Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Compressors are commonly classified as either positive displacement or dynamic

compressors. The positive displacement compressor achieves its pressure rise by
trapping fluid in a confined space and transporting it to the region of higher pressure. The dynamic compressor develops its increase in pressure by a dynamic
transfer of energy to a continuously flowing fluid stream. There are two basic
types of dynamic compressors: axial-flow compressors and centrifugal (radialflow) compressors. The flow streamlines through rotating rows in an axial-flow
compressor have a radius that is almost constant, whereas they undergo a substantial increase in radius in a centrifugal compressor. For this reason, the centrifugal compressor can achieve a much greater pressure ratio per stage than the
axial-flow compressor. But the axial-flow compressor can achieve a significantly
greater mass flow rate per unit frontal area. Figure 1-1 compares normalized discharge pressure, P, versus flow rate, Q, for these two compressor types to illustrate the differences in their performance characteristics. The axial-flow
compressor approximates a variable pressure ratioconstant flow machine,
whereas the centrifugal compressor is closer to a constant pressure ratiovariable flow machine. The performance data displayed in Fig. 1-1 are for a singlestage centrifugal compressor and a five-stage axial-flow compressor, both of
which have about the same design pressure ratio. This demonstrates the superior
pressure ratio-per-stage capability of the centrifugal compressor. Traditionally,
the centrifugal compressor has been the more rugged and lower-cost type, while
the axial-flow compressor has offered better efficiency. Those differences have
become much less significant in recent years due to advances in technology, particularly with regard to efficiency. Presently, the compressor type selected is more
likely to be based on the performance characteristics, size and cost that is best
suited to the application.

NOMENCLATURE
a
C
cp
cv
H

=
=
=
=
=

sound speed
absolute velocity
specific heat at constant pressure
specific heat at constant volume
total enthalpy and compressor head

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2 AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS

h
k
M

m
N
P
Q
R
Re
r
T
U
W

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

static enthalpy
ratio of specific heats = cp / cv
Mach number = C / a
mass flow rate
rotation speed (rpm)
pressure
/ t
volume flow rate = m
Gas constant and stage reaction
Reynolds number
radius
temperature
local blade speed, r
relative velocity
flow angle
stagger angle
Pt0 / Pref
efficiency
polar (tangential) coordinate and Tt0 / Tref
viscosity
density
stage flow coefficient
stage work coefficient
rotation speed (radians/second)

FIGURE 1-1 Performance of Dynamic Compressors

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Introduction 3

Subscripts
d
ref
rev
t
z

0
1
2
3

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

parameter at compressor discharge

reference thermodynamic conditions
reversible thermodynamic process
total thermodynamic condition
axial component
swirl (tangential) component
parameter at guide vane inlet or compressor inlet
parameter at guide vane exit and rotor inlet
parameter at rotor exit and stator inlet
parameter at stator exit

Superscripts
= relative condition

1.1 AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSOR BASICS

Figure 1-2 illustrates the basic configuration of an axial-flow compressor. The first
blade row shown is an inlet guide vane (IGV) to develop the swirl (tangential)
velocity for which the first rotating row (R1) was designed. If the first rotating row
is designed for no inlet swirl, the inlet guide vane will normally be omitted. This is
followed by a series of stages (two in this illustration), where a stage refers to a
rotating row, or rotor, in combination with its downstream stationary row, or stator (e.g., R1 and S1). The rotor row imparts energy to the fluid by increasing the
swirl velocity. The stator row removes the swirl developed by the rotor to convert
kinetic energy to static pressure and to establish the proper swirl velocity for the
flow to enter the next rotor. Typically, an exit guide vane (EGV) follows the last
stage to remove any residual swirl velocity to convert that kinetic energy to static
pressure. Like the inlet guide vane, this row may be omitted if the last stator is
designed to remove all of the swirl velocity. Although not shown on the figure, a
diffuser-combustor (gas turbine) or diffuser-collector (industrial compressor) will
follow the exit guide vane to recover as much kinetic energy as possible, as well as
to direct the flow to its intended destination. Similarly, an inlet passage will precede the inlet guide vane. This can range from a smooth axial bell-mouth inlet to
a complex side inlet, depending on the compressors application.
Figure 1-3 illustrates the blade profiles for a stage viewed on a polar stream
surface between adjacent blades. The rotor row is rotating with a velocity, U = r,
where is the rotation speed and r is the radius. Viewed in a frame of reference
rotating with the rotor, the upstream velocity, W, is referred to as the relative
velocity. The rotor deflects the flow such that the velocity in the stationary frame
of reference of the stator (the absolute velocity), C, is properly aligned to enter
the stator row. This process repeats in subsequent stages, with each stage adding
energy to the fluid to achieve the overall pressure ratio required.
Axial-flow compressor design strategies are quite varied. Gas turbine compressors are normally intended for use in many identical units. Extensive design

