Chapter 4 : Basic Middle Eastern Music Forms

(instrumental and vocal)

Lecture Material for MUS312

Survey of Middle Eastern Music

Instructor:
Fadi Kallab

1- General considerations about form in music

Music appeals to us in a threefold way, which may be described under the headings of
a- Physical Sensation
b- Emotion or Feeling
c- Intellect (i.e. critical judgment, based upon certain reasoning powers within us)

The first of these agencies, that of physical sensation, is without doubt the lowest of the three, and
is one we share with the rest of the animal creation, upon whomas we all knowcertain sounds
seem to have a distinct and immediate effectoften that of pain. So with us: the impression made
upon the multitude of listeners by the noisy sonority of a musical work is, for the most part, purely
physical; it is but an action on the nerve-centers that is often confused with the second of the
headings indicated above, emotion.

Emotion, however, lies on a much higher level than mere physical sensation. It is more subjective,
and is the response of something in our own consciousness to some (often indescribable) quality in
the music to which we are listening. Our feelings go out at once in sympathy with the mournful
simplicity or the intense human passion evoked by some musical works. Each is the means of
producing in us a mood, and creates an atmosphere to which only those who are dead to musical
influences altogether can be entirely insensitive.

Intellect: here then, in order that we may the better arrive at a just and critical appreciation of that
to which we may be directing our attention, comes the necessity for the employment of the
intellectual faculties of our nature. To judge a composition simply from the manner in which it
works upon our feelings, is no better than judging a picture or a poem merely from our sympathy
with its subject. We here are called upon to exercise our judgment, to decide upon such questions
as style, symmetry, and balance of designto say, in fact, whether the composer has put his
thoughts into the most convincing shape, into that form which will best convey their meaning. In
this, as we have no external objects with which to compare works of musical art, in order to test
their truth (as is the case with the arts of sculpture and painting), we have to fall back to some
extent upon whatever inherent sense of fitness and proportion we possess.

It is an axiom that every object of nature, and consequently every work of art, must have some sort of
intelligible shape or form, through the medium of which it reaches our mind and sense. This is true
whether we are considering a planet or a butterfly, a cathedral or a miniature. In music the need for
clearness of form is even more urgent than it is in literature, where, apart from the design of the whole
work, isolated sentences and even individual words may, and do, convey some sort of
meaning in themselves, simply through their being the recognized expression or description of certain
ideas and objects familiar to us in our daily life. Such, however, is not the case with music. No one
particular set of notes can ever be said to represent either a concrete object or an abstract idea, except by
an arbitrary act of will on the part of composer or listener; hence it is that music unallied to words that
must largely depend intelligibility upon questions of Form, Design, Shape, or whatever term we may care
to use in order to describe this necessary element in its existence.
The evidences of Form in music are various. Among the more prominent of these evidences are:
The grouping of pulses or beats by means of more or less regularly recurring accents, into measures
or bars, producing what is known as Time
The grouping of sounds based upon some such time scheme into musical figures, phrases and
sentences, with definite relationships one to another, resulting in Rhythmic shape
The grouping of such figures, phrases and sentences into larger paragraphs, described as Subjects,
Episodes, Khanat, etc.
The grouping of these larger paragraphs into complete movements or pieces.
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Hence it is evident that if we are to be able to estimate, with any regard to correctness of judgment, any
work we may be called upon to hear or study, we must take some account, at least, of these important
elements of design and of structure, without which a work of art would he a shapeless mass of
incoherence, unable to tell its own tale through neglect of one of the fundamental laws of Nature.
To those who will take the trouble to understand a little of the methods of the Masters, the lines upon
which they worked, the inevitable process of evolution observable in their writings, will music in a very
special sense become what it indeed is an object of serious and refined enjoyment that appeals to the
emotions through the intelligence, not a plaything for the senses alone, a worthy field for the exercise of
those higher faculties of our nature with which we should approach all great and good work in whatever
form we meet it.
2- Labeling form with letters
Letters can be used to label the form of any piece of music, from the simplest to the most complex. Each
major section of the music is labeled with a letter; for example, the first section is the A section. If the
second section (or third or fourth) is exactly the same as the first, it is also labeled A. If it is very much like
the A section, but with some important differences, it can be labeled A' (pronounced "A prime"). The A'
section can also show up later in the piece, or yet another variation of A, A'' (pronounced "A double
prime") can show up, and so on.
The first major section of the piece that is very different from A is labeled B, and other sections that are
like it can be labeled B, B', B'', and so on. Sections that are not like A or B are labeled C, and so on.
Ex:

