0.american Cinematographer Manual - Filmmaking

AMERICAN
CINEMATOGRAPHER
MANUAL
SEVENTH
EDITION
EDITED BY
DR. ROD RYAN
THE
ASC PRESS
HoLLYwooD, CALIFORNIA
Acknowledgements
This edition, like all of the previous editions, was a joint effort. We
have called on ASC members, associate members and manufacturers' representatives to discuss the state of the art in the areas of their expertise. I would like to thank each of the more than 50 contributors for taking time from their busy schedules to help in the preparation of this
manual. Mehrdad Azarmi, Ph .D.; Ed Blasko, Eastman Kodak; Paul
Bourque, Agfa Photo Division; James K. Branch; Steven C. Chamberlain,
Arriflex Corp .; Ed Clare, Matthews Studio Equipment Group; Chris J.
Condon, StereoVision International, Inc.; Anthony Coogan, StereoMedia,
Inc.; Jack Cooperman, ASC; Ed DiGiulio, Cinema Products Corp.; Fred
Detmers; Linwood G. Dunn, ASC; Richard Edlund, ASC; Jonathan Erland;
Marianne Exbrayat, Aaton Des Autres, Inc.; Doug Fries, Fries Engineering; Tom Fraser; Richard Glickman, Gliconen Corp.; William Hansard, Sr.,
Hansard Enterprises; Frieider Hochheim, Kinoflo Inc.; Michael Hofstein;
Bill Hogan, Sprocket Digital; Robert C. Hummel III, Theme Park Productions, Inc.; Masaru Jibiki, Fuji Photo Film USA; John Jurgens, Cinema Products Corp.; Frank M. Kay, Panavision; Conrad Kiel, Photo-Sonics, Inc.; Jon
Kranhouse; Bern Levy, Bern Levy Associates; Frank Leonetti, Leonetti Co.;
Grant Loucks, Alan Gordon Enterprises; Harry Mathias; Rami Mina, Don
Miskowich, Eastman Kodak; John Mosely, CAS; Martin Mueller, MSM
Design, Inc.; Dennis Muren, ASC; Ryan O'Hara, Chapman Leonard; Marty
Ollstein; Allan Peach, DernoGraFX; Steven Poster, ASC; David L. Quaid, ASC;
Pete Romano, Hydrolmage; Gavin Schutz, Image Transform; Daniel L.
Symmes, Spatial Technologies, Inc.; Bill Taylor, ASC; Ira Tiffen, Tiffen
Manufacturing Corp.; Bill Turner, Century Precision Optics; Petro Vlahos,
Vlahos Motion Pictures, Inc.; Paul Westerfer, AMPTP; Michael Whitney,
DemoGraFX; Geoffrey H. Williamson, Wilcam Photo Research; Irwin W.
Young, DuArt Laboratories.
Special thanks to David Heuring, Martha Winterhalter, Steven
Pizzello, Marji Rhea, and the American Cinematographer staff for their
suggestions and assistance.
-Rod Ryan
American Cinematographer Manual

Seventh Edition
Copyright 1993 by The ASC Press

Hollywood, California, USA
All Rights Reserved
Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 79-93439
ISBN 0-935578-11-0
Cover Design and Artwork by George E. Turner
Copy edited by David Heuring, Stephen Pizzello and Marji Rhea
Production by Martha Winterhalter
Printed in the United States of America by Sinclair Printing Company
ii
Dr. Rod Ryan retired as Regional Engineering Director of Eastman Kodak

MP&AV Division after 40 years service with that company. He is a graduate of
the University of Southern California BA, Ma, PhD, an Honorary Member of
ASC, a Life Fellow of SMPTE, Retired Fellow BKSTS, a member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, the Academy of Television Arts and
Sciences and the Motion Picture Pioneers. His awards include the Herbert T.
Ka lmus Gold Medal, three SMPTE Special Commendations, the AMPAS Scientific & Engineering Award and the AMPAS Medal Of Commendation. During World War II, he was a USN photographer, and after the war one of the photographers of the Atomic Bomb Tests at Bikini Atoll. He is the authorof"A History of Motion Picture Color Technology," editor and contributing author of
"Color Sensitometry," "Sixtieth Anniversary Issue SMPTE Journal," "Fiftieth
Anniversary Issue American Cinematographer," contributing author of "Control Techniques in Film Processing," ''Technologies in the Laboratory Handling
of Motion Picture and Other Long Films," ''The Book of Film Care," and several
articles in the SMPTE Journal and other tradf publications.
iii
CONTENTS
CINEMATOGRAPHIC SYSTEMS
Special Purpose Systems
3
9
10
Pros and Cons of 1.85, 2.35

and Super 35 Film Formats
13
35mm Systems
16mm Systems
CAMERAS
65mm
Film
16 mm/35 mm dailies, color or black and white

Video dailies, wet or dry, with time-code or key code
Answer prints, intermediates, volume release
Screening and editing rooms
Audio
Most film/video formats including R-DAT

Rerecording , sweetening, transfers
Video
Film-to-tape- N C/P":L wet gate
Standar
onvers1ons
NTSC/P L/SECAM
Duplication all formats
Tape-to-film transfers
Satellite Services
Arriflex 765
31
Cinema Products CP-65
33
Fries 865
34
Mitchell Reflex TODD-AO
36
MSM8870
37
Panavision AC/SPC
39
Panavision System-65
39
Panavision Panaflex System-65
43
35mm
Aaton35mm
45
Aaton35-II
46
Arriflex 535
47
Arriflex 535B
50
Arriflex 35-3
52
Arriflex 35BL-4s
54
Arriflex 35-3C
56
Arriflex 35-2C
57
Cinema Products FX35
59
Cinema Products XR35
61
Feathercam CM35
62
IMAGE 300 35mm
63
Mitchell NC, NCR, BNC,

BNCR (35m0:); FC, BFC (65mm)
64
xvii
35mm continued
16mm continued
Mitchell S35R (Mark II)
66
Eclair NPR
Mitchell Standard and High Speed
67
Mitchell Professional HS, HSC
111
Moviecam Super 35mm
69
Mitchell16mm Reflex, SSR-16, DSR-16
113
Panavision Platinum Panaflex
70
Panavision Panaflex 16mm
114
Panavision Gil Golden Panaflex
74
Panavision Panaflex-X
74
Panaflex Panas tar High-Speed
74
Panavision Super R-200
76
Photo-Sonics 4B I 4C
79
Photo-Sonics 4ER
79
Ultracam 35mm
80
VistaVision
FILM
Color
119
Black & White
120
Color Reversal Film
121
Edge Numbers
121
Film Perforations
123
Film Handling and Storage
125
Charts: 122,127-141
MSM8812
81
Wilcam W-7
82
Wilcam W-9
83
Selection of Lenses
142
85
Understanding an MTF Chart
145
Wilcam W-11
16mm
LENSES
Modern Telephoto Lenses
148
153
Aaton XTRplus
86
Zoom Lenses
Arriflex 16SR-2
88
Lens Formulas
160
Arriflex 16SR-3
93
Extreme Close-up
165
Arriflex 16BL
95
Special Purpose Lenses
170
97
Charts: 146,174-199
Arriflex 16S/B, 16S/ B-GS, 16M/B

Bolex 16mm
Bell & Howell Filmo 70.
2~
FILTERS
Filters for Both Color
and Black & White
201
102
Special Effect Filters
208
Cinema Products CP-16R, CP-16R/ A
102
Filters for Black & White
216
Cinema Products GSMO
105
Filters for Color
217
Eclair ACL
107
Charts: 226-232
Eclair CM-3 (16/35mm)
108
Minicam 16mm (GSAP)

Cinema Products CP-16, CP-16A
xviii
109
xix
ACCESSORIES
Travelling-Matte Composite Photography
430
The Future for Travelling-Matte

Composite Photography
445
242
Digital Effects Cinematography
460
Camera Supports
246
Camera Stabilizing Systems
253
High-Resolution Electronic
Intermediate System for Film
462
Computer Graphics
467
Cinemagic of the Optical Printer
475
Aerial Image Cinematography
481
Exposure Meters
233
Crystal-Controlled Cordless
Camera Drive Systems
Preparation of Motion
Picture Equipment
258
PUTTING THE IMAGE ON FILM

Exposure
270
Charts: 413, 419, 423, 443
The Cinematographer and the Laboratory
280
SPECIAL TECHNIQUES
Photographic Testing and Evaluation
288
Emulsion Testing
294
Charts: 272-279, 300-312
LIGHTING
487
495
Safety Guidelines for Insert Camera Cars
503
Arctic Cinematography
504
Tropical Cinematography
Day-for-Night Cinematography
518
Light Sources and Lighting Filters
313
Characteristics of Light Sources

Photographic Light Sources
313
328
Infrared Cinematography
521
Light Source Filters
352
Ultraviolet Photography
523
Commercial/Industrial Light Sources
354
Fluorescent Lighting for Motion Pictures
359
Shooting 16mm Color Negative

for Blowup to 35mm
527
376
Stereoscopic Motion Picture Technology
534
380
3-D Cinematography
538
390
Synchronizing Methods for Picture

and Sound Systems
540
AC Arc Lamp Flicker Problem

Luminaires
Light Control Accessories
Charts: 314-315,319, 323, 328, 339,345, 366-375
SPECIAL VISUAL EFFECTS
XX
Aerial Cinematography
Underwater Cinematography
Shooting Background Plates
394
Front-Projection Process
399
Compositing
415
Photographing Miniatures
420
Motion-Control Cinematography
424
511
Filming Television Screens
555
Television Film Cinematography
561
Shooting Videotape for Transfer to Film
566
REFERENCES
577
INDEX
579
xxi
CHARTS AND TABLES
Film Stock Tables continued
FILM
Comparison of Film Speeds
122
Film Data Chart
127
Film Stock Tables
xxii
Fuji FG 71112
141
Fuji RP 72161
141
LENSES
Typical MTF of 3:1 Zooms for 16mm
146
Depth of Field Charts
Agfa XT-100
128
AgfaXT-320
128
Agfa XTS-400
129
Agfa P AN-250
129
Eastman EXR 5245/7245
130
130
131
131
Eastman 5297/7297
132
Eastman Ektachrome 5239/7239
132
Eastman Ektachrome 7240
133
133
134
Eastman Plus-X 5231/7231
135
Eastman Double-X 5222/7222
135
Eastman Plus-X 7276
136
Eastman Tri-X 7278
136
Eastman Kodachrome 7267
137
Eastman Kodachrome 7268
137
Fuji F-64 8510/8610
138
Fuji F-64 8520/8620
138
Fuji F-125 8530/8630
139
Fuji F-250 8550/8650
139
Fuji F-250 8560/8660
140
Fuji F-500 8570/8670
140
35mmCamera
9.8mm
174
15mm
175
20mm
176
25mm
177
35mm
178
40mm
179
50mm
180
85mm
181
100mm
182
150mm
183
200mm
184
400mm
185
16mmCamera
8mm
186
9.5mm
187
12mm
188
16mm
189
25mm
190
35mm
191
50mm
192
85mm
193
lOOmm
194
135mm
195
VistaVision
196
xxiii
"
LENSES continued
Vertical Angle vs.

Effective Focal Length
Footage Tables continued

16mm (29.97 fps)
196a-b
Extreme Close-up
35mm Depth of Field
and Exposure Factor
16mm Depth of Field
and Exposure Factor
Plus Diopter Lenses Focus Conversion
197
302
35mm (24 fps)
303
35mm (25 fps)
304
35mm (29.97 fps)
305
65/70mm (24 fps)
306
Footage Obtained at Various Camera Speeds

16mm
307
198
199
FILTERS
35mm (+frames)
308
65mm (+frames)
309
Filter Compensation
226
ND Filter Selector
227
Color Filters for B & W Daylight Exteriors
228
Color Filters for Altering

B & W Contrast
Commercial/Industrial Light Source

Characteristics
229
Comparison of Photographic Light Sources 315
Conversion Filters for Color Film
230
Correlated Color Temperature
319
Kodak Light Balancing Filters
230
Kodak Color Compensating Filters
231
Nomograph for Light Source Conversion
232
LIGHTING
EXPOSURE
Incident Keylight/T-stop
272
T-stop Compensation for Camera Speed
274
Shutter Angle/fps/T-stop Change
276
Color Balancing Existing

Fluorescent Lighting
277
Balancing Daylight Windows in Interiors
278
314
MIRED Shift Value Effects
323
Tangent Function
328
National Carbons for Studio Lighting
339
HMI Lamp Characteristics
345
Lighting Filters: Color Adjusting
366-367
Color Balancing for Existing Fluorescents
368-373
Color Balancing of AC Arc

Discharge Lighting
374
SPECIAL EFFECTS
[
~
Minimum Object-Distance
413
Background Projection
419
Balancing to Match Existing

Interior Lighting
279
Miniatures: Speed/Scale/Exposure
423
Recommended Paru1ing Speeds
310-312
Alternative Methods for Travelling Mattes
443
Footage Tables
xxiv
16mm (24 fps)
300
16mm (25 fps)
301
XXV
Cinematographic Systems
Most films produced for theatrical presentation are
photographed in one of the systems intended for projection
in an aspect ratio greater than 1.33:1. These are loosely categorized as "wide screen" systems. All films produced for
use in television systems and most of those produced for
industrial and educational use are photographed in an aspect ratio of 1.33:1.
Following are the photographic systems currently
employed in the preparation of motion picture negatives
or reversal originals from which the various projection systems can be supplied with the proper prints.
Most films produced for theatrical presentation are
later used for television. It is desirable that the cinematographer allow for this in composing. The accompanying
drawings will show dimensions of finder markings to aid
the transition. Certain other enlarged or reduced copy dimensions are also shown. The dimensions shown are those
of primary interest to the cinematographer; for detailed
specifications, refer to the following Standards and Recommended Practices, published by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) and the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE).
Image Areas, Camera
16mm
16mm Type W (Super 16)
35mm
65mm
SMPTE 7 -1988
SMPTE 201M -1992
SMPTE 59 -1991
SMPTE 215-1990
Image Areas, Projector

16mm
35mm
70mm
SMPTE 233-1987
PH22.195 -1984
SMPTE 152 -1989
Copy Dimensions
35mmto16mm
16mmto35mm
Super 16 to 35mm
35mm to70mm
RP65 -1991
RP66 -1991
SMPTE 201M-1992
None
Television:
Safe Action and Title Area RP27.3- 1989
1
35mm Systems
35mm CAMERA SPHERICAL LENS
NO. 1
THEATRICAL
RELEASE
-------
-------
0
0
FINDER MARKING &

PROJECTOR APERTURES
NO. l&Z
NON-SQUEEZED
NEGATIVE
.825" x .602" FOR 1.37/1

.825" x .497" FOR 1.66/1
.825" x .471" FOR 1.75/1
.825" x .446" FOR 1.85/1
NO. Z
TELEVISION APERTURES
AND SAFE AREAS
CAMERA APERTURE
.864" min. x 630" min.
CAMERA APERTURE
0.864" min. x 0.630" min
TV STATIONPROJECTOR APERTURE
0.816"
X 0.612"
TV TRANSMITTED AREA
0. 792"
0.594"
TV SAFE ACTION AREA

iQ.713" X
0.535"
'CORNER RADII R = 0.143'

SAFE TITLE AREA
0.630"
0.475"
CORNER RADII R. 0.125"
Figure 1.
1. 35mm camera, spherical lens (non-squeezed) photography for theatrical presentation (Sound area blocked).
(See Figure 1.)
The ANSI standard calls for cameras for nonanamorphic photography to be equipped with an aperture of
0.864" by 0.630" minimum. Many cameras, however, are
equipped with apertures which will cover the area required
for anamorphic images as well, and it is occasional practice to use a "hard matte" to limit the area in the vertical
dimension to the wide screen format desired by the director. It should be understood, of course, that while the use
of a hard matte ensures correct framing in the theater, it also
limits the future use of the image for television releases in
1.33:1 aspect ratio. In addition to the necessity for (and the
expense of) a special duplicate negative for television, it
should also be noted that the side lines for 1.33:1 within a
hard matted wide screen frame may have to be respected
by the cinematographer to protect for such later use. When
theatrical subjects are photographed without the hard
matte, it is wise to protect the height of the image for later
television release by excluding extraneous objects, such as
microphones or goboes, from the areas above and below
the 1.85:1 frame line and by being careful not to overshoot
the set within the television area of 0.594 inches high as
measured on the film.
2. 35mm camera, spherical lens (non-squeezed) photography for television presentation (Sound area blocked).
(Figure 1) (See also "Television Film Cinematography.")
The television aspect ratio is 1.33:1 and the dimensions
given on the accompanying diagram indicate not only the
actual headroom but also suggested "safe areas" for both
action and titles. In television transmission, maladjustment
or electrical errors can cause cropping of the image before
it reaches the home viewer. The areas so indicated delineate the usual limits of such cropping.
3. 35mm camera, spherical lens (non-squeezed) photography (full aperture). Camera aperture fills 4-perforation area, full space between perforations (0.980 inches by
0.735 inches).
A. Used for special effects duplication. No protection
dimension given (image size depends on user). (Figure 2)
B. For theatrical presentation, negative image is
anamorphosed or reduced spherically in laboratory prepa3
ration of release printing duplicate negative. Prints must

be projected with an anamorphic lens. (Alternate finder
markings are shown for 35mm "flat" and 70mm extraction.
Note that all extractions use the same headroom. Television
extraction is not fixed at this writing; alternate versions
would crop sides and extend to the bottom of the camera
aperture or use the same side lines and protect the area
above the nominal headroom line. There have been minor
variations on this system, and guidelines are under consideration for ultimate standardization of dimensions. Use of
the system depends on capability and willingness of the
laboratory to make the image extractions on the release
printing duplicate negatives.) (Super Panavision 35 and
Super Techniscope) (Figure 2) (See also "Special Systems.")
4. 35mm camera, 2:1 anamorphic lens (squeezed)
photography for theatrical presentation (Panavision and
Todd-AO 35). (Figure 3)
A. 35mm contact or 1:1 prints. For this system, cameras are equipped with anamorphic lens attachments which
compress the image horizontally in a 2 to 1 ratio, resulting
in a lens field twice as wide as would otherwise be photographed with lenses of equal focal length. Prints from negatives photographed in this system must be projected in the
theater with anamorphic lenses. At least in the United
States, for all practical purposes all theaters are so equipped.
For non-theatrical distribution, 16mm prints are made
either with anamorphic images or by unsqueezing to
spherical(" flat") images with a 1.85:1 aspect ratio, cropping
each side of the image about 12%. Because of the 16mm
projector aspect ratio, anamorphic prints made at the reduction ratio of RP65-1991 will crop the top and bottom of the
35mm image. Some reduction prints have been made at
2.4:i aspect ratio with printed-in mattes at the sides to avoid
this problem, but this is not yet standard practice.
Because of the aspect ratio and the anamorphic
squeeze, direct prints from this system cannot be run on
television, except in letterbox. In most instances a 1.33:1 aspect ratio extraction from the center of the screen loses significant action. This problem has been circumvented in the
past by "scanning" the image to follow action in the preparation of a duplicate negative from which television prints
may be made - an unsatisfactory but common solution.
The accompanying diagram shows the transition. Anumber of optical houses are prepared to supply this type of duplicate negative either in 35mm or 16mm. (Figure 4)
NO. 3: 35mm FULL APERTURE

SPHERICAL LENS
(FOR PARTIAL FRAME EXTRACTION)
PRINTS
0
0
NEGATIVE
SUPER PANAVISION 35 .
SUPER TECHNISCOPE. ETC.
IMAGE TO BE OPTICALLY
EXTRACTED FOR RELEASE PRINT.
D~
1.85:1AR
Non-Squeezed
Proj Ap .825" X .446"
CAMERA APERTURE
\980"
.735"
\ COMMON HEADROOM
CJ
0
f...--
r- - -- - -
0
CJ
1'(
CJ
CJ
CJ
.LFINDER MARKINGS
35mm ANAMORPHIC 2.4:1AR

.945" X .394"
- 70 mm 2.2:1AR
.945" X .430"
c__ 35mm FLAT 1.85:1AR
.945" X .511"
D~
2.4:1AR
2:1 ANAMORPHIC SQUEEZE
PROJ AP .838" X .700"
CJ
CJ
CJ
CJ
CJ
CJ
CJ
_,.....-,
5 perf 70 mm 2.2:1AR
Proj Ap 1.912" X .870"
Figure 2.
'
35mm ANAMORPHIC LENS CAMERA
(A)
0
0
0
0
0
0
CAMERA APERTURE
.864" min x .732" min
0
0
0
0
0
JL
--~ 0
IT
I,,
II
11
110
II
I
l,!,.-----J.,j 0
35mm SQUEEZED PRINT

FINDER MARKING &
PROJECTOR APERTURE
.838" X .700"
(Additional finder markings:
70mm .753" x .668"
16mm .614" X 668" 1.85:1AR
16mm .817" X .615" 2.66:1AR
No.4
PANAVISION 35
AND
TOOD-AO 35
SQUEEZED
NEGATIVE
.......
SCANNING ANAMORPHIC IMAGES

FOR TELEVISION
I
I
'
_j
'
--PRINTS
l61111 SQUEEZED PRINT

.380 X .286
Max. proj. ap.
I -r EE
II@
I
I
'
I'
I
I
-=-
I
I
16mm UNSQUEEZEO PRINT

(1.85:1)
.380" X .205"
Proj ap or matte.
0
0
0
+
~0
0~
MASKING to follow important

action equals TV SAFE ACTION
AREA: .713" x .535"
'
'
I
I
I
-,
I -:- rn I
L
I
I
I
_j
FINAL PRINTED IMAGE

Aspect Ratio: 1.33:1
Area: .868" x .616" (35mm)
Suitable for TV projector
aperture: .816" x .612" and
Theatre projector aperture
.825" X .602"
or: .380" x .286" (16mm)
0~
,..,_
~0
:2,-,
(B)
70mm
UNSOUEEZED PRINT
PROJECTOR APERTURE
1.912" X 0.870"
Figure 3.
,..-,
I
I
I
I
0
0
LINEAR REDUCTION OF ABOVE

TOTAL UNSQUEEZEO IMAGE AREA
Area for selective scan ning: 1.459" x .616"
-r
I@
Schematic figure:
TOTAL IMAGE OF ORIGINAL
PHOTOGRAPHY-UNSQUEEZED
Screen Aspect Ratio 2.36:1
Areas 1.728" x .732"
1.676" X .70()"
I
I
'-
''
!(pE3
,..,
''
..,'
''
ORIGINAL PHOTOGRAPHY
Camera Aperture .864" x .732" min.
Projector Outline .838" x .700"
Squeeze Ratio 2:1
Anamorphic camera lens
I
I
i0rn
/
D~-
..,
Figure 4.
16mm FILM APERTURES

TELEVISION SAFE AREA
NO. 5
LL-
ll~
JJ
[CAMERA APERTURE
.404" X .295"
TV STATIONPROJECTOR APERTURE
.380" X .286"
TV TRANSMITTED AREA
.368" X .276"
TV SAFE ACTION AREA
.331" X .248"
CORNER RADII R = .066"
SAFE TITLE AREA
.293" X .221"
CORNER RADII R = .058"
NO. 6 16mm FINDER MARKINGS
for enlarging to 35mm
[db~
Camera aperture .404" x .295"
Projector aperture .378" x .276" (max).
Projector aperture .378" x .205" (1.85:1)
(enlarging ratio 1:2.18)
SUPER 16 (16mm Type W)

for enlarging to 35mm
Camera aperture .493" x .292"

Projec10r aperture .463" x .279"
Projector apertureA63" x .251
Figure 5.
B. 70mm de-anamorphosed (unsqueezed) prints. Severallaboratories are equipped to manufacture 70mm positive prints from such negatives. The aspect ratio of 70mm
prints (2.2:1) crops very little from the 35mm image, which
is anamorphically unsqueezed in the making of the prints.
The resulting 70mm print therefore is projected with spherical lenses. 70mm prints are striped with magnetic oxide,
and their sound tracks are capable of carrying six charmels.
16mm Systems
5. 16mm camera, spherical lens photography for television, industrial and educational use. (Figure 5) (See also
"Television Film Cinematography.") 16mm cameras
equipped with spherical (nonanamorphic or "normal")
lenses are used for this type of photography. Either reversal or negative films may be used as camera originals. Because 16mm is used for economy as well as portability,
direct contact release prints are often made from the camera origin'al film when only a few are required. In such
cases, extreme care should be taken to protect the original .
For prints in quantity, duplicate negatives are made on appropriate raw stock. The same comments as to the limitations of television transmission apply as were noted in the
35mm television section above (#2). The accompanying diagram shows the dimensions for the ground glass to be used
for 16mm photography for television.
6. 16mm camera, spherical lens photography for enlargement to 35mm for theatrical presentation. (Figure 5)
(See also "Shooting 16mm Color Negative for Blowup to
35mm.") From 16mm originals, 35mm duplicate negatives
may be prepared by optical enlargement for the manufacture of 35mm release prints for theatrical distribution. Most
theaters in the United States are currently matting 35mm
prints to a 1.85:1 aspect ratio.
The accompanying diagram shows the height of the
ground glass mark suggested for this type of photography.
As with 35mm photography, it is wise to protect the balance of the aperture so that both theatrical and television
prints will be suitable.
7. 16mm special camera, spherical lens photography
specifically for enlargement to 35mm wide screen for theatrical presentation. (Figure 5) (See also "Shooting 16mm
Color Negative for Blowup to 35mm.") (Super 16 or 16mm
Type W) Special16mm cameras with extended-width apertures extending into the area usually reserved for the
9
sound track are used for this syst~m. The aspect ratio of the
resulting negative is 1.66:1, and this image is enlarged to
the standard 35mm sound film aperture. 1.66:1 is commonly used in Europe and 1.85:1 in the U.S. Both dimensions are given for finder marks. A specially centered 1.33:1
16mm or 35mm duplicate negative and/ or print is required
for television display.
65111111-5 PERFORATION PULLOOWN CAMERA
No. 8 & 9
TODD-AD
SUPER PANAVISIONNONSQUEEZED NEGATIVE
Special Purpose Systems

During the history of motion pictures, there have been
numerous camera and projection systems, some of which
have had widespread use for a period and then have become obsolete. It is the purpose of the American Cinematographer Manual to explain and display current systems;
for history, please refer to earlier editions of the manual and
American Cinematographer magazine.
8. 65mm, 5-perforation, frame photography for
compositing to one of the 35mm systems. Any part of the
negative image may be used.
9. 65mm, 5-perforation, frame photography for printing on 70mm. The difference in camera and projector apertures allows for a magnetic sound track between picture
and perforations on each side, and the added Smm width
allows for two magnetic sound tracks outside the perforations on each side. (Figure 6)
A General theatrical distribution; rarely used presently.
B. Showscan; uses this format but photographed and
projected at 60 fps in a specially designed theater environment on a large screen at higher than standard brightness
and with terraced seating to improve sightlines. Grain,
flicker and image "strobing" are minimized.
C. For special purpose projection systems such as
Disney's 3-D at EPCOT.
10. 65mm, IS-perforation, horizontal frame photography (24 fps) (Imax/Omnimax). (Figure 7) The film format
for the two systems is the same. Imax is projected on a large
flat screen in specially designed theaters.
Omnimax is photographed with a "fisheye" lens, optically centered 0.37 inches above the film centerline and
displayed on a dome screen, filling 180 degrees laterally
and 20 degrees below and 110 degrees above the horizon
for central viewers. The picture shape is thus elliptical. Both
systems use terraced seating to improve sightlines.
10
35mm
CAMERA APERTURE
2.066" X 0.906"
70mm
PROJECTOR APERTURE
0.838" X 0.700"
2:1 SQUEEZED
~[
PROJECTOR APERTURE
1.912" X 0.870"
Dotted line indicates
finder marking for 35mm
extraction 1.912" x 0.816"
Figure 6.
11. 35mm, 8-perforation, horizontal frame photography (VistaVision) for compositing to one of the 35mm systems. As any part of the negative image may be used to suit
the user, no projection aperture or finder markings are
shown. (Figure 8) (Lens angles are given in the tables only
for the full negative aperture.)
Depth of field is also affected by the ultimate use; it is
therefore suggested that the 35mm tables be used as a guide
to the relative depth of field, one lens to another, until test
results are seen on the screen.
12. Proposed 35mm anamorphic projection systems
using 1.5:1 squeeze and the conventional (ANSI PH22.195
Style B) anamorphic projection aperture for a 1.8:1 aspect
ratio. Source camera negative would be VistaVision (Figure 8) or 35mm full aperture (Figure 2) from either of which
a labora tory printing duplicate negative would be
anamorphically printed; alternately, 1.5:1 anamorphic
lenses would be used on standard 35mm cameras.
11
13. 65mm 8-perforation, frame (vertical pulldown)

photography (24 or 30 fps) (Dynavision). Camera aperture
2.080" X 1.480" for printing on 70mrn positive film. Lenses
may be "fisheye" for dome theater projection or conventional focal lengths for 4 X 3 aspect ratio projection.
No. 10 65mm Horizontal15 perf.
lmax/Omnimax
FILM TRAVEL DIRECTION (VIEWED FROM BASE SIDE)
2. 772"
70.41MM
0.69MM
TRAVEL
REGISTRATION PIN \
o o c o_9_ o_ o o _o ~ f~ o o-~- o _o o 'o o o c . ~

~ ~
.~
U")
PROJECTION CUTS OFF
~
;g
w
u
z
0::
0.80" MIN. TOP & BOTTOM

.016" MIN . AT SIDES
tt
~~
r-o-c-: '.;:~ -~:; :; :-; ~-~:;.;-~ ~-c-;:io~-j:;c;:.;;-~~a==c~o:.:;o:;::o~o 1:--::o:-::-o-=o~c~,~ __"'_,

FULL REGISTRATION
PIN
15 PERFORATION PULL,ACRDSS
2.799"
71.09MM
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
VISTAVISION
0.991"
- - - 1.485"
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
12
"'
-----1
Figure 7.
Figure 8.
e:.
Pros and Cons of 1.85, 2.35 and

Super 35 Film Formats
by Rob Hummel
The most prevalent film formats, or aspect ratios, projected in the United States are 1.85 and 2.35. As a point of
reference, these ratios are determined by dividing the width
of the picture by the height, which is why you will sometimes see them written as 1.85:1 or 2.35:1 Verbally, you will
hear them referred to as "One Eight Five" or "Two Three Five"
(2.35 is also often referred to as "Scope," referring to its origins as Cinemascope) .
An examination of films over the past forty years
shows that format is not automatically dictated by dramatic
content. It is a creative choice on the part of the cinematographer and the director. The full range of drama, comedy,
romance, action or science fiction can be found in both aspect ratios. The purpose here is to advise on the pros and
cons of both aspect ratios and the photographic alternatives
available to achieve them. This should help a filmmaker
make an informed decision as to which format is best for a
given project.
As a clarification in this discussion, Full Aperture will
refer to the total area between the 35mm perforations, including the area normally reserved for the soundtrack (this
Full Aperture area is also referred to as the camera aperture).
Academy Aperture will refer to that area of the negative excluding the soundtrack area. Academy Aperture got its
name when the Motion Picture Academy established the
standard for where to place sound and picture information
when the first talkies were produced.
While all1.85 composed films are achieved with normal, spherical lenses, the 2.35 aspect ratio can be achieved
in two ways. The most common method is with the use of
anamorphic lenses that squeeze the image to fit within the
Academy Aperture (see Illustration 6). The alternate
method (Super 35, Super Techniscope) uses normal lenses
without any distortion of the image. Both methods will be
discussed here.
Also, the formats discussed here deal with general
35mm motion picture photography. Formats such as
VistaVision and 65mm are most often used for visual ef-
13
fects and special event cinematography and would require

a separate article.
Composition
Before getting into specifics about the different formats, I want to point out the composition differences between the two aspect ratios of 2.35 and 1.85, regardless of
how they are achieved photographically.
Illustration 1 displays a given scene of the Taj Mahal.
On this image, a 2.35 aspect ratio is outlined by a white rectangle.
In illustration 2, two 1.85 aspect ratios are outlined by
white rectangles. The larger of those two rectangles repre-
sents a 1.85 composition equal in its width to the 2.35 aspect

ratio in Illustration 1. The smaller 1.85 rectangle is equal in
height to illustration 1's 2.35 rectangle.
Illustrations 1 and 2 demonstrate that a 1.85 image has
potential of encompassing as much width as a 2.35 image.
Although 1.85 will take in the same width with greater
height in the composition, it's important to realize that wide
sets and vistas are not restricted to the 2.35 format.
I. The 1.85 Aspect Ratio

Photographed in NORMAL Academy Aperture
Photography
1.85 is far and away the most common aspect ratio for
motion pictures filmed in the United States. I say the U.S.,
since around the world the aspect ratio most commonly
used swings between 1.85 and 1.66 depending on the country.
Illustration 3- 1.85:1
Illustration 3 portrays how a 1.85 film composition

would be framed in the viewfinder of the camera.
Illustration 4 shows how that image appears on the
negative and subsequently on a positive print for projection. Although you wouldn't have an optical track until
final composite prints are made, the track is illustrated here
for clarity. The shaded areas of the film frames indicate that
area of the Academy aperture that goes unused in a 1.85
film. Although additional picture information is usually
contained within that shaded area, it is masked out when
the film is projected.
Illustration 2- Aspect Ratio 1.85:1
14
15
~ ~rifflj 0
0
0
'
0
Optical Soundtrack
Illustration 4-1.85:1. Above Left: The scene as it appears on the negative.

Above Right: the scene as it appears on a contact print for projection.
When the film is finally projected in a theater (assuming it is projected properly), it will appear the same as originally composed in the viewfinder (see Illustration 3).
A. Advantages of 1.85
1. Many perceive 1.85 as more appropriate for pictures
that lend themselves to more compact visuals. Since closeups virtually fill the entire frame, it is often considered a
more "intimate" format.
2. If a film is largely interiors, 1.85 is often argued as
the preferred format, since interiors usually don't involve
the wide panoramic vistas associated with 2.35. On the
other hand, many do not weigh interiors or exteriors in their
choice of format.
3. Greater depth of field (the total area in focus at a
given distance). Since 1.85 uses shorter focal length lenses
as compared with anamorphic, greater depth of field is
more easily attainable, making photography less prone to
focus problems. This advantage is sometimes negated by
cinematographers using such small amounts of light that
they have to shoot with lenses "wide open," resulting in a
small gain in depth of field.
4. An opinion often expressed is that sets don't need
to be as wide on a 1.85 film as one photographed in 2.35,
resulting in savings in set construction. However, many
would argu~ that film format has no bearing on the width
of set construction. As Illustrations 1 and 2 pointed out, it's
possible for 1.85 to require as wide a set as 2.35, depending on the composition.
5. 1.85 is the simplest format to execute from a mechanical/ technical standpoint. The choice of photographic
equipment is virtually unlimited, as any standard 35mm
camera will accommodate this format.
6. If a stunt camera mount is required that risks destroying a camera, there are a number of expendable cam-
16
era bodies available.