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4 AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS

FIGURE 1-2 Axial-Flow Compressor Configuration

FIGURE 1-3 Polar Surface View of a Stage

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Introduction 5

and development programs are common and may include unique blade designs
for all blade rows. By contrast, industrial compressors are usually designed
specifically for a unique application, rarely involving any duplicate units. Here, a
repeating stage approach is more common, where one or more basic stage
designs are used for all compressors. Aerodynamic and mechanical flexibility are
obtained by minor adjustments that do not compromise the basic stages performance. Blades may be scaled to longer and thicker blades for mechanical
integrity with a corresponding adjustment of the number of blades per row to
preserve aerodynamic similarity. Blades usually must be restaggered, i.e., rotated
on their base to change the stagger angle, , to achieve different performance levels. Otherwise, the intended duty would normally require a non-integer number
of stages. Often the inlet guide vane and some of the stator blades may be
adjustable so they can be restaggered by a control system while the machine is in
operation to broaden the compressors application range. This approach allows
these one-of-a-kind compressors to be designed within practical cost. It also
allows each compressors design to be based on a well-established performance
history. This is important, since these compressors cannot be confirmed by performance testing until after they are manufactured.
Figure 1-2 illustrates normal cantilevered blades that are attached at the root,
with a clearance between the blade tip and the adjacent end-wall. Figure 1-4
shows a different style often used for stator blades. Here, a shroud band is
attached to the blade tips to connect them together. This is often done for reasons
of mechanical integrity. To reduce fluid leakage from the blade discharge back to
the blade inlet, seal fins are normally attached to the shroud band. These provide
a reduced clearance to retard leakage, yet are thin enough to minimize damage in
the event that a rotor shaft excursion or rub causes the seals and shaft to come
into contact. To minimize damage to the shaft, the stator blades and stator
shrouds, the seal fins will be sacrificed in the event of a rub.

1.2 BASIC VELOCITY DIAGRAMS FOR A STAGE

The construction of velocity diagrams is a very useful concept for axial-flow compressor design. Here they will be used to illustrate the velocity vectors entering
and leaving blade rows in a stage. It will be necessary to use both absolute and
relative velocities, where relative velocities are viewed in a frame of reference
rotating with the compressors rotation speed, . Designating the relative and
absolute tangential velocities as W and C, respectively, the two are related by
W = C r

(1-1)

where r is the local radius. The axial components of velocity are identical in both
frames of reference, i.e.,
Wz = Cz

(1-2)

Therefore, the absolute and relative velocities are

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Introduction 13

The more speed deviates from the design speed, the greater the compromise of
the stage matching. In general, at speeds lower than the design speed, the front
stages are required to supply a greater portion of the rise in pressure while the
rear stages become less effective. The inverse is true for speeds greater than the
design speed. This stage mismatching can be alleviated to some degree if some
of the stationary blade rows are adjustable during operation. Closing some of
the stationary rows (i.e., increasing their stagger angles) in a controlled fashion
will shift the optimum matching condition to lower speeds to reduce the mismatch at low speeds.
The Mach number level has a definite influence above and beyond its pronounced effect on stage matching. As a blade rows inlet Mach number increases,
its low-loss operating range will decrease. At sufficiently high values, the blade
row will start to experience aerodynamic choke in the blade row to significantly
reduce its maximum flow capacity. Even the minimum loss levels will increase
when the inlet Mach number becomes high enough to produce shock waves that
are strong enough to induce boundary layer separation or to produce significant
bow shock losses. Consequently, as the equivalent speed increases, pressure-flow
characteristics become steeper, with less flow range from surge to choke as illustrated in Fig. 1-7, and the maximum achievable efficiency can be limited by Mach
number levels, similar to speed line N1 in Fig. 1-8.

