) Selective: for surveillance of, and communication with, individual Mode S
transponders. For each interrogation, a reply is elicited only from the transponder
uniquely addressed by the interrogation.
-8 USMode A
(civil/mil;
ident

P
1

P
3

P
2

17 ,US

P
1

P Mode B (civil;
2
ident)

P
3

-21 U5-

P
1

P
2

P
3

Mode
C
(altitude)

-25 liS-

P
1

P
2

P
3

Mode
D
Not Used

SSR - Modes of Interrogation

Illustration; Z. Ml

RANI
Figure 1.12-2: Modes of Interrogation in SSR
1.12.7

Reply (from Transponder)

In reply to interrogation in Mode-A and Mode-B information of identity, which is set by the
pilot, is sent to the ground interrogator. On an interrogation in Mode-C, the coded
information from altimeter (pressure-altitude) is transmitted to the ground station without
involvement of an action of the pilot.
The reply function employ a signal comprising two framing pulses spaced 20.3
microseconds as the most elementary code. Transponder reply format is shown in Figure
1.12-3.

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The reply of transponder contains two types of pulses:
(a) Frame pulses F1 and F2
(b) Combination of Information pulses
Information pulses are spaced in increments of 1.45 microseconds from the first framing
pulse. The designation and position of these information pulses is illustrated in the following
figure.

Note The position of the X pulse is specified only as a technical standard to

safeguard possible future use.

FI C1 A1 C2 A2 C4 M X 01

01

02

02 B4 04 F2

SSR CODES

Figure 1.12-3: Transponder Reply Format

1.12.8

Code nomenclature

The combination of A, B, C and D pulses, as shown in figure above, allows 4096 codes. The
range of codes, in ABCD format, is from 0000 to 7777.
Note: The digits 8 and 9 are not used in the code system because each ABCD pulse group
contains only three pulses which allow transmission of only three binary digits (bits) in each
group. There are maximum eight (decimal) counts possible with three (binary) digits or bits
which are represented from 0 through 7 (in decimal system).
Decoding Reply Pulses
In Mode-A and Mode-B information of identity, which is set by the pilot, is sent to the ground
interrogator. On an interrogation in Mode-C, the coded information from altimeter (pressurealtitude) is transmitted to the ground station without involvement of an action of the pilot.
Reply to mode A and B interrogation
The sequence of the pulses (binary digits or bits) of the reply code is given below in
accordance with their weight. The A4 pulse of group A is the most significant bit and D1 is
the least significant bit.

A4 A2 A1 B4 B2 B1 C4 C2 C1 D4 D2 D1
Taking example of one group of pulses, we notice that there may be seven possible
combinations of the three pulses as given below. The three pulses, therefore, can count as
follows:
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A4
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

A
2
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

A
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

Count (in
Decimal)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

0 and 1 in a pulse position denotes absence or presence of a pulse, respectively.

Example: If the reply pulses A4 A2A1 B4 B2 B1 C4C2C1 D4D2D1 received by SSR ground
component are 110010100101 (respectively) , the SSR code sent by the aircraft is 6 2 4 5.
Reserved Codes
The following Mode A codes are reserved for special purposes:
Code 7700: to provide recognition of an aircraft in an emergency.
Code 7600: to provide recognition of an aircraft with radio communication failure.
Code 7500: to provide recognition of an aircraft which is being subjected to unlawful
interference.
Mode A code 2000 is reserved to provide recognition of an aircraft which has not received
any instructions from air traffic control units to operate the transponder.
Mode A code 0000 should be reserved for allocation subject to regional agreement, as a
general purpose code.
Replies to mode C interrogation:
In Mode C automatic transmission of pressure-altitude is made by the transponder. Pressure
altitude is reported in 100 feet increments. The altitude information (pulses) are
automatically generated through analog-to-digital converter connected to a pressure altitude
data source in the aircraft.

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1.13

SSR Mode - S

Mode S is a new type of secondary radar which is also based on the use of a transponder
on board the aircraft, responding to interrogations from ground station (called interrogator).
The dialogue between a conventional secondary radar and a conventional transponder uses
two modes, A and C.
Mode S (selective) is an improvement in conventional secondary radar. It is compatible with
normal SSR, operating at the same frequencies (1030/1090 MHz). Its selectivity is based on
identification of the aircraft by its 24-bit address, which acts as its technical
telecommunications address.
In addition, Mode S can be used to exchange longer and more varied data. To do this, Mode
S transmissions between the station and the transponder use highly sophisticated 56 or 112
bit formats called frames that fall into 3 main categories:

56-bit surveillance formats

112 bit communication formats with a 56-bit data field, which are in fact extended
surveillance formats (Uplink COMM-A's and Downlink COMM-B's)
112 bits communication formats with an 80-bit data (uplink COMM-D's downlink
COMM-D's)

Airborne Transponder
256 Buffers
Mode S Interrogation
030 MHz

Repl
y
1090 MHz

urveillance data
ncluding
Buffer Status

- Mode S
3 Ground
Sensor
Mode S - Specific Data Link

illustration:

Z.

