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    Lec 3b PDF

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    This document discusses various types of imperfections that can exist in solid materials, including point defects like vacancies and self-interstitials, line defects like dislocations, interfacial defects like grain boundaries and twins, and volume defects like cracks and pores. It provides examples of each type of imperfection and explains how they influence properties. Imperfections are an inevitable part of real solids and affect their optical, electrical, thermal, chemical and mechanical behavior.

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    Lec 3b PDF

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    muawizzat
    36 views30 pages
    This document discusses various types of imperfections that can exist in solid materials, including point defects like vacancies and self-interstitials, line defects like dislocations, interfacial defects like grain boundaries and twins, and volume defects like cracks and pores. It provides examples of each type of imperfection and explains how they influence properties. Imperfections are an inevitable part of real solids and affect their optical, electrical, thermal, chemical and mechanical behavior.

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    This document discusses various types of imperfections that can exist in solid materials, including point defects like vacancies and self-interstitials, line defects like dislocations, interfacial defects like grain boundaries and twins, and volume defects like cracks and pores. It provides examples of each type of imperfection and explains how they influence properties. Imperfections are an inevitable part of real solids and affect their optical, electrical, thermal, chemical and mechanical behavior.

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    36 views30 pages

    Lec 3b PDF

    Uploaded by

    muawizzat
    This document discusses various types of imperfections that can exist in solid materials, including point defects like vacancies and self-interstitials, line defects like dislocations, interfacial defects like grain boundaries and twins, and volume defects like cracks and pores. It provides examples of each type of imperfection and explains how they influence properties. Imperfections are an inevitable part of real solids and affect their optical, electrical, thermal, chemical and mechanical behavior.

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    of 30

    Imperfections in Solids

    All solids contain large number of


    imperfections or deviations from crystalline
    perfection.
    Only single crystals have a near perfect
    crystalline structure.
    Presence of imperfections has a profound
    influence on the material properties (eg. optical,
    electrical, thermal, chemical, mechanical, etc.)

    Point Defects
    Vacancies
    Vacant lattice sites which
    increase the entropy or
    randomness of a crystal.
    A vacancy is formed when
    an atom is missing from a
    normal site during
    solidification from high
    temperatures or radiation
    damage.
    The equilibrium number of
    vacancies (Nv) increases
    with temperature (T):

    N = total number of atomic sites

    Qv
    N v = N exp( )
    kT

    Qv = energy required to form a vacancy


    k = Boltzmanns constant (1.38x10-23 J/atom-K)

    Example Problem
    Calculate the equilibrium number of vacancies/m3 for copper at 1000C.
    The energy for vacancy formation is 0.9 eV/atom; the atomic weight and
    density (at 1000C) for copper are 63.5 g/mol and 8.4 g/cm3,
    respectively.
    N
    N= A
    ACu

    (6.023 10 23 atoms / mol )(8.4 g / cm 3 )(10 6 cm 3 / m 3 )


    =
    63.5 g / mol

    = 8.0 1028 atoms/m3


    At 1000C (1273 K)
    Q
    N v = N exp( v )
    kT

    0.9eV
    = (8.0 10 28 atoms / m 3 ) exp

    5
    (8.62 10 eV / K )(1273 K )

    = 2.2 1025 vacancies/m3

    Self- Interstitials
    Host atoms that occupy
    interstitial sites and
    their presence can
    cause large distortions
    in the surrounding
    lattice.

    Self-interstitial and
    vacancy.

    Impurities /Additives
    Foreign atoms that occupy the lattice or
    interstitial sites of metals to form alloys.
    Presence of impurity atoms can lead to
    formation of a solid solution and/or a new
    second phase.

    Solid Solutions
    A solid solution is formed when foreign
    atoms are added to the host material.
    The crystal structure of the host material is
    maintained and no new structures or phases
    are formed.

    Substitutional solid
    solution
    Foreign atoms substitute
    for the host atoms.
    The degree of substitution
    depends on (a) the atomic
    size, (b) crystal structure,
    (c) electronegativity and
    (d) valency of the foreign
    atoms.
    Get complete solubility if
    the foreign atom has a
    similar size (R 15%),
    crystal structure, and
    electronegativity but
    higher valency.
    eg. Copper/Nickel

    small substitutional atom

    large substitutional atom

    Characteristics of copper and nickel.