1.5 DIMENSIONLESS PARAMETERS

In addition to the dimensionless parameters associated with similitude, axialflow compressor design is often based on a number of other useful aerodynamic
dimensionless parameters. To introduce these parameters, it is necessary to
anticipate some results that are developed in more detail in Chapters 2 and 3. In
particular, the total enthalpy rise for simple axial flow through a rotor blade row
is expressed by the well-known Euler turbine equation, i.e.,
H = U (C 2 C1)

(1-17)

where U = r is the local blade speed and H is the total enthalpy. Similarly, it will
be shown in Chapter 2 that the static enthalpy, h, is related to H by
H = h + 12 C 2

(1-18)

It is often useful to introduce dimensionless stage performance parameters

expressed for a repeating stage, i.e., a stage designed to be followed by another
identical stage. This means that the velocity diagrams for the rotor inlet (station
1) and the stator exit (station 3) must be identical. Then, the stage work coefficient, , can be defined as

= H / U 2 = (C 2 C1) / U

(1-19)

where all data correspond to a constant, mean radius, or pitch line for the
stage. The stage flow coefficient, , is defined by

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Introduction 7

FIGURE 1-5 Guide Vane Velocity Diagrams

W2 yields the absolute swirl component C 2. Hence, all velocity components and
the flow angle in the absolute frame of reference can be computed to define the
inlet conditions for the downstream (stationary) stator blade row. Construction
of the stator and exit guide vane blade row velocity diagrams is accomplished in
a similar fashion and will be left as an exercise for the reader. The important
thing to note is that construction of this simple velocity diagram is a fundamental technique commonly used by turbomachinery aerodynamicists to convert
between absolute and relative flow conditions. Here, Cz has been treated as
known. In practice, values of Cz may be specified design conditions from which
the flow passage areas will be computed to conserve mass. This will be referred to
as the design mode. Alternatively, Cz may be computed from basic mass and
momentum conservation for specified passage areas and the mass flow rate. This
will be referred to as the analysis mode.

1.3 SIMILITUDE AND PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

Similitude or similarity is one of the most useful concepts in turbomachinery
aerodynamics. Two turbomachines are completely similar if the ratios of all

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8 AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS

FIGURE 1-6 Rotor Blade Velocity Diagrams

corresponding length dimensions, velocity components and forces are equal

(Sheppard, 1956). If two turbomachines are completely similar, it is possible to
present their performance on a common performance map by selecting appropriate equivalent performance parameters. Equivalent performance requires that the
two compressors have similar velocity diagrams throughout. To maintain similar
, the ratio of gas densityvelocity diagrams while conserving the mass flow rate, m
to-inlet density must also be similar throughout. This means that inlet volume
flow, Q0, is the relevant equivalent flow rate parameter, where
/ t
Q=m

(1-7)

The local axial velocity is actually given by

/ ( A00 )
Cz0 = m

(1-8)

where A is the passage area and 0 is the inlet gas density, which is unknown.
But the exercises in Chapter 2 will show that the ratio 0 / t0 is a function of Cz0,

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Introduction 9

where t0 is the known inlet total gas density. Hence, unique velocity diagrams
are associated with a unique Q0 / A0, but can correspond to many values of m /A0
simply by altering t0. For this reason, all dynamic compressors are commonly
referred to as volume flow machines. The exercises in Chapter 2 will show that
the requirement for density ratio similarity requires that the Mach numbers be
similar throughout, where the Mach number is the ratio of fluid velocity to the
local sound speed, a. It will be shown that the ratio of a0 / at0 is, itself, a function
of the Mach number, so the unknown a0 can be replaced by the known inlet total
sound speed, at0. Figure 1-7 shows an equivalent performance map based on
these requirements. The flow parameter used is volume flow normalized by the
inlet total sound speed, at0, and the inlet area, A0. This ensures that the inlet
axial Mach numbers will be similar. Three performance characteristics, or speed
lines, are shown for three different rotation speeds: N, multiplied by a characteristic diameter, D, and normalized by the inlet total sound speed. This will
ensure similarity of the tangential Mach numbers. If two axial-flow compressors
are geometrically similar, and use the same working fluid, this performance map
will apply to both machines. This, in turn, ensures that the pressure ratios will
be the same for both, so pressure ratio is a reasonable choice for the other performance parameter. The situation becomes more complicated if the two compressors use different working fluids. In that case, complete similarity usually
cannot be achieved, since different working fluids may produce different gas
density (or specific volume) ratios for the same blade row velocity diagram. This
volume-ratio effect will compromise similarity after the first rotor row, since