Part 1
Some Forms in Middle Eastern instrumental music
1- The Samai form
The Samai form is prevalent in both Arabic and Turkish art music. It seems to be fairly accepted that the
form is about 200 years old. By some accounts it is as old as 300 years. The origin of this form seems
contestable: some theorists say its of Persian origin whereas others attribute it to Turkey. Since the 19th
century, the art-musical form has been popular both across much of the Arab world, as well as in Turkey.
Naming convention: In Arabic, a typical name of a Samai consists of the word Samai followed by
the name of the maqam which the samai explores. Example: Samai Rast. Since there could be
more than one Samai in a given maqam, the name of the composer is added to the name of the
Samai. Example: Samai Nahawand Masood Jamil. In some rare cases, a composer would give their
Samai a unique name instead of following the naming convention. One example is Sihr Al-Sharq
instead of Samai Nahawand Al-Hariri.
Exercise: Which maqam is Samai Bayyati Al-Aryan in and whats the name of the composer?
Note: In Turkish music, the name of the Maqam comes first and the Turkish name of the form Saz
Samai follows.
Traditional Uses: Traditionally a Samai appears early in an instrumental or song set. It is part of a
series of instrumental pieces that open the set, which may include instrumental pieces in other
forms such as Bashraf, Dulab, and Taqasim. Those instrumental pieces were used to establish the
Maqam tonality and relationship with other maqams in the ears of the listeners and singers, and
warm the listeners up to the set to come.
The Samai form: A piece in four short movements (each called Khana), each followed by a refrain
(called Taslim). The first three movements and the refrain are in the Samai Thaqil rhythm. The
fourth is in a contrasting rhythm (most commonly 3/4 or 6/4). Some contemporary composers
display a 5/8, 7/8 or 9/8 rhythm in the fourth Khana. The first three khanat of the samai generally
consist of 4 to 6 measures, the last khana varies from 6 to 24 measures. The overall structure of the
samai could be summarized as follows: K1-T-K2-T-K3-T-K4-T.
Maqam parameters of the form: Traditionally the first Khana is entirely in the Maqam of the piece,
as is the Taslim. The second and third Khanat involve modulation exploring other Maqams. The
fourth Khana typically stays in the original Maqam of the Samai. It is often in a lively tempo,
sometimes technically demanding, and the energy climax of the entire piece is often achieved in
this Khana.
Arabic and Turkish performance practice in the modern period: a comparison
The differences in performance of Samais between Arab and Turkish musicians reflect, for the most
part, the audible difference in style between Arab and Turkish art music ensembles. Here are the
differences:
Tempo: Arab musicians typically perform all the 10/8 Khanas in Samais slower than their
Turkish counterparts.
Use of percussion: The general tendency is for the Arab percussionist to make extensive use of
ornaments and embellishments, and to vary that in a way that interacts with the melodic line,
sometimes outlining the form (for example by playing different in the Taslim than in the
Khanas). The general tendency for Turkish percussionists is to play the skeleton, the most basic
shape, of the Samai Thaqil pattern, regardless of the melodic line or place in the form.
Modern Samai compositions: Contemporary Turkish Samais still adhere fairly strictly to the
composition rules as outlined above. Contemporary Arab Samais, however, are a different
story. While there are still Samais that are entirely traditional, there are others that push the
envelope, typically in terms of tonality.
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Examples of Samai:

Samai Nahawand Najib Kallab

Khana 1

Taslim

Khana 2

Khana 3

Khana 4 (this khana alternates 2 rhythmic patterns: Yuruk Samai Dawr Hindi)

Samai Bayati Ibrahim Al Aryan

2- The Bashraf form

Perev (in Turkish) is an instrumental form in Turkish and Arabic classical music. It is the name of the first
piece of music played during a group performance called a fasil (in Turkish music) or wasla (in Arabic
music). It usually uses long rhythm cycles, stretching over many measures as opposed to the simpler
rhythmic patterns the other major form of instrumental music uses (samai) (large time signatures could be
found such as 48/4, 120/4) . Along with the samai it was introduced into Arabic music in the 19th century,
and became particularly popular in Egypt.
Etymology: in Ottoman Turkish it was a Persian loanword composed of the particles p, which
means "before, ahead", and rev, "that which goes"; coming to mean "that which comes first". In

Persian, the word pidaramad is used instead to denote the first piece of a traditional music
performance.
Naming convention: as in the Samai form, a typical name of a Bashraf consists of the word Bashraf
followed by the name of the maqam which it explores, and the composer.
The Bashraf form: a Bashraf is composed of movements called Khanat at the end of which there is
always an unchanging particle introducing the Taslim (the refrain). A bashraf usually has 4 khanat,
yet it can occasionally have 2, 5 or 6. In principle, it has rather large rhythmic patterns, yet a Bashraf
with shorter rhythmical patterns does exist. If the Khanat are to be marked with [K1, K2, K3, K4]
and the Taslim with T, the regular structure of a bashraf would be K1-T-K2-T-K3-T-K4-T, thus always
ending with the Taslim.
Maqam parameters of the form: a Bashraf is named after the makam used in the first khana and
usually ends with this makam; in Turkish classical music theory, they are said to be "bound" to this
makam. There are always modulations to other makams in the khanat that follow the first one, but
with the Taslim, the piece always regains the principal mode.
Difference with the Samai form: the main difference with the samai is that the rhythmic structure
of the bashraf is generally more complex (with a rhythmic grouping in 'twos' rather than a mixture
of 'twos' and 'threes') and the same rhythm is generally preserved throughout the piece. The
Bashraf is usually played slower than the Samai.