7. With some effort on the shooting company's part,
composition can protect for video so that a simple one-toone transfer can be done without panning and scanning.
While left and right image integrity remain virtually intact
this way, there is an approximate 33% increase in the vertical height of the composition.
Although many think it routine to protect the TV area
from intruding objects (e.g., lights, microphones, etc.), it
makes the cinematographer's job more difficult, by preventing him or her from bringing lights down close to the
area of composition. This is why many cinematographers
shooting 1.85 prefer to shoot with a 1.66:1 aspect ratio hard
matte. 1.66 is slightly larger than 1.85, closely approximating the height of the TV frame, and it gives the cinematographer more freedom to light his subjects, without fear of
a light or microphone showing up when transferred to
video.
8. Many people believe it is an advantage to shoot 1.85
because spherical lenses are sharper than 2.35's anamorphic
lenses. This is a misconception. It is true that spherical
lenses are sharper than anamorphic; however, the much
greater negative area used with anamorphic more than
makes up for the subtle difference in resolution from
spherical lenses.
B. Disadvantages of 1.85
1. The main disadvantage is the actual size of the 1.85

format on the negative. Because of the smaller area, 1.85 is
noticeably' grainier than anamorphic 2.35. This is not as
noticeable in the original negative stage, but becomes more
pronounced after going through dupe negatives.
The negative area of 2.35 anamorphic is a 59% increase
over the 1.85 area.
2. Because of the greater height of 1.85's aspect ratio,
ceilings of sets are more prone to being photographed. This
can be a restriction on how easily a cameraperson can light
an interior set (visible ceilings limit light placement). On
some sets, it may require additional construction.
3. Opticals (dissolves, repositions, etc.) tend to be
grainier than with anamorphic 2.35.
A current trend is for editors to order "double IP"
opticals, compensating for the smaller negative area of 1.85.
This improves the quality of opticals, but at greater expense.
17
4. Not truly compatible with 70mm. Although it can

be done, there is a large amount of unused print on the sides
when blown up t<D70mm (see illustration 11). Also, because
of the greater magnification in 1.85 70mm prints, grain is
much more apparent than in anamorphic blow-ups to
70mm.
5. When projected, the area of the frame for 1.85 is
subjected to much greater magnification on a screen than
an anamorphic frame, resulting in more apparent grain in
the image.
II. The 2.35 Aspect Ratio

Photographed with Anamorphic (Scope) Lenses
The following is a discussion of the 2.35 aspect ratio
photographed with anamorphic lenses. A discussion of
Super 35 composed for 2.35 will follow .
Anamorphic 2.35:1 (also known as "Cinemascope" or
"Panavision") optically "squeezes" the width of the image
to fit within the 35mm Academy Aperture. Illustration 5
portrays how an anamorphic 2.35 scene would appear in
the viewfinder.
Illustration 5
illustration 6 shows how that image appears on the

negative and subsequently on a positive print for projection.
When the film is finally projected in a theater (assuming it is projected properly), it will be "unsqueezed" by an
anamorphic projection lens and appear on the screen the
same as originally composed in the viewfinder (see Illustration 5).
A. Advantages of Anamorphic 2.35
1. The most salient advantage is the much larger negative area. A 59% increase in negative area over 1.85 results
18
0
0
0
0
Illustration 6- Anamorphic 2.35:1, Above Left: The scene as it appears
on the Negative "squeezed" by the anamorphic lenses. Above Right: The
scene as it appears on a Contact Print for projection.
in finer grain, better opticals, and an increase in apparent

sharpness (apparent because while a similar image photographed in 1.85 will be sharper, the increase in grain and
gr~ate~ magnification actually make it appear less sharp).
This d1fference becomes most apparent after going through
the dupe negatives.
2. More compatible with 70mm. Because of the original negative area, there is less of a blow-up than with 1.85,
resulting in finer grain in the 70mm print. Also, the aspect
ratio can fill the entire 70mm print frame.
3. Allows for complex compositions. Able to do a tight
close-up on two individuals simultaneously. Action can be
spread across a wide expanse of the frame.
4. Most often the format of choice for films with a lot
of action or big production values.
5. Most closely approximates the normal field of vision.
6. When shooting interiors, ceilings become obscured,
giving the cinematographer more alternatives for placement of lighting.
7. A possible advantage may come with continuing
advances in High Definition TV. The area of negative used
in anamorphic films means you will exceed HDTV's resolution capability for many years to come. Some HDTV technologies are already almost equal to 1.85's resolution capability.
B. Disadvantages of Anamorphic 2.35
. 1. Difficult video transfer. To extract a video image
d1rectly fro~ the center of the 2.35 frame usually results in
odd compos1hons and the exclusion of relevant action.
~alternative is to "pan and scan" the image (pamting
the w1dth of the 2.35 frame, following the most important
action). While not mechanically more expensive than regu-
19
lar video transfer, paruting and scaruting usually costs more

due to the extra time required by each scene's composition
decisions. While paruting and scanning makes the best of
a bad situation, many people feel it compromises the original compositions. Many filmmakers have released videos
of their films in "letterbox" format, where the 2.35 format
is maintained by putting black mattes above and below the
frame. This is a common practice in videodisc releases of
films.
The difficulty in video transfer is the most often stated
disadvantage of the 2.35 format.
2. It is often said that anamorphic is more expensive
than 1.85. H6wever, the difference in cost between an anamorphic lens package vs. a 1.85lens package is negligible.
Anamorphic would be approximately $2,400.00 more expensive over the course of a ten-week film schedule.
Also, discussions with a number of prominent cinematographers indicate that they wouldn't increase the size of
their lighting package significantly for the 2.35 aspect ratio
(in fact, one said it wouldn't change at all).
3. Single close-ups result in wide areas on either side
of a face, with potential for distracting objects in the frame.
However, due to the nature of anamorphic's longer focal
length lense~, usually anything in the background on either
side of a face would be severely out of focus.
4. Many people feel that sets need to be built wider
because of the wider aspect ratio. There are also many who
feel it doesn't matter, and that sets can be accommodated
by choosing lenses carefully. See again Illustrations 1 and
2 and the discussion under Composition.
5. Some directors have a hard time blocking action
within the larger frame.
6. Expense of more extras may be necessary for some
crowd scenes.
III.
Supe~
35 Formats
The Super 35 Formats, known under a variety of names

such as Super Techniscope, Super 1.85, and Super 2.35, are
all flat, spherical lens formats using equipment similar to
that used in 1.85 photography. All of the Super 35 formats
require an optical step when making dupe negatives for
release prints.
Illustration 7 is a diagram of a standard Super 35 frame
of film where all aspect ratios are aligned on Full Aperture
center. As the illustration shows, information is usually
20
exposed over the entire Full Aperture area of the film. The
filmmaker decides what format he is composing for, and
it is that aspect ratio the film lab will eventually extract from
the frame for release prints.
When speaking of Super 35, people are usually referring to its use in composing for a 2.35:1 aspect ratio, the
same ratio as 2.35 anamorphic.
0 r-;:::=============::::;-1
~"--1-----,
2.35
1.85
Area
Area
Illustration 7- Standard Super 35/Super Techniscope
Anamorphic 2.35 uses special lenses that squeeze the

wide image to fit within the standard Academy Aperture
frame. Super 35 composes for 2.35 with standard lenses and
extends the width of the frame into that area of the negative reserved for the soundtrack. Although most cameras
already expose picture information in the soundtrack area,
it normally goes unused.
At times, people will suggest shooting Super 35 composed for 1.85 (a. k. a. Super 1.85). The reason for this is a
belief that the slight increase in negative area with Super
1.85 will yield a finer-grain image for release. Tests have
shown this is not so. Once the negative has gone through
interpositive and internegative, and been optically repositioned for standard 1.85 release, there is at best no difference between Super 1.85 and standard 1.85 photography,
and depending on the scene, Super 1.85 can look worse
than standard 1.85.
Standard 1.85 produces all dupe negatives and prints
with contact printing, while Super 1.85 requires an optical
step to reduce the image into the standard 1.85 area. Contact printing significantly reduces the appearance of grain,
while any optical step precisely focuses the grain in a negative, effectively enhancing the appearance of grain.
21
As fo~ arguments that Super 1.85 yields a better 1.85

blow-up to 70mm, the difference is slight, and only noticeable in a direct A/B or side-by-side comparison. Otherwise
it is indistinguishable. If, however, a scene is already committed to Jn optical step (i.e., a visual effects shot), Super
1.85 may ~rovide an improvement in negative area that
results in a better image quality when compared with a
standard 1.85 image going through the same optical process.
Another method of photography for Super 35 is referred to as common topline (see Illustration 8). Common
topline derives its name from the ground glass of the camera having multiple formats scribed on it, all having the
same, or common, top line. This variant of Super 35 is based
on the notion that it could be a generic film format; the filmmaker may shoot a movie with the option of releasing it in
any aspect ratio desired. The common topline is supposed to
lessen the effect of changing aspect ratios by maintaining
the headroom and raising or lowering the bottom of the
frame. In Actual practice, most cinematographers find it disagreeable compose for multiple formats. Also, the change
in composition from 2.35 to 1.85 or television's 1.33 can be
quite objet tionable (close-ups become medium shots, etc.).
ro
matter what aspect ratio you choose does not hold up creatively.
The rest of this discussion will only deal with Super
35 composed for a 2.35:1 aspect ratio. Illustration 9 portrays
how Super 35 composed for 2.35:1 would appear in the
viewfinder.
A. Advantages of Super 35 Composed for 2.35 Aspect
Ratio
1. The main reason for choosing this format is its
greatly increased depth of field over anamorphic 2.35.
Where anamorphic lenses have to rack focus to keep near
and distant objects sharp, Super 35 has a greater potential
for keeping both objects in focus simultaneously.
However, as stated in the advantages of 1.85, the potential for greater depth of field can be negated if cinematographers choose to use such small amounts of light that
they must shoot with lenses "wide open," resulting in a
small gain in depth of field.
2. An often-stated advantage is the production savings
in the lens/camera package over anamorphic. This is erroneous, since the expense of optical Super 35 dupe negatives (needed for release prints) negate any cost savings in
production.
Camera
Apertu re
0
0
!.;
i
''
'
~-
0~
''
'
- -+------------------"
-
1.33:1 Area
for Video
0
0
1.66:1 Projected Area
. . _ _ 1.85:1 Area
-
2.2:1 Area (70mm Aspect Ratio)

2.35:1 Area
Illustration 8- Super 35/Super Techniscope Common Top line
Experience has shown, most filmmakers agree, that

just mo1fying a film's aspect ratio to fit within the video
realm is a creative process. To assume that a generic format will /automatically deliver pleasing compositions no
22
Illustration 9- Super 35 Aspect Ratio 2.35:1
3. The ability to shoot a film composed for 2.35 and, if

necessary, change directions and release in 1.85 by increasing the top and bottom of the frame. For most filmmakers,
however, this would be a serious compromise of the original composition (see Illustration 7).
4. Lenses are much smaller than anamorphic, resulting in a smaller, more lightweight and portable camera
package. This smaller size allows the camera to fit in smaller
places than the large anamorphic optics allow (this is one
23
of the reasoJ the format was chosen for Top Gun; the cameras were able to fit in the aircraft cockpits).
5. Often f laimed to be more compatible with 70mm
than anamorJDhic. Some have this impression because Super 35 is a stralght blow-up to 70mm, while anamorphic has
to be unsqueezed when enlarged to 70mm.
This wo~d be true if Super 35 had an equivalent negative area to :5amorphic. As it stands, anamorphic's greater
negative area makes up for any possible loss of resolution
when unsqueezed to 70mm. As a result, 70mm prints from
Super 35 appear significantly grainier than those from anamorphic negatives.
6. Claimed to be a simpler video transfer by just doing a 4-perf frame extraction, resulting in dramatic increase
in top and botom areas over the original2.35 composition
(See Illustrati@n 7). In practice this never works, since a full
frame extraction is such a distortion of the original composition (for exAmple, close-ups become medium shots). A
panned and scanned video transfer is what ends up being
done for the bWk of the film with a few full-framed extractions where a~propriate (Ferris Bueller's Day Off is an example).
1
B. Disadvantages
of Super 35 Composed for 2.35
Aspect Ratio
1. Most notable is the small negative area. Anamorphic
2.35 has an increase in negative area of more than 60%. It
also has sligh~ly less negative area than standard 1.85 photography. The difference in negative area becomes most
pronounced after 35mm dupe negatives are made. Anamorphic du~e negs are made with contact printing, which
in itself tends!to lessen the appearance of grain. Super 35
dupe negs in"jolve an optical step during which the image
is blown up, then squeezed to produce an anamorphic image for releast prints. Because of this optical step, grain in
the negative tends to be more sharply resolved, making it
more objectiohable.
2. For best quality, all dissolves and fades must be done
with A & B prf1ting in the laboratories. When these effects
are done by f n optical house they become excessively
grainy in release prints.
3. Becau~e of the optical step involved, composite
prints cannot t e struck until after dupe negatives have been
made.
1
24
Illustration 10- Super 35 Aspect Ratio 2.35:1. Above Left: The scene as
it appears on the negative, positioned with~n the FU~L a_Perture fr~e.
Above Right: The scene as it appears on a pnnt for proJection, after bemg
blown up & "squeezed" to make room for the optical soundtrack.
4. Again, because of the optical step involved, original negative composite prints cannot be struck. ~ctually,
it is technically possible, but can only be done w1th co~
plex procedures and such a ~il?h risk of.failure that 1t
doesn't merit subjecting the ongmal negative to the handling involved.
.
.
5. More difficult to prev1ew because of a spee1al ~rojection mask required for the Full Aperture work pn~t.
Since Super 35 uses the area reserved for a soundtrack m
the work print stage, many theaters cannot be adapted to
project the format.
.
,
6. Main title opticals must be done w1th the double
IP" method to maintain quality, doubling the expense of
such opticals.
7. Editing equipment must be adapted to show the
soundtrack area.
8. Because of the small negative area, many cinematographers limit choice of negativ~s to slower spee?- stoc~s
(i.e., 5245, 5248), or overexpose high-speed ~egatives 1-Y2
to 2 stops for better grain qu~ty, often negating the advan.
tage of the high-speed negativ~ .
9. Video transfers usually mvolve pannmg and scanning because of the wide-screen asp~ct ratio. This is also a
pan and scan of a much smaller neg~tive .area than anamo:phic 2.35, resulting in a lower quahty v1.deo trans~er. This
becomes most evident in letterbox vers10ns of a fihn and
particularly on HDTV.
.
.
10. There is potential for more expensiVe v1sual effects,
if a decision is made to have coverage beyond the 2.35 composition, allowing for f~l frame video .transfers. Matte
shots, miniatures, etc., rrught be comprormsed on full frame
transfers if the image isn't protected completely to 1.33 (see
illustration 7).
25
r
.
The author wisjf to thank Marty Katz for making him w rite this in the
first place, and Ham son 1/enshaw, Stephen H. Burum, ASC, Skip N icholson
and Evans Wetnwre fo~ their help in bringing g reater clarity to the article and
keeping him honest. Also, thanks to Trici Vena/a for the use of her computer
graphic of the Taj Maluh.
35mm Blowups to 70mm Prints
to this rule are theaters that have acoustically transparent

masking (all THX 70mm theaters have transparent masking).
Aspect Ratio 2.35:1
The image below has a 2.35:1 aspect ratio.
Aspect Ratio 2
.
I
The aspect
of 70mm prints (and 65mm camera
negative) is 2.2:1.
35mm films are not usually photographed in this
ratio, they must adapt their camposition to fit w
this area. In this illustration of a 70mm
frame, the gray
represents a magnetic soundtrack.
Aspect Ratio 1
When 1.85:1
are blown up to 70mm, the full
height of the
frame is utilized. All1 .85 picture information is
with black burned into the unused
area of the frame.
Most thea
ve black screen masking (black curtains) that they to cover areas of the screen that don't
have any image i them. In a 1.85 70mm print, although
not contain any picture information,
the black area
theaters must be careful not to close their screen masking
over the black area on the screen. Were they to do so, the
masking might co~er speakers placed behind the screen
that are utilized for j7 0mm sound tracks. The only exception
26
What follows are examples of the options, and potential compromises, available to adapt a 2.35:1 composition
for 70mm release.
Most often, film labs will enlarge the 2.35 image to fill
the entire area of the 70mm frame. Although the he1ght of
the 2.35 composition is not affected U:Us way ~i.e., all Nort~
South picture information remams mtact), u:~ormatlon 1s
lost on the right and left sides of the compos1t1on:
The frame below graphically illustrates what information is lost when 2.35:1 is blown up to fill the entire 70mm
frame.
2.35 to 70mm Prints Continued

The following illustration shows how the .image.actually appears on the 70mm print ~d whe~ projected m the
theater after being blown up to fill th~ entire 70mm. frame.
The alternative method for blowmg up 2.35:1rmages
to 70mm is to maintain the full width of the aspect ratio.
This is accomplished by fitting the 2.35 area within 70mm' s
27
Cameras
65mm
black above and below the picture,

film thicker frame lines. A number of
Lt::l't::dt;eu in this manner in recent years,
...,,awr,.,~n,., The Untouchables, and Star Trek IV.
the area that would be a thick black
for clarity in this illustration. It
this way in an actual 70mm print.
31
33
Fries 865
Mitchell Reflex TODD-AO
34
MSM8870
37
Panavision AC/SPC
39
Panavision System-65
39
43
36
35mm
l
f
28
Arriflex 765
Aaton35mm
45
Aaton 35-II
46
Arriflex 535
47
Arriflex 535B
50
Arriflex 35-3
52
Arriflex 35BL-4s
54
Arriflex 35-3C
56
Arriflex 35-2C
57

59
61
Feathercam CM35
62
IMAGE 300 35mm
63
Mitchell NC, NCR, BNC,

BNCR (35mm); FC, BFC (65mm)
64
66
Mitchell35mm Standard and High Speed
67
Moviecam Super 35mm
69
70
74
74
29
35mm cl ntinued
65mm Cameras
Panafl+ Panastar High-Speed
74
Panavi9ion Super R-200
76
Photo-1onics 481 4C
79
:::::~~~:R
80
v1st a v.tswn
l.
I
MSM8 12
Arriflex 765
79
Wilcam W-7
81
82
Wilcam W-9
83
Wile am W-11
85
16mm
Aaton XTRplus
Arriflex 16SR-2
86
Arriflex 16SR-3
93
Arriflex 16BL
Arriflex 16S/B, 16S/B-GS, 16M/B
95
97
Bolex 1 mm
99
Bell & owell Filmo 70

M'. I
16= (GSAP)
Cinema Products CP-16, CP-16A
101
rmaj
102
104
105
Eclair Af L
Eclau Cti-3 (16/35mrn)
108
&l'i'~f
,.
102
Cinema Products CP-16R, 16R/ A
Mitchell Professional HC, HSC
30
88
107
109
111
Mitchell Reflex, SSR-16, DSR-16
113
Panavision Panaflex 16mrn
114
Movement: The 765 uses advanced microprocessor

control technology to link two quartz-controlled DC motors in a direct drive configuration to control shutter and
film transport. No belts or mechanical couplings are used
in the drive system. Dual registration pins, triple-pin pulldown claws and user-adjustable pitch control assure image quality to optical printer standards.
Speed Range: Quartz-accurate sync at 15/24/25/
29.97/30/60/75 fps on-board; 2-100 fps with the CCU; 24
fps reverse; and 1 fps with the 765's Remote Control Unit.
Run-up time is less than 1 second at 24 fps.
Shutter: Rotating, microprocessor-controlled silicon
mirror shutter, mechanically variable from 15 to 165, plus
144, 172.8, and 180.
Reflex Viewfinder: The viewfinder has a built-in optical turret that permits on-the-fly selection of either 80:20
or 100:0 video/viewing ratios, and has a switchable ND.6
contrast viewing glass, ArriGlow illuminated frame lines,
and a finder extender with built-in 2X image magnification.
A short finder (for portable operation) and a video finder
are also available. A wide-angle eyepiece with manual iris
closure, 8X magnification, and 2 diopter adjustment is
standard.
Camera Control Unit (CCU): The CCU remotely turns

the 765 on and off, and also activates speed changes, from
up to 100 feet away.
31
64mm diameter Maxi-PL (Positive Lock)

focal distance of 63.5mm; designed for
and RTH Cooke zoom, wide-angle
input via a 3-pin

t<>rnn.<>r <~ ture
24V DC motor in
to shutter and movement. Power
. pin 1 is(-), pin 2 is+ 24V. Oprange is -4F to +122F (-20C to
-finder displays: out-of-sync and filmacllonn.eter and Footage Displays: camand visible out-of-sync; low battery;
display.
' (160m) and 1000' (300m) displacerni.crclbroo~ss-or-cor
torque motors. Misarnples and adjusts feed/ take-up tension and
continuously. Automatic connection and
via multi-plug pin plug. Mechanicounters.
/Zeiss 65mm format lenses include
60mm, 80mm, lOOmm, llOmm,
350rnrn, 2X Mutar Extender, and
Maximum aperture ranges from T-1.8
and T-6.2 on the zoom.
765's 6.6x6.6 Swingaway Production
all 65rnrn format lenses. Has two fully
Geared filter frames.
Atce!;sones: 1. Variable Speed and Sync
VSSU module allows remote speed
and 100 fps non-crystal; provides synp AL or NTSC video signal (50 I
' BNC cable. 2. Video Optics Module
& W CCD video tap cameras, with
iris control.
sories: 2-Speed follow focus;
for CG balance and mount for
servo zoom drive, and heavy
<>vf<>r\,;_,r and leveling rod; barney and heated
Head.
32
This camera, designed in conjunction with Wil~am, is

intended to meet the exacting needs of Showscan cmematography (60 fps) but operates at conventional speeds as
well. Photographed aperture is standard 5-perf 65mm
(2.072" X 0.906").
.
.
Movement: Compensating link, with dual re~stra~on
pins and four pull-down claws. Retractable reg1ster pms
33
adjustment that permits hming the movesilent operation. Removable aperture and
for ease of cleaning.
170 fixed-opening focal plane shutter.
1-72 fps, forward or reverse, by 4-deis crystal accurate at all selected speeds
'"'"''Lwaal digits. Single-frame operation under conintervalometer also available.
System: Rotating mirror reflex image
with provision for film clip insertion,
orientable viewfinder. Easily attached
with automatic leveler also available.
tap for high-resolution CCD chip camera also
Quick-acting bayonet lock for specially
lenses.
complete series of specially mounted prime
from 24 to 1200mm, as well as high-quality
available.
The camera's self-blimped design pershooting at 24 fps. At Showscan speed of
composite material sound blimp is

exacting sound level requirements of sync
M<tgazmles:lOOO-ft. magazines and 2500-ft. individual
cassettes are available. Magazine
are also available.
ne<arutreio;:Camera can be externally controlled
as required by process photography and
65mm 8-perforation camera derequirements of new formats for spe~w, ,...,, ~ .,

Photographed aperture is 2.072" x
corrected through approximately 180. Built-in video tap

for high resolution CCD chip camera also included.
Lens Mount: Universal bayonet type with a large port
diameter. Special mow1ts available upon request.
Lenses: A complete series of Hasselblad lenses is
available.
Drive: Internal30 VDC crystal controled
Magazines: 500ft. and 1000ft. displacement magazines
with torque motor take up and hold back.
Special Features: Valve which allows the operator to
direct light to the viewing system, or to the video assist or
combo which splits the light between both viewing and
video assist.
35
Camera body 45lbs., 1000 ft. 13 Yz lbs.

Acce~sones: Standard Arri matte box.
llOV AC-28V DC. Camera will also accept externally

mounted motors for special purposes.
Magazines: 350' lightweight magnesium displacement
type; remaining footage indicator; positive clutch dnve
1000' magazine also available.
Features: Weight: 27 pounds with 350' of film. Shoulder support and hand grip or tripod mount. Dual gelatin
filter slot in front of film aperture. Heating system. Film
runout indicator. Remote control.
Accessories: Zoom lenses: 60-150mm, 100-300mm,
and 65-390mm. Underwater blimp with internal battery
and externally controlled film speed, stops and focus; designed for 50' depth or less. Built-in exposure meter.
MSM Model 8870 65mm/8-perf.
Dual registration pins. Four pull-down

-"- -'-'-' - pull-down stroke. Removable aperture
matte slot. Aperture 2.072" x .9055" Speed
175.
r: Pellicle beam splitter (shock
than full aperture area. High magtnr'"''ma contrast viewing filters.
Large erect image viewfinder
~ ~ ~u.u"'" focal-length lenses. Calibrated for
ratios. Parallax correcting cams for all foSingle mount with quick-release flange
mirror absorption. Accepts all
focal-length and zoom lenses. All lenses
follow-focus control.
28V DC motor, solid-state speed con-
LcU~ui. au.un allows for
Movement: MSM Monoblock high-speed, dual-register pins, claw engages six perfs. Shrinkage adjustment
changes both stroke and entry position. Indexable loopsetting sprockets have independent locking keeper rollers.
Vacuum backplate assures filmplane accuracy, removes
without tools for cleaning. Aperture and movement remove easily for cleaning and lubrication. Aperture size
2.072" wide x 1.485" high. Frame-rates from timelapse to 60
fps forward, also to 30 fps reverse.
Shutter: Focal plane shutter, manually variable from
172.8 to 55 with stops at 144 and 108.
Viewfinder: Spinning mirror reflex. Interchangeable
ground glasses with register pins for film clips. Finder rotates 360 with erect image; image can be manually rotated
for unusual setups. Finder shows 105% of frame, magnifier allows critical focusing at center of interest. Single lever controls internal filter and douser. Heated eyepiece has
large exit pupil and long eye relief. High resolution B & W
or optional color CCD video tap is built into camera door
with swingaway 50/50 beamsplitter. Viewfinder removes
completely for aerial or underwater housing use.
Lens Mount: MSM 75mm diameter x 80mm flange
depth.
BNC-style lens mount is vertically adjustable 7mm for
flat or dome screen composition. Mount accepts modified
Zeiss (Hasselblad), Pen tax, Marniya, and other large-format
lenses. 15mm matte rods are on ARRI BL centers for accessory compatibility.
18, 20, 22, 24, 28, and 32 fps. Manual

provided. Belt pack batteries. Rectifier unit
37
ready, buckle, and speed sync. Two illuminated LCD footage counters. Digital battery volt/ amp meter. Circuit breakers for camera, mag, heat, and accessories. Control port
allows operation from handheld remote or interface with
computers and external accessories.
Panavision 65mm AC (Auxiliary Camera)