FIGURE 1-7 An Equivalent Performance Map

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10 AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS

the differences in density will necessitate differences in axial velocity to conserve

mass. Indeed, even with identical working fluids, non-ideal gas behavior may
compromise similarity. True equivalent performance is assured only for working
fluids that obey the perfect gas equation of state discussed in Chapter 2, which
can be expressed as:
P = RT

(1-9)

where P is pressure, T is temperature and R is the gas constant. An exercise in

Chapter 2 will also show that achieving equivalent density ratios requires that the
two working fluids have the same ratio of specific heats, k = cp / cv. Since axialflow compressors are widely used in aircraft engine gas turbines, discussions on
this topic often overlook these more subtle effects. That application of compressors deals exclusively with air as the working fluid, which is very nearly a perfect
gas, offering little chance of any volume-ratio effect. Consequently, equivalent
performance maps must be used with caution when a perfect gas model with a
constant value of k cannot approximate the working fluid.
Similarity is also compromised when the two compressors operate at substantially different Reynolds number, Re. Reynolds number is a measure of the
inertia forces to viscous forces, Re = CL/, where L is a characteristic length
and is the gas viscosity. The Reynolds number directly affects wall friction,
which can alter the compressors performance. In most cases, effects of the
Reynolds number are small enough to be neglected. When that is not the case,
suitable Reynolds number corrections (e.g., Wassell, 1968) may be applied to
adjust the performance.
A common use of equivalent performance maps is to define performance of a
specific compressor that is operated at various inlet total thermodynamic conditions. For that case, D and A0 are constant and can be omitted on the map.
Another common use is to relate performance of different compressor frame
sizes, derived by directly scaling the geometry. Then, D and A0 are included so the
map defines the change in speed, N, needed to preserve Mach number equivalence and the flow rate supplied for each pressure ratio on a speed line.
The equivalent flow rate used in Fig. 1-7 is the true similarity parameter. When
the application is to a perfect gas with constant R and k, Eq. (1-9) can be used to
derive alternate equivalent flow parameters, i.e.,
Tt0 / Pt0 m
/
Q / at0 m

(1-10)

where the sound speed has been replaced by a perfect gas relation from chapter 2,
a = kRT

(1-11)

and and relate inlet total conditions to reference conditions (Tref, Pref), such as
standard atmosphere conditions, i.e.,

= Tt0 / Tref

(1-12)

= Pt0 / Pref

(1-13)

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Introduction 11

Similarly, the equivalent speed parameter can be replaced, using

N / at0 N / Tt0 N /

(1-14)

The alternate flow rate and speed parameters in Eqs. (1-10) and (1-14) are commonly used, but have less fundamental significance than Q0 / at0 and N / at0.
Similarly, compressor head, Hrev, can be used in place of pressure ratio,
where head is defined as the total enthalpy increase required to produce the
actual pressure rise by an ideal, reversible process, i.e.,
Hrev =

rev

dp

(1-15)

It can be shown that the appropriate equivalent head parameter is Hrev / (at0)2.
The use of an equivalent head is common practice for centrifugal compressors,
but is much less common for axial-flow compressors.
Figure 1-7 supplies only part of the performance information required. In
addition to the pressure ratio and flow produced, it is necessary to know the
work required to drive the compressor. Hence, a second equivalent performance map is required to completely define the compressors performance. The
most common parameter for this purpose is efficiency, , defined as the compressor head or ideal (no loss) total enthalpy rise divided by the actual total
enthalpy rise, i.e.,

= Hrev / H

(1-16)

Alternate reversible processes that can be used to define Hrev and are discussed in Chapter 2. Figure 1-8 shows an equivalent efficiency map to be used in
conjunction with Fig. 1-7. In some cases, it may be appropriate to use the exit
static thermodynamic conditions rather than total values to define and PR. This
is appropriate when the kinetic energy available at the compressor discharge
serves no useful purpose for the specific application to which the compressor will
be applied.