Example of Bashraf (excerpt)

Bashraf Rast
Khana 1

Taslim

Asim Bk

3- The Longa form

A lively dance form usually in simple 2/4 meter.
Form origin: the origin of the Longa form is contested. Some theorists say its of Bulgarian origin
(when Bulgaria was part of the Ottoman Empire), while others attribute it to the Turks.
The Longa Form: it consists of two to four Khanat and a Taslim. The regular structure of a Longa
would be K1-T-K2-T-K3-T-K4-T, thus always ending with the Taslim. Generally each khana and
taslim consists of 8-16 measures, mainly in 2/4, except for the last which occasionally follows the
3/4 Samai Darij meter.
Maqam parameters of the form: The first Khana and the Taslim are in the principal maqam. The
second and third Khanat modulate to different maqamat. The fourth Khana could be in the
principal maqam or a different one. Very common maqams for longas are Nahawand, Nakriz, Hijazkar.
Difference with the Samai and Bachraf forms: small time signature (generally 2/4) and a quick
(even very quick) tempo.
Example of longa (excerpt)

Longa Shahnaz
Adham Efendi
Khana 1

Taslim

Khana 2

3- The Doulab form

The doulab (literally "wheel", called like this because of its repetition that allows the singer to get into the
mood of the song) is an introductory short instrumental composition initially intended to open a vocal
piece of music. The doulab sets the mood of a maqam, and is intended to reveal its special character such
as its intervallic structure and the emotions attached to it.
Maqam parameters of the form: The Doulab is written in the maqam that will be used in the song,
and does not generally modulate to another maqam due to its shortness.
Doulab example:

Doulab Rast

4- The Taqsim
The Taqsim is an instrumental improvisation which could be metric or non-metric. The taqsim is usually
performed solo, but could also be accompanied by a percussionist or an instrumentalist playing only a
drone. The taqsim is a musical composition where the soloist improvises a piece using the maqam as a
vehicle while abiding by a certain set of rules particular to that maqam. A taqsim usually includes a number
of modulations to other related maqamat.

Part 2
Some Forms in Middle Eastern vocal music
1- The Muwashah
The muwashah is a vocal music genre based on the poetic form of the same name, that originally existed in
Andalusia, and some theorists say that this form was first attributed to Al Mukaddam Ibn Muaafa of
Qabra during the Arabic reign in the late 9th century.
The Muwashah spread in the Arab East at the 12 th century approximately. It can be further distinguished
from that of the Maghrib in that the poets of the East feel bound to the strict rules of Arabian meter,
whereas those in North Africa ignore them. The muwashah is usually performed by a chorus alternating
with a soloist, the whole being accompanied by a ud, violin, qanun, daff and tabla.
Before the trend toward modernization decisively influenced music in the Arabian world, it was customary
in one concert to perform a complete waslah, that is, up to eight muwashahat in succession together with
an instrumental introduction (samai or bashraf). Common to all sections of such a waslah cycle is the
principle Maqam of all muwashahat whereby the combination of pieces can comprise the works of several
poets and composers.
The Muwashah Form: The melody and the structure of the muwashah vary in sophistication. In general,
the melody of the muwashah is divided into 3 parts:
The first part called Dawr, that could be followed by a second and third dawr or even more and all
adwar share the same rhythm and melody.
The second part called Khana, usually this part is written in the high register of the maqam, and
could also contain modulation to neighboring maqamat
The third part, called Qafla or Ghita, which follows again the melody and rhythm of the first dawr
and with which the muwashah ends.
Naming convention: A specific muwashah can be more precisely identified by naming the first lines of the
poem, the principal maqam and the accompanying rhythmic pattern and the names of the poet and
composer. If the identities of poet and composer are not known, one usually encounters the reference
qadim meaning old.
Muwashah subjects usually deal with love, flirtation, praise of womens charms and wine.
Some prominent muwashahat composers are:
Omar El Batsh (1885-1950) of Aleppo
Sheikh Sayyed Darwish (1892-1923) of Alexandria
Sheikh Ahmad Qabbani (1841-1902) of Damascus
Muhammad Kamil Al Khulai (1879-1938) of Cairo
Salim El Helou of Beirut
Toufic El Bacha of Beirut
Sheikh Ali Darwish and his son Nadim of Aleppo
Ibrahim Shafiq of Cairo