SPC (Speed Camera)
MSM 65mm/8p
Magazines: 1000' displacement magazines use the
MSM TiltLoc~ mount. Magazines lock to the camera with
a pair of 8m111 hardened pins, and can tilt away from the
operator to all,ow easier camera threading. Optional minimum profile 1bOO' coaxial magazines use same mount without tilt featurJ. Both magazines operate bidirectionally at
all camera sp~eds. A positive camlock secures the mag in
running posi~ion and switches power to the motor and
heater contactp in the magfoot. Expanding core hubs have
integral DC servomotors controlled by film tension in both
directions, wi~ soft startup to eliminate slack. Tightwind
rollers guide film winding for smooth solid rolls at any
camera angle. on-contact light traps feature infrared endof-film
~~~~~ Crystal sync from 5 to 60 fps in .001 increLEDs for power, heat, low battery, mag
1
38
Movement: AC: Compensating link, dual registration

pins, four pull-down claws. Low noise level.
SPC: Dual registration pins and four pull-down claws
ensure same degree of steadiness as AC model.
Both Models: Movement has matte slot, removable
aperture and pressure plates that can be removed for cleaning. Timing marks provided for reassembly . Aperture
2.072" by 9.055".
Speed Range: AC: Stop-motion to 32 fps.
SPC: 16 fps-72fps.
Shutter: AC: Variable 50-200, forward or reverse.
SPC: Variable 0-170, forward or reverse, segments
calibrated to 10.
Focusing: Rack over for critical focusing and lineup.
Erect image telescope built-in, variable magnification, contrast viewing filters, interchangeable ground glasses, slot
for mattes.
Viewfinder: Large erect image nonreflex viewfinder.
Cam operated parallax correction.
. .
Lenses: Quick-acting bayonet lock for Panav1s1on
lenses. Lenses do not rotate.
Drive: Both cameras accept all Mitchell motors .
Panaspeed motor has 24 fps crystal sync and may be varied from 12 fps-32 fps. Operates on a 36V battery. For high
speed, a precisely controlled motor capable of 12 fps-72 fps
is provided. It operates on two 30V batteries.
Magazines: 500' and 1000' double chamber. 500'
bipack magazine available for special effects.
Panavision System-65 65mm

Movement: Dual pilot pin registration ensures process-plate image steadiness. Four pull-down claws. Pitch
adjustment to optimize camera quietness. Entire movement
may be removed for servicing.
Aperture plate: Removable for checking and cleaning.
39
shutter with infinitely variable

in-shot. Maximum opening: 180;
opening and
minimum: 40
adjustable maximum and minimum
opening stops. digital display allows adjustments in V10
increments. rr.mro P h>r adjustment allows critical synchroTV monitors and HMI lighting
nization with
Manual and electronic remote-con,,.,,.,.,,..,.Reflex rotating mirror is standard and
light shutter system.

system: High magnification optitube is orientable and gives a
40
constantly upright image through 360. Short, Intermediate and Long viewfinder tubes are available. System incorporates an optical magnifier for critical focusing and picture composition, a contrast viewing filter and a light-proof
shutter. Wide-range ocular adjustment with marker bezel
to note individual settings. A built-in "Panaclear" eyepiece
heater ensures mist-free viewing. Adjustable eyepiece leveling link-arm is supplied with every Panahead to keep the
eyepiece position constant while tilting. An eyepiece diopter to suit the operator's own eyesight can be provided
on request.
Ground Glasses: Interchangeable ground glasses
available with any marking, or combination of markings.
"Panaglow" illuminated reticle system with brightness
control is standard. Ground glasses with finer or coarser
texture available on request. Provision for a cut frame to be
placed in the viewfinder system for optical frame alignment.
Lens Mounting System: Panavision positive clamp
lens mount for maintaining critical flange focal depth setting. All lenses are pinned to ensure proper rotational orientation.
Lenses: A wide range of color-matched lenses, ranging from a distortion-free 24mm to 400mm. Most are T-2
or T-2.8. Also available are a 60-360mm T-6.3 zoom and 35
and 45mm pivoting lenses for slant focusing. In addition,
many of the mid-range Primo and Zeiss lenses, and the long
focal length Canon and Nikon lenses, can be used with a
special adaptor. All lenses checked and calibrated by MTF.
All lenses have widely spaced lens focus calibrations and
low image veiling glare. Lenses are supplied with adequate
length iris rods for matte box and filter support. Focus control can be used from either side. Zooms are supplied with
and electronic zoom control unit as standard.
Matte Boxes: A standard matte box incorporating a
sunshade, provision for two 4 x 5.650" filters which can be
individually slid up and down. Special matte boxes incorporating more filter stages, with provision for sliding (motorized if required), rotating and/ or tilting and for taking
6.6" square filters are optional. Panavision can also supply
special sliding diffusers, diopters and all manner of image
contr.ol filters, etc., to use in their matte boxes.
41
Camera Motor: A 24-volt motor runs the camera at any

speed from ~-30 fps. Camera speed is crystal-controlled at
all frame rates and may be adjusted at 1 fps increments.
Special sYI:~boxes are available to synchronize the camera
With a mams power supply, computers, video signals, or
process projr ctors in shutter phase synchronization. Internal heaters r nsure that cameras may be used at sub-zero
temperaturEjs without special preparation.
DBA Rating: Less than 25db with film and lens, measured 3 feet ~om image plane.
Magaztnes: 1000' and 500' magazines are available.
Both can belused on the top of the camera for minimum
camera length or at the rear for minimum camera height.
Optical accessories: Almost all Panaflex 35mrn frontof-lens optiqal accessories and filters, etc., can be used on
the System:?5 cameras.
.
Battenes: Camera, magazmes, heaters and accessories
all operate 9ff a single 24V Ni-Cad battery.
Camera support equipment: "Super Panahead"
geared hea1 incorporates a 60 tilt range with a built-in
wedge syst~m to allow the operator to select where that
range IS, anywhere between the camera pointing directly
up or directty down, and three gear ratios in both the pan
and tilt ~o~ements. A sliding base unit enables a camera
to be qwcklf attached and detached and to be slid backwards and forwards on the head for optimum balance.
"Panapod" tripods, with carbon fiber legs, are available in
a range of s~zes.
Video tssist Systems: State-of-the-art CCD video
systems are available in B & W or color.
Enviro , ental protection equipment: All System-65
cameras and magazines have built-in heaters for operation
in any tem~eratur~. Heated covers are available to give
additwnaJl. rotectwn to lenses, especially zoom lenses.
Other cover . are available to protect the camera, magazines
and lenses. ' pinning-glass rain deflectors are available for
use in star conditions. An autobase is available to secure
the camera conditions of vibration, high "g" forces and
other stressful and dangerous conditions. A water-box is
available to protect the camera in shallow water conditions;
a hazard box protects the camera from explosions, collisions
and other dangerous situations.
fn
42
Panavision Panaflex System-65 Handholdable

Movement: Dual pilot pin registration ensures process-plate Image st~adiness. Pilot pins register in the same
perforatiOn holes (Immediately below the bottom frame
line) as optical printers. Four pull-down claws. Entire
movement may be removed for servicing.
Aperture pl~te:_ Removable for checking and cleaning.
Shutter: 170 Fixed-operung focal plane shutter.
Reflex System: Two models are available- one has
a rotating mirror, the other ?- semi-silvered fixed reflex
mirror for flicker-free viewing, which is especially suitable
for Panaglide, Steadicam, Louma and remote camera operahon.
Optical vie~finder system: High magnification optical system. The VIewfinder tube is orienta table and gives a
c'?nstantly upright image through 360; short and long
viewfmder tub_es are available for handheld and tripod
usage. System mc~rporates an optical magnifier for critical focusmg _and picture composition, a contrast viewing
filter a~d a hght-proof shutter. Wide-range ocular adjust~~~t with ma;,ker bezel to note individual settings. A builtm _Panaclear eyepiece heater ensures mist-free viewing.
AdJustable leveler link arm supplied with every Panahead
to keep eyepiece position constant while tilting the camera
up or down. An eyepiece diopter to suit the operator's own
eyesight can be provided on request.
. Ground Glasses: Interchangeable ground glasses
available with any marking, or combination of markin<>s.
"Panaglow" illuminated reticle system with brightn~ss
control Is standard. Ground glasses with finer or coarser
texture available on request.
l~ns mount for main_
t aining critical flange focal depth settmg. All lenses are pinned to ensure proper rotational orientation.
Lenses: Lenses are interchangeable with the System65 Studio Camera.
Lens Control: Focus control which can be used from
either side ?f the camera. Zoom lenses are supplied with
an electroruc zoom control unit as standard.
Matte Box~~: A standard matte box incorporating a
sunshade, provision for two 4 x 5.650" filters which can be
individually slid up and down. Special matte boxes incor43
trolled camera cranes. They can also be used with a

"Panatate" 360 turn-over rig.
Video Assist Systems: State-of-the-art, CCD video
systems are available in B & W or color. Flicker-free images
are possible with the pellicle reflex system.
Environmental protection equipment: Same as System-65 above.
35mm Cameras
Aaton 35mm Handholdable
(Note: Tile extetzsiotz utzit is used otzly for top-magazitze cotzfiguratiotz.)
porating m0re filter stages, with provision for sliding (motorized if r~quired), rotating and/ or tilting and for taking
6.6" square~ters are optional. Panavision can also supply
special slid" g diffusers, diopters and all manner of image
control filte s, etc., to use in their matte boxes.
Camerr motor: A 24-volt motor is used to run the camera at any ~peed from 4-72 fps. The motor is crystal controlled at all speeds and may be adjusted in 1 fps increments. Speal sync boxes are available to synchronize the
camera with a main power supply, with computers, with
video signa).s and with process projectors in shutter phase
synchronization. Internal heaters ensure that the cameras
may be used at sub-zero temperatures without special
. I
prepara tioTt.
Magilljines: 1000' and 500' magazines are available.
1000' rever~e running magazines available on request.
Magazine loading: Same as Panavision PSR 200 camera.
I
Optidl accessories: Interchangeable with System-65
Studio cambra.
Battedes: The camera, heaters and accessories all operate off a sfugle 24V Ni-Cad battery. Belt batteries are available for hand-holding.
Came~a support equipment: Lightweight System-65
Hand-holdable cameras are ideal for use with Panaglide
and Steadicam floating camera rigs and on remotely con-
This extremely compact camera -- 7 kg (15.4lbs.) with

120 meters (400 feet) of film-- is designed for handheld
small-camera situations where traditional35mm cameras
would be too bulky or awkward. The film channel is adjustable: Academy, 1.85:1, or Techniscope.
Movement: The movement of the Aaton 35 is a linear
stroke, with the in/ out movement controlled by a cam coaxial with the claw shaft (U.S. patent no. 3806016). Thesecurity provided by the claw's linear pull-down, followed
by non-shifting withdrawal from the perforation at the
dead point, makes a registration pin system unnecessary
- the claw tip itself ensures this function. The vertical
steadiness of this pull-down movement is enhanced by the
perfect lateral film positioning ensured by a spring-loaded
side pressure guide.
.
Shutter: Reflex mirror shutter, single blade, 180 openmg.
F~~us~ng: Through-~e-lens viewing and focusing, 6X
magnification. Auto erect rmage. Swiveling viewfinder for
perfect eye-to-shoulder distance adjustment.
Lenses: Panavision, Arri PL or Aaton mounted lenses
can be installed. The Aaton mount, because it has the shortest flange focal distance of the industry, can receive almost
all the best still-photography lenses, like the Leica R, Nikon
and Canon-AF.
Motors: A small direct-drive brushless motor (1500
rp~) runs the mechan~sm. Automatic stop in viewing poSition. A second motor m the camera body drives the magazine through an independent magnetic clutch. The Aaton
battery (12V:, 1.8 Ah~ fi_ts directly onto the camera body.
Magazme: 400 d1splacement-type magazine is prethreaded and allows quick changing. It is automatically
!ocked into pos_iti_on when placed on the camera body and
1s released by hfting a lever on the motor side of the cam45
era. The feel and take-up rolls compensate for each other
in size, w~e the shaft of each roll shifts position as the film
is exposed. The electronic counter registers in feet and
meters.
Video Assist: A small high-resolution CCD video
camera att~ched to the side of the camera only bleeds off
30% of the light from the viewfinder.
Accessories: Lightweight wide-format swing-away

matte-box; two 4 x 5.6 and one 138mm rotating stages. Also
accommodates Panavision mattes. Lightweight and zerobacklash follow-focus system. CCD video assist with
manual iris control delivers extremely sharp images.
Arriflex 535
Aaton 35fn
MoveTent: Linear-stroke single claw; self registering
(U.S. paten~ no. 3806016). The vertical steadiness of this
movement fSenhanced by the perfect lateral film positioning ensured by a spring-loaded side pressure guide. Hairfree gate has air circulation channel to keep hair out.
Shutt~[ True 180-degree front surface mirror faciliand video monitor roll-bar elimination.
tates 60Hz
Stops in viewing position. May be inched for aperture inspection.
Viewfinder: Reflex from shutter, 6X magnification,
auto erect upage, interchangeable ground glass. Swiveling
viewfinder for perfect eye-to-shoulder distance adjustment.
Lens Mount: Panavision, Arri PL or Nikon interchangeabl1mounts. 35mm to Super 35 format conversion
in five min tes in the field.
Drive: Brushless crystal sync 12V motor for 24, 25, and
29.97 or 30 s. Variable control6 to 54 fps. Maximum speed
with external control is 32 fps. Circuit board and motor may
be removed and replaced in two minutes. Slim battery (12V
1.8Ah) fits directly onto the camera body. A second motor
in the camera body drives the magazine through an independent m kgnetic clutch.
Magatines: 122m (400') pre-threaded displacementtype magat ine for instant changing. The feed and take-up
1
rolls com~nsate for each other in size, while the shaft of
each rolls fts position as the film is.exposed. The electronic
counter tr smits feet or meters to the camera body.
Featut es: Digital control display: footage, voltage,
speed, rso,jmagazine footage, low battery and out-of-sync
warnings. The key-code compatible, AatonCode time recording sy~tem prints large and rugged time matrixes on
the edge of the film, ensuring perfect sync with SMPTE time
of audio recorders. 1 ppm TCXO internal clock, initialized
with RS23~ or SMPTE signals. Negatives from the Aaton
35-II are ful!ly mixable with Panavision, Moviecam and Arri
BL
.
r Ml
The Arriflex 535 is a completely integrated camera

system. Its microprocessor control technology permits shutter angle and speed changes while running - at the camera or remotely.
Movement: Multi-link film transport with dual-pin
registration conforming to optical printer standards, and
dual pull-down claws. Easily removed for changing to a 3perforation pull-down. Adjustable pitch control. Universal
aperture plate has both interchangeable format masks and
a behind-the-lens gel filter holder. Ground glasses and fi-
47
ber-optic foLs screens for all aspect ratios available.

Shutter: Microprocessor-controlled variable mirror
shutter. Co, tinuously adjustable from 11 to 180 while
running, in .01 increments, at any camera speed. Exposure
is VIs of a second at 24 fps with a 180 shutter. The 535's
program also permits simultaneous frame rate/shutter
angle effectr, such as progr~mmed speed changes with
precise exposure compensation.
Viewfirder: Swingover Viewfinder fully operational
from either camera left or camera right. Permits omni-dir~ctional re~ex vie~ing with constant image correction
side-to-side and upnght. Programmable ArriGlow for lowlight filming. Nine pre-programmed illuminated formats,
an optional customized format module and fiber-optic focus screens. !Switchable ND.3 and ND.6 contrast viewing
glasses, a variety of in-finder information LEDs, and a 12"15" variable finder.
Lens Mount: PL (Positive Lock) lens mount, 54mm
diameter, w~th relocatable optical center for easy converSion to the Super 35 format. Flange focal distance is 52mm,
and image s~arpness is guaranteed due to the rigid mechanical corytection between lens mount and film plane.
Both Super Speed and Standard lenses with PL mounts
may be usedl PL zoom and telephoto lenses should be used
with a bridg~plate system.
Lenses: The 535 utilizes the full range of: Zeiss
Superspeed L. 18mm, 25mm, 35mm, 50mm, 65mm, and
85mm T-L3p; Zeiss Standard- 10mm, 12mm, 14mm,
16mm,20mm,24mm,28mm,32mm,40mm,50mm,85mm,
lOOmm, 135E T-2.1s; and 60mm, 180mm, and 300mm T3.0s; Arri ~amorphic- 32mm, 40mm, 50mm and 75mm
T-2.3s, and 1100mm and 135mm T-3 .0s; Arri Macro16mm, 24mril, 32mm, and 40mm T-2.1s; 50mm and lOOmm
T-3.0s and 200mm T-4.3. RTH Cooke and Angenieux zoom
lenses.
[
Motor: Ijviicroprocessor-controlled 24V DC motor that
operates with quartz accuracy at 24/25/29.97/30 fps onboard, and at 3-50 fps with the Camera Control Unit (CCU),
Remote Unit[(RU), or the Variable Speed Unit (VSU). It also
operates at 24/25 fps reverse with the CCU, and at 1 fps
crystal accur~te with its phase button. 50 I 60Hz is standard.
External Sync Unit (ESU) is designed for multi-camera,
video, or pr9jector interlock. Power input is through a 3pinconnector Pin 1 is(-), andPin2is +24V. Operating temperature range is -4F to+ 122F (-20C to+ 50C).
48
Magazines: 400' and 1000' coaxial, each with two microprocessor-controlled torque motors. Microprocessor
samples and adjusts feed/ take-up tension and all other
functions continuously. Mechanical and digital LCD
counters are built-in.
Matte Boxes: The 535 utilizes a 19mm diameter rod
Camera Support System. The Support System includes a
full range of matte boxes, bridgeplate, 2-speed follow focus, and lens supports. 15mm rod adapters are available
upon request.
1. 6.6 x 6.6 Production Matte Box: covers lenses 12mm
and up, as well as most presently used zooms. Interchangeable two, four, or six filter stages, rotatable 360 degrees,
swing-away for changing lenses. Geared filter frames.
2. 5 x 6 Production Matte Box: covers fixed lenses
14mm on up, as well as most presently used zooms. Two
filter stages, swing-away for changing lenses. Geared filter frame.
3. 4 x 4 Production Matte Box: covers lenses 16mm and
up. Two and four filter stages, rotatable 360 degrees, swingaway for changing lenses. Geared filter frames.
4. 4 x 4 Matte Box: (for use with 35-3 and 16SR systems
only) covers lenses 16mm and up. Two filter stages, mounts
on Arri lightweight support.
5. 4 x 4 Lightweight Matte Box: mounts directly to the
front of any 80mm front diameter lens. Two filter stage with
removable rubber lens shade.
Indicators: In-finder Displays: LEDs in the viewfinder
allow the operator to monitor various camera functions,
battery status, and programmable film-nd warning. Digital LCD Tachometer and Footage Displays: camera left/
right; audible and visible out-of-sync warning; visible film
jam; film-end; error codes; improper movement position;
improper magazine mounting; and disengaged rear film
guide indicators.
Electronic Accessories: Variable Speed Unit (VSU)
module mounts directly to the 535, and permits camera
speed changes between 3 and 50 fps, non-crystal. Shutter
Control Unit (SCU): mounts directly to the camera and
permits camera shutter angle changes between 11 o and
180. Remote Unit (RU): operational remotely from up to
60', provides an VSU/SCU (variable shutter/variable
speed) combination. The RU links the SCU and VSU to
permit manual adjustment of the frame rate while the 535's
microprocessor varies the shutter angle - all to ensure a
49
constant deLh-of-field and exposure. Video Optics Module (VOM): provides flicker reduction and iris control. With
Selectable Beam Splitter, facilitates video viewing under
difficult co~ditions. SMPTE Time Code Module plugs in to
utilize on-board time code generator, and provides full
SMPTE 80-bit time code capability. Electronic Sync Unit
(ESU): The ESU, operational remotely from up to 60', provides synchronization with an external PAL or NTSC video
signal (50/60Hz), another camera or a projector, or computer or vi~eo monitor via a monitor pick-up. It also contains a phasb shifter, pilotone generator, and selectable division ratio lbetween an external source and the camera's
frame rate. Camera Control Unit (CCU): provides integrated conrnol over all electronic functions.
Accessories: 2-Speed follow focus with 1:1 or 1:.06
ratios; bridgeplate support system for CG balance and
mount for matte box, follow focus, servo zoom drive, and
heavy lense~; hand-held rig for shoulder operation of the
camera; finder extender and leveling rod; barney and
heated barney; Arri Geared Head; and director's viewfinder with PL mount.
Arriflex
The Arriflex 535B is the lightweight version of the 535,

designed for handheld and Steadicam cinematography.
(Refer to the Arriflex 535 section for full 535 specs.)
Movement: The 535B has the same multi-link film
transport, Jith dual-pin registration that conforms to optical printer standards, and dual-pin pull-down claws as the
535. It has k. adjustable pitch control. The 535B operates
at crystal-accurate speeds from 3 to 60 fps.
I
50
Shutter: The 535B has a manually adjustable mirror

shutter, variable from 11 to 180 in 15 steps, and 144 and
172.8.
Lens Mount: The Arri 54mm PL lens mount, with a
relocatable optical center for easy conversion to Super 35.
Flange focal distance is 51.98- 0.01mm.
Lenses: Same as 535.
Motor: The 535B has a microprocessor-controlled 24V
DC motor that operates from 3-60 fps, variable in 0.001 increments at crystal accuracy. It features on-board programmable speeds of 24, 25,29.97 and 30 fps, and variable crystal speeds from 3-60 fps. Speeds are continuously variable
when the Remote Unit (RU-1) is used. Speeds can be programmed from the on-board LCD, with the Remote Unit
(RU-1), and with the Camera Control Unit (CCU), Arri's
standard off-camera programming unit. The 535B's power
input is through a 3-pin connector: Pin 1 is (-),and Pin 2 is
+24V. Operating temperature range is -4F to+ 122F (-20C
to +50C).
Viewfinder: The 535B has a lightweight Swingover
Viewfinder that pivots on two axes, with full left or right
side viewing, and a fully upright image no matter where it
is placed. It can be used with the new Arri flicker-reduced
CCD black & white and color video assists, and be easily
set up for anamorphic use. Adaptable for left- or right-eyed
viewing with a built-in telescopic extender, and has quickchange beam splitters forB & W or color CCD video, and
slide-in masks for illuminated in-finder format markings.
The entire finder is easily removed without tools, and accepts a 100% video module for Steadicam use.
Magazines: Standard 535 400' and 1000' coaxial magazines.
Electronic Features: At the LCD, the user can pre-set
camera speed and time code information, and display
frame rate, film stock, battery voltage, and time code and
user bits. The CCU (Camera Control Unit) can be used to
set and run these 535B camera functions. An additional
LCD display can be added on camera right. The LCD also
indicates film jam, film end, improper movement position,
magazine improperly mounted, and rear film guides disengaged. If the 535B is not ready for operation, its running
control lamp illuminates red. Time Code: The 535B utilizes
the same plug-in TC module as the 535. It records SMPTE
RP 136 Form C, and has an 80-bit integrated TC generator.
TC crystal accuracy is plus/minus 1ppm (0-50 degrees C).
51
Electronic Accessories: VSU, RU, and time code module (see 535); Video Optics Module (YOM)-- Video monitoring is an integral part of the 535B's design. The 535B can
accommodate both B & W and color CCD cameras, and
attached to the YOM both provide flicker reduction and iris
control.
Matte Boxes: See 535.
Additional accessories: 2-Speed follow focus;
bridgeplate support system for CG balance and mount for
matte boX!, follow focus, servo zoom drive, and heavy
lenses; hand-held rig for shoulder operation of the camera;
finder extender and leveling rod; barney and heated
barney; Arri Geared Head and Arri Geared Head 2; and
director's viewfinder with PL mount.
1
Arriflex 35-3 High Speed MOS

Movement: One registration pin and dual-pin pulldown cla"f. Film channel incorporates a pressure pad at the
back of aperture area. Aperture plates and ground glasses
for all aspect ratios are interchangeable.
Shutt~r: Rotating, front surface coated mirror shutter
system, w ith variable shutter: 180, 172.8, 144, and 135.
Variable Sfutter from 15 to 135 in 15 increments is available for earlier cameras, and is standard on 35-3 130 fps
models. The 15 to 180 shutter is constructed of lightweight
silicon crystal. Exposure is Y4sth of a second at 24 fps with
180 shutter.
Reflex Viewfinder: Four interchangeable doors with
viewfinders are available: Standard door with fixed
viewfinder and mount for video tap; offset finder door for
use with 400' coaxial shoulder magazine; pivoting finder
door, pivots 210; new pivoting finder door with optical
adapter tol attach video camera. All have adjustable Super
Wide Angile eyepiece with manual iris closure. Finder extenders avr ilable are 9" standard, 9" anamorphic, and 12.2"
standard 'i"ith ND.6 contrast viewing glass.
Lens Mounts: 54mm diameter PL mount. Flange focal distant e is 52mm. Super Speed and Standard lenses
with PL mpunt, those with Arri Bayonet (41mm diameter),
and Arri Standard lens mounts with PL adapter may be
used. PL and non-PL zoom and telephoto lenses should be
used with Bridgeplate Support System.
Motor Drive: 12/24V DC motor, with quartz-controlled SYI}C at 24/25/30 fps, 50/60Hz. An on-board variable speed dial may be used to adjust camera speed from
52
Cff-
,
00
' '\\
I
4 to 50 fps at 12V DC. The camera is continuously variable

from 4 to 100 fps (130 fps on the 35-3130 fps camera) at 24V
DC with a Variable Speed Unit. The50/60HzEXB-2 External Sync Control may be used to interlock the 35-3 with a
video source, projector or another camera. A 4-pin power
53
connector is located in the rear of the electronics housing.

Pin 1 is(-); Pin 4 is 12V (+).Operating temperature range
is -13F to+ 122F (-25C to +50C).
Displays: An electronic tachometer and footage
counter. Aln external red LED located below the counter
indicates when a low memory battery condition exists. A
red LED to indicate an out-of-sync condition and a green
LED to indicate variable speed mode are visible in the
viewfinder.
Magazines: 200', 400', and 1000' displacement mags;
400' low profile, coaxial shoulder magazine for
handholding.
Lenses: Full range of Zeiss Superspeed, Zeiss standard, Arri Anamorphic, Arri Macro, RTH Cooke and
Angenieux zoom lenses. See Arriflex 535 Lenses section for
details.
Arriflex 35BL-4s
Movement: 35BL-1 through BL-4 cameras feature

dual-pin registration and dual pull-down claws that advance the film through a fixed-gap film channel. The 35BL4s has a technologically advanced movement that includes
an adjustkble pitch control. Aperture plates and ground
glasses for all aspect ratios are interchangeable between all
35BL models.
54
Shutter: Rotating, front surface coated mirror shutter

system, with variable shutter: 180, 172.8, 144. Exposure
is %s ofa second at 24 fps with 180 shutter. 35BL-1 and
35BL-2 cameras have 180 fixed shutter.
Reflex Viewfinder: 35BL-4s and BL-4 viewfinders are
a full stop faster and brighter than earlier 35BL cameras,
and feature a larger exit pupil, ArriGlow illuminated frame
lines, and a high aperture 12.5" finder extender with swingin contrast viewing filter and variable magnification up to
2X. The finder rotates goo above, and goo below level with
the image always upright. An adjustable Super Wide Angle
eyepiece with manual iris closure and 6.5X magnification
is standard on 35BL-4s and BL-4 cameras. An adjustable
eyecup allows the operator to select the optimum eye-toexit pupil distance. Finder extenders available for the 35BL4s and 35BL-4 include a 12.5" standard with switchable contrast viewing filter, and for the 35BL-3, 35BL-2, and 35BL1, a g" standard, and g" Anamorphic.
Lens Mount: 54mm diameter PL mount, switchable
to Super 35 format. Flange focal distance is 52mrn. Super
Speed and Standard lenses with PL mount, those with Arri
Bayonet (41mrn diameter), and Arri Standard lens mounts
with PL adapter may be used. Both PL and non-PL zoom
and telephoto lenses should be used with a bridgeplate
system. Early 35BL cameras have Arri bayonet mount. BNC
mount available for 35BL-3 only. 35BL-2 and BL-1 cameras
require lens blimps for silent operation.
Motor Drive: 12V DC motor with quartz-controlled
sync at 24/25/30 fps, 50 or 60Hz for all35BL models. A
Variable Speed Control accessory extends the recommended speed range from 5 to 40 fps on the 35BL-4s, 35BL4, 35BL-3, and 5 to 50 fps on the 35BL-2. The 35BL-1 will
operate up to 100 fps with the HSU-100 speed control, specially modified magazines, and two 14.4Vbatteries. Multicamera interlock is achieved with the EXS-2 50/60Hz External Sync Unit. Power input through a 4-pin connector.
Pin 1 is (-);Pin 4 is+ 12V. Operating temperature range is4F to+ 122F (-20C to+ 50C).
Indicators: An LED electronic tachometer and footage
indicator and an audible out-of-sync warning are built-in.
A red LED near the footage counter indicates low footage,
memory, battery.
Magazines: 400' and 1000' coaxial. The 35BL can be
handheld with either magazine. Mechanical footage
55
counters a11e integral, and 35BL-4s magazines have an adjustable pitch control.
Lenses: Full range of Zeiss Superspeed, Zeiss stand ard , Arri Anamorphic, Arri Macro, RTH Cooke and
Angenieux zoom lenses. See 535.
Accessories: 2-Speed follow focus; bridgeplate support syste~ for CG balance and mount for matte box, follow focus, servo zoom drive, and heavy lenses; video
adapter f_o simultaneous optical and video viewing;
SMPTE time code; fmder extender and leveling rod
barney an4 heated barney; Arri Geared Head; director'~
viewfinder with PL mount.
Arriflex 35-3C
PL mount, those with Arri Bayonet (41mm diameter), and

Arri Standard lens mounts with PL adapter, may be used.
Both PL and non-PL zoom and telephoto lenses should be
used with a special3-C Bridgeplate Support System.
Motor Drive: Forward or reverse rurming 12V DC
handgrip motor with quartz-accurate sync at 24/25 fps,
with EXB variable speed accessory to adjust speed range
from 5 to 50 fps . Multi-camera interlock is achieved with
the 50/60Hz EXB sync control accessory. Power input
through a 4-pin connector. Pin 1 is(-); Pin 4 is 12 V (+).
Operatingtemperaturerangeis-13F to +122F (-24C to +50
C).
Magazines: 200' forward operation only, 400' forward
or reverse; and 400' modified 35-3 shoulder magazines
available.
Lenses: Full range of Zeiss Superspeed, Zeiss standard, Arri Anamorphic, Arri Macro, RTH Cooke and
Angenieux zoom lenses (see Arriflex 535 Lenses Section for
details).
Accessories: Finder extenders including 9" and 12.2"
non-anamorphic, and 9" anamorphic; leveling rod; 2-speed
follow-focus; special35-3C bridgeplate support system for
CG balance and mount for matte box, follow focus, servo
zoom drive, and heavy lenses; video adapter for simultaneous optical and video viewing; Pilotone generator for 24/
25 fps, 50/60Hz shooting; director's viewfinder with PL
mount.
Arriflex 35-2C
Movement: Single pin claw with extended dwell-time
to assure accurate film positioning during exposure. Film
gate components are precision finished steel, and hard
chrome plated. Full aperture is standard, with other formats
available.
Shutte . Rotating reflex mirror shutter system, variable
from ooto : r 5, in 15 increments. Exposure is 1,.-znd of a
second at 24 fps with a 165 shutter.
. Reflex Viewfinder: 6.5X Super Wide Angle eyepiece
for mcreased side-to-side viewing; interchangeable doors
inclu~e fix~d v~ewfinder with mount for videotap, 210
pivoting v1ewfmder with or without video, and offset
viewfinder door for use with 400-ft. shoulder magazine.
. Len~ Mount: 54mm diameter PL mount. Flange focal
distance IS 52mm. Super Speed and Standard lenses with
56
Description: The 35-2C series consists of multipurpose

35mm cameras. They are used handheld, and with appropriate accessories, for almost every type of motion picture
production application.
35-2C/B: Standard 2C featuring the Arri parallax-free
viewfinder system, a precision film transport system with
a maximum speed of 48 fps, a three-lens mount turret, and
an interchangeable motor-drive system.
35-2CGSIB: Standard 2C features plus Pilotone output
and startrnarking system.
35-2CV/B: Standard 2C features plus variable shutter,
adjustable from 0 to 165.
35-2CHS/B: High-speed model with 80 fps movement
and tachometer. A 32V DC motor with variable speed control is included with the camera.
57
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Reflex Viewfinder: 6.5X Wide Angle eyepiece and

parallax-free viewing.
Lens Mount: Three-lens turret with two Arri Standard
and one Arri Bayonet mount. All Arri Standard and Bayo-
net lenses that cover the full 35mm format can be used.
Zoom and telephoto lenses should be used with a special
2C Bridgeplate Support System.
Motor Drive: 32V DC highspeed handgrip motor for
20 to 80 fps operation is standard; other motors include 16V
DC governor motor for 24/25 fps operation, 24-28V DC
variable motor for 20 to 64 fps; 16V DC variable motor for
8 to 32 fps. Operating temperature range is -13 F to +122 F
(-24 C to +50 C). Magazines: 200' forward operation only,
400' forward or reverse.
Lenses: Full range of Zeiss Superspeed, Zeiss standard, RTH Cooke and Angenieux zoom lenses with Bayonet or Standard mounts. Matte Boxes: Bellows and light~
weight versions.
Accessories: Servo zoom drive; camera door (Anamorphic available); periscope finder; finder extender; and flat
motor base to convert camera to flat-base configuration for
mounting on flat surface or inside blimp housing.
1
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l_-L,--------- ..(;:--'----..J/
)
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'--T _______ T_;--
(fllM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE IN)
35-2CT/~: Standard 2~ with Techniscope gate and

two-perforation pulldown fllm transport system.
Movement: ~mgle-claw with extended dwell-time to
assure accura~e fi~m positioning during exposure. Academy aperture 1s s~~dard, with other formats available.
o Shutter: Rotatmg reflex mirror shutter system with
180 operung. Ex~osure is 'l4sth of a second at 24 fps.
Special effects camera featuring pin-registered steadiness to 120 fps and computer control interface. Can be
handheld.
Movement: Cam-driven dual-pin pull-down. Dualpin registration in Mitchell position. Adjustable stroke
length and entry position. Exit and entry buckle trips. Forward and reverse operation, .980" X .735" standard aperture with provision for hard mattes.
Shutter: Butterfly reflex with focal plane cup. Adjustable 180/172.8/144/90 I 45/0. Stops in viewing position. Internal phasing control to sync with TV equipment.
59

Lightweight Studio Camera
(FILM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE IN)
!.
I
. Ref~e~ Viewfinder: Erect, bright image, orientable.

~me-~am mterchangeable viewing screens. Precision regIst~r pms for matte ahgnment. Three viewing filters. 360
adj~stable eye piece; extender available. Optional video
aSSISt.
. Lens .Mo~t: BNCR standard, PL optional; anamorphic locating pm. Optional adapter for Arri standard or
bayonet-mounted lenses.
. Drive: Self-contained, 12 to 32V DC motor; synthestz~d crystal control from 1 to 120 fps in 0.01 fps steps. (Re9lllres 24.to 32~ f?r over 64 fps). One fps button for threadmg. Audible/visible out-of-sync indicator.
Magazines: FX 35 QUAD (quick acting displacement)
400' (~orward/reverse), 1000' (forward only). Feature steel
toe~ smgle latch cover, footage indicator, anti-spill brake,
easily cleaned hght trap. Adapter for Mitchell magazines.
Feature~: Can b~ run from personal computer. Feedback: status information, alarms. Shutter and digital shaft
coder quadrature and all control functions. Designed to be
a~ ste.ady as ~n optical printer. Display module over
viewfinder SWivels for operator or assistant; shows speed,
footage, camera mode, battery voltage, current, and low
battery alarm. Optional10-foot extension cable.
. Accesso~es: Matte boxes, filters, lens control systems,
VIdeo ass1st, time code, viewfinder exposure meter computer interface module.
'
Jt.
Lightweight blimped silent studio camera.

Movement: Standard Mitchell pin-registered compensating link; Cinema Products' independent adjustment of
stroke length and entry position. Removable aperture plate
with built-in matte slide for various formats. Timing marks
for reassembly after cleaning. Inching knob.
Shutter: Focal plane, continuously variable 5 to 180;
control and lock on rear panel.
Reflex Viewfinder: Rotating mirror, stops in viewing
position. Fine-grain interchangeable screens. Standard or
de-anamorphic optics. High-low magnification relay lens,
two contrast filters, built-in closure. Large eyepiece with
diopter adjustment and lock.
Lens Mount: BNCR with anamorphic locating pin.
Drive: Intemal crystal-controlled motor assembly continuously variable 4 to 32 fps. Fps indicator and control
knob. Pushbutton for sync speed, selector switch for 24 or
25 fps 15 ppm in 0-140 F temperature range. Visible/
audible out-of-sync warning. Circuit breaker, power indicator, running indicator lights, 30V battery pack.
Magazines: 1000' QUAD (quick acting displacement).
Lightweight, steel toe plate, velvet rollers, snap latch
mounting, single latch cover. Footage indicator, anti-spill
brake. Magazines are installed on the camera through a
"clamshell" opening in the blimp housing which provides
maximum access without requiring side or headroom clearance.
Features: Built-in focus control system with right and
left side knobs, magnetic calibration discs, brake, auxiliary
drive; mounted on front housing. Six station filter wheels
accepting standard gelatin filters. Lightweight swingaway
61
Accessories: Video assist, bridge plate, matte box, pistol grip.
IMAGE 300 35mm
(FILM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE OUT)
matte box. illuminated level, lens light and interior threading lights. LED footage counter in feet or meters. Built-in
carrying handles. Complete camera system (less lens and
film) weighs 93 pounds.
Accessories: Matte boxes, filters, viewfinder and aperture mattes, video assist, time code.
Feathercam CM35