1.4 STAGE MATCHING AND STABILITY

Each blade row in a compressor will achieve its best performance for a specific
inlet flow angle where losses are minimum. Basically, the designer seeks to
match succeeding blade rows such that all operate close to their optimum inlet
flow angles at a specific operating condition, commonly called the compressors
design point or match point, defined by the design flow rate and design speed.
Hence, at design speed, losses can be expected to increase and performance to
deteriorate as the compressor operates farther from its design flow rate. At flow
rates less than the design flow rate, losses will increase to a point that the pressure-flow rate characteristic reaches a maximum. At lower flow rates, the characteristic will have a positive slope, which is theoretically unstable. The onset of

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12 AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS

FIGURE 1-8 An Equivalent Efficiency Map

this severe unstable operation is commonly called surge. The limit of stable operation is referred to as the surge line as illustrated in Fig. 1-7. Surge is a very complex phenomenon, which depends on the entire system, not just the compressor.
So associating it with a maximum on the pressureflow rate characteristic is an
oversimplification, but a useful one. In some cases, an approach to zero-slope
near surge is evident, such as for speed line N3 in Fig. 1-7. In other cases, the
compressor may experience an abrupt stall, such that the characteristic appears
to be quite steep at surge, similar to speed line N1 in Fig. 1-7. This is mainly
because the drop in pressure with reduced flow is so abrupt that it cannot be
resolved in a performance test. Indeed, estimation of the onset of surge during
the design phase is based more on the expected blade loading limits at the onset
of stall than on the predicted shape of the pressure-flow characteristics. Similarly, at flow rates greater than the design flow rate, the increase in loss will eventually result in no rise in pressure. This condition is commonly referred to as
choke, although it may be caused by large losses due to off-design operation
rather than a true aerodynamic choke condition.
When the compressor is operated at off-design speeds, operation at different
Mach number levels will compromise the stage matching, similar to the volumeratio effect mentioned previously. Consequently, it is unlikely that all stages will
be close to their optimum operating conditions at any flow rate for off-design
speeds. Rather, optimum performance will occur at the flow rate offering the
best compromise on stage matching. Performance will deteriorate for flows different from this optimum, much as described for the design speed performance.

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Introduction 13

The more speed deviates from the design speed, the greater the compromise of
the stage matching. In general, at speeds lower than the design speed, the front
stages are required to supply a greater portion of the rise in pressure while the
rear stages become less effective. The inverse is true for speeds greater than the
design speed. This stage mismatching can be alleviated to some degree if some
of the stationary blade rows are adjustable during operation. Closing some of
the stationary rows (i.e., increasing their stagger angles) in a controlled fashion
will shift the optimum matching condition to lower speeds to reduce the mismatch at low speeds.
The Mach number level has a definite influence above and beyond its pronounced effect on stage matching. As a blade rows inlet Mach number increases,
its low-loss operating range will decrease. At sufficiently high values, the blade
row will start to experience aerodynamic choke in the blade row to significantly
reduce its maximum flow capacity. Even the minimum loss levels will increase
when the inlet Mach number becomes high enough to produce shock waves that
are strong enough to induce boundary layer separation or to produce significant
bow shock losses. Consequently, as the equivalent speed increases, pressure-flow
characteristics become steeper, with less flow range from surge to choke as illustrated in Fig. 1-7, and the maximum achievable efficiency can be limited by Mach
number levels, similar to speed line N1 in Fig. 1-8.

1.5 DIMENSIONLESS PARAMETERS

In addition to the dimensionless parameters associated with similitude, axialflow compressor design is often based on a number of other useful aerodynamic
dimensionless parameters. To introduce these parameters, it is necessary to
anticipate some results that are developed in more detail in Chapters 2 and 3. In
particular, the total enthalpy rise for simple axial flow through a rotor blade row
is expressed by the well-known Euler turbine equation, i.e.,
H = U (C 2 C1)

(1-17)

where U = r is the local blade speed and H is the total enthalpy. Similarly, it will
be shown in Chapter 2 that the static enthalpy, h, is related to H by
H = h + 12 C 2

(1-18)

It is often useful to introduce dimensionless stage performance parameters

expressed for a repeating stage, i.e., a stage designed to be followed by another
identical stage. This means that the velocity diagrams for the rotor inlet (station
1) and the stator exit (station 3) must be identical. Then, the stage work coefficient, , can be defined as