MIRANI

Figure 1.13-1: SSR Mode S - Specific Data Link Configuration

Radar Theory for Area/Approach Radar

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1.13.1

Mode S data link

There are two types of Mode S data link, one called "specific" and the other one
"interoperable".
To simplify, we can say that in specific type of operation, the ground station and the
transponder know the type of information contained in the data fields; whereas in
"interoperable" both ground and airborne stations can exchange any type of data they want.
The specific data link is more closely linked to the Mode S (Surveillance) system. This, in
particular, is used for highly optimized "aircraft data collection" using the COMM-B frames. It
works the following way.
The transponder contains series of 256 buffers of 56 bits each, in which information
concerning the flight and aircraft status are stored and permanently refreshed. Each buffer,
identified by an order number, contains data of a precise nature formatted according to a
predetermined code. The transponder is, thus, considered as a multiple mailbox in which the
aircraft system places its flight data (without knowing whether or not anyone will pick them
up) whereas on the other side, the ground station reads the data completely
asynchronously.
Mode S "basic" selective surveillance only requires the use of Mode S ground sensors and
airborne Mode S transponders, as shown in figure 1.13-1

Mode S Transponder
ADLP

Ground Part

Airborne Part

Mode S Interrogator
GDLP
Mode S Data Sub-network
Mode S - interoperable Data Link

illustration: Z. MIRANI

Figure 1.13-2: Mode S data link sub-network

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The interoperable data link allows ground-to-air data exchange using Mode S as a packet
switching data transmission network. The messages (in the form of packets) sent from the
station to the transponder (or vice-versa), are cut into pieces to separate the data and
address fields. The extracted data fields are,then, reconstituted and routed to the desired
destination (addressee).
Interoperable services, therefore, need supplementary equipment on both sides, called
respectively Ground and Airborne Data Link Processors. Figure 1.13-3 shows Mode S data
link sub-network.
The interoperable services allow the integration of Mode S sub-networks in the Aeronautical
Telecommunication Network (A.T.N.) - future global communication service, which allows
ground, air-ground and avionics data sub-networks to interoperate for the specified
aeronautical applications.

Aircraft fitted with

Aircraft fitted witr

Mode A/C
Transponder

Mode S
Transponde

Mode A/C
Interrogation
Mode S & Mode A/C Compatibility

IilHStratitm: Z. MIRANI
Mode S

Interrogate

"
iff']

Figure 1.13-3: Mode S and Mode A/C Compatibility

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1.14
1.15

Comparison of Primary and Secondary Radars

SSR

PSR
Radar
1 The response is independent of
target cooperation

1 Cooperation of the target (Pilot) is

required for response

2 Power requirement : High

2 Power requirement : Less

3 Response depends upon size and

type (material) of target

3 Response is independent of target

size and material

4 Position of target is closest to its

actual position (better bearing
accuracy as compared to SSR)

4 Bearing accuracy is not as good

as of PSR

5 Only Bearing and Range of target

is displayed

5 Identification and altitude

information of target is provided

6 Weather and Stationary objects

(mountains, high rise buildings etc
can be seen)
Display System

6 Display of weather and stationary

not provided

Radar Display System performs the following main functions:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Reception of Raw Videos and Synthetic (Processed) data from Radar heads
Radar Track processing
Radar and Flight Plan data processing
Data Distribution to various peripherals

5. Display/Representation of information
A typical architecture of a modern ATC system is given below in Fig: 3-7
1.15.1

General System Configuration Radar Display system comprises

of
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Radar Tracking Processor

Radar Data and Flight Plan Processor
Interfacing elements
Signal and Data Distribution Network
Display (Visualization) Unit(s)

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Figure 1.15-1: Components of a General Radar Display System

1.15.2

Functions of RDS Components

Radar Tracking Processor performs the following main functions:

Associates the plots supplied by the radar which corresponds to the same
aircraft
Calculate the flight path of the aircraft
Construct a definitive track defining the position, direction and speed of the
aircraft

A radar track is displayed as the present and past positions of the aircraft. Secondary
radar track also indicates aircraft identification code or call sign, flight level, speed and the
type of the aircraft.
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Radar Data and Flight Plan Processor performs

Mono or multi radar data processing

Flight plan processing

In multi radar processing, it is possible that a same target is detected by several radars.
Multi radar processor in that case ensures display of one track per target (aircraft).
Flight plan processing involves