Lightweight (10 pounds) handheld pin-registered
camera with snap-on magazines.
Movement: Cam-driven dual pull-down, dual-register pins. Six-inch-long film gate. Loop-forming threading
system. Simple maintenance.
Shutter: Rotating mirror, 180, stops in viewing position.
I
Reflex Viewfinder: Right or left eye. Extension available.
Lens Mount: Optional and interchangeable BNCR,
Nikon, Arri (new or old).
Drive: Variable 4 to 48 fps built-in 24V motor; 24/25
fps crystal sync, soft start-up to eliminate slack. Optional
single-frame drive. 24V battery, on-board or external. LED
fps/footage (or meters) counter with memory.
Magazines: 500' coaxial snap-on. Does not require
prethreading. Mechanical footage counter.
62
35mm highspeed (300 fps) pin-registered reflex camera.

Movement: Epicyclic; six pulldown claws; two register pins in Mitchell position. Dynamically balanced. Frameto-frame register 0.0005" or better. Full (silent) aperture.
Shutter: Beryllium rotating two-blade mirror; 120.
63
Reflex Viewfinder: Bright upright image; inter-
chan~eable grormd glasses; variable magnification; video
tap; light trap prevents accidental fogging.

Lens Mount: BNCR; Panavision available.
.
Drive: Built-in motor and circuitry; maximum speed
m three seconds. Self-braking; will stop in five feet from 300
fps. Requires 115V AC, 50 /60Hz, 30A starting, 18A rrmnmg. Ten p1_1shbutton~actuated speeds, 24 to 300 fps .
Magazmes: Coax1al1000' feed and takeup magazines
are ident~cal and separately mormted; takeup can be ren:oved "':'1thout ~emovmg the feed magazine. Gear driven,
differentially controlled. Automatic drive engagement and
supply overrrm brake. Footage-used cormter for acetate or
polyester base.
. Features: Sync pulse for strobe light, sync at all operating speeds. Matte box iris rods compatible with Arriflex.
Footage cormter with memory. Remote control input jack.
Mitchell NC, NCR, BNC, BNCR (35mm);

FC, BFC (65mm)
The NC camera differs from the "standard" model in

that it uses a mechanically different and quieter movement
and has other features which make it quieter. NC, BNC, FC,
BFC are rack-over models. NCR, BNCR are reflex models.
NC model has a lfour-lens turret, the others a single lens
mormt. B models are blimped versions.
. Movement: Dual-register pins, four-prong pull-down;
adjustable stroke. Timing marks on shutter and movement
facilitate removal and reassembly. Removable aperture
plate with built-in matte slot. 35mm full .980" x .735" apert:rre. Speed range: smgle frame to 32 fps. Slot for dual gel
filters.
Shutter: Focal plane 175 maximum variable to 0 in
10o increments. Phase and opening indicator on back of
64
camera. Some models have automatic four-foot fade in or

out.
Reflex Viewfinder: Rotating mirror. Viewing tube
same on rack-over and reflex. Interchangeable ground
glasses, variable magnification, film clip/matte slot, contrast viewing filters. Adjustable focusing eyepiece.
Viewfinder: External large screen erecting finder.
Parallax correction coupled by cam to lens focus knob.
Lens Mount: Four-lens turret, NC only; flange depth
1.695". Single mormt all others: 35mm flange depth 2.420";
lenses can be centered on full or Academy aperture.
Magazines: 400', 1000', 1200' double compartment
sormd insulated. NC magazines will not fit standard camera but standard magazines may be used on NC models
with adapter; not recommended for sormd shooting.
Drive: Demormtable motors for all types of shooting;
synchronous motors are sormd insulated. Crystal sync 30V
DC with 50/60Hz signal, mirror positioning circuit and
audible offspeed indicator.
Accessories: Film matte prmch. Matte boxes for rotating and sliding diffusion and filters. Director's finder which
takes camera lens mormts.
65
which camera body racks over for focusing and critical

lineup.
Note: There are several versions of modifications available for special applications.
Movement: High Speed: Dual registration pins. Dual
forked pull-down claws engage four perforations simultaneously. Removable aperture plate has built-in matte slot.
Full Aperture: .980" x .735" Academy Aperture Mask: 868"
x 631". Speed range: Single frame to 120 fps (160 fps can be
achieved but is not recommended). Standard movement
cannot be used for high-speed work. Not possible to convert standard to high-speed camera by interchanging
movements.
Shutter: 170 maximum. Variable in 10 calibrated
segments to oo manually, forward or reverse.
Focusing: Variable magnification erect image focusing
telescope built into the camera. Through-the-lens ground
glass critical focus and viewing when camera is racked
over. Built-in contrast viewing filters for color and monochrome emulsions. Interchangeable ground glasses. Any
aspect ratio outline available. Camera focus tube has builtin matte slot and permits the making of perfect match dissolves.
Lenses: Four-lens turret. Positive index type, with rising and f~g front. Mitchell-designed heavy-duty rotarytype lens mounts. Flange depth: 1.695". Standard and wideangle matte boxes provide for use of glass mattes, gauzes,
hard mattes, glass filters, Pola screen, diffusers, variable
diffuser attachment, etc.
Motors: Variable (wild)motors: 12V DC (8 to 24 fps),
llOV AC or DC (8 to 24 fps), High Speed. llOV AC or DC
rheostat controlled (24 to 128 fps). Synchronous (sound)
motors: llOV, 60-cycle, 1 phase AC; 220V, 60-cycle, 3-phase
AC; 220V, 3-phase interlocking AC; 220V, 3-phase AC/96V
DC Multi-duty (Synchronous at 220V AC only). 50-cycle
motors available on request. Animation motor: Stop-motion, llOV AC.
Magazines: 400', 1000' and 1200' double compartmenttype magazines.
Viewfinder: Large erect viewfinder calibrated for different focal-length lenses. Available with dual calibrations
for any two aspect ratios. Parallax-free follow-focus attachment available.
68
Moviecam Super 35mrri
Movement: Compensating link with dual pilot pin

registration and dual pull-down. Interchangeable aperture
plates for all standard aspect ratios.
Shutter: 180 rotating mirror variable to 45. Calibrated at 90, 144, 172.8. Stops in viewing position.
Reflex Viewfinder: Rotatable 360 maintaining erect
image. 12" extension tube with built-in 2.4X magnification
available. Large exit pupil has heated rear element. Eyepiece adjustable. Anamorphic viewin9 available. Ill~mi
nated frame lines. Integral video assist; external video
power unit includes 1 W' monitor.
Lens Mount: BNCR.
Drive: Microprocessor-controlled motor, 12 to 32 fps
in one-frame increments. Crystal sync. 24V DC or 110 /220V
AC.
Magazines: 500' and 1000' displacement-type torque
motor drive. Built-in heater.
Features: Below 20 dBa sound level. Built-in automatic
slate. Plug-in circuit boards field replaceable. Built-in cam-
69
era heaters. Footage and frame rate digital display forward

and reverse. Handheld and studio follow-focus for all
lenses.
Weight: 29 pounds with 500' of film and 50mm lens.
Accessories: "Moviespeed" attachment allows programmable speed changes from 1 to 50 fps forward and 12
to 32 fps reverse during shooting, with fully automatic exposure compensation. Time base code attachment. Synchronizer for flicker-free HMI shooting, filming from TV
monitors or process photography. Computer diagnosis
attachment for troubleshooting circuit boards. Matte boxes.
i
Panavision Platinum Panaflex 35mm

Movement: Dual pilot pin registration ensures process-plate image steadiness. Pilot pins register in the same
perforation holes (immediately below the bottom frame
line) as optical printers. Double pull-down claws. Pitch and
stroke controls for optimizing camera quietness. 4-perf
movement is standard, 3-perf is available. Movement may
be removed for servicing.
Aperture Plate: Removable for checking and cleaning.

Full-frame aperture is standard, aperture mattes are used
for all other frame sizes. A special perforation locating pin
above the aperture ensures trouble-free and rapid film
threading.
Aperture Mattes: Interchangeable aperture mattes are
available for Academy, Anamorphic, Super 35, 1.85:1,
70
1.66:1, and any other as required. Special hard mattes are

available on request.
Shutter: Focal plane shutter, infinitely variable and
adjustable in-shot. Maximum opening: 200, minimum: 50
with adjustable maximum and minimum opening stops.
A digital display allows adjustments in V10 increments.
Micrometer adjustment allows critical synchronization
with computers, TV monitors and HMI lighting at unusual
frame rates. Manual and electronic remote control units
available.
Behind-the-lens Filtering: Behind-the-lens gel filter
holder.
Reflex System: Reflex rotating mirror is standard and
is independent of the light shutter system. Interchangeable
semi-silvered fixed reflex mirror for flicker-free viewing is
optional.
Optical Viewfinder System: High magnification optical system. The viewfinder tube is orientable and gives a
constantly upright image through 360. Short, Intermediate and Long viewfinder tubes are available. System incorporates an optical magnifier for critical focusing and picture composition, a de-anamorphoser, a contrast viewing
filter and a light-proof shutter. Wide-range ocular adjustment with marker bezel to note individual settings. A builtin "Panaclear" eyepiece heater ensures mist-free viewing.
Adjustable eyepiece leveling link-arm is supplied with
every Panahead to keep the eyepiece position constant
while tilting the camera. Entire optical viewfinder system
may be removed and replaced with a video viewfinder
display for lightweight camera configuration (e.g., for
Panaglide, Steadicam, Louma, remote camera usage). An
eyepiece diopter to suit the opera tor's own eyesight can be
provided on request.
Ground Glasses: Interchangeable ground glasses
available with any marking, or combination of markings.
"Panaglow" illuminated reticle system with brightness
control is standard. Ground glasses with finer or coarser
texture available on request. Provision for a cut frame to be
placed in the viewfinder system for optical image matching. Frame cutters are available to suit negative or positive
perforations.
lens mount for maintaining critical flange focal depth setting. All lenses are pinned to ensure proper rotational ori71
-entation. (Note: this is particularly important with anamorphic lenses.) Iris-rod support is supplied.
Lenses: Exceptionally wide range of spherical, anamorphic and specialty lenses is available. All are checked
and calibrated by MTF. Primo lenses are all color matched
and range from a distortion-free 10mm to 150mm. Primo
zoom lenses Jre equal to Primo lenses in image-look and
optical performance. All Primo lenses have widely spaced
lens focus calibrations and have been especially designed
for low veiling glare. Physically long lenses are supplied
with adequate length iris rods for matte box and filter support, ultra wide-angle lenses are supplied with a suitable
sun-shade and matte box.
Lens Control: A lightweight focus control which can
be used from!either side of the camera is standard; an interchangeable "Studio" focus control unit is optional, as are
electronic rerriote focus and aperture controls. Zoom lenses
are supplied with an electronic zoom control unit as standard.
sunshade, with provision for two 4 x 5.650" filters which
can be individually slid up and down. Special matte boxes
incorporating more filter stages, with provision for sliding
(motorized if required), rotating and/ or tilting and .for taking 6.6" square filters are optional. Panavision can also supply special sLiding diffusers, diopters and all manner of
image control filters, etc, to use in their matte boxes.
72
Camera Motor: A 24-volt motor is used to run the camera at any speed from 4-36 fps and is crystal controlled at
all speeds and may be adjusted in Yloth fps increments.
Special sync boxes are available to synchronize the camera
with a mains power supply, with computers and video signals and with process projectors to run in shutter phase
synchronization. Panaflex cameras may be used at sub-zero
temperatures without special preparation.
DBA Rating: Less than 20 dB with film and lens, measured 3' from the image plane.
Magazines: 2000', 1000', 500' and 250' magazines are
all available. All can be used on the top of the camera for
minimum camera length or at the rear for minimum camera height and for good balance when hand-holding (2000'
magazines can be used in the top position only). 1000' reverse running magazines available on request.
Magazine Loading: See diagram.
Hand-holdability: Handles and a shoulder-rest are
provided for hand-holding the camera. In this configuration the camera is best used with a 500' or 250' magazine
fitted at the rear. The weight of the camera in hand-held
mode, with a 500' magazine and film, is approximately 27
lbs.
Image Contrast Control: "Panaflasher" light overlay
unit an optional accessory.
Optical Accessories: Front-of-lens optical accessories
include an exceptionally wide range of color control filters,
diffusion filters, fog filters, low-contrast filters, black, white
and colored nets, full-cover and split diopters, low /high
angle inclining prisms.
Batteries: Camera, magazines, heaters and accessories
all operate off a single 24V Ni-Cad battery. The normal
battery complement is two x cased units with built-in chargers. Belt batteries are optional.
Camera Support Equipment: "Panahead" geared
head, incorporates a 60 tilt range with a built-in wedge
system to allow the operator to select where that range is,
anywhere between the camera pointing directly up or directly down, and three gear ratios in both the pan and tilt
movements. A sliding base unit enables a camera to be
quickly attached and detached and to be slid backwards
and forwards on the head for optimum balance. "Panatate"
tum-over mount allows 360 camera rotation about the lens
axis while at the same time permitting nodal pan and tilt
movements. Nodal adapter available to mount a Panaflex
73
nodally on a Panahead. "Panapod" tripods with carbon

fiber legs are available in a range of sizes.
systems are available in B &W or color.
Environmental Protection Equipment: All Panaflex
cameras and magazines have built-in heaters to enable
them to be operated in any ambient temperature. Heated
covers are available to give additional protection to lenses,
especially zoom lenses, to keep their operation smooth in
intensely cold conditions. Other covers are available to
protect the ca;mera, magazines and lenses from heat and
dust and from rain and water. Spinning-glass rain deflectors are available for use in storm conditions. An autobase
is available to secure the camera in conditions of vibration
high "g-forces" and other stressful and dangerous conditions. A water-box is available to protect the camera in shallow water conditions, a hazard box to protect the camera
from explosions, collisions and other dangerous situations.
Time Code: The AatonCode code system encodes every frame with a SMPTE time code which is readable by
both computer and human.

Very similar to the Platinum Panaflex. Incorporates
most of the features and operates with most of the accessories listed for that camera.
increments. Micrometer adjustment allow critical synchronization with computers, TV monitors and HMI lighting
at unusual frame rates. Manual and electronic remote control units available.
Reflex System: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Optical Viewfinder System: Same as Platinum
Panaflex.
Ground Glasses: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Lens Mounting System: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Lenses: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Lens Control: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Matte Boxes: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Camera Motor: A 24-volt motor is used to run the camera at any speed from 4-120 fps and is crystal-controlled at
all speeds and may be adjusted in 1 fps increments. Special sync boxes are available to synchronize the camera with
a main power supply, with computers, with video signals
and with process projectors in shutter phase synchronization. Panastar cameras have internal heaters and may be
used at sub-zero temperatures.
Magazines: 1000' and 500' magazines are available. Either can be used on the top of the camera for minimum
camera length or at the rear for minimum camera height
Similar to the Gil Golden Panaflex but has a fixed
viewfinder system and is not hand-holdable.
Panaflex Panastar High-Speed

Movement: Dual pilot pin registration ensures process-plate image steadiness. Pilot pins register in the same
perforation holes (immediately below the bottom frame
line) as optical printers. Four pull-down claws. Entire
movement may be removed for servicing.
Threading Diagram: See below.
Aperture Plate: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Aperture Mattes: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Shutter: Focal plane shutter with infinitely variable
opening and adjustable in-shot. Maximum-opening: 180,
minimum: 40 with adjustable maximum and minimum
opening stops. A digital display allows adjustments in Y10
74
75
Panastar reverse running type magazine threading
and for good balance when hand-holding; 1000' reverse

running magazines available on request.
Hand-holdability: Handles and a shoulder-rest are
provided for h~d-holding th~ earner~. In this_ con?guration the camera 1s best used wtth a 500 magazme fitted at
the rear. The weight of the camera in hand-held mode, with
a 500' magazine and film, is approximately 26lbs.
Image Contrast Control: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Optical Accessories: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Batteries: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Camera Support Equipment: Same as Platinum
Panaflex.
Video Assist Systems: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Environmental Protection Equipment: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Panavision Super R-200 35mm

Movement: Dual pilot pin registration. Doub~e pulldown claws. Pitch control to optimize camera qwemess.
Entire movement may be removed for servicing.
Full-frame aperture is standard, aperture mattes are used
for all other frame sizes. A special perforation locating pin
above the aperture ensures trouble-free and rapid film
threading.
76
Aperture Mattes: Interchangeable aperture mattes

are available for Academy, Anamorphic, Super-35,
1.85:1,1.66:1, TV transmitted and any other aperture required. Special hard mattes are available on request.
Shutter: Focal plane shutter with infinitely variable
ope.::ring and adjustable in-shot. Maximum opening: 200;
minimum: 50 with adjustable maximum and minimum
opening stops. A digital display allows adjustments in Vw 0
increments. Micrometer adjustment allows critical synchronization with computers, TV monitors and HMI lighting
at unusual frame-rates. Manual and electronic remote control units available.
is independent of the light shutter system. Interchangeable
optional.
Behind-the-lens Filtering: Provision for a behind-thelens filter gel.
Optical Viewfinder System: Fixed optical system.
System incorporates an optical magnifier for critical focusing and picture composition, a de-anamorphoser, a contrast
viewing filter and a light-proof shutter. Wide-range ocular adjustment with marker bezel to note individual settings. A built-in "Panaclear" eyepiece heater ensures mist-
up or directly down, and three gear ratios in both the pan

and tilt movements. A sliding base unit enables a camera
to be quickly attached and detached and to be slid backwards and forwards on the head for optimwn balanced
"Panapod" tripods, with carbon fiber legs, are available in
a range of sizes.
Photo-Sonics 35mm 4B/4C
free viewing. An eyepiece diopter to suit the operator's own

eyesight can be provided on request.
Ground Glasses: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Lens Mounting System: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Lenses: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Lens Control: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Matte Boxes: Same as Platinum Panaflex.
Camera Motor: 24 or 36V motors are used to run the
camera at any speed from 4-36 fps with crystal control at
24 and 25 fps. Special sync boxes are available to synchronize the camera with a main power supply, with computers and video signals and witl1 process projectors in shutter phase synchronization. May be used at sub-zero temperatures without s pecial preparation.
DBA Rating: Less than 24 dB with film and lens, measured 3' from the image plane. Magazines: 1000' and 400'
magazines are available. The 400' magazine can be used,
together with a special low-profile magazine cover, for
minimum camera height.
Optical Accessories: San1e as Platinum Panaflex; see
page70.
Batteries: Camera, heaters and accessories all operate
on either a 24V or a 36V Ni-Cad battery. The normal battery complement is two x cased wuts with built-in chargers.
Camera Support Equipment: "Super Panahead"
geared head incorporates a 60 tilt range with a built-in
wedge system to allow the operator to select where that
range is, anywhere between the camera pointing directly
78
Rotary prism recording camera designed for high

speed full format 3Smm photography.
Film Transport: Continuous.
Frame Rate: High-speed system: 500 to 2500 fps in 500frame intervals. Low-speed system: 250 to 12SO fps in 250frame increments. Special low-speed motor, 12S fps-62S fps,
avajlable on reques t.
Aperture Size: Full-frame 35 mm.
Film Specifications: B & H .1866" perforations.
Shu tter: Rotary disc, 72 fixed shutter. 36, 18 or go
s hutter available on request.
Viewfinder: Fries orientable. Boresighti.ng is accomplished through the taking lens using ground film.
Lens Mount: Nikon or BNCR.
Drive: High-speed 208 VAC, 3 phase, 60Hz, Y-connected synchronous speed motor. Surge at maximum
frame rate 60 amps/each phase; running 30 amps/each
phase. Low speed llSV AC, single phase, 60 Hz, synchronous speed motor. Surge at maximum frame rate 40 amps;
rwming 20 amps.
Magazine: 1000'.
Film Cores: Film must be wound on dynamically-balanced aluminum film cores prior to use in this camera.
Accessories: Video assist on-axis, parallax-free, shuttered video camera or off-axis side mounted.
Photo-Sonics 35mm-4ER
High speed, (6 to 360 f.p.s.) pin register studio recording camera.
Movement: lntermHtent with 12 pull-down arms, four
regis tration pins and a vacuwn back.
Shutter: Adjustable rotary disk type with increments:
sobetween soand S0; 10 between 50 and 120.
79
Reflex View.finder: 4ER incorporates a reflex viewing

system in conjunction with a Jurgens/ A~riflex orientable
viewfinder system Md Shuttered CCD VJdeo tap.
Lens Mount: BNCR, Panavision or Photo-Sonics.
Drive: Built-in motor Md circuitry. Requires 208 VAC,
single phase, 60Hz, SCR, solid state. Surge at maximwn
frame rate 35 amps; rwming 20 amps.
Magazines: 1000-foot capacity ,.,rith built-in light traps.
Features: 200-watt heater. Sync pulse for strobe light
synchronization. Ground glass with Academy, TV safe
action and 1.85:1.
Weight: 125 pounds with 1000-foot magazine loaded.
Accessories: Arriflex 5 x 6 Matte Box with Hard Matte
set. Arriflex 6x6 Matte Box with Hard Matte set. Diopters
for dose focus: + 1/2, +1, +2, +3 set.
Features: Quick-release balance plate. Built-in followfocus. LED counter feet/ meters may be preset to any reading; battery operated memory. Built-in ~eate~. S~ing-aw.ay
matte box; rotating feature accepts vanous siZe filters w tth
two stationary stages and two rotating stages.
VistaVision Cameras
MSM Model 8812 35mm/8-per Vista Vision
Ultracam 35mm
lens.
Sound level20 1 dB at three feet with film and 50mm
Movement: Full apertu re: .985" x .736". Single claw,

dual registration pin, compensating link, using tungsten
counter-balance for minimum possible vibration. A~tto
matic fi lm location by spring-loaded pin. Pitd1 adjustment
compensated for 3X more change in stroke length at end
of stroke than at start. Entire movement cru1 be removed
for cleaning; coupling is keyed for correct alignment on
replacement.
Shutter: Focal plane 175 on same shaft with mirror.
Reflex Viewfinder: Rotating two-blade half-speed
mirror. 4130' to permit short back focus lenses. Eyepiece
rotates 360 using prism to provide erect image. All surfaces
high efficiency for bright image, exit pupill0~1. 6)(_ to 9X
true zoom magnification. Anamorphic correction avatlable.
lnterd1angeable ground glasses. Internal diopter accommodation. Right or left eye operation. Video assist on bayonet
mount.
Lens Mount: SBNCR.
Drive: lnternal28V DC optically encoded. 8, 12,16, 18,
20, 24, 25, 30, and 32 fps ru1d by a lOV P-P external pulse of
60X frame rate. Crystal sync .tiS ppm over 0 to 130 F
range. 50/60Hz and frame rate output pulse.
Weight: 31 lbs. with 400' of film and SOmm lens.. .
Magazines: 500' and 1000' displacement. Bllllt-m
torque motor and electric brake. Either size will mount on
camera top or rear.
Movement: MSM Monoblock high-speed, triple register piJ1S, claw engages four perfs. ~~uinkage adjustment
changes both stroke ru1d entry pos1bo~. Indexable loopsetting sprockets have independent locking keeper rollers.
Vacuum backplate assures film p lan e accuracy, removes
without tools for cleaning. Aperture and movement ~e
move easily for clearting and lubrication. Aperture siZe
1.485" wide x .992" high. Frame-rates from time-lapse to 72
fps forward, to 30 fps reverse.
Shutter: Focal plane shutter, manually variable from
172.8 to 55 with stops at 144 and 108.
Viewfinder: Spinning mirror reflex. Interchangeable
grow1d glasses with register pins for film clips. Finder rotates3600 witl1 erect image, image can be manually rotate~
for unusual setups. Finder shows 105%. of frame,. magrufier allows critical focusing at center of mterest. Smgle lever controls internal filter and douser. Heated eyepiece has
large exit pupil and long eye relief. High-r~oluti~n B & W
CCO Videotap iS built into camera door Wlth Swmgaway
50/50 beamsplitter. Viewfinder removes completely for
aerial or underwater housing use.
Lens Mount: BNC lens mount. 15mm matte rods are
on Arri BL centers for accessory compatibility.
.
Magazines: 1000' and 400' displacement maga~u!es
operate bidirectionally at all camera speed s. A pos1bve
80
81
(
I
vacuum backplate
regpin retract knob /
pitch adjustment knob ~t::~===~~
keeper release button
loop setting sprocket knob
cam lock secures the mag in mnning position and switches

power to the motor and heater contacts in the magfoot.
Expanding core hubs have integral DC servomotors controlled by film tension in both directions, with soft startup
to eliminate slack. Tightwind rollers guide film winding for
s mooth solid rolls at any camera angle. Non-contact light
traps feature infrared end-of-film sensors.
Features: Crystal sync from 5 to 72 fps in .001 increments. Status LEDs for power, heat, low battery, mag
ready, buckle, and speed sync. Two illuminated LCD footage counters. Digital battery volt/amp meter. Circuit breakers for camera, mag, heat, and accessories. Control port
allows operation from handheld remote or interface with
computers and external accessories.
Wilcam W-7 VistaVision High Speed

Vista Vision, 8-perforation 35mm designed for operation at 200 frames per second.
Registration: 3 dual-register pins.
Film Transport: 2 claw pins. Transport claws never
enter the registration pin perforations.
Shutter: Berylli um mirror with tungs te n counter
weights.
Viewfinder: Rotating mirror. Uses servo motors for
constant erect image while the eyepiece is being rotated.
Lens Mount: BNCR
82
Lenses: 14mm f/2.8 Canon, 19mm f/2.8 Leitz, 24mm

T-1.4 Canon, 28mm T-1.8 Zeiss, 35mm T-1.4 Zeiss, 50mm
T-1.4 Zeiss, 85mm T-1.4 Zeiss, 135mm T-1.8 Zeiss, 35-140
f/1.4 Vivitar zoom. Also 200mm, 400mm, and 600mm.
Magazines: 1000-foot.
Magazine Drive: Gear-driven through torque motors
permanently motmted on the camera body.
Matte Box: Wilcam 4 x 5.65 also standard ArriAex 6
X 6.
Weight: 110 pouJ1ds w ith SOnun lens and film.
Wilcam W-9 Vista Vision Lightweight

Vista Vision, 8-perforation 35mm designed for general
purpose use. Maximum speed 100 frames per second.
83
6.
Matte Box: Wilcam 4 x 5.65 also standard Arriflex 6

Weight: 37 pounds with 50mm lens and film .
Wilcam W-11 VistaVision Sound Speed
""'
Registration: 3 dual-register pins.

Shutter: 180 Beryllium mirror with tungsten counterweights.
Viewfinder: Rotating mirror. Uses servo motors for
constant erect image while the eyepiece is being rotated.
Lens Mount: BNCR.
Lenses: 14mm f /2.8 Canon, 19mm I /2.8 Leitz, 24mm
T-1.4 Canon, 28mm T-1.8 Zeiss, 35mm T-1.4 Zeiss, 50mm
T-1.4 Zeiss, 85mm T-1.4 Zeiss, 135mm T-1.8 Zeiss, 35-140
f/ 1.4 Vivitar zoom. Also 200mm, 400mm, and 600mm.
Magazines: 1000-foot.
Magazine Drive: Torque motors mounted on each
84
VistaVision 8-perforation 35mm. Designed for

soundstage production shooting. Runs at 24, 25, and 30
frames per second, all crystal sync. Virtually silent in operation wi~1out relying on extensive blimping. Noise level
in operating condition with a prime lens is 25 dB at 3 feet
in front of the camera lens.
Registration: 3 dual-register pins. 2 pairs in conventional location, 1 pair .050 wide perforations trailing.
85
Shutter: Half-speed, 144 degrees. Beryllium mirror

driven by second motor, phase-locked to camera motor.
Viewfinder: High-efficiency ground glass with locating pins for film clip. Automatic image erection with
manual override for odd-angle viewing.10X magnifier for
critical focusing. Built-in Sony CCD video camera.
Lens Mount: BNCR.
Lenses: Available BNCR lenses: 14mm f/2.8 Canon,
19mm f/2.8, Leitz, 24mm T-1.4 Canon,28mm T-1.8 Zeiss,
35mm T-1.4 Zeiss, 50mm T-1.4 Zeiss, 85mm T-1.4 Zeiss,
135mm T-1.8 Zeiss, 35-140 f/ 1.4 Vivitar zoom. Also 200mm,
400mm and 600mm.
Magazines: 1000-foot. Supply on right side of camera,
take up on rear.
Magazine Drive: Hysteresis dutch with sensing arms
.
u1 camera body for correct film tension.
Battery Voltage: 36 volts.
Current: 3 amperes.
Follow focus: On left side of camera. Detachable.
Matte Box: Wilcam 4 x 5.65 also standard Arriflex 6
X 6.
Weight: 60 pmmds with 50mm lens and 1000 feet of

fi lm.
16mm Cameras
Aaton XTRplus
Ergonomically designed s tandard 16 and Super 16

camera for studio and documentary use, featuring time
code and video assist. Sound level 19dB. (Antou XTRplus
specific Jentures nppenr in itnlics.)

Movement: Linear-stroke single claw; self registering.
Lateral and vertical regishation system ensures a positioning of the film better than 2.5mm in all three axes. Hair-free
gate with air circulation channel pulls hair out.
Shutter: True 18Q-degree front surface mirror facilitates 60Hz HMl and video-monitor roll-bar elimination.
86
Stops. in viewing position. May be inched for aperture inspectlon.

Viewfinder: Reflex from shutter. Ultra-bright viewfinder. Fiberoptic imaging finder field is 120% of standard
16~ ~an~e. Swiveling auto erect image eyepiece w ith lOX
magmficatton. 20cm or 40cm extensions and left-eye extender available. Field interchangeable St16/Super J 6
gr~u~d !?lass with Aatonite markings avajlable on option.
Built-mlight meter display in viewfinder also inrucates low
battery, out-of-sync and before-the-end and end-of-film
warnings.
Lens Mount: Aaton positive lock ring mount, Arri PL
or ~anavision Primo mounts. Aaton mount also accepts
Arn Bayonet or any reflex-type lens w ith Aaton adapter.
Standard to Super 16 format conversion in fi ve minutes.
Drive: Brushless crystal sync 12V motor for 23.98, 24,
25, 29.97 & 30 fps. Variable control form 3 to 60 fps crystal
controlled to 111000 fps. Built-in TV bar elin1inator. (24, 25, 30
fps plus 6 to 54fps in12 steps, 110 built-in TV bnr elimi11ntor on
XTRplus.) Electronic base and motor may be removed and
replaced in two minutes. Slim battery (12V 1.8 Ah) fits directly onto the camera body.
Magazines: 122m (400ft) coaxiaL Feed chamber loaded
in dark and loop threaded in daylight. Fourteen to fifteenperforatio~ IO?P length. Twistless fi lm threading and hairfree gat: eltmm~tes pressure marks and emulsion pile-up.
Magnencally dnven takeup with electronic and mechanical.cow1ters. Memo-mag indexes for magazine ID recogmbon.
87
Features: Back-lighted d it,>itaJ conhol display: footage,

speed, voltage, ISO, time code, magazine elapsed time (no
back-ligllt 110r elapsed tilne 011 XTRplus display). Memo-mag
allows magnetic recognition by the camera body of 7 different magazines (3 011 XTRplus). Counter in camera provides LCD display of remairting footage - for short-ends
load or multi-emulsion shoot. Keycode compatible and
frame-accurate time code marking in SMPTE matrixes and
human readable numbers. 1ppm TCXO internal clock for
8-hour autonomy. Bottom of camera-to-lens optical axis
distance is 105mm to make the XTRplus compatible with
35mm camera accessories (109.2111111 on XTRplus).
Accessories: Lightweight wide-format swing-away
matte box: two 4 x 5.6 and one 138mm rotating stages. Also
accommodates Panavision mattes. Lightweight and without play follow-focus system. Totally incorporated black &
white or color ceo video assist: the combine~tion of concave viewing screen and exclusive relay lens with manual
iris conhol delivers the clearest and sharpest imagesrequires no set-up time. Lm Model: s uperseded by XTRs,
LTRs e~re differentiated by the magazine mechanical drive,
no LCD counter and no CCD video-assist compatibility.
Arriflex 16SR-2
Description: The Arriflex 16SR-2 is a silent 16mm production camera, featur ing a narrow, symmetrical body
design and a unique, patented swing-over viewfinder. The
16SR-2's unique design allows the user to operate from either side of the camera. The 16SR-2 featwes a pin-registered
film transport and fixed-gap channel, a fiberoptic viewing
screen, patented orientable swiJ1gover viewfinder, APEC
TTL metering system, auto shutter stop, and preset iris
activator. It is widely used internationally for feature films,
television production, TV commercials, music videos, nature and wildlife films, documentaries, and for industrial
and scientific film production.
Versions:
1. 16SR-2E: Standard 16SR without APEC, preset lens
activator or automatic exposure control. These fea tures may
be retrofitted.
2. 16SR-2: Standard 16SR, w ith APEC (Arri Precision
Exposure Control).
3. 16SR-2 Automatic: Snme nS Stnndard 16SR with
APEC, but also includes servo-nctivatcd, fully automatic
88
(FILM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE INl
exposure control. Exposure is adjusted automatically at any

speed from 5 to 75 fps.
4/5. 16HSR-2 Highspeed Automatic, and 16HSR-~
Highspeed (w1o APEC): Operate up to 150 fps and reqw~e
gray finish 16SR Highspeed magazin~. On the Automatic
version, exposure is adjusted autom~~cally fr~~ 10 to 150
fps with lenses equipped with auto-ms capnbility.
6/7. Super 16 16SR-2 and Super 16 16HSR-2
Highspeed Standard and Highspe~d 16SR carl_l~ras:. All
Arri accessories may be used without mod1flcahon.
Highspeed camera requires grey finish highspeed magazines.
.
. k fil
Movement: Pin-registered, compensatmg 1m
m
transport, with fixed-gap film channel. The 16SR-2 operates
89
from S to 7S fps with external variable speed control. The

16HSR-2 Highs peed (and the 16HSR-1 Highspeed version)
operates from 10 to lSO fps with external variable speed
conbol. The movement does not require threading as the
loop is preset when the magazine is loaded. Switches located in the camera base of early versions lock in crystal
speeds of 24 and 25 fps, SO and 60Hz, and in later SR cameras, 30 fps, 72Hz. Ali16SRs can be modified with a 30 fps
kit.
Swingover Viewfinder: Rotating mirror-shutter system with 180 opening (~s sec at 24 fps), with high aperture/ parallax-free viewing, and lOX magnification at the
eyepiece. The swingover reflex viewfinder is centrally located, and swings within a 190 arc to either side of the
camera for left- and right-side operation. The finder also
rotates 360 parallel to the camera on either side, and
swings out 2S 0 for additional operator comfort. It feahtres
a fiber-optic viewing screen, a red out-of-sync LED, and an
APEC exposure indicotor.
Lens Mount: Steel bayonet lens mount (41 mm diameter), with buil t-in auto-iris facility. Flange focal distance
is S2mm. When used with n auto-iris lens, the iris will
open to fu ll aperture w hen ca mera is turned off and dose
down to preset aperture w hen the camero is activated. All
Arri l6mm or 3Smm format standard and bayonet motmt
lenses covering the 16mm format can be used. Long or
heavy lenses must be used with the bridgeplate support
system.
APEC Through-the-lens Arri Precision Exposure Control system. Provides continuous exposure information
(matd1-needle mode) on a -!-stop indicator displayed in
viewfinder. For film speeds ASA 16-1000. An optional
servo-operated automatic exposure control system (with
manual override) for complete automatic exposure control
with auto-iris lenses is availnble.
Motor Drive: Quartz-controlled 12V DC motor for 24/
25/ 30 fps, SO /60/72 Hz operation. A variable-speed accessory extends the speed range from 5 to 75 fps (on the 16HSR
Highspeed, from 10 to 1SO fps). Multi-camera interlock is
achieved with the FSZ-ll sync control accessory. Power
input through a 4-pin connector. Pin 1 is(-); pin 4 is+12V.
Modular p lug-in electronics boards contain circuitry controlling aU electronic functions, including a bttilt-in startmarking system, out-of-sync light, Pilotone output and pre-
90
wiring for SMPTE 80-bit time code. Operating temperature

range is -4 F to+122 F (-20 C to +S0 C).
Magazines: 400' coaxial; no1maUy accepts 100' and 200'
daylight loads; 400' daylight reels may be used if 1/8" is
milled off the reel's edge. Loop is formed during loading
for quick magazine change. Grey finish Highspeed magazines must be used on 16HSR, 16HSR-2 Highspeed and
16SR Super 16 Highspeed cameras.
Super 16: Both 16SR-2 and 16HSR-2 Highspeed cameras arc available in Super 16. The wider Super 16 format
(7.Smm x 12.3mm) required repositioning the optical axis
1mm to the left. The lens mount, fiber screen, viewfinder,
tripod mounting hole and accessory shoe were moved a~
cordingly. The shutter opening of the Super 16 camera IS
172.8. The APEC exposure system is standard on both
cameras, but auto-iris exposure control is not available. The
following bayonet-mounted lenses will work. in the Super
16 format: Zeiss 16 format Superspeed pnmes 12mm,
16mm, Md 25mm T-1.3; Zeiss 3S formatSuperspeed primes
18mm, 2Smm,35mm, SOmm, and 8Smm T-1.3 and 13Smm
T-2.l; Zeiss 3Smm Standard primes 10mm, 16mm, 20mm,
24rnm, 28mm, 32mm, 40mm, 50mm, 8Smm, 100mm, and
13Smm T-2.1; and 60mm, 180mm, and 300mm T-3.0.
Angenieux 16-44mm T-1.3 and 15-150mm T-2.3; RTH
Cooke 10.2-54mm T-2.8. A1135mm format zoom lenses will
cover Super 16.
Matte Boxes: See Arriflex S35 Matte Box section for
detai ls. Accessories: 2-spced follow-focus with 1:1 or 1:.06
ratios; bridgeplate support system for CG balance and
mount for matte box, follow focus, servo zoom drive, and
heavy lenses; lightweight support, on-board batteries, left
and right grips for handheld operation of ~e camera; fi~der
extender; Sl\t[p'fE time code generator; High-speed urut for
operation of Standard 16SRs up to 75 fps or 16HSR
Highspeed up to 1SO fps; Arri Geared Head; and director's