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Example of Muwashah Lamma Bada:

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2- The Dawr
The Dawr is a vocal genre sung in regional Arabic ('ammiyyah), and was developed in the 19th century in
Egypt. The dawr is usually performed by a chorus and a soloist, the whole being accompanied by a ud,
violin, nay, qanun, daff and tabla.
The Dawr Form: it includes 2 sections, madh'hab (chorus, or refrain) and ghusn or dawr (branch, or
verse), the latter being characterized by choral responses to the soloist's ornamented improvisation on the
syllable "ah".
Maqam Parameter: from the second half of the nineteenth century on, composers began to set a dawr in
several maqamat and to modulate within a piece to neighboring maqamat.
Only simple rhythmic modes are used in the dawr and it usually starts with a doulab.
Some prominent composers of the dawr are:
Abdu al Hamuli (1845-1901)
Muhammad Uthman (1855-1900)
Sheikh Sayyed Darwish (1892-1923)

3- The Qasidah
Qasidah is the term for a poem set to music consisting of ten, sometimes also twenty-five or more lines of
poetry. All of the lines are based on one and the same classical meter of Arabian poetry. Religious as well
as secular themes are presented.
The qasidah performance is not based on any fixed rhythmic formula. A choir and an instrumental
ensemble accompany a male or female singer. Musically, no fixed formal construction can be ascertained.
Refrain sections can be as much a part of the musical form as are the improvised passages.
The Qasidah Form: Formally, the qasidah is designed cyclically: several melodiesusually four in
numberare strung together, interrupted only by a refrain, which generally reproduces the first line of the
poem.
Naming convention: the first line of verse is also referred to in the title of the complete qasidah.
The subject of the lyrics is most often love, but could also be patriotism, death or other themes. The
qasidah is composed to a simple rhythmic pattern, usually Wahdah.
The secular form of the qasidah reached its artistic peak during the nineteenth century through the
Egyptian singer Salamah Hijazi (18521917). During the twentieth century, the qasidah, again in Egypt,
received fresh impetus through artists such as the singer and composer Mubammad Abd al-Wahhab (19071991), Um Kulthum (18961975), and the composers Muhammad Al-Qasabji (1892-1966), Zakariyya
Ahmad (1896- 1961) and Riyad Al-Sunbati (19071985).

4- The Layali
The layali is a solo vocal form whose text consists of the words ya layli yaayni (Oh my night! Oh my eye!)
referring in a poetic metaphor to a beloved woman. Usually, the layali is performed by a singer who also
accompanies him or herself on the ud. The instrumental accompaniment is often, however, also supplied
by a qanun (box zither) player or even an entire instrumental ensemble, whereby the instrumentalists
accompany the soloist individually and in alternating order in his or her realization of the melodic passages.
In a layali, a maqam and its characteristic emotional content are musically presented.
Layali is a style of unmetered improvisation, based on a maqam, performed by a singing voice in Arabic
music. It is similar to the taqsim, which is performed by a solo instrument.
The layali generally serves as an introduction to a mawwal.

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5- The Mawwal
The mawwal is likewise a vocal form that usually follows the performance of a layali. Only in the Egyptian
dawr does it precede the layali. As early as the ninth century, at the time of the Caliph Harun ar-Rashid, the
mawwal was described in connection with the working class. The text is still composed in colloquial Arabic
today.
The theme of love predominates in the texts. The mawwal has much in common with the layali: it is also
performed by a solo singer to the accompaniment of a musical instrument, the melodic line likewise
dispenses with any division into measures.

6- The Taqtuqa
This form appeared in the late 19th century. It consists of a Madhab and couplet. Usually a chorus and a
soloist perform the taqtuqa whereas the chorus sings the madhab and the soloist the couplet.
In the early 20th century all the couplets had the same melody, whereas in a later period, the couplets
began to acquire independent melodic contours that could be modulating.

Part 3
Some Compound Forms in Middle Eastern music
1- Waslah
A waslah is a suite in Arabic music. It comprises eight or more movements such as muwashshah, taqsim,
layali, mawwal, qasida, dawr, sama'i, bashraf, dulab, and popular songs.

2- Fasil
The fasl is a suite in Ottoman classical music. It is similar to the Arabic nawba and waslah.
A fasl generally includes movements such as taksim, perev, ark, beste, kar, ar sem', yrk sem',
gazel and saz sem', played continuously without interludes and interconnected through arrangements.

Text prepared and compiled by Fadi Kallab

Sources :
The Music of the Arabs, H. H. Touma, Amadeus Press, 1999.
Al Musiqa Al Nathariah, S. Al Helou, Dar Al Hayat, 1961.
Al Muwashahat Al Andalusiah, S. Al Helou, Dar Al Hayat, 1965

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