    Cu

    Ni

    Atomic size
    (nm)

    0.128

    0.125

    Crystal structure

    FCC

    FCC

    Electronegativity

    1.9

    1.8

    Valency

    +1

    +2

    Interstitial solid solution


    Small foreign atoms (eg.
    C, N, H) fill the voids or
    interstitials among the
    host atoms.
    eg. carbon (2%)-Iron
    (Steel)
    RFe = 0.124 nm
    RC = 0.071 nm

    Line Defects
    Dislocations
    Line defects around which some of the atoms
    are misaligned.
    Movement of dislocations leads to deformation
    in metals and ceramics.
    The direction and distance that a dislocation
    moves in each step is known as the Burgers
    vector (b).

    Edge Dislocation
    ()
    A dislocation
    introduced into
    the lattice by
    adding an extra
    half plane of
    atoms.
    The Burgers
    vector and the
    dislocation are
    perpendicular to
    each other.

    Slip system of an edge dislocation.

    Screw Dislocation (3)


    A dislocation produced by shearing a crystal so that one atomic
    plane produces a spiral ramp about the dislocation.
    The Burgers vector and the dislocation are parallel to each other.

    Mixed Dislocation (,3)


    A dislocation that contains partly edge components and partly screw
    components.

    Electron Micorgraphs of Dislocations

    Dislocation loops.

    Dislocation network.

    Example Problem
    Calculate the length of the Burgers vector in copper (nm).
    a = 0.36151
    The close-packed directions are <110> or
    along the face diagonals.
    Face diagonal:

    4R = a 2 = 2 (0.36151) = 0.51125 nm

    b= 2R =

    1
    (0.51125) = 0.25563
    2

    nm

    Interfacial Defects
    Boundaries that have two dimensions which separate
    regions of the materials that have different crystal
    structures or crystallographic orientations.

    External surfaces
    Boundaries where the crystal structure terminates.
    Due to incomplete bonding, surface atoms have higher
    energy and more reactive than the bulk of the material.

    Grain Boundaries
    Boundaries between two grains
    having a different orientations in
    a polycrystalline material.
    There is lack of regular bonding
    and some atomic mismatch or
    disorder within the grain
    boundary.
    Hence grain boundaries have a
    higher energy state and are more
    chemical reactive than the
    grains.

    Low-angle and high-angle grain


    boundaries.

    Bamboo (x-section)

    Bamboo (longitudinal section)

    Diffraction Patterns of Bamboo with Fibre Bundles Aligned: (a) Parallel and (b) Perpendicular to the Surface.

    Tooth Enamel x-section

    Tooth Enamel axial section

    Nano and Microstructure of CeO2/CuO


    Nano/Molecular Level Composite Powder

    Layer-by-Layer Lattice Composite in


    Li1+x-y Nb1-x-3yTix-4yO3

    Ferroelectric
    LN cells
    Phase
    Boundary

    A small angle grain boundary is


    produced by an array of dislocations
    causing a small misorientation of
    the lattice across the surface of the
    imperfection.

    Tilt boundary formed by edge


    dislocations
    Twist boundary formed by screw
    dislocations.

    Formation of a tilt boundary


    from edge dislocations.

    Twin Boundaries
    Boundaries across the twins
    where there is a mirror image
    mis-orientation of the lattice.
    Twins are formed from atomic
    displacements due to
    mechanical shear forces
    (mechanical twins) or annealing
    heat treatments following
    deformation (annealing twins).
    Mechanical twins are found in
    BCC and HCP metals.
    Annealing twins are found in
    FCC metals.

    Stacking Faults
    Surface defects in FCC metals caused by the improper stacking sequence
    of close-packed planes.
    eg. FCC lattice
    ABCABCABCABC..
    Stacking fault

    ABCABABCBACA.

    Surface Energy (J.m-210-3)

    Surface
    Defect

    Al

    Cu

    Pt

    Fe

    Grain
    boundary

    625

    645

    1000

    780

    Twin
    boundary

    120

    45

    195

    190

    Stacking
    fault

    200

    75

    95

    Volume Defects
    Cracks, pores, foreign inclusions and other
    phases.

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