viewfinder with PL mount.
Arriflex Super 16
Two versions of the 16SR-2 camera are available in the
Super 16 format: the 16SR-2 (5-75 fps) .and the 16H~R-2
Highspeed (10-lSO fps). Normal operation and hmctions
of both arc virtually thesameas with standard 16SR-2cameras.
The height of the Super 16 aperture .in the 16SR-2 is
identical to that in regular 16SRs, but the aperhtre is 2mm
91
r
wider, pushing into the left perf area on the negative. The
Super 16 aperture is 7.5 X 12.3mm, and the aperture of regular SRs is 7.5 X 10.3 mm. This necessitates the repositioning of the optical middle axis of lens mount, viewfinder,
tripod thread and accessory holder by 1mm to the left.
Single-perf film must be used.
The 16SR-2's spuming mirror shutter has a 172.8 shutter opening. Super 16 SRs have the same exp~sure meter
system as in reguJar 16SRs, but the automahc exposure
control feature cannot be installed.
Because of the wider aperture area covered, some standard 16mm lenses will vignette. The following 41mm Steel
Bayonet Mount lenses can be used for Super 16 production:
16mm Format
Superspeed Prin1es
12mm
16mm
25mm
50mm
Zoom Lenses
11-66mm
11.5-138mm
15-150mm
16-44mm
10.4-52mm
10-30mm
Zeiss PlanarT-21
Zeiss Macro Plana r T-3.0
Zeiss Planar T-2.1
Zeiss Planar T-2.1
Z~iss Planar T-2.1
Zeiss Sonnar T-3.0
Zeiss Tele-Apotessar T-3.0
(with 2X range extender
becomes 600mm T-6.0}
Zoom Lenses: AJl 35mm format zoom lenses w ith

41mm s teel bayonet mo unt will cover Super 16.
Time Code Note: 16SR-2 Super 16 camerasa re time
code compatible.
Zeiss Distagon T-1.3

Zeiss Dis tagon T-1.3
Zeiss Planar T-1.3
Arriflex 16SR-3
Angenieux T-2.6
Angenieux T-2.3
Angerueux T-2.3
Angenieux T-1.3
Cooke Varokinetal T-2.8
Cooke Va rokinetal T-1.5
35mmFormat
Superspeed Primes
18mm
25mm
35mm
50mm
65mm
85mm

Zeiss Dis tagon T-1.3
Zeiss Planar T-1.3
Zeiss Planar T -1.3
Zeiss Planar T-1.3
Standard Primes
16mm
20mm
24mm
28nun
32mm
40mm

Zeiss Planar T-2.1
Zeiss Planar T-2.1
92
50mm
60mm
85mm
100mm
135mm
180mm
300mm
Silent 16mm production camera system for both Standard 16 and Super 16 production. ln two versions:
1. 16SR-3 Standard (Standard 16 and Super 16)
2. 16J-JSR-3 Highs peed (Standard 16 and Super 16)
Move ment: Pin-registered compensating Link, with
fixed-gap film channel. 5-75 fps Sta nda rd; 10-150 fps
Highspeed.
Sh utter: Variable (manually) rotating mirror s hutter;
90, 135, 144, 172.8, 180 s hutte r openings. Shutter opening indicated on LCD dis play during electronic inching
mode.
93
Reflex Viewfinder: Swingover Viewfinder swings in

a 190 arc for full left- or right-side operation, with fully
upright image in any position. With CCD video assist and
flicker-reduction electronics attached, viewfinder swings in
a 120 arc. Finder is equipped with ArriGlow - steplessly
adjustable illuminated fre1me lines for both Standard 16 and
Super 16. The finder also has warning indications for asynchronous camera speed, film-end and low battery. NOTE:
the 16SR-3 Super 16 aperture can be masked for the Standard 16mm frame. No additional aperture is needed.
Lens Mount: Standard 54mm Arri PL mount wiiJ take
any 35mm format PL mount lens. Adapters available for
41mm bayonet and standard mOtmt lenses.
Drive: Built-in crystal-controlled 24V DC motor. Onboard progranm1able speeds of 24, 25, 29.97 and 30 fps, and
variable crystal speeds from 5-75 fps in the Standard camera, or 10-150 fps in the Highspeed 16SR-3, variable in 0.001
increments at crystal accuracy. Speeds are continuously
variable when the Remote Unit (RU-1) is used. Speeds can
be programmed from the 16SR-3'son-board LCD, with the
Remote Unit (RU-1) or with the Camera Contro l Unit
(CCU), Arri's standard off-camera programming unit.
Magazines: 400-foot coaxial. Standard 80-bit SMPTE
time code module built in. Existing 16SR-2 magazines can
be used . 16SR-3 magazines without time code arc available.
Time Code: Integral SO-bit SMPTE time code. Recording module built into 16SR-3 magazines. Fully complies
with SMPTE RP 114 standard.
Video Assist: Takes Arri W' black & white or color
CCD video assist, and Arri AFP-2 flicker reduction electronics for bright, Aicker reduced inlages. Adjustable for
St<mdard 16 and Super 16, with the full image of either format on the monitor. Changing beam splitter ratio for color
orB & W is easy, and requires no adjustment.
LCD Display:
a. set/display frame rates
b. set/display film counter
c. display mirror shutter opening (during electronic
ind1ing mode)
d . set/display time code and user bits
e. display TC sensitivity readout
f. battery voltage and low-battery warning
g. film-end and asynchronous camera speed
The CCU can be used to control or set most of the
above functions.
94
System Compatibility: A wide variety of Arriflex

35mrn accessories can be used with the 16SR-3, sud1 as:
ESU-1, External Synchronizing Unit; RU-1, Remote Unit;
RS-3, Remote Switch; HE-3, Heated Eye Cup; the standard
camera handgrip; CCU-1, Camera Control Unit; and the
AFP-2 Anti-Flicker Processor.
Lenses: With its54mrn PL lens mount, the 16SR-3 utilizes the full range of 35mm format and 16mm format Zeiss
Superspeed, Zeiss Standard, Arri Anamorphic and Arri
Macro lenses, and RHT Cooke and Angenieux zoom lenses.
Matte Boxes: The 16SR-3 uses the Arri 19mm rod
Camera Support System. The Support System includes a
fuJI range of matte boxes (6.6x6.6, SxS, and a variety of 4x4),
bridgeplates, 2-speed follow-focus, and lens supports.
15mm rod adapters are available on request. The 4x4 Production Matte Box is ideal for the 16SR-3. Its swingaway
design covers lenses 16mm and up, has interchangeable
h.vo- and four-frame geared filter stages, is fully rotatable,
and accepts most Support System accessories.
Geared Heads: The 16SR-3 works with both the Arri
Geared Head, and the Arri Geared Head 2.
Arriflex 16BL
r.
Movement: Registration pin operates through a variable speed range of 5 to 50 fps, forward or reverse, when
used with appropriate motor and speed controls.
Reflex Viewfinder: Rotating mirror-shutter system
with fixed 180 opening (\4s sec at 25 fps), high-aperture/
parallax-free viewing, lOX magnification at the eyepiece.
An offset finder accessory is available for handheld camera applications for additional operator comfort.
Lens Mount: Steel Arri Bayonet mount (lens housings
are required to maintain minimal camera operating sound
levels). All ArriAex Standard or Bayonet mount lenses that
cover the 16mm format can be used with lens housings.
95
'
,- -,1I ,/,- '
"'----i~
'. '~
~
/
-~
I
..,
'
_ J , _ _ __
'---'---===-==-::====::j)
16mm ARRIFLEX 16Bl
DOUBLE-SYSTEM
(FILM TAKES UP EMULSION SlOE IN)
Universal motor from 10 fps to 40 fps. Magazines: 200', 400'

(forward and reverse), and 1200' (forward only) magazines.
Lenses: Fixed focal length Standard and Zeiss
Superspeed lenses. Zeiss, Angenieux and Cooke zoom
lenses.
Matte Box: Bellows type; available for al116BL lens
housings.
Accessories: Universal Lens Housing for use with
fixed focal length lenses when minimal camera operating
sound level is required (accepts 3x3 or a 94mm diameter
filter); interchangable TV ground-glass; fiber-optic screen
available; offset finder; finder extender; zoom drive; 12V
DC quartz motor for 6, 12, 24 and 48 fps; Variable Speed
Control for 10 to 40 fps operation with universal motor;
plug-in Single-System Sound Module; and Single-System
Record Amplifier.
Arriflex 165/B; 165/B-GS; 16M/B
16mm ARRIFLEX MODEL 16BL

SINGLE-SYSTEM SOUND
Standard zoom and telephoto lenses should be used with

the Bridgeplate Support System.
APEC: Exposure control system, meters behind the
lens and displays continuous exposure information (matchneedle mode) in the viewfinder.
Motor Drive: Two motor-drive systems are available.
The quartz-con~olled motor provides cordless sync-control and automahcaJly stops the shutter in viewing position.
rts spee? range is 6, 12, 24 (quartz-controlled) and 48 Ips.
The Umversa~ motor is transistorized and governor controlled. A Vanable Speed Control accessory will drive the
96
Arriilex 16S/B: Features pin-registered film transport

system operating to 75 Ips, 100-foot internal daylight film
spool loading, with top-loading 400-foot magazine, reflex
viewfinder system, divergent three lens-mow1t turret, and
motor interchangeability.
Ani flex 16 S/B-GS: Pilotone sync-generator and startmarking system built-in.
Arriflex 16MIB: The 16M camera is configured differently and has no internal daylight spool film load capacity. 200-, 400- and 1200-ft. 16M magazines are available for
this camera. It accepts all of the accessories in the 16S system except the magazines and power-cables.
Movement: Registration pin, operates through a variable speed range of75 fps (with appropriate tachometer),
forward or reverse. The 16S, 16M and 16BL movements are
identical.
Reflex Viewfinder: Rotating mirror-shutter system
with 180 opening (Y<Ill sec at 24 fps), high-aperture/paral97
16mm ARRIFLEX S/8 SERIES

/
_,
//
-~ ,'---"----
....._ _ ___...
- - - --
11
---~' L-.
,,f-.; .
_____ j
16mm ARRIFLEX 16M

(FILM TAKES UP EMULSION SIDE INI
lax-free viewing, lOX image magnification at the eyepiece.

An interchangeable grormd glass or fiber-optic screen, and
an optional APEC exposure control indicator, are located
within the viewfinder system.
98
Lens Mount: The 16S and M cameras have divergent

three lens-mormt turrets with two standard and one steel
bayonet-lock mow1ts. Any Arriflex standard or bayonetmormt lens that covers the full16mrn format may be used.
Zoom and telephoto lenses require use of the Bridgeplate
Support System.
APEC: Exposure control system, meters behind the
lens and displays continuous exposure information (matd1needle mode in the viewfinder, 16S only).
Motor Drives: Quartz-regulated, governor-controlled,
synchronous, and variable-speed motors are available for
16S and M cameras. Motor specifications are listed in the
accessory column.
165 Magazines: 200- and 400-ft. torque motor-driven
magazines are available for 16S cameras. The torque motor drive is essential with 16S magazines, and is interchangeable with all16S magazines of the same film capacity.
16M Film Magazines: 200-, 400- and 1200-foot magazines are available for the 16M cameras. These magazines
are gear-driven and do not require torque motor drives. The
1200-foot magazine operates in forward direction only.
Lenses : Fixed focal length Standard and Zeiss
Superspeed lenses. Zeiss, Angenieux, and Taylor Hobson
Cooke zoom lenses in Arri Standard or Bayonet mormt.
Matte Box: (16S/ M) with adjustable bellows, one rotating and one stationary filter stage. Accepts 3x3, 3x4, and
4 x 4 glass filters. A 94mrn ratmd Polarizing screen can also
be used. Lightweight srmshade and filter holder (rubber)
for 16S or 16M, accepts 3 x 3 filters.
Accessories: Fiber-optic screen; periscope viewfinder;
finder extender; 12V DC quartz-motor for 24 / 25 fps 50/
60Hz, variable speeds 5 to 75 fps, and single-frame forward
and reverse capability and pilotone output; SV and 12V DC
governor motor for 24 fps forward operation only; SV or
12V DC variable motor for 5 to 40 fps forward or reverse
operation; llOV AC/ 60Hz syncluonous motor and in-line
power supply for 12V, 24 fps operation; bridgeplate support system; adapter for microscope stand and rnicroscope
optical link.
Bolex 16mm (All Models)

Movement: Single-claw pull-down. Trailing claw system assuring maximum picture steadiness without need for
registration pin. Aperture plate made from hard chromed
99
steel. Gate has automatic threading device that loops the

film and inserts it into gate and around sprockets. Rear
pressure plate can be removed for cleaning gate. Automatic
loop former prevents loss of loop.
Shutter: Bolex spring-driven cameras (H-16 Rex 5 and

H-16 SBM) have 135 variable shutter which can be opened
or closed while camera is running. It can be locked at %,
Y2 and can be opened and closed automatically with
Rexofader accessory. Shutter speeds 12-64 fps, single-frame.
Bolex electrically driven cameras (H-16 EBM and H-16 EL)
have fixed 170 shutter. Shutter speeds electronically controlled 10-50 fps.
Focusing: All cameras have flickerless focusing and
parallax-free viewing through prism reflex finder. Image
is magnified 14X in eye-level finder and may be continuously viewed in filming or stopped position.
Lenses: H-16-Rex 5 has 3-lens turret for C-mount
lenses, other models have large Bolex bayonet mount suitable for heavy zoom and telephoto lenses. Adapter for Cmount lenses and accessories available. Full line of Switar,
Varia Switar and Angenieux zoom and standard lenses,
matte box, extension tubes, Asp heron wide-angle adapters
etc, available.
Drive: Spring-driven cameras will expose 16 W of film
on one winding. Variable-speed motor and electronically
stabilized motor suitable for sync pulse and crystal sync
100
available for spring-driven cameras. H-16 EBM and H-16

EL have 10-50 fps electronically regulated motors built m.
H-16 EL has single-frame and electric rewind, instant start
and stop. All models accept 400' magazine with take-up
motor.
Magazines: All cameras accept 100' Daylight Loading
Spools, which can be ejected with built-in lever device. 400'
magazine with self-contained take-up motor available.
Features: Footage and frame counters add and subtract. Spring motor may be disengaged. Full100' film rewind. Audible scene-length signal clicks every 28 frames.
Single-frame exposure button for instantaneous or time
exposures. All cameras have filter slot. behind the lens .
H-16 EL has built-in through-the-lens s1hcon light meter
with shock-proof LED indicators in the VF..
.
Accessories: Automatic Rexofader fadmg dev1ce for
H-16 REX and SBM available for 40-frame fades. Camera
grip, barney blimp, extension tubes for macrocinematography. Underwater housing forELand EBM, matte box,
cable releases, tripods, monopod, shoulder brace . .
Note: Many other accessories, such as anunahon motors, microscope attachments and time-lapse units, are
available from other firms.
Bell & Howell 16mm Filmo 70

Compact, spring-wound 100' daylight loading 16mm
camera. Accessory 400' magazine and electrical motor for
models 70HR and 70SR.
Movement: Cam-operated single claw. Spring-loaded
edge guide and pressure plate. Relieved aperture plate.
Shutter: 204 (models before SN 154, 601: 216)
Viewfinder: Outside finder tube, 3-lens turret, parallax correcting eyepiece.
Focusing: Magnified central image on ground glass
when objective lens turret is rotated 180. Safety latch prevents camera running when in focusing mode.
Lens Mount: Three-lens turret, geared to finder lens
turret. C mount.
Drive: Spring-driven, governor-controlled drive exposes 22' per wind at 8 fps-64 fps (model 70SR at 128 fps
only). Models 70SR and 70HR have optional battery or AC
motors.
Magazines: Model 70SR and HR use optional 400'
compartment-type magazines (electric motor should be
used for magazine operation).
101
Features and Accessories: Hand backwind for dissolves. Standard dial footage indicator, optional digital
Veeder. Single-frame drive. Replacement shutter for less
than 204. Filter slot modification. External large image
viewfinder.
Minicam 16mm (GSAP)

Movement: Intermittent, single pull-down claw, cam
actuated.
Shutter: 133 fixed.
Focusing: Boresight alignment tool available as optional accessory.
Lens Mount: Supplied to accept lenses in "C" mount
or Arriflex Mount configuration.
Motor: _Integral, 24V DC. Adjusted for 24_or 48 fps.
Magazme: Uses pre-loaded Eastman Kodak magazines, 16mm x 50', in all popular emulsions.
Other Features: Light weight (less than 2% lbs). Ideal
:'point-of~view" c~mera. ~idely used for skiing, auto racmg, sky divmg or mstallations hazardous to camera equipment.
Accessories: "C" mount front plate; Arriflex Mount
front plate; Battery, Ni-Cad, rechargeable; adjustable camera tool; boresight alignment tool; power plug; power cable;
carrymg case; underwater housing; battery charger.
Cinema Products CP-16 & CP-16A

16mm news I documentary I single I double system
sound cameras.
Movement: Sinusoidal, intermittent movement. Selfengaging single-claw film pull-down with precision lapped
surfaces for qui~t, long-life reliability. Film accurately
gwded over a senes of stainless steel balls to guarantee infocus, scratch-free pictures (with no emulsion pickup).
Stainless steel pressure plate, ground lapped with recessed
center area, easily removable for cleaning.
Shutter: 173; (optional144).
. Viewfi~der: The CP-16 was designed for specific use
with Angerueux zoom lenses with built-in reflex viewfinders. Viewfinders are available in various lengths for shoulder or tripod operation, and provide ground spot focusing
m the center o~ the clear viewing areq. TV reticle markings
define sa~e_achon area. Horizontal, 22V2 & 45 angle eyepiece position.
102
Lens Mount: Type "C".

Drive: Plug-in 20V battery drives crystal sync built-in
motor. 24 fps 15 ppm over 0-140 F; interchangeable
pulley for 25.
Magazines: 400' snap latch. Adapter for Mitchell400'
and 1200' magazines.
Sound Recording System: CP-16 and CP-16/ A cameras operate with 3XL-type record/playback head assemblies. The CP-16 / A features the Crystasound built-in amplifier system, a self-contained recording system complete
with two low-impedance dynamic microphone inputs, one
600-ohm line input, VU meter, headphone monitoring,
switchable AGC and auxiliary mixer input. A provision for
wireless receiving is also available. An auxiliary mixer,
model 6C, provides 6 channels of microphone input. The
auxiliary mixer is complete with VU meter, switchable
AGC, and headphone monitoring. The mixer, built-in amplifier and wireless units are all powered from the camera's
Ni-Cad battery (model NC-4).
103
Features: Weighs 15.8 lbs. wi th 400' film and 12120mm zoom. 16.81bs. wi th sound amplifier. Out-of-sync
warning light and battery indicator. Filter slot.
Accessories: An AC power supply, single and multiple chargers, sound preamplifier, microphones, fron tmounted VU meter, mike / lite bracket, lighting ki ts, fluid
head tripods, quick-release shoulder and tripod mount,
plus a line of Angenieux zoom lenses and a wide range of
carrying cases.
Cinema Products CP-16R & CP-16RIA

Reflex 16mm news / documentary I s tudio sin gle/

double system sound cameras.
Movement: Sinusoidal, intermittent movement, selfen gaging single-claw film pull-down. Film accura tely
guided over a series of stainless-steel balls to guarantee infocus, scratch-free pictures (with no emulsion pickup).
Stainless-steel pressure plate, ground lapped with recessed
center area, easily removable for cleaning.
Shutter: Focal plane 170 (optional144).
Reflex Viewfinder: Rotating mirror integral with focal plane shutter. Stops in viewing position. Fiberoptics
screen marked w ith TV safe action, projection, and 35mm
blow-up lines. Adjustable focusing eyepiece 12X magnification, 90 click stop rotation; optional360 rotatable right
or left eyepiece. Erect image.
Lens Mount: Thread-locking bayonet. Adapters for
Arri or Nikon mow1ts.
Drive: 20V plug-in battery drives built-in crystal-controlled motor 24 or 25 fps sync speed 15 ppm over 0-140
F. Standard speeds 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32 and 36 fps. Pulley
change 24 to 25 makes range 12.5, 16.5, 21, 25, 29, 33.5 and
37.5 fps.
Magazines: 400' snap latch. Adapter for Mitchell400'

and 1200' magazines.
Sound Recording System: The CP-16R and CP-16R/
A cameras have been designed to accept Crystasound 3XLtype magnetic record / playback heads. The CP-16R/ A features the Crystasound built-in amplifier system, a self-contained recording system complete with two low-impedance
dynamic microphone inputs, one 600-ohm line input, VU
meter, headphone monitoring, switchable AGC and auxiliary mixer input. A provision for wireless receiving is also
available. An auxiliary mixer, model6C, provides 6 channels of microphone input. The auxiliary mixer is complete
with VU meter, switchable AGC, and headphone monitoring. The mixer, built-in amplifier and wireless units are all
powered from the camera's Ni-Cad battery (model NC-4).
Features: Filter slot. Battery test. Viewfinder indicator
LED for battery, out-of-sync, film runout, sound VU.
Weight with 10-150mm zoom, 400' film, battery: 17.4lbs.
Accessories: Finder 7" extension. Cinevid-16 video
assist, bayonet m ounted. Automatic or semi-automatic
exposure system with viewfinder display. Zoom control
system. Power supply I charger. Shoulder and tripod
mounts.
Cinema Products GSMO 16mm

Movement: A high-precision, single-claw, sinusoidal
registration movement with a curved film gate for minimum pull-down time. The interchangeable film gate as-
105
sembly with its floating pressure pla te and hard chromeedge film gu ides is located in the cassette-type coaxial
magazine.
cur-our
400' capacities. 400' magazine features " film remainin g"

man ual indicator.
Features: Illuminated digital film counter (fee t or
meters) with memory. Full-frame a uto slating. External
battery test. LED out-of-sync an d low-battery indicator in
viewfinder. Weight with 400' load and 17.5-70mm zoom
lens: 12.44 lbs.
Accessories: Exposure control system with display in
viewfinder. Remote speed control with continuously variable speed from 12-64 fps. Zoom control system. AC power
supply, battery charger. Quick-release shoulder and tripod
mounts. Video assist.
Eclair ACL 16mm
LIGHT TRAP
!FILM TAKES UP EMULSION SlOE INI
Shutter: Rotating mirror 180 stops in viewing position. (144 shutter for TV filming applications optional.)
Reflex Viewfinder: Fiberoptic viewing screen marked
with TV safe action, 16mm projection, and 35mrn blow-up
lines. Two viewfinder options; both have 12X magnification, high-efficiency optics, focusing eyepieces. Dual-purpose viewfinder provides 32 adjustable viewing positions;
may be ex tend ed 7" for tripod opera tion. Optional
viewfinder pivots for left or righ t eye and provides 360
rotation. Erect image. Optional 7" extender.
Lens Mount: Single-tluead locking bayonet with locating pin. Optional adapters for Arri and N ikon mow1ted
lenses.
Drive: 20V plug-in battery drives crystal-controlled
motor; speeds of 12, 16, 24, 25, 32, 48 and 64 fps or alternate speeds of 12, 20, 24, 25, 30, 48 and 64 fps. Accuracy+
30 ppm over 0-140 F.
Magazines: Quick-change, rugged, cassette-type coaxial magazine contains interchangeable film-gate assembly. Automatic loop forming device. (Preloaded magazines
can be d1anged instantly wi thout touching film.) 100' and
106
Movement: The claw movemen t is a wedge-shaped

claw controlled by an eccentric and a fixed cam and rendered positive by the use of a counte r ca m. The steadiness
of the image is excellent, with a tolerance of less than onethousandth of frame height. Lateral steadiness is assured
in the gate by a fixed side ba1 and a spring-load ed guide.
Image sharpness is ensured by a spring-loaded pressure
plate which forms part of the fron t of the ACL magazine
an d which maintains the fil m perfectly against the aperture
during the exposure.
Shutter: Focal plane 175.
Reflex Viewfinder: Oscillating mirror, low-loss op tical system, fine-grain groLmd glass. Image magnification
12X. Focusing eyepiece will rotate through 360 p arallel to
the camera.
Len s Mount: Universal Type C. Ou tside thread for
various adilpters.
Drive: 12V DC crystal-controlled motor a t 24 or 25 fps
directly on shutter shaft. Variable-speed cap ability 12 to40
fps. Optional 115V sync motor.
Magaz ines: Snap-on 200' coaxia l. Preth readed for
quick change; as soon as core load film or daylight spools
are inserted in feed side of magazine and film is passed
107
..
through light trap to takeup side, the remainder of loading operation may be carried on in dayligh t. Film remainder dial.
Features: Automatic start mark. Pilotone output 50 or
60Hz. Weight: 7.7 lbs.
Eclair CM-3 16/35mm

Movement: Pull-down claws are mounted on sliding
cam-driven p late. Movement has two sets of ratchet-type
pull-down claws; one on each side for 35mrn and a centered
claw for 16mm. Ease of adjusting claw stroke permits
adapting camera to either normal om-perforation pulldown or two-perforation pull-down for Techniscope, or
single-perforation pull-down for 16mm operation. Claw
movement stroke may be changed by sliding cam, which
is reached through opening in apertme plate. No disassembly or special tools required. Registration and steadiness
achieved by double rear pressme plate and very long side
rails. Top plate keeps film flat in focal plane, bottom plate
holds film at edges only, to keep it properly aligned for pulldown claws. Apertme plate is made of one piece of steel,
hand-polished and undercut to preven t scratching. Apertme plate is part of camera body proper, pressm e plates are
built into magazine. Raised area in center of apertme portion of pressme p late eliminates breathing.
Shutter: 200 variable front-surfaced mirror reflex
shutter rotates at 45 angle between lens and film p lan e.
Center of shutter is below apertme, thus describing a horizontal wiping motion across film. Shutter may be varied
to 35 by turning knob on left side of camera body.
Reflex Viewfinder: Through-the-lens focusing and
viewing. Lens may be follow-focused while viewing. Extra fine-grained grow1d glass p resents brilliant image even
und er low-light levels or when lens is stopped-down. 360
rotatable eyepiece for right or left eye. Adjustable ma ttes
for va rious aspect ratios.
Lenses: Three-lens divergent cam-lock turret w ith
C~merette CA-l lens mounts. CA-l lens mow1t is large
d1ameter brass bayonet-typ e. Divergen t turret permits
mounting 5.7mm focal length and longest telephoto lenses
without optical or physical interference.
Drive: Motors are mounted on side of camera and may
be changed in a few seconds. Basic motor is 6-8V DC rheostat-controlled variable speed type (also available for 24V
power). Other motors: 6, 12 and 24V DC transistor-conlOS
trolled regulated motors with va riable-speed or constan tspeed operation with 50 or 60Hz sync pulse outputs. llSV
60Hz and 220V three-phase, 60Hz AC motors for synchronous sow1d shooting. Hand-drive also available for 1, 8 or
16 pictmes per turn.
M~gaz ines: 200', 400' and 1000' displacemen t-type
magazm:s a ll~w rapid cha ngi ng. Magazines are p reloaded w ith a fixed loop (which may be set from outside
a~ any time)..Auton:atic footage counter. Removal of maga~me allows mspection and cleaning of aperture p late and
film channel. For Techniscope opera tion, T-Type magazine
operat.es at either 45' per minute or 90' per minute by merely
changmg gears.
Features: Built-in tach ometer. Sliding mattes for fil m
apertme and viewfinder for 16mm. Techniscope or other
Wide-~c reen rati~s. Dovetail adapter for insta nt tripod
dampmg h as twm matte-box rods for mounting m etal
matte box. Two filter stages, one rotatable and removable,
for use with extra-wide-angle le nses. Additional mattes
may be positioned in front of matte box to protect the lens
from being struck by back-light.
. Accessories: Lightweight magnesium tripod. Entire
tnpod bowl and movements can be li fted from legs and
damped to table edges, doors, ladders, etc. Sound blimp.
One door allows sliding camera out on ra ils for instant
magaz.ine change, and automatically connects follow-focus,
lens di~phragm and ext~rna l eyepiece. Ca mera may be
used with all anamorphic and zoom lenses, in or out of
blimp. Full instrumenta tion ca pabilities avai lable with
single-frame pulse and intervalometer operation. Aqua flex
underwa ter ho using for both 35mm Techniscope a nd
16mm.
Eclair NPR 16mm
Blimpless, silenced cam era.
109
rr
Movemen t: Film is advanced by desmodrimic cam
movement. Quiet movement is achieved by wedge-shaped
claw wh ich slides into perforation with a wedging motion.
Film is pulled down and registered upon bench-type regishation pin which begins moving into position before film
has stopped. Extra-long rear pressure plates and side guide
rails steady film. Raised areas in center of aperture portion
of pressure plate eliminate possibility of breathing or focal
shift.
Shutter: 180 high reflectance front-surfaced mirror
reflex shu tter, centered on motor shaft below aperture, rotates at 45 angl.e between lens and film plane. Shutter rotation delivers horizontal exposure action a nd lessens
"skipping" problems on fast-moving subject matter or fast
horizontal camera movement.
Focusing: Parallax-free through-the-lens focusing and
viewing. Image magnified 12X. Critical foc using possible
even at low light levels, or with stop-down lens, because
of extremely fine-grain ground glass and high-gain mirror
and low-loss optical system.
Lenses: Standard two-position turret has one Camerette CA-l lens mount and one "C" mount. Turrets available with two CA-l mounts, or with two "C" mounts. Any
lens from 5.7mm focal length may be used without affecting sound level of camera. CA-l is a bayonet mow1t without springs or other loose-fitting adjustments. Lenses by
Angenieux, Kinoptik, Taylor Hobson Cooke and som e
Berthiot optics can be supplied in CA-l mount.
Motor Drive: Standard motor is 12V DC transistorcontrolled regulated 24 fps type. Motor generates 60-cycle
sync pulse when operating exactly at 24 fps and maintains
speed accuracy within Ylo of 1% (indicated by running
light). Motor has high torque and operates at 1440 rpm to
turn shutter shaft directly, so that no noise is caused by
gearing down. Also available: variable speed (wi.ld) 12V DC
motor (0-40 fps); synchr onous (sound) 110V AC, 220V AC
single or three-phase motors for operation from mains or
from crystal-controlled power packs for cord less synchronous operation. All sync motors are available for 25 fps 50
cycle (European TV) operation. Motors are interchangeable
without tools.
Magazines: 400' instant changing coaxial magazine
has prethreaded loop and may be snapped on and off instantly. Entire film aperture and film channel may be inspected and cleaned when magazine is removed. No torque
110
motors required for takeup. Each magazine takes eith er

core loads or daylight spools of 100', 200' or 400' capacity.
Separate footage cow1ters provided for core and daylight
spool loads. As soon as core load film is engaged in sprocket
wheel of magazine feed chamber, remainder of threading
opera tion may be carried on in day light. Magazine h as
noisemaking clutches and loop guards to disengage drive
and warn of malfunction.
Viewfinder: Double 360 swiveling viewfinder; shows
more area than film aperture. Inside ilmer rectangle ou tlines full aperture. Inaccuracies in alignment of viewfii1der
do not affect accuracy of ground glass positionii1g. Eyepiece adjusts for either left- or right-eye operation and has
full diop ter compensa tion with automatic opening and
closing light-trap.
Features: Bui lt-in au tomatic clapper for start-marks
with bloop mod ification for use with Nagra W' magnetic
tape recorder and other oscillator markers. Camera may be
used with any tape recorder with sync pulse recording facility. Matte box with adjustable bellows and two-stage filter holder with rod and long lens supports. Noise Level:
29.5 dB at 3'.
Mitchell16mm Professional, HS & HSC
Movement: Dual pilot pins. Dual claw pull-down assures optimum registration. Removable aperture plate has
built-in filter slot. Pressure plate removable. Timing ma rks
on sh utter and movement permit easy removal of entire
mechanism for cleanil1g, eliminating danger of improper
insertion. Speed range: Professional Model single-frame to
128 fps; HS & HSC single-frame to 400 fps. All models will
run 1200' roll of film a t maximum frame rates.
Shutter: Professional Model: 0 to 235. HS and HSC:
0 to 140. Both adj ustable while rwming (not recommended above 150 fps on HS and HSC models).
111
Focusing: Professional and HS Models: variable magnification, erect image focusing telescope built into camera
door. Through-the-lens ground glass critical focus and
view ing when camera is racked over. Built-in con trast
viewing filters for color and monochrome film . Interchangeable ground glasses with different aspect ratios
available. HSC model: uses lOX prismatic boresight looking through apertu re plate opening in register plate.
Lenses: Professional and HS Model: Four-lens turret,
positive index type. Flange depth 0.900", Mitchell-designed
heavy-duty precision rotary-type lens mounts with builtin follow-focus gear ring. "C" type Mitch ell adapter available, permits use of " C" mounted lenses on 16 Mitchell
turret. HSC: has sin gle-hole lens board on camera body.
Uses lenses in Mitche ll moun ts. Mitchell "C" mount
adapter for lenses in standard " C" mounts available.
Motors: Professional, HS and HSC Models: up to 128
fps. Variable (wild) motors: 12V DC, 110V AC or DC. Highspeed motors: 110V AC or DC (48 to 128 fps), 24V DC (16
to 64 fps). Synchronous (sound) motors: 110V, 60-cycle. 1phase AC; 220V, 60-cycle, 3-phase AC; 220V AC/96V DC
Multi-Duty (synchronous at 220V only). 50-cycle motors
avai lable on request. Animation motor: Stop-motion 110V
AC. HS & HSC: 115V 60-cycle AC (12 fps to 400 fps). Has
solid-state variable speed control.
Magazines: Professional, HS & HSC Models: 400' and
1200' double compartment-type magazines. Magazines
accept 100' or 200' daylight spools or 400' or 1200' lab loads.
Brake recommended on feed side when running high
speed.
Viewfinder: Professional, HS Model: Large, e rect
viewfinder calibrated for different focal length lenses provides sharp, bright image and accurate field fo r ease of
composition. Parallax-free follow-focus attachment available. Special tracking and monocular finders available for
sports and instrumenta tion filming. HSC: l OX prismatic
boresight.
Special Features: Professional and HS Model: Veeder
footage and frame cow1ters. Camera base has incorporated
spirit level. Calibrated tachometer built into back of CaJ11era. Built-in buckle trip operates if film fails to take-up. HS
& HSC: Have end-of-run switch.
Accessories: Complete jin e of accessories available,
including sound blimp (400' or 1200' magazine top), follow112
focus attachment, matte box, sports finders, close-up devices, tripods, pip timers, dual timing light, cases.
Mitchell16mm Reflex, SSR-16 Single

System, DSR-16 Double System Sound
Cameras
Movement: Single claw, single (or d ouble for double

system sound) registration pin. Adjustable stroke. Three
sprockets. Removable aperture p late has built-in filter slot.
Movement removable without losing timing. Speed range
16-64 fps. Alternate non-metallic and steel gears for quietness. Guides and locks interlocked with compartment door.
Shutter: Focal plane 170 separate from mirror.
Reflex Viewfinder: Rotating mirror. Ground glass
tinted outside film aperture area. Interchangeable ground
glasses. Dovetail on can1era for outside finder.
Lens Mount: 3-lens divergent turret. Flange depth
2.047".
Drive: Variety of demountable motors, no tools required.
Magazines: 400' and 1200' double compartment, designed for quietness.
Sound Recording Features: The SSR-16 contains a
sound head for magnetic recording on pre-striped film.
Record and playback head is contained internally in the
camera box behind the movem ent. Extremely high quality
of the recording system and camera allows wow and flutter characteristics of less than 0.3% and 0.4%, respectively.
The mixer-amplifier allows the use of two low-impedance
microphones. System is all solid-state, contains VU meter,
bias adjustment, individual and master monitoring control
for microphones; power supply is self-contained, using
alkaline nickel cadmium batteries with a built-in charger.
It produces 30 volts DC and charger operates on 115 volts
113
AC 50 I 60Hz. Recording heads and mixer-a mp) ifier made

by RCA. The SSR-16 also contains a p ic-sync generator for
recording double-system lip-sync sound. The DSR 16 is for
double system lip-sync sound work. Has same features as
the SSR-16 except RCA recording system is deleted and picsync generator is used . Both models available fo r use on 50
Hz power; Operating noise: 36 dB a t 3'.
Blimp: An extremely versatile blimp is available for
SOLmdstage work. Through-the-lens reflex viewing is extended through the blimp door. (Same as S35R blimp.) Flat
front d oor w ith removable sunshade fo r use with fixed
focal length lenses is easily exch anged fo r extension housing when using zoom lens. Externa l focus and zoom knobs
on both sides, viewing windows for lens scales, foo tage
coLmter and tachome ter dia ls. Five interna l lights at strategic points. Threading knob for motor. Electrical panel has
lighted switch. Buckle trip will tm n out light.
Panavision Panaflex 16mm Camera System

Movement: Pilot pin registration ensmes optimum
image steadiness. En tire movement may be removed for
servicing.
Normal16mm aperture plate is standard , Super 16 is available.
Shutter: Focal-plane shutter with infinitely variable
opening and adjustable in-shot. Maximum opening 200,
minimum 50 with adjustable maximum and minimum
opening stops. A digital display allows adjustments in Y10
ino-ements. Micrometer adjustment allows critical synchroniza tion with computers, TV monitors and HM1 lighting
at unusual frame-rates. Manual and electronic remote-control units avai lable.
is independent of the light shutter system. Interchru1geable
optional
Behind-the-lens Filtering: Provision fo r a behind-thelens filter gel.
Optical Viewfinder System: High magnifica tion optical system. The viewfinder tube is orientable and gives a
constantly upright image tl1rough 360. A short viewfinder
tube is p rovided for hand-holding operation and a normal
length for tripod mOLmted use. Viewfinder tubes may be
swung out to suit left- or right-eye viewing. System incorporates an optical magnifier fo r critical focusing a nd picture comp~sition, a contrast viewing filter and a light-proof
shutter. Wtde-range ocular adjustment with marker bezel
to note individual settings. A built-in "Panaclear" eyepiece
heater ensures mist-free viewing. Adjustable leveler link
arm supplied wi th every Panahead to keep eyepiece posibon constant while tilting the camera up or down. An eyepiece diopter to suit the opera tor's own eyesigh t can be
provided on request.
Ground Glasses: "Panaglow" illuminated reticle syste~,, ~ ith brightness control is stan dard. Grow1d glasses
wtth finer or coarser textme available on request.
Lens Mounting System: Panavision positi ve clamp
lens mount fo r maintaining cri tical flange foca l depth setting. All lenses a re pinned to ens m e proper rotational orientation.
Lenses: Special ly designed and manufa c tu red
Panavision-16lenses to suit the 16mm image format. All
lenses checked and calibra ted by MTF. Panav ision 16mm
lenses are all color-matd1ed and range from a distortion115
free 8mm to 135mm (lists are available). A wide range of

Pan avision-engineered long-focus and zoom lenses by
other manufacturers are also available. All lenses ha ve
widely spaced lens focus calibrations and exceptionally l?w
image veiling glare. Ph ysically lon g lenses are ~upphed
w ith adequate-length iris rods for matte box and filter sup-
pml
Lens Control: A lightweight focus control which can

be used from either side of the camera is standard; an interchan geable "Studio" focus control unit is optional, as are
electronic remote focus and aperture controls. Zoom lenses