The use of repetitive flight plans (data base)

Strip printing
Input and modification of flight plan on visual display unit (radar scope)
Automatic allocation of SSR codes
Correlation of radar track data with flight plan data

Signal and Data Distribution Network

Radar Video Signals & Data and Flight Plan data are distributed through a network
comprising standard communication links. Manufacturers of ATC systems provide
customized data and signal distribution units in may cases though standard data and signal
distribution equipments can also be used.
Display/Visualization Unit (or Radar scope as generally called), mainly, comprises

A processing unit
Input device(s) such as Keyboard, Track ball etc
A display screen (monitor)

A display processing unit generates radar and synthetic images on a Plan Position Indicator.
To perform this function it

1.15.3

System Inputs received from radar head

1.

1.15.4

Stores digital data received from Radar & Flight Plan data processor and
data from various peripherals
Executes the software program to process the received data
Groups information to be displayed
Converts digital data into analog signals

Video Signals (Raw Video, as some times called) including

Processed Video
Normal Video
Weather map

2. Azimuth increment (typical value 4096 per antenna revolution)

3. North Signal
4. Synthetic data (Radar Tracks and Plots)
Modern Radar Display system

The new radar display systems contain latest computers/processing units which are much

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more faster in speed, use latest networking technology which supports faster inter unit
communication, latest displays which offer color pictures and supports GUI (Graphic User
Interface) pictures and windows. Operating software used in these processors are much
more powerful than the software being used in old machines. These processors, therefore,
handle multi tasks simultaneously and are efficient than older processors.
The ATC features offered by the new system are not very much different than the systems
being used currently; except for few.
Modern ATC Working Position (Radar Scope) provides the user a traffic situation display
showing surveillance area maps and target labels with the identification, position and other
information regarding aircraft targets. The textual and graphical information is presented in
various windows according to the tasks to be carried out at the particular ATC-WP. The WP
offers various controls to allow display of pictures configured with user requirements.

Figure 1.15-2: A picture of a modern ATC display/monitor Construction: A basic ATCWP of a modern RDS consists of:
1. Processing Unit (ATC-WP-PU)
2. Operating System and Application Software
3. Display (Monitor)
4. Keyboard
5. Mouse (or Roller Ball)
6. Loudspeaker
The loud speaker is also used in some systems to provide an audible alarm, which is
triggered by aircraft emergency (e.g 7700, 7600, 7500), Air-route Deviation or system
alarms.
Windows and Icons
Windows are used for input of alphanumeric data and for display of important information.
Some windows can be minimized to icons when not in use. Types of windows used are:
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1. Input windows
2. Pop up windows (system alarm, Special Code Alert and alarm/alert
acknowledgement)
3. Operator messages
4. Pop up window to notify the input of non valid values and incorrect input action
5. Picture In Picture (PIP) window showing selected portion of the total display area
6. Tabular Data window displays system status information
7. Target Information
Aircraft labels and symbols:

Color of the normal label can be one and the alarm color can be other (red fro
example)
There is selection of Font size and Type
The label may consist of four lines; L1: Call sign or SSR Code, L2: Flight level or
altitude and Aircraft Type L3: Ground Speed and L4: Short Note (when full label
selected)

Display Colors: Separate colors are available for various elements of display.
Figure 1.15-2 shows a modern ATC display/monitor picture that is very much similar to a
computer monitor.

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1.16

Siting of radars

Effect of Ground
The presence of the Earth's surface is a factor of great importance in radar aerial design and
in the siting of radar because of its influence on vertical coverage.
Waves are reflected which are either in phase or out of phase with direct radiation and by
either combining with or canceling direct radiation causes lobes in the required direction.

Remember in shorter wavelengths the signals combine better giving a much better low
coverage than the longer wavelengths.
Factors in siting
The following factors need consideration when the site for a radar head is being planned:
a) The distance between the displays and the head- limitations of remote linking.
b) Elevation of the site - High ground - screening aspect of adjoining buildings, etc.
c) Height of the aerial above ground level - ground reflections - lobes.
d) Ground itself - flat - sloping - grass - concrete - what effect will type of surface have on
pulses which will be reflected.
e) Aerial proximity to runways, etc. - obstruction - SRA for as many runways as possible.
f)

Domestic matter - access roads - power supplies, etc.

Vertical coverage obtained is directly affected by (b), (c) and (d) above. It may also be
varied in the equipment by changes in Aerial tilt - Frequency, etc.
Remote Display Sites
The radar data (tracks, plots), video (normal, processed, weather) and other signals (such
as north signal, increment) may be transmitted to a remote display site by

a)
b)
c)
d)

Telephone Lines
Co-axial Cables
Radio Microwave Links and Repeaters
Satellite Links