= H / U 2 = (C 2 C1) / U

(1-19)

where all data correspond to a constant, mean radius, or pitch line for the
stage. The stage flow coefficient, , is defined by

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14 AXIAL-FLOW COMPRESSORS

= Cz1 / U

(1-20)

The stage reaction, R, is defined as the fraction of the stage static enthalpy rise
that occurs in the rotor, i.e.,
R = ( h2 h1) / ( h3 h1)

(1-21)

Substituting P for h in Eq. (1-21) yields an alternate definition of reaction, in

terms of static pressures, that is sometimes used. Requiring Cz to be constant
through the stage, Eqs. (1-17), (1-18) and (1-21) can be combined to yield
R = 1 (C 2 + C1) / (2U )

(1-22)

In Chapter 10, it will be seen that parameters , and R provide useful guidance
for stage design. Stage design involves defining blade geometry that will produce
the desired performance. These dimensionless performance parameters define
performance in a form general to any stage design problem. They are normally
used to specify the performance objectives the stage should achieve at its mean
radius or pitch line. While there are no fixed rules for selecting values for them,
preferred values can normally be established based on the design goals most
important to the designer, supported to some degree by simple logic. For example, 50% reaction stages (R = 0.5) are quite common, prompted mainly by the
intuitive judgment that it is best to share the flow diffusion load equally between
the rotor and the stator. Once specified, these parameters can be used to define
the stage velocity diagrams from which the blades can be designed. For example,
Eqs. (1-19) through (1-22) can be combined to yield
tan 1 = ( / 2 + R) /
tan 2 = ( / 2 R)/
tan 1 = (1 R / 2)/
tan 2 = (1 R + / 2)/

(1-23)
(1-24)
(1-25)
(1-26)

and the velocity diagrams for the stator exit and rotor inlet are identical for a
repeating stage. These parameters have defined the velocity diagrams at the
pitch line only. It is necessary to supply additional design specifications and use
fundamental fluid dynamics relations to generate the velocity diagrams at other
radial locations.

1.6 UNITS AND CONVENTIONS

This book assumes consistent units throughout, such that the reader may use any
set of consistent units preferred. For historical reasons, many turbomachinery
organizations do not use consistent units, often using different units for different
disciplines such as aerodynamics and thermodynamics. For example, it is not

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Introduction 15

uncommon to find energy terms, fluid velocity and equation-of-state parameters

expressed in inconsistent units, necessitating conversion factors in expressions
such as Eq. (1-18). It will be left to the reader to recognize the need for those conversion factors. Flow angles and blade angles will be measured from the meridional plane, i.e., a plane of constant polar angle, , in a cylindrical coordinate
system. These angles, and the associated swirl velocity components C and W,
are considered to be positive in the direction of rotation. While the nomenclature
is reasonably consistent throughout, the wide range of topics covered does not
permit unique symbols for every parameter. Consequently, each chapter will
include its own list of nomenclature to avoid confusion.

EXERCISES
1.1 An axial-flow compressor is to be operated with a different working
fluid, which can be modeled as a perfect gas, but has values of gas
constant, R, and ratio of specific heats, k, that are different from the
normal working fluid. Develop new equivalent speed and flow rate
, Tt0 and Pt0 that will ensure Mach number
parameters, in terms of m
equivalence at the compressor inlet.
1.2 Free vortex stages with 1 = 3 = 0 are often used for axial-flow compressors. Derive an expression for work coefficient as a function of
reaction for this type of stage. If the stage is also to have 50% reaction,
specify the range of values for and 1 that can be used. If the resulting stage is to be used as a repeating stage in a multistage compressor,
what type of inlet and exit guide vanes will be needed?
1.3 All dimensions of the compressor producing the performance map
shown in Fig. 1-7 are scaled by a factor of 1.2 and both compressors are
operated with the same inlet conditions and working fluid. If operating
points for the original compressor are denoted as NA and QA, develop
expressions for equivalent operating conditions NB and QB for the
scaled compressor. If the original compressor operates at a speed of
3,600 rpm, what speed must be used for the scaled compressor? How
much additional flow capacity will the scaled compressor have?
1.4 What scale factor should be applied to the compressor producing the
performance map shown in Fig. 1-7 to increase the compressors flow
capacity by 20% for the same inlet conditions and working fluid?
What adjustment in speed will be needed?

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