are supplied with an electronic zoom control unit as standard.
sunshade, provision for two 4 X 5.650 filters which can be
ind ividually slid up and d own. Special matte boxes incorporating more filter stages, w ith provision for sliding (motorized if required), rotating and tilting- and to take 6.6"
square filters - are optional. Panavision can also s~pply
special sliding d iffusers, diopters and all manner of unage
control filters, etc., to use in their ma tte boxes.
Camera motor: A 24-volt motor is used to run the camera at any speed from 4-36 fps, is crystal-controlled at~
speeds and m ay be adjusted in Y10 fps mcrements. Spe<?al
sync boxes are available to synchronize th~ cam_era w~th
a main power supp ly, with computers, wtth vtdeo s1g116
nals and w ith process projectors in sh utter p hase sync.

Pana flex-16 cameras may be used at sub-zero temperatures
with little special p reparation.
Camera noise: Less than 20 dB wi th film a nd lens,
measured 3' from the image plane.
Magazines: 1200' and 400' film magazines are available. Either can be for minim um camera height and for
good balance when hand-holding.
Hand-holdability: Ha nd les and a shoulder-rest are
provided for han d-holding the camera. ln this config uration th e camera is best used with a 400' magazine fi tted on
the rea r.
Optical Accessories: Front-of-lens optical accessories
include an exceptionally wide range of color control filters,
diffusion filters, fog filters, low-conhast filters, black, white
and colored nets, full-cover and split diopters, low /high
angle inclining prisms.
Batteries: Camera, magazin es, heaters and accessories
all operate off a si ngle 24V Ni-Cad battery. The normal
battery complement is two x cased units with in-built chargers. Belt batteries for hand-holding are optional.
Camera Support Equipment: A sp ecial 16mm version
of the "Panahead"geared head is available fm the Panaflex16. A sliding base wu t enables a camera to be quickly a ttad1ed and d etached and to be slid backwards and fo rwards on the head for op tim um balance. "Panata te" rumover mow1t allows 360 camera rotation about the lens axis
while at the same time permitting nodal pan and til t movements. "Panapod" tripods, with carbon-fiber legs, are available in a ran ge of sizes.
Video Assist Systems: Sta te-of-the-art, CCD video
Environmental Protection Equipment: All Panaflex16 ca meras and magazines have built-in heaters to enable
them to be opera ted in an y ambient tem pera ture. Heated
covers are available to g ive additional p rotection to lenses,
esp ecially zoom lenses, to keep their opera tion smooth in
inten sely cold cond itions. Other covers a re available to
protect the camera, magazines and lenses from heat and
dust and from rain an d water. Spiruu ng-glass rain deflectors are ava ilable fo r use in storm cond itions. An autobase
is available to secure the camera in conditions of vibra tion,
high "g" forces and other stressful and dangerous forces.
A water-box is available to protect the camera in shallow
water cond itions, and a hazard box can be used to p rotect
117
the camera from explosions, collisions and other dangerous situations.

Time Code: The AatonCode system encodes every
frame with a SMPTE time code which is readable by both
computer and human being.
118
Film
Color
Since the Sixth Edition of this manual was published,
several-important advances in color film technology have
been made by all manufacturers marketing in the United
States. A major breakthrough in emulsion technology has
resulted in the development of new films with increased
sensiti vity, greater exposure latitude, improved speed-tograin ratio, better definition and improved storage life. The
cinematographer now has a choice of a variety of negative
and reversal camera films balanced fo r both daylight and
tungsten light sources.
Except for direct projection of the processed camera
film, color negative is the p referred camera film for origin al cinematography in all formats except Sup er 8mm. Instances of films used for "direct projection" are travel lecture photography, instrumentation photography and some
documentary photography (availability of laboratory facilities for processing the film chosen may also be a factor in
film selection). Although the use of n egative film means
more care in handling the original camera film, better color
quality due to the incorporation of color masking in the
negative emulsions is the reward. Color negative film is
available in low, medium and high-speed emulsions balanced for tungsten (3200K) light sources and in low-and
high-speed emulsions balanced for daylight. If tw1gstenbalanced film is used in daylight a Kodak Wratten 85 or Fuji
LBA-12 or equivalent filter should be on the camera and
the exposure index reduced by% of a stop. If daylight balanced film is used in tungsten light, a Kodak Wratten #BOA
should be used, but this practice is not recommended because it requires the exposure index to be reduced by two
stops.
Color reversal camera films, which wh en p rocessed
result in a positive in1age on the original film, are also supplied in emulsion types balanced for tungsten or daylight
ligh t sources. The same conversion filters recommended for
use with color negative can be used with the same adjustment in exposure index. If single-system sound is desired,
check with the film manufacturer. Some of these films can
be supplied w ith magnetic striping.
119
Black & White

A variety of black & white emulsion types are available from the film manufacturers. Many are special-purpose films designed for scientific or instrumentation use.
The cinematographer should be aware of these films and
the possibility of using one or more of them if a desired
effect cannot be achieved with conventional motion-picture
emulsions. For pictorial use, panchromatic emulsions in
several speed ranges are available in 35 and 16mm negative and 16mm reversal films. The reproduction of colored
objects in terms of shades of gray varies with different types
of film.
The cinematographer can control tonal values to get a
technica Uy correct rendition of the subject or to exaggera te
or suppress the tonal differences for brighb1ess, contrast or
other effects by the use of filters. B & W negative films of
low or medium speed are most desirable for sharpness and
fine grain, and have ample sensitivity for general use. Highspeed film is useful for low "available light" situations or
for high-frame-rate photography. Because of the current
low frequency of use of black & white as compared to color,
it is especially important to establish working exposure indexes relative to the processing laboratory. B & W processing is not as standardized as color processing, differences
in chemistry, developing time, and temperature result in
changes of contrast as well as exposure index.
and -stop to be utilized; in general, slower films are sharper

and less grainy than faster films. If economy in illumination or small -stop for depth of field is a factor, use of a
faster (higher EI) film is indicated.
For any special "look" or low-key cinematography,
experim entation or experience is needed. Generally, use of
an EI lower than the manufacturer's recommendation will
produce finer grain, higher color saturation, and a slight
increase in sharpness at the expense of loss of highlight
d etail and flattening of whites; use of a higher EI than recommended will show more grain, lower color saturation,
loss of sharpness and loss of shadow d etail. Relative position on a particular laboratory printer scale is also a factor
to be considered when determining an EI.
Color Reversal Film

Since color reversal films are intended for direct projection, there is less exposure latitude (compared to negative film) for a usable film, both for actual density I exposure range and lack of opportunity to shift d ensities in
transferring to a print.
Selection of an EI should therefore be made based on
the use to which the film will be put. If an EI higher than
the manufacturer 's recommendation is required, forced
development may be u sed with a compromise in image
quality.
ASA: Exposure Indexes
Edge Numbers
While ASA film speed s do not apply directly to motion-picture films, exposure me ters calibrated to ASA,
ANSI, or ISO standa rds specify exposure indexes (EI) related to film speeds (film speeds are calculated mathematically from sensitometric exposures; exposure indexes are
numbers useful to the cinematographer in determining or
specifying exposure in a given instance). All film manufacturers furnish EI numbers related to commercial exposure
meters as a recommendation for a starting point in d etermining optimum exposure.
These numbers, also referred to as footage or key numbers, are sequentially printed by the film manufactu rer
along one edge of the film outside the perforations. The
numbe rs on 35mm film manufactured prior to 1990 are
located every 16 frames (12 inches ap art); on 16mm film
they are every 20 frames (6 inches apart) or every 40 frames
(12 inches apart). The numbers are applied durin g manufacture either by photographic exposure (visible only after
processing) or printed with a visible ink on the base side
of the film. All 16mm and 35mm camera original color film
is latent-image edge-numbered. B & W 16mm and 35mm
camera original film is ink edge-numbered.
Several changes in the forma t for edge numbers
were introduced during the latter part of 1990. In conformance with SMPTE standard SMPTE 254, 35mm film now
Film Selection: Color Negative

For normal high key cinematography select the film
with an ASA number most consistent with the light level
120
121
COMPARISON of FILM SPEEDS

AS AIEl
3
4
5
6
8
10
12
16
20
25
32
40
50
64
80
100
125
160
200
250
320
400
500
650
800
1000
1250
1600
2000
2500
3200
BSI/JSA
3
3
5
6
8
10
12
16
20
25
32
40
50
64
80
100
125
160
200
250
320
400
500
650
800
1000
1250
1600
2000
2500
3200
DIN
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
GOST
2.8
3.6
4.5
5.8
7.2
9
11
14
18
23
29
36
45
58
72
90
112
144
180
225
288
360
450
576
720
900
1125
1440
1800
2250
2880
SCHEINER
16
1]0
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34"
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
For all practical purposes ASA/BSA/JSA/EI are the same.

The DIN system is calculated Log 10. In the past
DIN speeds were written with the speed number followed by
/10. (example: 2/10)
The Scheiner system is obsolete. It was distiguished by o
following the number.
The GOST System was used in the USSR.
122
has both human-readable edge numbers and machinereadable information printed as a latent image on its edge
a t the time of manufacture. In addition to an incrementing
number, a zero-frame reference mark, consisting of a filled
circle approximately 0.025 to 0.030 inches (0.64 to 0.76 mm),
is printed adjacent to the digit of the h uman-readable edge
number that is closest to the tail of the film. The frame immediately above the zero-frame reference mark is the one
referenced by that edge number. The numbers are printed
so that the center line of the zero-frame reference is aligned
with the center-line of a perforation. The spacing from on e
key n umber to the next is 64 perforations. A mid-foot human readable and a mid-foot machine-readable edge number is printed halfway between each key number. The midfoot human-readable edge number consists of a zero-frame
reference mark and the adjacent edge number that is nearer
the head end of the roll plus an offset in perforations that
is always 32 perforations. All characters of the mid-foot
edge number are approximately ~ size. A similar system
currently under study by a S:MPTE standards committee
has been proposed for 16mm.
Film Perforations
Pitch
Pitch is the distance from the leading edge of one perforation to the leading edge of the next and is expressed in
decimal inches. Motion picture perforations are commonly
referred to as having either "long" or "short" pitch. When
films are being printed, the original camera film and the
unexposed print film pass together over a curved printing
sprocket for exposure. Since the print film is on the outside,
the difference in diameter is accommodated by giving a
shorter pitch to the camera original on the inside.
16mm Films
16mm camera films a re supplied with either a row of
perforations along one edge or with a row along both edges.
Most 16mm camera films are furnished with two rows of
perforations for use in "silent" type cameras. Those with
one row are intended for use in single-system cameras
where sound and picture are simultaneously recorded, either optically or by means of magnetic striping on the film.
123
divided on each side of the perforations to accommodate

magnetic sound tracks. In addition to the standard 70mm
film format two other formats are available for special
venue processes.
Reversal-type 16mm camera films intended for projection are usually supplied in long pitch (.3000). Negative or
reversal type film intended for subsequent release printing
is usually supplied with short pitch (.2994).
Standard 70mm
SMPTE 119-1988-KS-.1870
Standard 16mm perforations

SMPTE 109-1986-2R-.2994
110-1986-1R-.2994
SMPTE 109-1986-2R-.3000
110-1986-1 R-.3000
35mmFilms
35mm motion picture films are supplied with perforations of two basic shapes and with either long or short
pitch. Bell & Howell or BH indicates negative and Kodak
Standard or KS indicates positive. Negative perforations are
designed to insure a steady image during exposure in a
camera-type pull-down and registration mechanism. Positive perforations have a shape intended to reduce cracking
with repeated projection. "Negative" or "positive" perforations describe the shape of the perforation and not the
type of film involved.
Standard 35mm perforations
SMPTE 93-1992- BH-.1866
93-1992- BH-.1870
139-1986- KS-.1866
139-1986- KS-.1870
65mm Films
65mm film used for original photography and duplicating is perforated KS-.1866. When first introduced this
film was perforated long pitch because only step-printing
was available. With the advent of continuous contact printing facilities, the negative and duplicating films are now
perforated with short pitch.
Standard 65mm
SMPTE 145-1988-KS-.1866
70mmFilms
Release printing from 65mm negative or intermediate
is on 70mm film which is perforated the same as 65mm but
is an additionalSmm wide. The additional width is equally
124
70mm Type I
ANSI PH 1.20-1963-0.234
r
Perforations for this standard are 0.13 x 0.08 in size

with a pitch of 0.234.
70mm Type II
ANSI PH 1.20-1963 -KS-.1870
Perforations for this standard are the same size and
pitch as SMPTE 119 but with an "E" dimension of 0.079
0.004 instead of 0.215 0.003.
Film Handling and Storage

Film raw stock is sensitive to heat, radiation and moisture, and may be contaminated by gases or dirt. The following precautions are suggested when handling or storing raw stock.
1. Store in a cool (55 F /13 Cor lower), clean area for
short periods and in a deep freeze (0 FI -18 C) for periods longer than six months. Relative humidity sh ould be
50 percent or less to avoid rusting of cans and or possible
damage to labels and cartons.
2. Do not store where chemical contamina tio n is
present, either gas or liquid. Fumes, such as those from
ammonia, formaldehyde, h ydrogen sulfide, illuminating
gas, mercury, motor exhaust, solvents, sulfur dioxide, can
damage photographic emulsions.
3. Avoid X-rays or radiation of any kind. Raw stock
should not be stored or shipped near radioactive materials. For example, Eastman Kodak states "to protect film
stored 25 feet away from 100 milligrams of radium, 3Y2
inches of lead must be placed around the radium."
4. Film should not be stored near exhaust or heating
pipes, or in direct sunlight coming through a window even
if the room is air-conditioned.
125
5. Allow time for film to reach loading-room temperature before opening container to avoid condensation.
6. Keep the loading room and/ or changing bag clean.
7. Clean magazines outside the loading room and be
sure the outsides of film cans are clean before taking them
into the loading room.
8. Bag and seal exposed film in original or similar containers.
9. Process exposed film as soon as possible. If it must
be held more than a day before processing or shipping, seal
the film from moisture and store as cold as possible. (A
deep freeze is appropriate.)
10. If raw stock or exposed film is to be shipped b y
commercial carrier, it should be tightly wound on cores.
The outside shipping container should be labeled conspicuously: "Keep away from heat or X-ray." Stock labels are
available for this purpose.
Processed Film Storage

Though this is not usually the responsibility of the cinematographer, the following information may be useful:
1. Condition the film at 20 to 30 percent relative humidity at room temperature (optimum relative humidity
is 25 percent).
2. Wind film emulsion in on cores or reels. (Do not use
PVC containers, cores, or reels.)
3. Store flat.
4. Store at temperature of 50 F/ 10 Cor lower.
(Ref: ANSIIT9.11, SMPTE RP 131 Eashnan Kodak Co. publication H-1.)
FILM DATA CHART
Color Negative Films

Agfa XT 100
Agfa XT 320 High Speed
Agla XTS 400 High Speed
Eastman EXR 50 D
Eastman EXR 100 T
Eastman EXR 200 T
Eastman EXR 500 T
Eastman HS Day
Fujicolor F-64
Fuiicoior F64 D
Fupcolor F125
Fu;tolor F250
Fujicolor F-250 D
Fujicolor FSOO
' LBA-12or85
"LBB12 or BOA
Balance Emulsion Type

Day Tung 35mm 16mm
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Color Reversal Films

Eastman Ektachrome Day X
Eastman Ektachrome Tung
Eastman Ektachrome
HSDay
X
Eastman Ektachrome
HS Tung
Kodachrome 25 Movie Film X
Kodachrome 40 Movie Film
Black and White
Negative Films
XT100
XT320
XT$400
5245
5248
5293
5296
5297
8510
8520
8530
8550
8560
8570
5239
X
X
X
XTIOO
XT320
XT$400
7245
7248
7293
7296
7297
8610
8620
8630
8650
8660
8670
5231
Fu~FG
71112
Fuji RP
' See Iiiier section for
B&W Photography.
Black and White
Reversal Films
Eastman Plus X Reversal
Eastman TriX Reversal
N
H
S
K
M
N10
N20
N30
NSO
N60
N70
100
320
400
12
100
200
500
80
64
125
250
64
500
BOA
SOB
"
80
200
250
50
64
125
320
250
40
64
BO
160
250
320
85
85
85
85
85
85
7239
7240
VND
VNF
40
125
BOA
160
BO 858
7251
VXD
100
BOA
400
7250
7267
7270
VNX
400
6
BOA
40
250 858
25
25 85
200
250
7231
H
PXN
7222
DXN
64
64
200
200
80
80
250
250
72 161
FG
RP
64
64
BO
BO
Agfa Pan 250

Eastman PlusX
Eastman PlusX
Eastman DoubleX
Eastman DoubleX
AS AliSO
Daylight
Edge Tungsten
ID
El
Filter El
Filter
5222
7276
7278
PXR
TXR
40
100
so l
125 .
Super 8 Films
B&W Kodak PlusX & TriX Reversal as above, Color Kodachrome 25 & Kodachrome 40 as
above.
127
"
~
Agfa FILMS
AGFA XT-100 COLOR NEGATIVE FILM (35mm/16mm)
00
DESCRIPTION
I
~:v
EXPOSURE INDEX
FILTER I TUNG. I FILTER I'D
84
100
M
This is a medium-speed color negative film with very fine grain, wide exposure latitude,
high sharpness and faithful color rendition. Designed for general cinematography, this film
lends itself to both indoor and ou1door use.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR TUNGSTEN LIGHT (24 frames per second 170 shutter opening)
f/11
Lens Aperture
f/4.0 f/5.6 ua.o
f/2.0 f/2.8
50
100
200 400
800
1600
Footcandles
required
I ~~.4 I
AGFA XT-320 HIGH SPEED COLOR NEGATIVE FILM XT 320 (35mm / 16mm)
DESCRIPTION
EXPOSURE
I DAY
200
INDEX
1- FILTER I TUNG. I FILTER I 'D
85
320
This is a high-speed color negative film with excellent speed-to-grain ratio, wide exposure
latitude, high sharpness and faithful color rendition, that is intended for use in cinematography
at low light level conditions.
Lens Aperture
f/11
f/1.4
f/2.0 f/2.8 f/4.0 f/5.6l f/8.0
Footcandles
10
20
40
80
160 320
640
required
Agfa FILMS
AGFA XTS-400 HIGH SPEED COLOR NEGATIVE FILM (35mm/16mm)
DESCRIPTION
I 250
DAY I
EXPOSURE INDEX
FILTER
FILTER
TUNG.
85
400
-
I ID
s
This is a high-speed color negative film with excellent speed-to-grain ratio, wide exposure
latitude, high sharpness and faithful color rendition that is intended for use in cinematography
at low light level conditions.
Lens Aperture
f/1.4
f/2.0 f/2.81 f/4.0
1/5.61 f/8.0
f/11
Footcandles
6
12
25
50
100
200
400
required
AGFA PAN 250 NEGATIVE FILM (35mm/16mm)

DESCRIPTION
I DAY
250
EXPOSURE INDEX .
FILTER I TUNG. I FILTEPl I ID
200
This is a high-speed panchromatic negative film with fine grain, high resolving power and wide
exposure latitude. Designed for general cinematography, this film lends itself to both indoor and outdoor use.
lens Aperture
f/8.0
f/11
f/1.4
f/4.0 f/5.6
f/2.0 I f/2.8
Footcandles
12
25
50
100
200
400
800
required
See filter section for B&W photography.
\0
....
'1
......
c..>
EASTMAN FILMS
EASTMAN EXR COLOR NEGATIVE FILM 5245 (35mm/65mm) 7245 (16mm)
DESCRIPTION
EXPOSURE INDEX
I DAY I FILTER ITUNG. I FILTER I ID
50
12
BOA
K
This is a low speed, daylight-balanced color negative film with wide exposu~e
latitude, micro-fine grain, very high sharpness, and high resolving power.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOR DAYLIGHT (24 frames per second 170 shutter opening)
Lens Aperture
f/1.4 I f/2.0 I f/2.8 If/4.o I f/5.6 I f/8.o I f/11 I f/16
Footcandles
50
100 200 400 800
1600 3200 6400
required
EASTMAN EXR COLOR NEGATIVE FILM 5248 (35mm/65mm) 7248 (16mm)
DESCRIPTION
EXPOSURE INDEX
I D~Y I FI~ER
IT~~G I FIL~ER
I I~
This is a medium speed color negative film with wide exposure latitude,
micro-line grain, very high sharpness, and high resolving power.
Lens Aperture
f/1 .4 112.0 I 112.8 f/4.o l 1/5.6 l/8.o I f/11.0 I 1116.0
Footcandles
25 1 50
100 1200 400 1 800 1600 3200
required
EASTMAN FILMS
EASTMAN EXR 200T FILM 5293 (35mm/65mm) 7293 (16mm)
DESCRIPTION
EXPOSURE
INDEX
FILTER l iD
200
L
I DAY l FILTER . !TUNG"!

125
85
This is a color negative film with optimum speed for grain extended latitude, reduced
contrast, micro-fine grain, very high sharpness, high resolving power, and superior color.
Lens Aperture
f/1.4 112.0 112.8 f/4.0 f/5.6 f/8.0 1111
f/16
Footcandles
5
25
50
100 200
400 800
1600
required
EASTMAN EXR SOOT FILM 5296 (35mm/65mm) 7296 (16mm)

DESCRIPTION
EXPOSURE
INDEX
I DAY jFILTER JTUNGJ FILTER

320
85
500
l iD
This is a high-speed color negative film with wide exposure latitude, micro-fine grain,
very high sharpness and high resolving power.
......
c..>
......
Lens Aperture
f/1.4 112.0 112.8 1/4.0 f/5.6 f/8.0 1111
f/16
Footcandles
5
10
20
40
80
160 320
640
reauired
-
....1111
'0
.....
VJ
EASTMAN FILMS
HIGH SPEED DAYLIGHT COLOR NEGATIVE 5297 (35mm/65mm) 7297 (16mm)
DESCRIPTION
ID
This is a high-speed color negative film with wide exposure latitude that is intended
for use without filters in daylight, with HMIIights, or with mixtures of natural and artificial light.
Lens Aperture
f/1.4 f/2.0 f/2.8 f/4.0 f/5.6 f/8.0 f/11
f/16
Footcandles
10
20
40
80
160
320 640
1280
reauired
I I I I I I
EASTMAN EKTACHROME FILM (DAYLIGHT) 5239 (35mm) 7239 (16mm)

DESCRIPTION
ID
VND
This is a moderate speed daylight-balanced color reversal film designed for use under
low-level illumination or for high speed photographic applications. The processed film is
balanced for direct projection or television display.
EXPOSURE TABLE FOr DAYliGHT (24 fra~es p,r secold 170 shutter opening)
Lens Aperture
f/1.4 f/2.0 f/2.81 f/4.0 f/5.6 f/8.0 f/11
Footcandles
16
32
63
125 250 500 1000
EASTMAN FILMS
EASTMAN EKTACHROME FILM (Tungsten) 7240 (16mm)
DESCRIPTION
EXPOSURE INDEX
DAY FILTER TUNG. FILTER
00
~B
1~
-
ID
~F
This is a moderate speed color reversal film designed for news and documentary
applications. The processed film is balanced for direct projection or television display.
Lens Aperture 1.1/1.41 f/2.0 f/2.81 f/4.0 f/5.6 f/8.0 1/11
Footcandles
20
40
80
160 320
640 1250
required
DESCRIPTION
ID
VXD
This is a high-speed daylight-balanced color reversal film designed for use under
daylight illumination or a variety of HMI, xenon and mercury discharge lamps without
filtration. The exposure index of this film can be increased to El 800 (daylight) or higher
by extended time of development. The processed film is balanced for direct projection or
television display.
Lens Aperture
f/1.41 f/2.0 f/2.81 f/4.0 f/5.6 f/8.0 f/1 1
Footcandles
6.3 12.5 25
50
100 200 400
reauired
_...
...
~
EASTMAN FILMS
EASTMAN EKTACHROME High Speed Film (Tungsten) 7250 (16mm)
DESCRIPTION
10
VNX
This is a high-speed color reversal film designed for use under low-level illumination
when supplemental lighting is unavailable or undesirable. The exposure index of this
film can be increased to El 800 (tungsten) or higher by extended time of development.
The processed film is balanced for direct projection or television display.
Lens Aperture
f/1.4 f/2.0 f/2.81 f/4.0 f/5.6 f/8.0 f/11
Footcandles
6.3
12.5 25 50 100
200 400
required
EASTMAN FILMS
EASTMAN PLUS-X NEGATIVE FILM 5231 (35mm) 7231 (1 6mm)
DESCRIPTION
DAY
80
This is a medium-speed panchromatic film designed for general production use, both
outdoors and in the studio.
Lens Aperture
f/1.41 f/2.0
f/2.8
f/4.0
f/5.6
f/8.0
f/11
Footcandles
40
80
160
320
630
1250 2500
required
'See filter section for B& W photography.
DESCRIPTION
DAY
250
This is a high-speed panchromatic negative film designed for use under adverse lighting conditions
and where greater depth of field is required without increasing the illumination. This film has medium
graininess. As with other negative, the granularity increases with the density of the image resulting in
increased graininess in the projected print. Avoid overexposing, especially when using in the 16mm format.
Lens Aperture
f/1.4
1/2.0
f/2.8
f/4.0
f/5.6
f/8.0
f/11
Footcandles
13
25
50
100
200
400
BOO
required
see filter section for B&W photography.
,_. I
~
..:iii~~
EASTMAN FILMS
EASTMAN PLUS-X REVERSAL FILM 7276 (16mm/Super Bmm)
DESCRIPTION
I I
DAY
50
EXPOSURE INDEX
FILTER !TUNG. FILTER
*
40
*
EXPOSURE INDEX
FILTER !TUNG I FILTER
*
160
*
ITXR
ID
ID
PXR
This is a low-speed panchromatic reversallilm designed for general

production use both outdoors and in the studio when sufficient light is available.
Lens Aperture
1/1.4 f/2.o ,,2.8 f/4.o l ''5.6 l '' 8.o f/11
63
125 1250 500 1000 2000 4000
Footcandles
required
See litter section lor B&W photography.
EASTMAN TRIX REVERSAL FILM 7278 (16mm/Super 8mm)
l I
DESCRIPTION
DAY
200
This is a high-speed panchromatic reversallilm suitable lor general

motion picture photography.
Lens Aperture
1/1.4 f/2.0 f/2.811/4.0 f/5.6 f/8.0 f/11 I
Footcandles
16
32
63
125 250
500 1000
required
I I
I I I
EASTMAN FILMS
KODACHROME 25 MOVIE FILM (DAYLIGHT) 7267 (16mm/Super 8mm)
DESCRIPTION
EXPOSURE INDEX
DAY !FILTER !TUNG I FILTER JID
25
6
BOA
This is a low-speed, daylight-balanced color reversal film designed for general

motion picture photography outdoors. The processed film is balanced for direct projection.
Lens Aperture
f/1.4 I f/2.0 I f/2.8 f/4.0 I f/5.6 ll/8.0 I f/11
Footcandles
100 200 400 1 800 1600 3200 6400
required
KODACHROME 40 MOVIE FILM (Tungsten) 7268 (16mm/Super 8mm)
DESCRIPTION
EXPOSURE INDEX
I DAY I FILTER I TUNG. I FILTER
25
85
40
-
I 'D
This is a moderate speed, color reversal film designed for news and documentary
applications. The processed film is balanced for direct projection or television display.
Lens Aperture
f/1.4 I 112.0 112.8 f/4.0 I f/5.6 I f/8.0 I f/11
Footcandles
60
125 1 250 1 500 1000 2000 4000
required
.A
.
.....
w
FUJI FILMS
FUJICOLOR F-64 COLOR NEGATIVE FILM 8510 (35mm) 8610 (16mm)
a:>
DESCRIPTION
DAY
40
1
EXPOSURE INDEX
FILTER rUNG.l FILTER
,D
LBA-12 64
N10
1 or 85
1
This is a low-speed color negative film with line grain, very high sharpness
and faithful color rendition.
Lens Aperture
f/1.4 t12.o 112.8 f/4.o f/5.6 f/8.o f/11
40
80
160 320 640
1250 2500
Footcandles
required
FUJICOLOR F-64 D DAYLIGHT COLOR NEGATIVE 8520 (35mm) 8620 (16MM)

DESCRIPTION
EXPOSURE INDEX
I DAY I FILTER ITUNG. I FILTER
64
-
ID
N 20
This is a low-speed daylight color negative film with fine grain, very high sharpness and
faithful color rendition that is intended for use in outdoor filming without filters in daylight,
or with high level natural illumination-based indoor filming and artificial light.
Lens Aperture
f/1.4 t12.o f/2.8 f/4.o f/5.6 f/8.o f/11
Footcandles
40
80
160 320 640
1250 2500
required
FUJI FILMS
DESCRIPTION
EXPOSURE
INDEX
I DAYl
FI LTERfUNG. , FILTER
80
LBA-12 125
-
I 'D
N30
or 85
This is a medium-speed color negative film with fine grain, very high sharpness and faithful color
rendition. Designed for general cinematography, this film lends itself to both indoor and outdoor use.
Lens Aperture
f/1.4 f/2.0 1 f/2.8 1f/4.0 1f/5.6 1 f/8.0 f/11
Footcandles
20
40 80
160 320
640 1250
required

DESCRIPTION
EXPOSURE
This is a high-speed color negative film with excellent speed-to-grain ratio,

high sharpness and faithful color rendition that is intended for use in high
speed photography as well as low light level conditions.
.....
DAY
160
INDEX
FILTE~ r UNG., FILTER
LBA-1 2
or 85
250
D
N50
Lens Aperture
f/1.4 f/2.o f/2.8 f/4 o f/5.6 f/8.o f/11
Footcandles
10
20 40 1 80
160
320 640
reauired
......
""'
FUJI FILMS
FUJIGOLOR F-250 D COLOR NEGATIVE FILM 8560 (35mm) 8660 (16mm)
I I
DESCRIPTION
EXPOSURE INDEX
DAY I FILTER TUNG. FILTER I'D
250
64
LBB-12 N60
or80A
This is a high-speed, daylight-balanced color negative film with excellent speed-to-grain ratio,
high sharpness and faithful color rendition. Designed for high-speed cinematography, underwater
cinematography, low light level daylight filming and both indoor and outdoor filming with mixtures of
natural and artificial daylight illumination.
Lens Aperture
f/1.4 I u2.o I f/2.8 f/4.o I f/5.6 I ua.o I f/11
10
20
40 180
160
320 640
Footcandles
required
DESCRIPTION
DAY
320
EXPOSURE
INDEX
FILTERJ TUNG j FILTER l'D

LBA-12
500
N70
or 85
ThiS IS a high-speed color negative film that IS Intended for use 1n high speed and underwater
cinematography as well as both indoor and outdoor filming under low light level conditions.
Lens Aperture
f/1.4 I 112.0 I f/2.8 I f/4.0 I f/5.6 I f/8.o I f/11
Footcandles
5
10 20
40
80
160 320
required
FUJI FILMS
FUJI FG PANCHROMATIC NEGATIVE FILM 7111 2 (35mm)
DESCRIPTION
DAY
80
This is a medium-speed panchromatic negative film with fine grain and high definition.
Designed for general cinematography, both indoor and outdoor filming with mixtures of
natural and artificial illumination.
EXPOSURE INDEX
FILTER TUNG~r FILTER
64
ID
FG
Lens Aperture
f/1.4 I 112.0 I f/2.8 f/4.o I 115.6 I ua.o I f/11
Footcandles
40
80
160 1320 640 1250 2500
required
see filter section for B&W photography.
FUJI RP PANCHROMATIC NEGATIVE FILM 72161 (16mm)
DESCRIPTION
This is a medium-speed panchromatic negative film with fine grain and high definition,
suitable for general cinematography. This film is designed for rapid processing where
fast access is required ..
:;;:
......
Lens Aperture
f/1.4 If/2.0 If/2.8 1f/4.0 1f/5.6 1f/8.0 1f/11
Footcandles
40
80
160 320 640
1250 2500
required
see filter section for B&W ohotooraohv.
EXPOSURE INDEX
DAY I FILTER ITUNG I FILTER I ID
80
64
RP
Lenses
Lenses may be classified as normal, te le photo /
retrofocus, zoom, anamorphic and auxiliary.
Normal lenses are compactly mounted combinations
of glasses, assembled so they may be mounted in a camera
approximately one focal length from the image p lane, or
film. Normal lenses of long focal length tend to be bulky,
therefore telephoto lenses are designed w ith negative glass
elements arranged in a mrumer that permits the telephoto
lens to be mounted closer to the image plane than its focal
length would indica te. When camera design, because of
beam splitters or reflex shutters, does not permit short focal length norma l lenses to be mounted within one focal
length of the film, the retrofocus or inverse telephoto lens
design is used: a lens of short effective focal length but lon g
back focus. Zoom lenses a re a combination of the above,
with the added featme th at one or more elements may be
moved in relation to the others. This provides not only a
multiple number of focal lengths within one body, but permits changes of focal length, and therefore image size, during cinema tography.
Anamorphic lenses are composed of the above types
of lenses, in combination w ith either a cylindrical or prismatic element to compress the horizontal image, providing for a wider aspect ratio within the confines of the standard motion-picture frame. Nearly all present anamorphic
lenses have a compression ratio, or squeeze ratio, of 2:1.
(Other squeeze ratios have been used in the past, and there
is at least one on the horizon contemplating the use of a
d ifferent squeeze ratio.)
Auxi liary lenses are positive tele-extenders and negative wide-a ng le adapters, both of which alte r the focal
length of prime or zoom lenses, an d simple elements usually referred to as "d iopters" or "split-field diopters."
Selection of Lenses
Photographic and projection lenses are designed to
compromise aberration and distortion to a minimum in a
specific frame area. Lenses designed for cine use will not
genera ll y fill a still-camera frame, nor will still-camera
lenses necessarily be as sharp as cine lenses in the smaller
frame size. Likewise, design compromises are made to allow large d iaphragm opening w ith acceptable but not nec142
essarily op timum sharpn ess; b etter sharpness may be

found if such a lens is stopped down a n otch or two.
One widely quoted evaluation is Modulation Transfer Function (MTF), an objective measure of sharpn ess.
While a useful means of comparison, it d oes not account
for all distortions or aberrations (to be useful, MTF must
be measured in the corners as well as in the center of the
lens field). In simple terms, MTF compares the contrast of
a lens with its resolving power. The resultant graph plots
the MTF in percent versus the line frequency (lines p er
mm). The higher the curve and the flatter it is, the greater
is the contrast of the resulting image and the more uniform
the image quality.
Testing
Some suppliers and some indep endent agencies have
test equipment and will h elp in evalua tion. While it is beyond the scope of this manual to discuss lens d esign in
greater d epth, it should be pointed out that the cinematographer should take particular note of aberrations which are
most evident at wide-open apertures and diffraction which
limits the smallest useful ap erture. Photographic testing is
teillous, time-consuming and costly; the use of such a facility when available can be helpful. Qualities to be observed, preferably in comparison with a lens of known
quality, include image sharpness at center and corners,
contrast and flare, image distortion, a nd uniformity of exposme (vignetting).
Care and Maintenance

When not in use, lenses should be kept capped, and
when trru1Sported, kep t in a padd ed case. Shocks and vibration may jar the elements loose (this incl udes high-frequency vibration such as from ru1 aircraft engine). When
filming outdoors Lmder d usty conditions, protect the lens
with a filter. If no fil ter is required, use a clean optical glass
or a UV filter (filters, of course, should be mad e of firstquality op tical glass). It is less expen sive to replace a
scratched or marred fi lter than a fron t lens element.
Lenses should be inspected perioillcally for physical conditip n, including lens surface examination w ith a
magnifying glass to look for fine scratches, loose g lass elements, and loose mechanical elements such as focus scale
rings, iris diaphragms, and zoom lens linkage and cams.
143
r
Never clean a lens w ith dry tissue or fabric. Tiny abrasive particles may cause scratches. The safest procedure is:
1. Blow off loose dust with "canned air." (If "air" is
not available, a clean, very soft cam el hair brush may be
used; to remove all residual oil from the brush, first wash
it in ether or pure grain alcohol and shake it o ut so that it is
thoroughly dry. Keep the brush in an air-tight container.
Under no circumstances should the brush ever touch skin.
If it does so inadvertently, wash it again with ether or alcohol.) Do not blow dust off w ith the mouth. Next to dried
fingerprints, saliva is the hardest thing to remove from a
lens surface w ithout scratching it.
2.lf necessary to remove smears from the lens surface,
fold a lens tissue and dampen the folded ed ge with lenscleaning fluid. Carefully w ipe the lens surface with a circular motion, sta rting at the center and working toward the
edges. If this will not remove the smear, take a new, clean
piece of lens tissue and repeat the procedure using pure xylene or pure grain alcohol (not rubbing alcohol). Be careful
not to touch the lens mo unt with the xylene or alcohol. If
you do, discard the lens tissue and start over. Xylene is particularly useful in removing oil or oily fingerprints from
lenses. If it leaves a slight smear after removing an oily spot,
repeat the action using alcohol.
Fingerprints, or any contacts with skin, leave a residue
which may permanently etch the lens s urface. Never d ean
camera lenses w ith silicone-coated lens tissue or doth.
Removing Lens Retainer Rings

The cinema tographer, unless skilled in lens repair,
should avoid disassembly of lenses. If, in emergency, it is
necessary to do so in the field, the ring may genera lly be
easily unscrewed if the lightest fingertip grasp, with the
least possible pressure, is applied . The more pressure applied, the greater the expansion of the ring on the sides
opposite the fingers. Such pressure causes expansion of the
ring and makes removal very difficult, if not impossible.
A p articularly stubborn ring may often be removed by
applying a drop of carbon tetrachloride or a similar solvent.
The same technique may be used in removing filter retaining rings.
144
Condensation
When equipment, including lenses, is taken from a
cool, dry environment to a warm, moist environment, condensation will occur on the cold surfaces. This particularly
applies when moving from an air-conditioned environment to the outdoors. A few minutes should be allowed for
the equipment to warm up and the condensation to disappear before photographing. Visual inspection should suffice to determine w hen this takes place.
Understanding an MTF Chart

by Bern Levy
For many, evaluating a lens has usually been a matter
of being aware of the manufacturer's past record and the
experience of others who have used that type of lens. To
those more technically inclined , the use of a test chart indicating resolving p ower, in lines per millimeter, may be
considered a criterion of lens quality. However, resolving
power value can be very s ubjective and does not necessarily indicate the true value of a lens. Resolving power alone,
regardless of its accuracy, can be misleading. Lens manufacturers now utilize a method of lens testing that assesses
the actual capability of a given lens.
This method is referred to as Modulation Transfer
Function, or MTF. Scientifically, MTF is defined as a function that describes the modulation of a sinusoidal object as
the frequency increases. In simpler terms, MTF compares
the contrast of a lens with its resolving power. The relationship of sharpness, plus the ability to reproduce an image,
gives a lens the property to produce a quality image. It is
the result of this comparison that forms the MTF curve. As
the spatial frequency (the distance of one black & white line
pair) of the test chart increases, the image pattern is reduced
in contrast. This change in contrast or " modulation" is the
