CHAPTER

PHYSICAL
EXAMPLES
OF FIRST-ORDER
SYSTEMS

In the first part of this chapter, we shall consider several physical systems that can
be represented by a first-order transfer function. In the second part, a method for
approximating the dynamic response of a nonlinear system by a linear response
will be presented. This approximation is called linearization.

EXAMPLES OF FIRST-ORDER SYSTEMS

Liquid Level
Consider the system shown in Fig. 6.1, which consists of a tank of uniform
sectional area A to which is attached a flow resistance R such as a valve, a pipe,
or a weir. Assume that
the volumetric flow rate (volume/time) through the
resistance, is related to the head by the linear relationship

A resistance that has this linear relationship between flow and head is referred
to as a linear resistance. A time-varying volumetric flow of liquid of constant
density
enters the tank. Determine the transfer function that relates head to flow.

*A pipe is a linear resistance if the flow is in the

range. A specially contoured
called a
weir, produces a linear head-flow relationship. Formulas used to prepare the shape of

64

65

Liquid-level

system.

We can analyze this system by writing a transient mass balance around the
Mass flow in

mass flow out = rate of accumulation of mass in the tank

In terms of the variables used in this analysis, the mass balance becomes

Combining
(6.1) and (6.2) to eliminate
differential equation:

gives the following linear

(6.3)
We shall introduce deviation variables into the analysis before proceeding
to the transfer function. Initially, the process is operating at steady state, which
means that
= 0 and we can write
(6.3) as

where the subscript has been used to indicate the steady-state value of the
variable.
Subtracting
(6.4) from
(6.3) gives
qs) =

such a weir have been

in the literature;
Soucek, Howe, and Mavis (1936).
flow through pipes and valves is generally
to
Flow through weirs
simple
where K and
are positive constants. For example, the
geometric shapes can be expressed as
a rectangular-shaped weir is proportional to

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LINEAR OPEN-LOOP SYSTEMS

If we define the deviation variables as

H = h - h ,

Eq. (6.5) can be written

Taking the transform of Eq. (6.6) gives

=

(6.7)

Notice that H(0) is zero and therefore the transform of

is simply
Equation (6.7) can be rearranged into the standard form of the first-order
lag to give
R

+1
where = AR.
In comparing the transfer function of the tank given by Eq. (6.8) with the
transfer function for the thermometer given by Eq.
we see that Eq. (6.8)
contains the factor R. The term R is simply the conversion factor that relates h(t)
to
when the system is at steady state. For this reason, a factor K in the
transfer function
+ 1) is often called the steady-state gain. We can readily
show this name to be appropriate by applying the final-value theorem of Chap.
4 to the determination of the steady-state value of H when the flow rate Q(t)
changes according to a unit-step change; thus
=
where u(t) is the symbol for the unit-step change. The transform of Q(t) is

Combining this forcing function with Eq. (6.8) gives

Applying the final-value theorem, proved in Chap. 4, to H(s) gives

=

This shows that the ultimate change in H(t) for a unit change in Q(t) is simply R.
If the transfer function relating the inlet flow
to the outlet flow is
desired, note that we have from Eq. (6.1)

PHYSICAL EXAMPLES OF FIRST-ORDER SYSTEMS

67
(6.9)

Subtracting Eq. (6.9) from Eq. (6.1) and using the deviation variable

=
(6.10)

Taking the transform of Eq. (6.10) gives

Combining Eqs. (6.11) and (6.8) to eliminate H(s) gives

+1

(6.12)

Notice that the steady-state gain for this transfer function is dimensionless,
which is to be expected because the input variable
and the output variable
have the same units (volume/time).
The possibility of approximating an impulse forcing function in the flow rate
to the liquid-level system is quite real. Recall that the unit-impulse function is
defined as a pulse of unit area as the duration of the pulse approaches zero, the
impulse function can be approximated by suddenly increasing the flow to a large
value for a very short time; i.e. we may pour very quickly a volume of liquid
into the tank. The nature of the impulse response for a liquid-level system will
be described by the following example.
Example 6.1. A tank having a time constant of 1 min and a resistance of
is operating at steady state with an inlet flow of
At time = 0, the flow
is suddenly increased to 100
for 0.1 min by adding an additional 9
of
water to the tank uniformly over a period of 0.1 min. (See Fig. 6.2 for this input
disturbance.) Plot the response in tank level and compare with the impulse response.
Before proceeding with the details of the computation, we should observe that,
as the time interval over which the 9
of water is added to the tank is shortened,
the input approaches an impulse function having a magnitude of 9.
From the data given in this example, the transfer function of the process is
H(s)

1 -

Q(s)
The input may be expressed as the difference in step functions, as was done in
Example 4.5.
Q(t) =
O.l)]
The transform of this is

68

OPEN-LOOP SYSTEMS

Combining this and the transfer function of the process, we obtain

1
(6.13)
+ 1)
+ 1)
The first term in
(6.13) can be inverted as shown in Eq. (5.12) to give
1
The second term, which includes e
must be inverted by use
of the theorem on translation of functions given in Chap. 4. According to this theorem, the inverse of
is
with
= 0 for
0 or
The inverse of the second term in Eq. (6.13) is
H(s) = 10

for

+ 1)

0.1
for

0.1

The complete solution to this problem, which is the inverse of Eq.

H(f) =

co.1

H(f) =
Simplifying the expression for H(t) for

is
(6.14)

0.1 gives

H(r) =
Eq.

the response of the system to an impulse of magnitude 9 is

given by
=

In Fig. 6.2, the pulse response of the liquid-level system and the ideal impulse
response are shown for comparison. Notice that the level rises very rapidly during the
0.1 min that additional flow is entering the tar& the level then decays exponentially
and follows very closely the ideal impulse response.