basis for the MTF method of evaluating a lens.
Since the Modulation Transfer Function is a method
of quantitatively measuring the limits of resolution of a
given area lilld the ability to reproduce an image of a given
area, a single MTF curve only indicates the response for the
specific conditions tested . The parame ters for test data normally include focal length, aperture, object distance, light
145
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color temperature and the image field radius as well as the

spatial frequency of the test chart. In order to fully comprehend the performance of a lens, a number of MTF curves
must be generated to cover a multitude of points within
these test parameters.
To interpret the MTF curve, we must first understand
that the horizontal axis of the ch art normally indicates the
spatial frequencies in cycles p er millimeter and the vertical axis p rovides the modulation transfer factor or contrast
values with a maximum of 100%. The basic criteria for interpreting an MTF curve are that the higher the curve and
the straighter it is, the greater the contrast of the image and
the more uniform the image quality. Whereas no lens can
deliver 100% contrast, an MTF chart showing a relatively
flat curve above 70% would indicate an excellent lens. Consideration must be made for the higher frequencies (right
side of the h orizontal axis) as even a high-quality lens cannot render an MTF (contrast) of more than 50% at a frequency of over 50 cycles.
Most MTF ch arts will show two curves: one for tangential lines (broken) and another fo r radial lines (continuous). Telephone lines can be considered tangential lines and
telephone poles can be interpreted as radial lines. Th e optical aberration astigmatism sh ows up as sharp poles with
out-of-focus wires. An MTF chart showing a marked distance between radial and tangential curves will clearly indicate that the lens suffers from astigmatism. Inversely, a
chart indica ting the two lines running very close will
specify a lens with very slight astigma tism.
From the viewpoint of MTF, lenses can be roughly
classified into two groups: high contrast with limited resolution, and lower contJ.:ast with greater resolution. What is
approp~iate for one is not necessarily correct for an other.
The film emulsion characteristics or the limiting frequency
of a television camera tube will dicta te the preferable type.
The one with the best contrast properties in the freq uen cy
range to be recorded may be considered ideal.
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146
147
Modem Telephoto Lenses

by William J. Turner
& Chris Condon
The term "telephoto lens" is gen erally used.to des~be
any lens, regardless of its optical configuration, which
magnifies the image at least 50% ~ore than the n~;mal lens
on any specific camera. The term true telep hoto re.fers to
lenses d esigned for physical compactness, yet ha~mg ~
effective focal length (EFL) longer than the.phys1cal distance of the optics from the. image plane. This type o~, lens
employs a negative rear optical compon;nt. The te~ telelens" is becoming more common than telephoto lens.
Many of the telephoto lenses in use today (over 1~0mm
EFL) were originally designed for ~se w~th 35mm smglelens reflex still cameras. Several ma1or still cam era manufacturers, in efforts to satisfy the unique telephoto lens requirements of professi~nal sports ph otographers, h ave
designed superior quality, high~spee~ and ~oom lens~s
using newly compounded , low dispersiOn optical glass (m
some cases crystal substances such. as fluori.te). Thr~>Ugh the
use of state-of-the-art computer-aided optical design techniques, these lenses achieve a degree of color corr~c hon,
sharpness and contrast far superior to those previously
attainable in high-speed lenses.
Most of these lenses are very fast for their focal length.
The Canon 300mm and 400mm f/2.8 lenses have become
qui te popular. The now discontinued N.ikon 300~ f/2
has become an industry-standard lens. As1de from therr traditional uses in the fields of documen tary, news, sports,
wildlife and surveillance cinematography, telephoto lenses
are used increasingly in the sh ooting of commercials and
action films. Among the advantages of tele-lenses are dramatic close-ups, camera unobtrusiveness, greater safety,
technical practicality, pictorial effect and novelty. ~ost of
these lenses also feature internal focusing. Comparues such
as Century Precision Optics have m~dified .these lenses for
the exacting requirements of professiOnal cm~mato~ap~Y
by converting the rear section and re-calibrating the ms m
T-stops.
. .
.
Some len ses are more extensively modified w1th
larger, more visible fo?tage seal~, precision integral f~llow
focus gears, and speCial mounting brackets. The baste optics, however, are never changed.
148
Techniques
Tele-lenses tend to isolate the main subject from the
backgrow1d and foreground d ue to their inherently shallow depth-of-field. They also appear to compress objects
a t various distances from the ca mera, and may be employed to bring the background closer to the subject. A telelens also slows the apparen t advance of a subject moving
toward the camera. It is m uch easier to track an object
moving laterally across a field with a tele-lens, because it
will remain in view for a longer period of time and still
retain a large image size. It is often advisable to move further back, use a long tele-lens and make a slow pan that
films a large image for a greater length of time, rather than
move in close to the subject's lille of travel with a short focal length lens.
Several unique problems sometimes arise when shooting with tele-lenses. Increasing th e image magnification
also results in increased effect of camera vibration, thermal
effects of atmospheric refraction (heat waves), atinospheric
dust, vapors and ultraviolet radiation reflected from the
same. However, new techniques h ave resulted ill better
image quality even under these adverse conditions. Following are a number of corrective tele-lens techniques that offer solu tions to these problems. For example, camera vibration d ue to vibratillg motor drive, unbalanced shutter or
other mechanical characteristics can be minir11ized. While
such vibration may have little or no detectable effects with
wide-angle or normal lenses, it can be highly magnified
when using long focal lengths. A solid tripod and a lens
cradle sh ould always be used. Most profession al cameras
have sufficient magnification in their reflex focusing systems so that any vibration effect can be observed in the
viewfinder image. The tele-lens should first be focused in
with the camera operating, and focus should be compared
with the camera at rest to detect any adverse vibration effect.
Filters & Tele-lenses

Several types of filters can improve color in tele-lens
shots. The most useful are Skylight lA, 2A, 2B and 2C; also
the UV 15, UV 16, UV 17 and others of comparable characteristics. Proper filtering of black & white films will greatly
aid in minimizing atinospheric haze. Yellow, orange, and
red filters improve definition and can increase contrast
149
because they filter out violet and ultraviolet light. Dramatic

haze penetration can be recorded with heavy red filters
such as Wratten 25 and 29. The greatest haze penetration,
far beyond visual rendition, can be produced with infrared sensitive film and any of the following Wratten filters:
72B, 87, 88A and 89A. (See "Infrared Cinematography.")
A word of caution regarding fil ters employed in front
of long focal length, high-performance lenses: the filter's
optical quality must match that of the lens on which it is
used. A11y lack of optical flatness will introduce aberrations
which can ruin the image. For this reason, it is strongly recommended never to use any untested filter, especially with
long focal length lenses.
It is becoming increasingly common to use glass filters
at the back of telephoto lenses. In some cases, the filters are
used via a filter holder that is inserted into a slot at the rear
of the lens. In other cases, the filters are mounted in the
camera adapter itself at the rear of the lens. There are many
advantages to using the filter at the rear of the lens. Filters
are much smaller and less costly. The most common sizes
are 40.5 mm and 48 mm. Used behind the lens, the quality
of the filter is not as critical as in front of the lens. Standard
commercial filters are typically of more than sufficient quality for use behind the lens without causing degradation of
the image. Recently, filter stages have been added behind
many telephoto lenses. These stages allow rectangular filters to be rotated and translated, not only allowing the use
polarizing filters, but hard-edge graduated filters as well.
These filters are commonly used in two sizes: 2" x 3" and
45x70 mm.
To maintain the accuracy of the focus calibrations (and
any focus marks that may be made during the course of the
shot), the number and thickness of filters used behind the
lens must remain con stant. This means that clear filters
must be used when no colored or effects filters are in place.
The filters being used must also be of exact thickness to
avoid shifting the predetermined focus of the lens. Both
Tiffen and Harrison are currently manufacturing these rectangular filters to a consistent thickness.
The use of the multiple filters behind the lens can create another problem. Clear filters are normally not anti-reflection coated. The actual light loss caused by an tu1Coated
clear filter is only Y6 of a stop and, typically, can be ignored.
Clear filters are said to cause "no light loss." However,
using three (3} uncoated filters behind tl1e lens results in
150
three (3) losses of Y6 each, adding up to at least Y2 stop. This

loss, therefore, must be taken into account wh en figuring
the exposure (especially with multiple clear filters).
The best solution to the "heat wave" problem is to
shoot during the early morning hours. A high downward
camera angle will sometimes minimize heat waves by lessening the amount of ground level a tmosphere that the lens
must shoot through.
Focus collimation of long focus lenses can be affected
significantly by temperature extremes. Lenses which are
adjusted at room temperature may not be in focus in high
desert temperatures due to thermal expansion of mount
components. Focus should always be checked in the field
under actual or simulated production conditions. In cold
climates, condensation of moisture and cement separation
can be minimized by gradual exposure to environmental
extremes.
T-stop calibration of tele-lenses is the same as for short
focal length lenses. However, it should be kept in mind that
intervening haze actually lightens distant objects. The resul ting aerial perspective (a gradual lightening of objects
at increasing dista nces) will often resul t in an apparent
overexposure when a distant object is isolated in a telephoto
shot. Many cinematographers are, therefore, under the impression that tele-lenses are calibrated differently and require less exposure. Actually, the small portion of the distant scene being filmed is lighter in tone and lacks contrast
because of atmospheric conditions.
To counterbalance the lack of contrast usually encountered in long-range filming, special emulsions may be cl1osen for use with high-power tele-lenses. Sometimes the film
can be developed to a slightly higher gamma (if sufficient
footage is involved to make this practical). Finally, because
tele-lenses tend to magnify lateral image blur to an lU111atural degree, it may be advisable to overcrank the camera
somewhat.
Lens Extenders (Multipliers)

A lens extender, which consists of a mul ti-element
optical attachment, may be positioned behind a prime lens
to.increase its focal length. These may be successfully used
w1th many types of tele-lenses. It is a simple, inexpensive
way to further extend the focal length of tele-lenses. Extenders of better quality can render acceptably sharp images;
however, they should be stopped down for best definition.
151
Lens extenders have an exposure increase fac tor corresponding to their power. A 1.4X extender will increase
the focal length of the lens 1.4X and require a 1-stop increase
in exposure. Example: a 300mm f/ 2.8lens becomes 420mm
f/4 with a 1.4X extender. A 2X extender will double the
focal length of the lens and require a 2-stop increase in exposure. Example: A 400mm f/2.8lens becomes a 800mm
f/5.6 with a 2X extender.
Since tete-extenders a Lready cause a light loss, the dim
image may be d ifficult to focus and view. Effective apertures are rarely faster than f/8 orf / 11, or even f/ 16. Extenders can be combined for greater magnification. The power
should be multiplied to obtain the working power. For instance: two 2X extenders can be combined to form a 4X wut,
which would have an exposure factor of 16 and require a
4-stop increase in exposure.
Catadioptric or Reflective Systems

Reflective optical systems employing mirrored opticaJ
surfaces enable long focal lengths to be folded inside of a
compact assembly, thus saving space and weight. These
systems usually combine reflective surfaces and refractive
correcting lenses. The color correction is good and normally
requires no correction for using infrared sensi tive film.
Because of the necessity of usi ng the entire light path, an
iris diaphragm usually cannot be incorpora ted in these
systems. Neutral d ensity filters or a reduced shutter opening may have to be used to red uce exposure. Careful comparative tests a re ad visable to d etermine the suitability of
these lenses for the intended purpose.
These lenses typically have a secondary reflective surface either on the back surface of the front correcting element, or as a separa te element mounted inside the lens. The
light is then reflected back through a hole in the primary
mnTor at the back of the lens and onto the film. The bl.ocking of the center of the lens by the secondary mirror results
in the out-of-focus lughlights and points being rendered on
the film as rings (or donuts). Ths effect should be noted and
this type of lens should not be used if this wi ll be a problem. ln many cases, these out-of-focus rings are desired and
are the main reason for using the mirrored lens. It should
be noted that mirror lenses typically have aT-number approxima tely one (1) stop slower than the actual f-number.
Exposm e tests should be rw1 prior to use, or the lens should
152
be calibrated on equipment capable of measuring the actual T-stop of the lens.

The primary requirement for achieving maximum resolving power and finest image quality w ith a tele-lens is
careful focusing. Long focal length lenses possess inherently shallow depth-of-field characteristics. This is a law of
physics and cannot be chan ged; therefore, some means of
focusing through the lens must be employed . Secondly,
camera steadiness must be assured by rigid lens mounting
and absence of vibration. Thirdly, the finest quality filters,
carefully chosen to fit the filming conditions, should be
employed. A long lens shade is essential. It should be carefully designed so as not to restrict the angular coverage of
the lens. It must also have a totally non-reflective interior,
as should all surfaces of the lens mount that are exposed
to the image-forming light.
Modern telephoto lenses have proven to be one of the
most useful tools for creative cinematography, often rendering subject details, compression, and selectiveness tha t
might otherwise have been impossible.
Zoom Lenses
by Bern Levy
In order to tmderstand why we use a zoom lens, it is
best to first understand what a zoom lens is. By definition
a zoom lens is a precision optical / mechanical system,
w hich can ch ange its field of v iew w ithout noticeably
changing its aperture or focus. Ths is made possible by the
use of complex can1s and followers controlling precisely
designed and manufactured optical components.
Today the zoom len s is used mainly as a variable
prime, meaning that the zoom lens carries within it an infinite number of foca l lengths which can be utilized for the
sp ecific composition required . The cinematographer has
available aJmost every conceivable focaJ length an d aperture found in fixed focal length lenses. Cine zooms have
ran ges up to 25X now, with focal lengths of 7.5mm to
625mm and apertures as high as f/ 11 currently available,
leaving very few requirements for fixed focal length lenses.
In addition to tl1ese properties, the zoom lens can achieve
special effects by ever-chan ging the field of view, otherwise
known as zooming.
153
Those characteristics which we consider important in

selecting a fixed focal length lens are equally important in
selecting a zoom lens. In addition to aperture and focal
length, we must consider zoom range, minimum focusing
d istance, correction, etc. in determining which zoom lens
is suitable for your purposes. Equally important are your
own requirements for this lens. Is extremely d ose focusing
necessary? Is high aperture important? Will you be shooting dose-ups indoors? Or mostly outdoors from long distances? All aspects must be considered.
One lens may allow better operational flexibility than
another lens and therefore reduce the demands on the camera. As an example, a close-focusing lens may cut production time as compared to a lens that requires the use of
close-up attachments. A lens with a large zoom range may
reduce the number of times the camera is repositioned.
Reliability of the lens has a direct relationship to the manufac turer. The past record of the lens design as well as the
man ufacturer's reputation in the marketplace must be considered. Are ser vice facilities available? Is the facility
equipped with proper instrumentation and pers01mel? Will
parts be available?
Another pertinent consideration is whether to purchase a new or used zoom lens. As the zoom lens is a mechanical system, the age and previous use of the lens w ill
determine whether a used lens, at a lower cost, has a value
over a new lens a t a higher cost. Are the zoom and focus
mechanisms smooth? What is the appearance of the coating? Are the front and rear elements scratched? The answers to these questions will h elp determine the value of a
zoom lens.
Mechanics of Zoom Lenses

Perhaps the single most important factor in preparing
a zoom lens for use is the mow1ting procedure. Unlike fixed
focal length lens, a zoom will not perform correctly if not
seated properly in the camera. The distance from the seat
or flange of the lens mount to the film plane (known as the
flange focal distance) is hypercritical. If not set to the prescribed dimension (17.52mm for Standard "C" mount,
40.0mm for Aaton, 52nml for Arriflex Standard, 38.1 mm for
CP, 48mm for Eclair) out-of-focus images will result when
zooming from long focallengtlls to short focallengtlls. This
phenomenon is a result of the depth of focus, the lens-to-
154
film tolerance being greater at the long focal length than at

the short focal length. To avoid mOLmting problems, both
the lens mount and camera socket should be cleaned before inserting the lens into the camera. It must be p ointed
out that professional zoom lenses m ust be adjusted to an
extremely small tolerance specified by the lens manufacturer, which could be as precise as .Olmm (.0004") of the
flange focal distan ce, and therefore, a small particle of di rt
may actually interfere with the proper sea ting of these
lenses.
While some zoom lens diaphragms are gradua ted in
both f- and T-stops, exposure should only be set on the T
scale. Because the large number of optical elements in a
zoom lens affects the transmission of light through the lens,
there is a difference between the geometric aperture (f-stop)
and the photometric aperture (T-stop).
Zooming, or the changing of focal length, results in tl1e
changing of image size at the film plane without varying
the subject-to-lens distance. This can be accomplished by
either mechanical or electrical means. While most zoom
lenses rely on the manual turning of the zoom barrel, a
more controlled and therefore more consistently accurate
rate can be achieved by the use of electrical motor drives.
In some cases, Htis is not preferred. While some cinematographers prefer to achtally rotate the zoom barrel directly by
hand (they claim that this method gives them a much
greater control), others p refer an electrical servo system
with a rate control to provide a dampening effect. This allows the operator to start tl1e zoom very slowly and then
accelerate to the desired maximum speed. The sih tation can
also be repeated, in reverse, to end the zoom slowly. This
dampening effect is desirable as it tends to make the zoom
movement itself less noticeable. Regardless of whether
turning the zoom barrel by hand or by motor, it is suggested
that tl1e lens be zoomed tl1e enti re focal length ran ge before
actually making a take in order to distribute the lubrication
within the zoom cams a nd bearings. This will result in a
much smoother zoom effect, eliminating irregular movements or hang-ups.
Before a ttempting to focus a lens, the viewfinder eyepiece must be adjusted to your vision. It is recommended
that the lens actually be de focused p rior to setting this eyepiece. You mus t rea lize that in this proced ure, the
viewfinder is bein g set to adjust the focus of your eye to the
ground glass viewing system of the camera only . The lens
155
is not con sidered as part of this system. The viewfinder

should be adjusted so that only the grain of the ground
glass is sharp. At this point, the eyepiece should be locked
in positior, so that it will not be moved accidentally during
use.
When attempting to focus, the lens should always be
set at its longest focal length and at full aperture, as these
conditions establish the minimum depth of field for a zoom
lens and provide maximum sensitivity. Similarly to zooming, the focus barrel should be turned throughout its entire range in order to distribute the lubrication for a smooth
effect before making a take. For "grab" shots, one should
know the hyperfocal distance of the lens. To review, the
basic rule is that when the lens is focused on the hyperfocal distance, the depth of field extends from half the hyperfocal distance to inf inity, providing the maximum focusing range for a possible "grab" shot (see tables on pages 174200).
Do's and Don't's

It should be OLu aim to create pictures that do not bring
attention to the mechanics involved in the prod uction of the
picture. We must remember that we are operating a motion-picture camera and not a moving picture camera. We
must realize that every zoom movement, like every camera movement, should have a motivation. The zoom should
not be used merely because it is available. The fact there is
a zoom lens on a camera does not necessita te utilizing the
lens for th e zoom effect. The "tromboning" technique invented by 8mm amateurs and propagated by professionals around the world sh ould be avoided unless tha t particular effect is reqLLired in the production.
Basically, a zoom len s contains an infinite series of focal lengths. We sh ould con sider the zoom as a variable
prime lens using it in much the same manner as fixed focal length lenses. When a specific focal length is called for,
the zoom lens should be set for that specific focal length and
the scene shot just as if a fi xed focal length lens was
mounted on the camera.
On the other hand, when the production calls for a
searching or revealing effect, the zoom lens is capable of
handling this technique. The searching technique was inherited from broadcast television coverage of baseball and
other major sports. It starts with an overall wide-angle shot
156
of the arena. Upon the d ecision of the team involved to enact a sensational p lay, the lens is zoomed in to a tight shot
of the player at the center of the action. The opposite type
of zoom movement, "revealing" the subject, is used more
often in commercials and theatrical films as it can impose
tremendous impact if carried out correctly. In this type of
zoom movemen t, the zoom lens is first set at the long focal
length to provid e a narrow an gle of view and, upon cue, is
zoomed to a w ide-angle position to reveal another object
to accent the plot.
An intimacy w ith a moving subject can be adueved by
zoon1ing at the same rate as the subject is moving either
toward or away from the camera. This method keeps the
subject size the same even though the subject is in motion.
The effect is heightened by the changing of perspective in
that wh ile the subject size rema ins rela tively constant
throughout the sequence, the background relationship
changes according to the distance from the subject to the
backgroLmd. The perspective changes only because the
distance between the lens and the subject is changing. The
focal length of the lens is not the con trolling factor in determining perspective. The focal length of the lens determines the angle of view, w hich provides us w ith therequired width and height of the picture.
The zoom lens can also be used to introduce speed. A
very fast zoom from a wide angle to a tight shot of a speeding subject will accelerate the movement of that subject.
Inanimate objects can be made to appear to move by proper
zoom movements. The ch anging of image size in a given
sequence can actually create the illusion of movement.
Zoom Lens Flexibility

There are a number of attachments available for zoom
lenses to increase their flexibility. These attachments can be
used to further change the angle of view, working distances, color and contrast, as well as protect the lens. One
of the most commonly used front-mounted attachments is
the dose-up lens (sometimes referred to as a diopter). These
attachments fit on the front of a zoom lens, pern1itting a
closer than normal foc using range, as well as the full use
of the zoom. Its prime limitation is that focusing to infinity
is not possible.
One of the most recent front-mOLmted attachments is
a unit to increase the focal length of a zoom. This telephoto
attachment, while increasing the focal length, may reduce
157
the zoom range whereas it is limited by its front diameter

to a medium-wide angle.
As an example, a 15-to-1 zoom is reduced to a 6-to-1
because of this phenomenon. Another front-mounted attaclunen t performs the opposite function. A retrozoom, or
w ide-~gl~ attaclunent, will decrease the focal length; howe.ver, m this case, the zoom range is not affected. An addihonal benefit of the wide-angle attachment is that it reduces
the minimum focusing distance.
The most important reason for utilizing front mounted
attachments is that the geometric aperture (f-stop) is not
affected, degradation of image quality is minimal and a
normal focusing range to infinity is maintained.
On the other hand, rear mounted attaclunents, such as
range extenders, not only multiply focal lengths, they also
affect aperture and existing aberrations. As an example, a
2X range extender mounted on the rear of a 25-250mm
f/3.2 lens will double the focal length (50-500mm) as well
as the aperture (f/6.4). Aberrations which may not have
been. noticeable on ~lm are magnified 4X due to the geometry uwol~e?, cr~a hn~ an image of questionable quality.
Whe~ sufficient hght IS available, such as during outdoor
sporting events, ~e iris is stopped down at least halfway
and these aberrations are reduced, generally resulting in acceptable images.
. While rear-mounted filters do represent a less expenSive method of light filtration, it must be pointed out that
they also elongate the back focal distance of a lens to a dimension !6 the thickness of the filter material. As tolerances
fo r moLmting professional zoom lenses are measured in
hLmd redths of a millimeter, this extension of the back fo~al distance of a zoom may seriously affect its image qualIty. Of course, cameras which are manufactured with filter slots have adjusted flange focal distances which compensate for this elongation. This deviation then demands
that even ~1ough a fi.lter is not used, a UV or clear optical
fl at of equiva lent thickness to the normal filter material
must b~ inserted in the optical path in order to compensate
fo r the mcreased back focal distance.
Front filters, however, do not require any adjustment
of the back focal distance and are therefore recommended.
If no color filtration is required, a light UV can serve to increase the "snap" of a picture as well as serve as an inexpensive protective device for the front element of a zoom
lens.
158
Cine Zoom Lenses on Video Cameras

Now that the video medium has progressed to stateequipment, where gamma and other picture
qualities are controllable enough to provide the " film look,"
cinematographers are finding a need for a greater variety
of lenses to render the same quality images they have photographed on film. Unfortunately, p rofessional television
equipment manufacturers have not produced many "extreme" type lenses and therefore there is an urge to utilize
the great variety of cine lenses on video ca meras.
Cine lenses may be used successfully on black & white
and single-tube color cameras. As most professional productions would utilize a prism-type camera, we must ref~r. to this type of mechanism as being limited in its capability to accept cme lenses. The prism or beam splitter that
breaks up the white light coming from the lens into the
three primary colors requires an elongated back focal dis~ance of.a given lens in order to compensa te for the glass
m the pnsm. Whereas some extreme cine lenses do not have
this extra back focal length, it is not possible to utilize them
on professional video cameras. Depending upon the size
of the actual prism in the camera, it has been found that
focal len F of 15~ and longer can be used successful) y
on m~st 73-mch pnsm-type cameras. Extreme wide-angle
and high-aperture lenses cannot be used. Several optical
adapters are currently available to enable you to utilize cine
lenses on video cameras. The users of these devices report
low-quality images in addition to bulkiness and high cost,
negating their original concept.
of-t~~-art
Lens Maintenance
User maintenance is principally limited to keeping
glass surfaces clean. No adjustments should be made to a
zoom lens except by a qualified techni.cian . As most major
lens manufacturers maintain their own service centers or
appoint service representatives, it is best to lin1it any repairs
to this group. This is extremely important, as only a trained
technici~, who knows the effects of the adjustments and
works w1th the proper tools an d measurin g instruments,
can properly carry out a zoom lens repair.
Should maintenance be required, it is extremely important to realize that the service facility can not rectify the
p~oblem unless it is clearly indicated to them. Prior to shippmg a lens to a service facility, it is essential that the prob-
159
!em be documented, clearly indicating all aspects of the

d ifficulties encountered. If necessary, a test film, sh owing
the problem, should accompany the lens. Terms s uch as
"the lens isn't sharp" or " it doesn't work" should be
avoided. Specific details should be indicated, such as, " the
lens goes soft at a specific focal length," " the iris blades s tick
at f/?" or "the lens has been dropped" and possibly "the
le~s has been immersed in sea water. " By giving these d etatls, the service technician will be able to attack the problem and solve i t quickly, resulting in a lower cost to you.
Last but not least, the lens should always be packaged
properly. Do not attempt to shi p a lens, whether to a service center or otherwise, withou t having proper packaging
insulation surrounding it to a depth of at least 2". Just as
imp01:tant, it is essential that the lens be packaged so that
there IS absolutely no movement of the lens or any parts
packaged therein. By ad heri ng to these few rules, your
zoom lens should provide you with excellent service over
the years.
Lens Formulas
Hyperfocal Distance
Hyperfocal dis tance of a lens represents a special case
of depth of field in which objects at infinity, as well as the
nearest possible objects, are photographed with acceptable
sharpness. Therefore, if a lens is focused at the hyperfoca l
distance, all image points between one-half tha t d istance
and infi nity w ill not exceed a specific circle of confusion,
or expressed more sin1ply, will be acceptably sh arp.
The formula for h yperfocal distance (using inches or
fra ctions thereof) is:
p
F = focal len gth of lens
H = -f = f/stopnumber
fx Cc
Cc = circle of con fusion
The circle of confusion for the hyperfocal d istance can
be briefl y described as th e image of a point s ituated outSide the focused distance plane that will therefo re not form
the image of a point in the film p lane, but a blurred circle
of a diameter Cc.
Acceptable sharpness in past editions has been calculated as a .002 inch image of a point ("Circle of confusion"),
for images on 35mm fi lm. Because of larger magnification
160
in present-day thea te rs, manufacturers have been using

.001 inches in recent years, and these new tables fo llow that
practice (.0006 inches (.015mm) is used in the 16mrn tables).
To read d epth of field for larger or sm aller circles of confusion, use the colunm under a smaller or larger lens f-stop.
Acceptable sharpness is affected not only by the geometry
of the cone of light imaging a point object; it is also affected
by:
1. The imaging quality of the lens both on -axis an d offaxis at the plane of best foc us.
2. The imaging quality at large and small, as compared
to intermediate iris diaphragm apertures.
3. Diffusion or flare, w he ther inten tional or not.
4. The imaging quality of the films and printing m ethods used (negative, intermediate, and print).
5. Viewing conditions.
6. Object illumination and contrast.
If for any of these reasons the sh arpness of the best
image is less than the arbitrari ly established norm, _the apparent depth o f field will be affected also. If the eXIt ~up~!
of the lens, due to asymmetry, is not the same as the mdlcated f-stop, the depth of field wi ll be affected.
Beca use depth of field has no sharply d efined limits,
the distances in the tables have been "rounded off" to figures compatible with the dis tance.
Depth of Field
The depth of field of a lens is the range of acceptable
sharpness before and behind the plane of focus obta ined
in the final screened image. It should be understood tha t
the determination of depth of field involves a subjective
sensation that requires takin g into account the condition
under which the final projected image is viewed. The following two formulas are for calculating the depth of field
with the h elp of the h yperfocal distance and the circle of
confusion.
Depth of Field Calculations

First: Calculate the hyperfocal distance
(d efinition above)
(The tables are calculated
for Cc = .001" (.025mm) for 35mm film,
=.0006 (0.15mrn) for 16mm film)
161
focal length x f-stop

Depth of focus= - - - - - - - -
Second: Using H, calculate near and

far depth-of-field limits
1000
H xS
Lens Angle and Field of View
ON camera to near limit

H + (S-F)
H xS
OF ca mera to far Linlit
H- (5-F)
H
HyperfocaJ d istance
S
Distance from cam era to object
Focal length of lens
F
Depth Total = DF-DN
When th e object d istance is less than 10 times the lens
focal length, depth of field is very small, and tables are more
appropria tely combined and stated in terms of image magnification, rather than foca I length and subject distance. (See
"Extreme Closeup.")
Depth of Focus
The depth of foc us should be clearly distinguished
from the previously explained depth of field. The depth of
focus is an infinitely small range behind the lens at the focal plane within w hich the film is positioned during exposure. This is most cri tical, particularly wi th short-focus
lenses. If the fil m moves out of this precise position, either
forward or backward, it will cause unsharp images produced by a n increase of the diameter of the circle of confu sion. The circle of confusion, in other words, is no longer
an acceptab ly sha rp poin t but a larger circle which is
blurred. Precise placemen t of the film in the film aperture
is a most important consideration fo r motion picture camera designers to avoid film buckling or breakage, or other
mechanical problems such as variable pressure plates or
poor registration, ca using displacement of the film behind
the lens during actual exposure. Each frame must be held
securely in position and in perfect register in the exact focal plane and re main absolutely motionless during exposure. For close approxin1ation the formula for depth of focus for a lens at a given f-stop is plus or minus:
162
Field of view may be calculated by substituting film

aperttue size for image size; the field of view is then the
object size. (Lens angle may be calculated with the aid of a
table of tangents or a pocket scientific or slide-rule calculator; see tangents table.)
For 2:1 anamorphic lenses, the field or object size is
double in the horizontal dimension.
A = Aperture (height or wid th) in inches
f = focal length of a lens in inches
:h A
Tangent Y2 viewing angle =
The tangent of Y2 viewing angle can be converted to
degrees by consulting a tangent table. Multiply this angle
by two to obtain the full viewing angle. For Cinema scope,
or other two times squeeze wide screen processes, the formula is simply the aperh.ue divided by the focal length of
the lens, since 2 times Y2 equa ls 1. Other squeeze ratios
should use the following formula:
Y2 A x Squeeze Ratio
Tangent Y2 viewing angle=
Using the above sketcl1 one may calculate camera distance, object size, lens focal length or image size if any three
are known .
0 = object size in front of ca mera
D = distance from object to lens of camera
F = focal length of lens used
A = image size
and: a = lens an gle when A = film aperture size
0 = field of view when A = film aperture size
163
Lens Aperture
These components are connected together by the following basic form uJas:
0
and that, in other terms, leads to the following fo ur basic

formulae:
OxF
object size x focal length
D =- - ;
Distance= - - - - - -- - A
aperture size
DxA
0 =;
F
distance x aperture size

Object size = - - - - - - - - focal length
DxA
distance x apertwe size
F = - - ; Focal length= - - - - -- - - 0
object size
FxO
focal length x object size
A= - - ; Aperture size= - - - - - - - - D
distance
All d imensions must be converted to the same w1its: feet,
inches, meters or millimeters. (One inch equals 25.4 millimeters; one millimeter equals .0394 inches.) Note that D is
measured to the lens (front principal point). Most cameras
and lens scales are calibrated to the d istance from the film
plane (because lenses to be mmmted on the camera are of
various sizes). This convention should pose no problem
when the object distance is greater th.a n about 10 times the
lens focal length. (See "Exheme Closeup Photography.")
164
F-stop or -number is the ratio of the focal length of a

lens to the dia me ter of the entrance pupil. (Approximately
the aperture diaphragm size in a symmetrical lens).
T-stop is a measure of the light bansmission of the lens.
It is related to -stop by the efficiency of I ight transmission.