The responses to step and sinusoidal forcing functions are the same for the
liquid-level system as for the mercury thermometer of Chap. 5. Hence, they need

t.

0 0.1 0.2
min

t.

min

Approximation of an impulse function in a liquid-level system. (Example 6-l)

(b) response of tank level.

input;

PHYSICAL EXAMPLES OF FIRST-ORDER SYSTEMS

69

not be rederived. This is the advantage of characterizing all first-order systems by

the same transfer function.
Process

with

Constant-flow

Outlet

An example of a transfer function that often arises in control systems may be

developed by considering the liquid-level system shown in Fig. 6.3. The resistance
shown in Fig. 6.1 is replaced by a constant-flow pump. The same assumptions
of constant cross-sectional
and constant density that were used before also
apply here. For this system, Eq. (6.2) still applies, but
is now a constant;
thus

At steady state, Eq. (6.15) becomes

(6.16)
4s
=
Subtracting Eq. (6.16) from
(6.15) and introducing the deviation variables
Q
and
=
gives
(6.17)
Taking the

transform of each side of Eq. (6.17) and solving for H/Q gives
(6.18)

Notice that the transfer function, l/As, in Eq. (6.18) is equivalent to integration.
One realizes this from the discussion on the transform of an integral presented in
Chap. 4. Therefore, the solution of Eq. (6.18) is
(6.19)
If a step change Q(r) =
result is

were applied to the system shown in Fig. 6.3 the

h(t) =

(6.20)

+ t/A

The step response given by Eq. (6.20) is a ramp function that grows without
limit. Such a system that grows without limit for a sustained change in input is

= Constant

FIGURE

6-3

Liquid-level system with constant flow outlet.

70

LINEAR OPEN-LOOP SYSTEMS

said to have nonregulation. Systems that have a limited change in output for a
sustained change in input are said to have regulation. An example of a system
having regulation is the step response of a
system, which is shown in
Fig. 5.6.
The transfer function for the liquid-level system with constant outlet flow
given by Eq. (6.18) can be considered as a special case of Eq.
as R
The next example of a first-order system is a mixing process.
Mixing

Process

Consider the mixing process shown in Fig. 6.4 in which a stream of solution
containing dissolved salt flows at a constant volumetric flow rate into a tank of
constant holdup volume V. The concentration of the salt in the entering stream,
(mass of salt/volume), varies with time. It is desired to determine the transfer
function relating the outlet concentration y to the inlet concentration
Assuming the density of the solution to be constant, the flow rate in must
equal the flow rate out, since the holdup volume is fixed. We may analyze this
system by writing a transient mass balance for the salt; thus
Flow rate of salt in flow rate of salt out
= rate of accumulation of salt in the tank
Expressing this mass balance in terms of symbols gives
=
We shall again introduce deviation variables as we have in the previous
examples. At steady state, Eq. (6.21) may be written
=
Subtracting

(6.22)

(6.22) from Eq. (6.21) and introducing the deviation variables

x = x - x ,

give
=

FIGURE
Mixing process.

OF FIRST-ORDER SYSTEMS

Taking the

transform of this expression and rearranging the result

give
1
+ 1

(6.23)

where = V/q.
This mixing process is, therefore, another first-order process, for which the
dynamics
now well known. We next bring in an example from DC circuit
theory.
RC Circuit
Consider the simple RC circuit shown in Fig. 6.5 in which a voltage source v(t)
is applied to a series combination of a resistance R and a capacitance
For
0, v(t) = v,. Determine the transfer function relating
to v(t), where
is the voltage across the capacitor.
Applying Kirchhoffs law, which states that in any loop the sum of voltage
rises [v(t) in this example] must equal the sum of the voltage drops, gives
v(t) = Ri(t) +

i
I
Recalling that the current is the rate of change of charge with respect to time
(coulombs per second), we may replace i by
in
(6.24) to obtain
v(t) =

(6.25)

Since the voltage across the capacitance is given by the relationship

(6.26)
the initial charge on the capacitor is simply
=
Initially, when the circuit is at steady state and the capacitor is fully charged,
the voltage across the capacitor is equal to the source voltage
therefore,
(6.25) can be written for these steady-state conditions as
=

RC circuit.

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LINEAR OPEN-LOOP SYSTEMS

Subtracting Eq. (6.27) from Eq. (6.25) and introducing the deviation variables
(6.28)
=

we obtain the result

dt

(6.29)

or
(6.30)

Taking the transform of Eq. (6.30) and rearranging the result give
1
+1

(6.31)

where = RC. Again we obtain a first-order transfer function.

The three examples that have been presented in this section are intended to
show that the dynamic characteristics of many physical systems can be represented
by a first-order transfer function. In the remainder of the book, more examples of
first-order systems will appear as we discuss a variety of control systems.

Summary
In each example of a first-order system, the time constant has been expressed in
terms of system parameters; thus
for thermometer, Eq. (5.5)
.
for liquid-level process, Eq. (6.8)
V

for mixing process, Eq. (6.23)

4
for RC circuit, Eq. (6.31)

LINEARIZATION
Thus far, all the examples of physical systems, including the liquid-level system of
Fig. 6.1, have been linear. Actually, most physical systems of practical importance
are nonlinear.
Characterization of a dynamic system by a transfer function can be done only
for linear systems (those described by linear differential equations). The