A lens w hich transmitted 100% of the light entering it
would have the same f-stop and T number.
To compensate for backlash in the mechanism, always
set a lens diaphragm by moving fro m the widest opening
to the desired aperture. This method takes up any backlash
that may be present and provides the most accurate setting.
(Reference: ANSI PH 22.90.)
Lens Displacement When Focused Closer

Than lnfini ty
d = lens d isplacement fro m infinity position
f = focal length of lens in inches
a = distance focused on in inches
f2
d= a-f
EXAMPLE: The d isp lacement of a SOmm (2 inch) lens
focused at 10 feet (120 inches):
22
d =- - =- - = 0.031"
120-2
118
Extreme Close-up
In photographing subjects at a distance closer than the
camera lens mount scale will allow, three options are open:
1. When available, extension rin gs or bellows may be
used between the camera lens an d the flange.
2. Supplementary lenses (commonly known as "diopters") may be moun ted in front of the lens or screwed into
filter holders on the lens.
3. Lenses especially designed for photomacrography
may be employed. (The term " macro" is loosely defined;
Kodak uses it when the scale is greater than 1:1, while many
lenses are sold for "macro" for use down to 1:1 or 1:2.
165
Lenses used for general cinematography are d esigned and

corrected for subjects many feet from the camera; " macro"
lenses are corrected for whatever scale they are sold for, and
would be expected to deliver a better image at that scale
than a con ventional lens with extension rings.)
The choice be tween extension rings or diopter lenses
is determined by convenience, w ith a slight preference for
the use of prime lenses and extension rings. Image aberration due to close focusing of prime lenses and due to the
"simple lens" structure of diopters is minimized in each
case by stopping down to f/8 or f/1 1. While a macro lens
may be corrected for a larger aperture, depth of field (about
IIJoth of an inch at f/8 at scale 1:2) may be a limiting factor.
Depth of field at a given f-stop depends solely on the scale
factor (copy ratio or image size divided by subject size), not
on the use of extension tubes or diopters, nor on the lens
focal length. Therefore, it is preferable to use a long focus
lens to allow more room for Ughting.
Extension of Prime Lens

As the prime lens is moved forward, less light is transmitted because the effective T-stop is progressively diminished by its distance from the film. At a subject-to-lens distance of about 10 focal lengths (field width of 8" fo r 35mm,
or4" for 16mm) this begins to become noticeable. The table
shows the amount of illumina tion increase required to
maintain full exposure in terms of image scale factor.
By convention, most camera lens distance scales are
calibrated a t a subject distance measured from the film
plane because lenses of d iffering sizes are involved. The
following close-up tables are calculated on subject-to-lens
d istance (to the front "principal point"; for practical purposes, the iris diaphragm, which is not necessarily the calibrated diaphragm ring).
When a prin1e len s is set at scale focus infinity, and a

diopter lens is mow1ted in front of it, a subject will be in
focus on the film plane if positioned at a distance from the
diopter lens equivalent to the focal length of the diopter lens
(2 meters for a Y2 diopter lens, 1 meter for a 2 diopter lens,
etc.). Two d iopter lenses monnted close together may be
used and the power is the sum of the powers of the two
lenses. When two d iopter lenses are combined , the highest power should be closest to the prime lens. Plus diopters should be placed in front of the p rime lens with their
convex (outward curve) side toward the subject. If an arrow is engraved on the rim of the diopter lens mount, it
should point towa rd th e subject.
Highest screen quality results with lower-power diopters. It is better to use a longer focal length prime lens
and a less powerful plus-diopter lens than to employ a
higher p ower diopter on a short focal length prime lens.
Plus diopter lenses shorten the focal length of the prime lens
and change its focus scale. The tables give typical figures
for these factors. Because the prime lens is used "on scale"
it is not necessary to increase exposure for close-ups photographed in this matm er.
Depth Of Field For Close-up Photography

When the object distance is less than 10 times the lens
focal length, depth of field is very small, and tables are more
appropriately combined and stated in terms of image magnifica tion, rather than focal length and subject distance. The
difference in near and far depth also becomes small, and
d epth is stated in the table as the total zone of probable
acceptable sharpness. Geometric calculation of depth of
field for asymmetrical lenses (retro, tele, and zoom) is also
to be taken as an approximate guide in these zones, because
each has been designed for a specific range which may or
may not include extreme close-up.
Diopter Lenses
By definition, "diopter" is the measure of the power
of the lens expressed as the reciprocal of the focal length in
meters (1000 divided by the focal length of the lens in millimeters). The term is commonly used by cinematographers
to refer to supplementary lenses used in close-up photography. The lenses are generally of a weak meniscus form
and are marked with the number indicating the d iop ter
power: +Y.! , +1, +2, etc.
166
167
ally cut in half, although they may be positioned in front
Extreme Closeup Lens Formulas
of the prime lens so that more or less than half is covered.

111ey may be compared with bifocals for human vision, in
which the eye may focus near and far. They have an advantage over bifocals, however, in th at they may bejowsed
1000
Power in diopters = - - ( = "P")

F(mm)
image size
shnrply on both nenr nnd jnr subjects simultnneously.
image distance from lens
Magnification "m" = - - object size
object distance from lens
Combining "diopter" lens with prime lens

F x 1000
p
F
= - - - mi llimeters
c
F + 1000
p
F = focal length prime lens

F = effective focal length,
' (combination)
Total depth of field in terms of "m":

2C N(l +m)
0
, =----
C= diameter of circle of confus ion

N= f/ number
Exposure factor for extended p rime lenses:

El(close-up)
Exposure Factor =
= (1 + m)2
El(normal)
1
NE
Lens stop corrected fo r m: N 1 = - l+m
= indicated or
calibrated
lens stop
=calculated or
"normal"
lens stop
Stop chan ge = 6.6 log (1 +m) =

Not all of these formulas are rigorous.
Some have very small factors discarded for practicality.
Split-Field Diopter Lenses

Split-field d iopter lenses are pnrtinl lenses, cut so that
they cover only a portio11 of the prime lens . They are gener-
168
The depth of field of the prime lens is not extended .

The split-field diopter lens simply permits focusing on a
very close subject on one side of the frame, while a distant
subject is photographed normally through the uncovered
portion of the prime lens. Generally, the area in between
will not be in focus. There are instan ces, such as using a
zoom lens with a small aperture at the w ide-angle position,
when sharpness may extend all the way from the ul traclose-up to the distant subject. The split diopter-equipped
lens possesses two distinct depths of field: one for the close
subject (which may be very shallow or possess no dep th
whatever), and another for the distant subject (which will
be the normal depth of field for the particular focal length
lens and -stop in use). It is important, therefore, to exclude
subject matter from the middle distance because it will create a situation where the foreground is sharp, the middle
distance is out of focus and the distant subject is sha rp!
Split-field diopter lenses requ.ire ground-glass focusing to precisely line up both fo reground and background
subjects and visually ch eck focus on each. This is particularly important with zoom lenses, which may require camera movement during the zoom.
Very unusual effects are possible that would otherwise
require two separate shots to be later combined in an optical printer via a matting process. Making such split shots
in the camera p ermits viewing the scene as it will appear,
rather than waiting for both shots to be optically printed
onto one film.
The proper power split-field diopter lens is positioned
in front of the taking lens on the same side as the near object, so that it is sh arply focused on one sid e of the fra me.
The uncovered portion of the conventional or zoom lens is
focused in the usual manner on the distant subject. (Note:
Use the "Plus Diopter Lenses Focus Conversion Table" to
find near and far focusing distances with various p ower
diopter lenses.) A zoom lens may be employed, either to
obtain an intermediate focal length not available with conventional lenses, or to zoom during the shot. Study the shot
169
through the focusing viewfinder at the f-stop to be used for

filming.
..
The edge of the split diopter ~ens sho~d be postti.oned,
if possible, so that it lines up wtth a stratght edge m the
background, such as the corner of a room, the edge of a
column or a bookcase. Eliminating the edge may prove
difficult under certain conditions, particularly with a zoom
lens, because the edge w ill shift across the frame slightly
when the lens is zoomed.lt is wise to leave space between
the foreground and backgroLmd subjects so that they do not
overlap and so tl1a t each is removed from the lens edge.
This will minim ize "blending." The split diopter need not
be lined up vertically- it may be used horizontally or at
any angle to cover a foreground subject on ~op, .bottom,
either side or at an angle across the frame. Ltghtmg may
be employed to lighten or dar~en the b~ckground a rea
where the split occLus, to make 1t less noticeable.
Split-field diopter shots ca1mot be filmed on th~ ~w1.
They require precise subject placement, camera positiOning and balanced lighting to record an ac~e~table result
without a telltale blur between. They have lirruted use and
will not replace elaborate setups that require optical printing, process backg ro w~d p~ojecti on or mattes. Th.ey may be
used for simple combmatlon shots where the. cm~matog
rapher is allowed the time required for a prense lineup of
the various elements involved.
Diopter and split-field d iopter lense~ may ~e ordered
custom-made in a compound construction w hich can be
more highly corrected than simple single-lens elements.
Such compOLmd lenses consist of two or more eleme.n~s and
are rather thick, so they require a special retammg rmg.
Special Purpose Lenses

Swing Shift Lens
The Clairmont Swing Shift Lens System consists of a
multi-axis moveable lens boa rd receiver attached to a
Arriflex style P L lens mow1t by a rubber .bellows. Specially
modified lenses are a ttached to tile rece1 ver board by two
captive screws. The assembly is able to move tile entire lens
in t11e following directions: tilt up .and down, swmg s1de
to side, shift position and focus nght to left, or up a ~d
down. Tilting/swinging tile lens plane alters the focus; t~lt
ing/swinging the film plane alters tile shape ..By combming the va rious para meters of movement, different and
170
unusual effects can be accomplished, such as increased or

decreased depth of field , selective planes of focus, repositioning of image withou t changing placement of the camera, and correction or addition of image distortion. The focal lengths available are 20mm, 24mm, 28mm, 35mm,
SOmm, 60mm, and 80mm.
Panavision 45mm T2.8 Slant-Focus Lens

TI1e plane of focus of this lens can be tilted in any direction (including vertical and diagonal) as well as horizontal by adjusting the rear lens rotating mount.
If the lens focus is set on an object near the center of
the field of view, the p lane of focus can be tilted so that
objects (left side of fiame and /or right side of frame) located
along this tilted plane of focus will also be sharp.
If there is not an object near the center of the field of
view, measure the distance to the near and far object and
set the focus at an average between the two distances. The
p lane of focus can now be til ted so that the two objects will
be brought into focus. In all situations, an object near tl1e
center of the field of view should still be in focus after tilting the lens.
Due to the tilting na tme of th is lens, it cannot be used
with a Panaflex follow-focus. For tl1e initial focus and any
change in focus, eye focusing is necessary. This lens accepts
a 1.4X Primo extender witll negligible cha nge in performance and no change in operation. The focal length becomes 63mm witl1 a maximum aperture of T4.0. If filters
are used witll t11is lens tlley should (whenever possible) be
glass fil ters in front of the lens. If needed, tile lens does accept a 40.Smm rear filter.
Continental Camera Systems RemotelyControlled "Pitching Lens" f/3.9 Optical

Relay
Concept: A system to remotely control a prime lens
tl1at is mounted at tl1e end of an op tical relay tube. In normal configmation the 18" tube extends downward from tile
camera. The p rime lens is mow1ted at right angles to tl1e
tube and can tilt 15 up to 90 down. The entire system rotates 380. This allows lenses such as N ikkor or Arriflex to
get into very small areas. Use of an anamorphic element
between tile end of tile relay tube and camera allows a
spherical lens to produce an anamorphic image on film.
171
Because focus is controlled in the relay tube, it is possible

to continuously follow-focus from Yz inch to infinity, t~us
greatly extending the normal focus range of most prune
lenses. The system may also be mounted vertically (as in a
submarine) or extended straight out in a horizontal position.
Clear length of relay: 18" Maximum diameter: 3"
Control of Lens: Control console with built-in video
monitor. Pressure-sensitive joystick for pan and tilt operation. System power requirements nov, 220Y or 24~ DC.
Cameras: Arriflex IIC, Norelco PCP90 (VIdeo), Mitchell
R35, Lightweight Ted11ucolor VistaVision equipped witl1
Nikon mow1t.
Focus: Remotely controlled from hand-held unit. Focus speed is proportional to focus cormnand.
.
Taking Formats : 16mm, 35mm anamorph1c,
Vista Vision.
Optics: Nikon mount through adapter rings can use
a wide assortment of Nikkor and Arriflex lenses from 7.2
mm to 100mm. Speed of system is f/3.9 to f/32. Prime lens
is set wide open and aperture is controlled in the relay system.
Susp ension: Standard dolly with small jib arm and
C.C.S. balanced cross arm at camera end of jib. Large telescopic billboard cranes and Chapman "Titan" cranes can
be used.
Kenworthy Snorkel Camera Systems

A remote in1age-taking system with operator and camera components removed from shooting area. The camera
looks into a periscope-like optical relay tube that extends
downward below the camera and ends with a small frontsurfaced mirror. Since the mass of the can1era with operator is removed from the shooting area, considerations of
scene staging are concerned only witl1 the small end (1- 1.4"
x 1-W' at the mirror) of the tube. The tilting mirror is remotely controlled, as are other functions such as pan, focus, roll, zoom and iris. The mirror system perrruts more
intimate shooting (due to its small size) ilian do add-on
right-angled lens periscopes. It also permits tilting up in
constricted situations because the mirror, rather than the
tube/ ca mera combination, does the tilting. The system allows viewpoints in tight quarters reachable from overhead,
or from very low viewpoints or in miniature sets. Pans and
tilts are on system nodal point. An added waterp roof tube

permits Lmderwater or tran sition shots.
There are two systems ava ilable:
The Kenworthy Nettman Snorkel fea tures fast op tics
and lightweight, interchangeable form ats, a nd carries a
shorter tube for use on lightweight dollies. The cameras are
butterfly VistaVision, 65mm, and 16mm fil m and ~" video
cam eras. Camera lenses are used.
The type B Kenworthy Snorkel is designed for shooting actors with dialogue a t moderate lighting levels. It carries a longer tube (48" or 66") which permits more overhead
clearance for deeper penetration into four-walled sets or
water tanks. This system uses 35nlln only: Arriflex, Mi tchell
Mark 11, Panaflex or other similar cameras. The Panacam
is used for video. System lenses are used on the Type B;
28mm & 50mm T8 fo r fil m, 13mm T5.6 for video. Both systems can use anamorpluc lenses. Type B requires a camera
crane.
With both systems a console is used w ith a video
monitor and pan, tilt and lens controls.
Dynalens
An optical stabilizing device mounted on the camera
optical axis fo r compensating for image motion due to vibration of the camera.
A pair of gyro sensors detect rapid motion and drive
two gimbal-mow1ted glass plates, between which is a liquid-filled cell. One p late moves arow1d a vertical axis and
the other around a horizontal axis in a manner which deviates the light path opposite to the vibratory movement,
causing the image to stay still relative to the image receptor (film or video).
A low-frequency-response manually operated potentiometer on the control module adjusts the frequency sensitivity of the Lmit so controlled pcuming or til tin g may be
done.
The Dynalens is available in 2.3" diameter for 16mm
film or small video cameras and 3.8" and 8" for larger forma t cameras. The maximum useful a ngular devia tion is
60.
35mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF-FIELD. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW
9. 8mm
HYPER
12.41 '
8.86'
6.20'
4.43'
3.10'
2.22'
1.55'
1.13'
0.78'
0.56'
Ill
111.4
f/ 2
112.8
114
115.6
1/ 8
1111
1/16
1/ 22
1/32
1.85:1 AR
(.825"x.4461
LENS
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
ANA 2.39:1 AR
11.676"X.700"l
15
12
10
6'10"
INF
6' 1"
367'
s s
52'
s 3"
33'
4'10"
23'
4' 6'
16' 1"
4' o
11' 7"
3' 7'
8' 5"
3' 0"
5' 11"
2 s
1r s
1' 8~\"
2' 4'h"
5' 7"
INF
5' 1"
JNF
4' a
JNF
4' 6"
JNF
4' 3"
a2'
3' 11'
33'
3' 7"
19'
3' 2"
11' 6'
2' 9'
7' 3"
2' 3"
4' 6"
1' 7'h'
2' 7'
4' 5"
INF
4' 1'
JNF
3' 10"
JNF
3' a
JNF
3' 6"
INF
3' 4"
INF
3' 1'
1a4'
2' 9"
26'
2 s
11' 3'
2' ()"
5'10'
1' 6'
2'11'/z"
3' 5"
INF
3' 3"
INF
3' 1"
INF
3' o
INF
2'10"
INF
2' 9'
INF
2' 7"
INF
2' 4'
INF
2' 1'
41'
1'10"
9' 3"
1' 4'h"
3' s
2' 7"
INF
2' 6"
INF
2' 4"
INF
2' 4'
INF
2' 3"
INF
2' 2"
JNF
2' 1'
JNF
1'11'
INF
1' 9"
INF
I' 6"
92'
1' 2Y>"
5' 8"
2'
INF
2'
INF
1'10"
INF
1' 9"
INF
1' 9"
INF
1' a
JNF
1' 7"
JNF
1' 6"
INF
1' 5"
INF
1' 3"
JNF
1' ;,
21'
nf.~~~~F
[fjEUT~
9
8
7
5
4
3
2
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:

HYPER-
oMi~~E
LENS
rlocus
FEET)
30
20
15
10
8
7
6
5
4
....
'I
01
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .001" (1/ 1000')

FIELD OF VIEW
0.39'
(w/projected Image)
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:
3
2
r s
INF
r s
INF
1' 4"
INF
1' 4'
JNF
1' 4"
INF
1' 3'
INF
1' 3"
INF
1' 2"
INF
1' 1'
JNF
1' 0'
JNF
0'11'
JNF
32' O"x 17' 4"

65' O"X27' 2"
25' 7"x 13' 10"
52'12"x 21' 9"
21' 4"X 11' 6"
43' 3"X 1a 1"
19' 2"X 10' 4"
39' ox 16' 3"
17' O" X 9' 3"
34' sx 14' s
14'11'X a 1'
30' 3"X 12' a
12' 9"X 6' 10"
25'11'X 10' 9'
10
s 9"
21' sx 9' o
s sx 4' 7"
17' 3"X 7' 2"
s 4"x 3' s
121ox s s
4' 3"X 2' 3"
s sx 3' 7'
0'
INF
0'
INF
o s
INF
o s
JNF
o 4"
JNF
o 4'
JNF
0' 4'
JNF
0' 4"
INF
0' 4"
INF
0' 4'
INF
o 4"
JNF
1'
INF
1'
JNF
o 6"
JNF
0' 6'
INF
0' 6'
INF
0' 6'
INF
0' 6"
JNF
0' 6"
JNF
0' 6"
JNF
0' 6"
INF
o s
INF
1'
JNF
1'
INF
o 9"
JNF
o 9"
INF
0' 9"
INF
o a
JNF
0' a
JNF
0' a
INF
o a
JNF
0' 7"
JNF
o r
JNF
1'
JNF
1'
JNF
1 o
JNF
r o
INF
r o
INF
r o
INF
0'11"
INF
0'11'
JNF
0'11'
JNF
0'10"
INF
0' 9"
INF
TV HEIGHT
rx
14.53'
10.38'
7.27'
5.19"
3.63'
2.64'
1.82'
1.32'
Ill
111.4
112
112.8
f/ 4
f/ 5.6
1/ 8
1111
f/ 16
f/ 22
f/ 32
1.85:1 AR
(.825'X.446")
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
12'
INF
10' 2"
547'
8' 9"
54'
6' 9'
19' 3"
5' 9"
13' o
5' 3"
10' 7'
4' s
s s
4' 'l i'
6' 7"
3' 4"
4'11Vi'
2' 7'h'
3' 6"
1' 9'.1"
2' 2'h'
10'
INF
8'
INF
7' s
INF
5' 11"
32'
5' 2'
18'
4' 9'
13' 6"
4' 3'
10' 3'
3' 9'
7' 7"
3' 1'h"
5' 6"
2' 6"
3' 9'h"
1' 9'
2' 3'
8'
JNF
7'
JNF
6' 2'
INF
5' 1'
274'
4' 6'
35'
4' 2'
21'
3' 10"
14' 3'
3' 5'
9' s
2'11"
6' 6"
2' 4'
4' 3'
1' BY
2' 5'!."
6'
INF
5'
INF
5'
INF
4' 3"
INF
3'10"
INF
3' 7'
191'
3' 3"
34'
3' o
16'
2' 7"
8'11"
2' 1'h'
5' 1"
1' 7"
2' 11"
ANA 2.39:1 AR
(1.676"x.7001
41' 10"x 22' 1"
9'11"
31'
1 s
15' 3"
6' 3"
11 o
5' a
9' 3"
5' ()"
7' 7'
4' 3"
s o
3' 6v.
4' 7;,
2' 83~
3' 4V"
1'10W
2'
P~"'
18' s
15' 4"
13'10"
12' 3"
10' 9'
9' 2"
7' a
6' 1"
4' 1"
3' o
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .001" (1/1000'1

FIELD OF VIEW
0.91'
(w/ projected Image)
20.76'
64'
23' o
15mm
29.06'
15'
INF
11'10'
(.5941
4'
INF
4'
INF
4'
INF
3' 5"
INF
3' 2'
INF
3' o
INF
2' 9"
INF
2' 7"
137'
2' 3"
17'
1'11"
7' 1"
1' 5"
3' 3'
--
3'
INF
3'
INF
3'
INF
2' 8'
INF
2' 6'
INF
2 s
INF
2' 3"
INF
2' 1"
INF
1'11"
INF
1' 6"
17'
1' 4"
4' s
3'
INF
2'
INF
2'
INF
2' 1"
INF
2'0"
INF
1'11"
INF
1' 10'
INF
1' 9"
INF
1' 7'
INF
1' s
INF
1' 2'
8' 3'
2'
INF
2'
INF
2'
INF
1' 6"
INF
1' 6"
INF
1' 5"
INF
1 s
INF
1' 4'
INF
1' 3"
INF
1' 2"
INF
0'11"
INF
1'
INF
1'
INF
1'
INF
1' 2"
INF
1' 2"
INF
1' 1"
INF
1' 1"
INF
1' 1"
INF
1' ()"
INF
0'11'
JNF
0'10"
INF
-
1'
INF
1'
INF
1'
INF
0'10"
INF
0'10'
INF
0'10"
INF
0'10"
INF
0' 9"
INF
o 9"
INF
o s
INF
o s
INF
as ox35' s
27'10'X15' 1"
56' 7"X23' 6"
20'11"X 11' 3"
42' 5"x 17' 9"
13'11"X 7' 6"
28' 3"X 11'10"
11' 1"x 6' o
22' 7"x 9' 5"
9' 9"X 5' 3"
19' sx s 3"
8' 4'x 4' 6"
16'11"X 7' 1"
6'11"X 3' 9"
14' 1'X 5'11"
5' 6'X 3' ()"
11 3"x 4' s
4' 1'X 2' 3'
8' 4"X 3' 6"
2' 9"X 1' 6"
5' 7'X 2' 4'
TV HEIGHT
(.5941
30' 2'
20' 1'
15' 0"
10' ()"
s o
7'0"
6' ()"
5' ()"
4' o
3' 0'
2 o
20mm
HYPER
51.67'
36.90'
25.83'
18.45'
12.92'
9.23'
6.46'
4.70'
3.23'
2.35'
1/1
1/ 1.4
1/2
f/2.8
1/4
f/5.6
1/8
1/11
1/16
1/22
1/32
1.85:1 AR
(.825'X .446'1
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
ANA 2.39:1 AR
n.676' x .700"l
10'
INF
9'
INF
a
INF
6'11'
INF
s a
44'
4'11'
21'
4' 1'
11' 2'
3'
a 2
3' 'z"
s g
2' s
3'11'
1 a
2' 4'"
a
INF
7'
INF
6'
INF
5' 9'
INF
4' 10'
INF
4' 3'
60'
3' a
17'
3' 3'
10'11'
2'10'
T 1'
2' 3'
4' s
1' 7' '
2' 6'
6'
INF
s
INF
s
oNF
s
INF
3'1 1'
INF
3' 7"
INF
3' 1'
85'
2'10"
22'
2' 6"
10' 6'
2' 1t2"
s
nf~~~~~F
LENS
~~tE~~
40
30
20
15
10
8
5
4
3
2
19'
INF
17'
160'
13' o
44'
10 a
25'
7'10'
13' 9'
6'
10' 3'
s 2
7' 2'
4' s
5' 9"
3' 7'-l'
4' s
2' 9'<
3' 3' '
1'10'
22'
177'
19'
72'
14' s
33
11 a
21' 1'
8' s
12 s
6'11'
9' 6'
s 4""
6' 9' >'
4' 61i"
s 6'
3 a,
4' 4'
2' 10'
3' 2' '
1'11 ~....
2' 1'
2'
HYPER-
1 ~"
2'
8 11~"'
3' 4' '

1'10' '
2' 2"
13'
INF
11'
INF
10'
INF
8' 3'
ao
6' 6'
22'
s
14' 2'
4' 6'
8'11'
3'11'
6'10'
3' 3'
s 1
2'
3'
1' go,
2' 3'
r
r
1' 61 i"
2' 11'
2'
INF
2'
INF
2'
INF
2'
INF
1'11'
INF
1'10'
INF
r a
INF
1' 7'
INF
1' 6'
INF
1' 4'
INF
1' 1'
13'
3'
INF
3'
INF
3'
INF
3'
INF
2 s
INF
2' 4'
INF
2' 1'
INF
2' ()"
INF
1' 9'
INF
1'7'
42'
1' 3'
5' 3'
4'
INF
4'
INF
4'
INF
4'
INF
3' 2'
INF
3 o
INF
2 a
INF
2 s
INF
2' 2'
27'
1'10'
a 4'
r s
3' 6'
2'
INF
2'
INF
2'
INF
2'
INF
1 s
INF
1' 4'
INF
1' 3'
INF
1' 3'
INF
1' 2'
INF
1' 1'
INF
0'11'
INF
TV HEIGHT
41'10"x 22' r
as ox35' 6'
31' 4'x 17' o
63' 9">< 26' r
20'11'x 11' 4"
42' sx 17' 9'
15' ax a 6'
31'10'x 13' 3
10 sx s a
21' :rx a1oa 4'x 4' 6'
16'11'X T 1'
6' 3'X 3' 4'
12 ax s 3'
s :rx 2' 10"
10' 6'x 4' s
4' 2"X 2' 3'
a 5"x 3' 6'
3' 1'X 1' 8'
6' 3"X 2' 7"
2' O" x 1' 1'
4' 2'x 1' 9'
40.36'
28.83'
20.18'
14.42'
10.09'
7.34'
5.05'
3.67'
1/1
1/1.4
1/2
1/2.8
1/4
1/5.6
1/8
1/11
1/16
1/22
1/32
1.85:1 AR
(.825'X.4461
LENS
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
ANA 2.39:1 AR
11.676'x.700' l
50
25
15
12
10
31'
131'
19' 1'
36'
12 a
1a s
1o s
14' 1'
a"11'
11 s
7' 317'
a'10'h'
s 7"
6' 6'
4' a'h'
s 4'
27'
376'
11 s
44'
1'11'
20' 3'
9'11'
15' 2'
a 6'
12' 1"
7' I>'
9' 3'
s s
9 3'."'
3' g4' 3Yz'

2'10v.
3' 2" .
1'11 1/'
2' ~~
22'
INF
1s s
65'
10'11'
23'10'
9' 3"
17' 1'
a o
13' 3"
6' a
10 o
s 2'h'
7' 1'
4' s v,
s av,
3' 7'
4' 5'/'
2' 9\':'"
3' 3'
1' 11"
2' 111...
18'
INF
13'
188'
9'10"
31'
a 6'
20' 7'
T s
15' 4"
6' 3'
11' 1'
s o
7' 7"
4' 3"
6' 1'
3' 6'
4' 7'h'
2' 8 3 ~"
3' 4Y'
1'10'12'
2' HI'
a
INF
7'
INF
6' ()"
INF
s 6'
INF
s o
INF
4' 6'
39'
3' g14'10"
3' 4'
9'11'
2'10'
6'
2' 3''>'
4' 3'
r a
2 6'
6'
INF
6'
INF
s
INF
4' 7'
INF
4' 3'
INF
3'10'
INF
3' 4'
33'
3 o
16'
2
a 9"
2' 1""
s 1
1' 6'1
2' g-
5
4
3
2
3'
4' 2'/z'
2'10'1'
3'
1'11Yz'
2' 'h'
p,
6' 81;1"'
4' 7'1<'
5' 5 3~~
30' 2'
22' 7"
15' 1'
11' 3'
7' 6'
5 o
4' 6'
3' 9'
3 o
2' 3'
1 6'
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .001' (111000'1

FIELD OF VIEW
2.52'
(w/projected Image)
57.66'
~~ECEUT~
(.594' )
25mm
80.73'
nf.~~~~~F
.....
16'
INF
14'
INF
11' 3'
a9
9' 6'
36'
T 3'
16' 4'
6' 1'
1r
4'10'
7'10'
4' 2'z'
6' 2'
3' s ,
4' 9'
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:
'I
'I
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .001' (1/ 1000")

FIELD OF VIEW
1.61'
(w/projected image)
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:
14'
INF
11'
INF
a
58'
T 6'
30'
6' a
19'10'
s g13' 3'
4' a
a r
4' o
6' a
3' 4'
s o
2' 711i '
3' 6'
1' 9'1'
2' 2'1
11'
INF
9'
INF
T 4'
INF
6' 7"
72'
5' 11'
33'
s 2
1a o
4' 3"
10' 3'
3' 9'
7' a
3' 1'
5' 6"
2' 6'
3' 9 11'l'
1' 9"
2' Jl'.'"
s
INF
4'
INF
4'
INF
3'
INF
3' 4'
INF
3' 1'
INF
2' 9'
INF
2' 6'
553'
2' 3'
19'
1'11'
T s
r s
3' 4'
3'
INF
3'
INF
3'
INF
2'10"
INF
2' a
INF
2' 6'
INF
2' 3'
INF
2' 1'
INF
1'11'
INF
1 a
16'
1' 4"
4' s
2'
INF
2'
INF
2'
INF
2' o
INF
2' o
INF
1'11'
INF
1' 9"
INF
1 a
INF
1'7'
INF
1' 4'
INF
1' 1"
9' a
41'10"x22' 1
85' O"X35' 6'
20'11'X11' 4'
42' sx 17' g
12' 6"x 6' g
25' sx 1o r
1o ox s s
20' 4'X a 6'
a 4'x 4' 6'
16'11'X T 1'
6' a-x 3' 7'
13' 6"x s a
4' o-x 2' a
10' 1'x 4' 3"
4' 2'x 2' 3'
a sx 3' 6'
3' 3"x 1' g6' ax 2'10'
2 sx r 4'
s ox 2 1
1' r x 0'10'
3' 3"x 1' 4'
TV HEIGHT
(.5941
30' 2"
15' 1'
9' 0"
7' 2'
6' o
4' g3' 7'
3' o
2' 4'
1' g1' 2'
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:

HYPER-
Dl~~l~~E
LENS
fffEUrl
50
25
15
12
10
8
6
5
4
79.11'
56.51'
39.56'
28.26'
19.78'
14.38'
9.89'
7.19'
4.94'
111
f/1.4
f/2
f/ 2.8
1/ 4
f/5.6
f/8
f/11
f/ 16
f/22
f/32
1.85:1 AR
(.825"x.446")
NEAR
FAR
27'
434
17' 4"
45'
11'10"
20' s
9'1 1"
15' 3"
a 6"
12' 2"
7' o9' 4"
s s
6' a,
4' 7"
s 6"
3' 9"
4' 3'>"
2'10'<
3' 2"
1'11' '
2' 3~ ~
NEAR
FAR
22'
INF
15' 4"
6a'
10'10"
24' 2"
9' 3"
17' 3"
a- o
13' s
6' a
10 o
5' 2'z"
7' 1"
4' 5' ,.
5' a,
3' 7'z"
4' s ,
2' 9' >"
3' 3"
nov
2' 1 '.1~ "
NEAR
FAR
1a'
INF
13'
217'
9'10"
32'
a s
20'10"
7' s
1s 5
6' 3"
11' 2"
4'11"
7'7"
4' 3"
6' 1"
3' 6"
4' a"
2 a ,
3' 41.a
I' IO'z"
2' , ..
NEAR
FAR
11'
INF
9'
INF
1' 4"
INF
6' 7"
72'
5'11"
33'
s 2
Ia'
4' 3"
10' 3"
3 9"
7' a
3' 1'z"
5' 6"
2' 6"
3' 9'>"
I' 9"
2' 3'''
NEAR
FAR
a
INF
7'
INF
6' ()"
INF
s s
INF
s o
INF
4' 5
42'
3' 9"
15' 3"
3' 4"
10' 1"
2 10"
6' 9"
2' 3'z"
4' 4"
r a
2' 6"
NEAR
FAR
6'
INF
6'
INF
4' 10"
INF
4' 6"
INF
4' 2"
INF
3' 9"
INF
3' 3"
36'
2'11"
16'
2' 7"
9' o
2' 1'>"
s 2
I' 6'
2' 9"
NEAR
FAR
5'
INF
4'
INF
3' a
INF
3' 6"
INF
3' 4"
INF
3' 1"
INF
2'!r
INF
2' 6"
INF
2' 3"
21'
1'10"
7'7"
,. s
3' 4"
ANA 2.39:1 AR
4' ,,,..
2'11'"
3' 3....
2' ()"
2'
4~
NEAR
FAR
35'
90
20' 6"
32' 1"
13' 3"
17' 3"
10' 10"
13' s
9' 2'z"
10'11 'z"
7' s,
a 7'z"
s a,
6' 4"
4' 9' z"
5 2'<
3'10'<
4' P i'
2'11"
3' 1"
1'11'..
2' 1i2~
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:

HYPER
ffECEUT~
50
25
15
12
10
8
6
5
.....
4
3
FIELD OF VIEW
113.02'
LENS
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION ; .DOl" (1/1000")
158.23'
NEAR
FAR
3a'
73
2 1' 7"
29' a
13 a
16' r
I 1' 2"
13' o
9' s
10 a
7' 7'<
a 5'<
5' 9'.-
6' 3"
4'10'<
5 2
3'10'"
LDI~~l~~f
35m m
206.67'
NEAR
FAR
31'
136
19' o
37'
12 r
1a 6"
1o s
14' 2"
a'11"
1r s
7' 3"
a"11"
5' 7"
6' 6"
4' a ,
5' 4"
3' 9' "
4' 211 7"
2'10'
3' 1'>"
1'11 'z"
2' '2~
1
40mm
147.62'
103.33'
51.67'
36.90'
f/ 2
f/ 2.8
f/ 4
f/ 5.6
NEAR
FAR
40' 3"
66'
22' 4"
2a s
14' ()"
16' 2"
11' 4"
12 a,
g 6' z"
10' 6"
1 a,
NEAR
FAR
37'
76'
2r s
30' 1"
13 a
16' a
11' 1"
13' o
9' 4'z"
10' a
1'7"
a 5,
5' 9'"
6' 3"
4'10' "
s 2
3'10' '
4' l u,~
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
30'
155'
1a a
3a
1r 5
1a'10"
10' 4"
14' 4"
8'10"
11' 7"
7' 3"
9'0"
s 6'"
6' 6,
4' a.5' 4' '"
3' 9,
4' 2' "
2'10' z"
3' 1'z"
1'1 1'.!"
2' J . ..
NEAR
FAR
25'
INF
16'10"
4a'
1r a
21' 2"
9' 9"
15' 7"
a s
12 s
6'11"
9' s
5' 4' z"
6' 9'z"
4' 6' "
s 6,
3' 81t2.
4' 4"
2'10"
3' 2"
1'11 '1
2' 1"
NEAR
FAR
22'
INF
15'
71'
10' a
25'
9' 1"
17' !r
7'11"
13' 8"
6' 7"
10' 2"
5' 2"
7' 2"
4' 5
5' s .3' 7'>"
4' 51 "
2' 9.3' 3' 4'"
1' 10"
ll '
2'11' '
3'
]..-
1'11'.2' ....
gl,~"
2' 2'
(.594")
(1.6 76"X. 700"}

29'10"<16' 2"
60' 8"x 25' 4"
14'11"X a 1"
3o 3". 12 a
a'11"> 4'10"
1a 1x 7'
7' I"X 3'10"
14' 6"~ 6' o
5' 11"x 3' 2"
12 1" s o
4' 9"/ 2' 7"
9'
4' o
3' 6"x n1
7' 2"x 3' o
2'11"X I' 7"
s11x 2 6"
2' 4"'< 1' 3"
4' 9"x 2' o
1' 9"x 0'11"
3 6"x r 6"
1' 2x 0'
2' 3"x I' o
r ,.
2r 6"
10' 9"
6' s
5' 1"
4' 3"
3 5"
r 6"
2' I"
r a
1' 3"
0'10"
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION ; .DOt (111000")
73.81'
f/ 1.4
1'
TV HEIGHT
f/ 1
5' 10"
6' 2"
4'10,
5' 1,
3'11"
4' 1"
2'11'z"
3' 12'"
1'1F,
2' ~ ..
NEAR
FAR
14'
INF
11'
INF
a 5
62'
1' 6"
31'
6' 8"
20'
5' a"
1s s
4' 7"
a 7"
4' o
6' a
3' 4"
s o
2' 7'
3' 5,
(w/ projecled image)
34'
97'
20' 2"
33' o
13' 1"
17' 6"
10' g
13' 7"
9' 1'z"
11 o
1 5
a a
5' a
6' 4 1'1"'
4' 9' ....

5' 3"
3'10'
4' P.~"
2'11"
3' 1"
1' 11 .,
2' ''z"
2' , ,.
25.83'
18.79'
f/8
NEAR
FAR
17'
INF
13'
775'
9' 6"
36'
a 3"
22'
7' 3"
16' 4"
6' 2"
11' 7"
4'11"
7'10"
4' 2'z"
6' 2"
3' 5v,
4' 8
11"
2 a.3' 4h"
1'1Q'.i'
2' 2"
12.92'
9.39'
6.46'
f/11
f/ 16
f/22
f/ 32
1.85:1 AR
(.825"x .446")
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
10'
INF
9'
INF
6'11"
INF
6' 3"
169'
5' a
44'
s o
21'
4' 2"
11' 2"
3 a
a 2"
3' o
5' g
2 5,
3'11"
NEAR
NEAR
FAR
FAR
a
6'
INF
INF
7'
5'
INF
INF
5' g
5'
INF
INF
5' 4"
4' 3"
INF
INF
4'10"
3'11"
INF
INF
4' 4"
3'7"
54'
INF
3' a
3' 2"
17'
a5'
3' 4"
2'10"
10' a
22' 1"
2'10"
2' 6"
6'11"
10' 6"
2' 3 1.i '
2' ' 4''
4 5
s r
1' ] 3, ..
1' 6,
2 6,
2'10'
ANA 2.39:1 AR
14'
INF
11'
INF
a 4"
74'
7' 4"
33'
6' 7"
21'
s a
13'11"
4' 7"
a1o
4' o
6' 9"
3' J3~..
5' 1"
2' 7.
3' 6'h"
1' 93fc"
2'
2~:.
,.
8 3.~"
2' 4' "
FIELD OF VIEW

TV HEIGHT
(.594")
(1.676"X.700")
26' 2"x 14' I"
53' I"X22' 2"
13' ox 1 0"
26' 6"X 11' 1"
7' 9"x 4' 3"
15'10"x 6' 7"
6' 3"X 3' 4"
12 ax 5' 3"
5' 2"x 2' 9"
10' 6"x 4' s
4' 1"X 2' 3"
a 4"x 3' 6"
3' I"X I' a
6' 3"x 2' 7"
2' r x r 5"
5' 2"x 2' 2"
2' ox 1' I"
4' I"X I' 9"
r 6"x 10"
3' 1"x 1' 3"
1' O"x
6"
2' O"x 10"
1a' 10"
g s
5'
4' 6"
3' 9"
3' ()"
2' 3"
1'10"
1' 6"
1' I"
a
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:

HYPER
FOCAL
DISTANCE
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .001' (111000' )

FIELD OF VIEW
10.09'
(w/ projected Image)
322.92'
230.66'
161.46'
115.33'
80.73'
57.66'
40.36'
29.36'
20.18'
14.68'
111
1/1.4
1/2
1/2.8
1/4
1/ 5.6
1/8
1/11
1/16
1/22
1/32
1.85:1 AR
(.825'X .446')
LENS
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
ANA 2.39:1 AR
(1.676' X.700')
50
25
15
12
10
43' 4'
59' 2'
23' 2"
27' 1"
14' 4'
15' 9"
11' 6'1
12 5v,
9' ay,
10' 33,~..
7' 93A"
a 2'12'
5'1011'
6' 1Y'
4'1 1'
5' 1'
3'1 11h'
4' ;,
2'1H'.
3' v.
2' o
2' o
41' 1'
64'
22: 7'
28' 1"
14' 1'
16' o
11 5"
12 a
9'7'
10' 5'12'
7' a'A'
a 3'12'
5'10'!.'
6' 2"
4'103A'
5' 1Y.3'11'1'
4' 3A"
2'11'12'
3' 'h'
1'11'A"
2' y,
21' a
29'
13' g
1s s
11' 2"
12'11 112"
g 5'
10 a
7' 7'h"
a 5'
5' 9 1h'
6' 2'/.'
4'10Y.5' 2"
3'10'/'
4' w.
2:111'2'
3' 'I'
1'11'/"
2' Vi '
35'
88'
20' 7"
31'11'
13' 3'
17' 3'
10'10'
13' 5"
9' 2'12'
10'11 '12'
7' 6"
a 7'
5' ah'
6' 4'
4' gy,
5' 23\"
3'10Y>'
4' 13A'
2'11'
1'
1'11'A'
2'
31'
131'
19' 1'
36'
12 a
1a 5
10' 5"
14' 1'
8'11'
11 5
7' 3Y,
a'10'h'
5' 7'
6' 53A'
4'
5' 4"
3' 9'1'
4' 2'12'
2'103A'
3' 1'12'
1'11'12'
2' 'h'
27'
376'
17' 5
44'
11'11'
20' 3'
9'11'
15' 2"
a s
12' 1'
7' 'h"
9' 3'
5' 5'
6' a v,
4' 7'
5' 511'
3' g
4' 3'12'
2'1QY,
3' 2"
n w.2' 'A'
22'
INF
15' 5'
66'
10'11'
23'10"
9' 3'
17' 1'
a 0'
13' 3'
6' a
10' 0'
5' 2 112'
7' 1'
4' 5 ~
5' 8\2'
3' 7'1'
4' 5'A'
2: 9'12'
3' 3"
1' 11"
2' 1'!.'
19'
INF
14'
168'
9'11'
31'
8' 6"
20' 4"
7' 6'
15' 2"
6' 3'
11' 0"
5' 0"
7' 6'
4' 3'
6' 0"
3' s v.4' 7v,
2' 8 1;~
3' 4'
no v,
2' l'A'
14'
INF
11'
INF
a r
58'
7' s
30'
s a
19'10'
5' a
13' 3'
4' a
a 6"
4' o
6' 8'
3' 4'
5' o
2' 7'A'
3' 6'
1' 93A"
2' 23A'
11'
INF
9'
INF
7' 5
INF
s r
66'
5'11'
31'
5' 2"
17' 7'
4' 3"
10' 2"
3' g
7' 7'
3' 1'A"
5' 6"
2' 6'
3' g
1' g
2' 33A'
8'
INF
7'
INF
s o
INF
5' 6"
INF
5' 0'
INF
4' 5
39'
3' 9"
14'10'
3' 4'
9'11"
2' 10'
6' 7'
2'3'h'
4' 3'
1' a
2' s
~fECE~
5
4
3
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:

HYPER-
I n~0r~~~<
933.23'
LENS
~fECE~~
8
7
6
85mm
666.59'
a'h
(.594')
20'11"X11' 3'
42' 5"X 17' 9"
10' 5'x 5' a
21' 2'X 8'10"
6' 3'X 3' 4'
12: S'x 5' 3'
5' o-x 2' a
10' 1"X 4' 3'
4' 1"X 2: 3'
a 4'x 3' s
3' 3'X 1' 9"
6' ax 2' g
2' 5"x 1' 4"
5' ox 2' 1'
2' O"x 1' 1'
4' 1'X 1' 9"
1' rx 0'10'
3' 3'X 1' 4"
1' 2x 0' a
2' 5"x 1' 0"
o gx o 5'
1' r x 0' a
15' 0"
7' 6'
4' 6'
3' 7"
3' 0'
2' 4'
1' 9'
1' s
1' 2'
0'10'
0'7"
J~mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF-FIELD. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW

466.62'
333.30'
233.31'
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION
166.65'
116.65'
84.84'
58.33'
42.42'
29.16'
.DOl" (1/ 1000")
FIELD OF VIEW
(w/ projected image)
1/1
1/ 1.4
f/2
1/2.8
1/4
1/5.6
f/ 8
f/11
1/16
NEAR
FAR
1122
NEAR
FAR
f/ 32
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
1.85: 1 AR
(.825'X.446' )
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
ANA 2.39:1 AR
11.676"X.7001
7' 11' .-
38'
n:
J,..
6'11 ,
7' '2''
5'11 '>'
6'
4'11'.
,?.
s ,...
3' 11'.
4 ,
a7
11a'
46' 5
54' 1"
24' 1'
25'11 '>"
14' a
15' 4'"
11' g,
12' 2 3.9' 10.10' p.7'1 1"
a P
6'11 '.7' Jl
5'11 '>"
6' 'f'
4'1 1'>"
5'
3' 11'.4
.,.
...
a2'
127
45' 2"
56' 1"
23' g
zs 5
14' 6.
15' 6'
1r a ,12' 33.9' g,10' 2'.7'10'>"
a p.6'103.7' )1 , ..
5'11"
6' I'
4' 11 '>"
11
3'11'.4'
TV HEIGHT
NEAR
FAR
100 90'112'4"
47' 5
50 52'
10"
4"
25 24'
25' a ,
14' g15 15' 3"
12 12'11'10.
2"
10 109'10.1'"
......
00
......
50mm
' ..~
77'
143
43' 6"
58'10'
23' 3"
21 o
14' 4'
15 a ,
11' 7"
12 5,g a,
10' 3'.7' g>,
a 2,
6'10' .7' P l'
5'103.6' 1'.4' 11 14'
5 1
3' 11,4' ';(
70'
175'
41' 2"
64'
22 r
2a o14' 1"
16' 0'
11' 5"
12' a
9'7"
1o 5,
7' a>.a 3'.6' g,
7' 2 3 4~
5'10'.6' 2'
4'10 3."
s
1' ....
3'11'"
4' 3 4 ~
63'
250'
3a
71'
21' g
29' 5
13' g
16' 6"
1r 2 ,
12'1 1'
g 5
10' 7,
7' 7,a 4'"
6' 8'"
7' 3.
5' g,
6' 2'.4'10 .5' 1'.3'10'.4' 11.
54'
700'
35'
88'
20' 7"
31'10"
13' 4'
17' 3"
10' 11"
13' 4"
9' 2,
10'11 ,
7' s
a 7"
6'
7 ',~
7' 5 ,
5' a ,
6' 4"
4' g,
5' 2 3.3' 10,
4' P /'
46'
INF
31'
122:
19' 4"
35'
12' g
1a' 3'
10' 6"
14' oa11'
11' 4"
7' 3,
a1o
6' 5,7' 7,
5 7.
6' 4"
4' a.5' 3'.3' 9'.4' 2,
37'
INF
27'
350'
17 6"
44'
11'1 1"
20' 2"
9'11'
15' 1"
a 6'
12' 1'
7'
,1.
9' 3'
6' 3"
7' 11 '>"
5' 5,
s a ,
4' ] ',"
5 5'.3' g
4' 3 11t"
30'
INF
23'
INF
15' g61'
11' 1'
23' 2"
9' 4'
16' g
a 1'
13' 1'
6' g
9'10"
6' o
a 5
5 3
7' o
4' 5,5' a
3 a
4' 5"
23'
INF
1a'
INF
13'
175'
9'11'
30' 11"
a 5
2o 5"
7' 5
15' 3"
6' 3'
1r o
5' a
9' 2"
5' 0"
7' 7"
4' 3'
6' o
3' 6.
4' 7,
24' 7"x 13' 3"

49'11'X20'10"
12: 3'x 6' 8'
24'11'x 10' 5'
6' 1';.. 3' 3"
12 5,. 5' 2
3 a,, 2' o7' 4'x 3' 1'
2'11"x 1' 7"
5'10" ~ 2 5
2' 5x 1' 4"
4'10' x 2 o
1'11"x 1' o3'10'x 1' 7"
1' ax 0'11'
3' 4'x 1' 5'
I' 5"x 0' g
2'10"v I' 2"
I' 2"x o a
2' 4"\ 1' 0'
0'11"x o 6"
nox o10
TV HEIGH:
(.5941
17' a
a'10'
4' 5
2: 7"
2' 1'
1' 9"
1' 4'
1' 2"
1 o
0 10"
o a
...
LENS FOCAL LENGTH: 100mm

HYPER-
922.62'
645.83'
461 .31 '
322.92'
230.66'
161.46'
117.42'
80.73'
58.71'
111
1/1.4
1/2
1/2.8
1/4
1/5.6
1/8
1/11
1/16
1/22
1/32
1.85:1 AR
(.825"X.446")
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
ANA 2.39:1 AR
(1.676"X.700")
92'10"
toa 5"
4a' 2"
52' o
24' s .
25' 6"
19' ay,
20' 3'1<
14'10"
15' 2'1<
11'10',1"
12' 1'/,"
9'11"
10' 1"
7'11 17"
a y,
6'11V>"
7' 'h"
5'11'/,"
90' 3"
112'
47' 5"
52'10"
24' 4"
25' an
19' 7"
20' 5'1<
14' g
15' 3"
10'10V<
12' 2"
9'10'A"
10' , ....
7'11 '!."
a 34"
6'11'h"
7' 'I>"
5'11'/2"
6' 'h"
4'11""
5' 1/,
a2'
12a'
45' ,.
56' 1"
23' 9"
26' s
19' 2"
20'11"
14' 6'1"
15' 6"
11' ah"
12' 33,1"
9' 9'!"
10' 2'1"
7' 10'<
a , ..
6'10'""
7' 1V<
5'11"
6' 1"
4'11 '12"
5' y,
76'
145
43' 4"
59' 2'
23' 2"
27' ,.
tato
21' 4"
14' 4"
15' 9"
11' 63!."
12' 5'12"
9' a~
10' 3'"
7' 9'<
8' 2">"
6'10'!."
7' 2"
5'10'1"
6' 1'!."
4'11"
5' 1
70'
177'
41' 1"
64'
22' 7"
2a' 0"
ta s
21'11"
14' 1"
ts o
1r s
12: a
9' 7"
10' 517"
62'
263'
38'
72:
21' 8"
29' 7"
17'10"
22'10"
13' 9"
16' 6"
11' 2"
12'11' '"
g 5"
10' a
7' 7'h"
a s
6' al,"
7' 3'1<
5' gy,
6' 2'1<
4'10V<
5' 2
OI~~~~F
LENS
~~fEUT~
100
50
25
20
15
12
10
8
7
6
5
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .001" (1/ 1000' )

FIELD OF VIEW
40.36'
(w/projecled image)
1292'
6'
/l'
4'11'1<
s v,
aT
Ita
46' 5"
54' 2"
24' ,.
26' 0"
19' s
20' 7'iz"
14' a
15' 4'1<
11' 9'1<
12' 2'1<
9'10'!."
10' 2"
7'10'1"
a 1'1<
6' 11"
7' 1"
5' 11'!."
6'
lf4"
4'11 17"
5' 'h"
TaV
8' 3'h"
6' 9'h"
7' 2'1<
5'10'1<
6' 2"
4'10'''
s P.t
54'
674'
35'
37'
45'
aT
20' 7"
31' 9"
17' 1"
24' 1"
13' 4"
17' 2"
10'11"
13' 4"
9' 217"
10'11"
7' 6"
a 7"
6' 7'1<
7' 5'!."
5' a'l>"
6' 3 3/<
4' gy,
5 2>.~
29'
INF
INF
INF
31'
131'
19' 1"
36'
16' 0"
26' 7"
12 a
1a 5
1o 5"
14' 1"
a'11"
11' ()"
7' 3'12"
8'10'12"
s 5v,
7' a
5' 7"
6' 53!."
4' ay,
5' 4
27'
337'
17' 6"
44'
14' 11"
30'
11'11"
20' 2"
to o
15' 1"
a 1
12 o
7' -~
9' 3"
6' 3"
7'11 '12"
5' 5v,
s a
4' 1v.
22'
s 5'~
INF
15' 5"
66'
13' 5"
40'
10'11"
23'10"
9' 3"
17' 1"
a o
13' 3"
s a
10' ()"
6' ()"
8' 6"
5' 2V>"
7' 1"
4' 5'h"
5' ay,
20'11"X11' 3"
42' 5"x 17' 9"
to 5"x 5' a
21' 2"X a'10"
5 2x 2 9"
to sx 4' s
4' I"X 2' 3"
a 4"x 3' s
3' I"X 1' a
s 3"x 2' r
2' sx 1' 4"
5' O"x 2' 1"
2: ox r 1
4' I"X 1' 9"
r r x 0'10"
3' 3"X 1' 4"
r sx o g
2'10"X 1' 2"
1' 2"x o a
2' 5"x r o
r ox o s
2: O"x 0'10"
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:

HYPER0
ofsr~~~
LENS
~~ECE~~
......
CX>
Vol
150
100
75
50
25
20
18
15
12
10
8
1453'
1038'
726.6'
519.0'
363.3'
264.2'
181.6'
132.1'
90.82'
1/1
1/1.4
1/2
1/2.8
1/4
1/5.6
1/ 8
1/11
1/16
1/22
1/32
1.85:1 AR
(.825"X.446")
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
142' 8"
158' 2"
96' a
103' 7"
73' 1"
77' 0"
49' 2"
50'10">"
24' g ,
25' 2'<
19'10'<
20' , ..
17'103<
1a' 1'<
14'11"
15' 1"
11'11 '>"
12' .,.
9'11'<
NEAR
FAR
140'
162:
95 s
105' 1"
12: 5
77'10"
4a'10"
51' 3"
24' a,
25' 312"
19' g>,
20' 2.
7'10'<
1a' 2"
14'10'<
15' 1' <
11'11 "<
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
136'
167'
93' 7"
107' 5
71' 4"
79' ,.
48' 4"
51' 9'
24' 7"
25' 5'<
19' a >.20' 3'<
17' go,
ta 2'<
14'10'<
15' 2"
11'10'<
12' 1' <
9'11' <
10' ' "
7'11 '>"
NEAR
FAR
131'
175'
91' 3"
111'
69'11"
a0' 10"
47' a
52' 6"
24' 5"
25' 7,
19' 7,
20' 4'"
17' 8'<
1a 3 3<
14' go ,
15' 2'<
11'10' <
12' , ..
9'103<
10' 1'<
7' 11 '<
a to>.-
124'
189'
88'
116'
68' 0"
a3 a
46' 9"
53' a
24' 2"
25'10' "
19' 5,
20' r
17' 6'<
ta 5,
14' a ,
15' 4"
11' 9'
12' 2,
9'10' <
10' , ..
7'11"
a 1
NEAR
FAR
116'
211'
84'
124'
65' 6"
a a
45' 7"
55' 4"
23'10"
26' 3"
19' 3"
20' g,
17' 5"
ta a
14' r
15' 5'"
11' a.12' 3' <
9' g>,
10 2'>"
7'10,
a , .,.
NEAR
FAR
106'
255'
7a'
138'
62'
95'
43'11"
5a o
23' 5"
26'10"
19' ()"
21' 2"
17' 2"
1a'11'>"
14' 5"
15' a
11' 7,
12 5"
9' 8' "
10' 3
7'10"
a 2'<
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
96'
347'
73'
16 1'
58'
105'
42' ,.
62'
22'10"
27' 7"
1a' 7"
21 a
16'10"
19' 4"
14' 2'2"
15'11"
11' 6"
12' 7"
9' 7'<
Ill' 4 3.7' 9"
a 3"
82'
861'
65'
222'
53'
12a'
39'
69'
22 o
29' o
1a o
22: 6"
ts 5"
20' 0"
13' 10"
16' 4"
11' 3"
12'10"
9' 6"
10' 7"
r a
a 4'"
ANA 2.39:1 AR
f1.676"x.7001
7'11'.8' ,,..
J ~~
8'
7' 6"
3' 9"
3' 0"
2' 3"
1' g
I
1' 6"
1' 2"
1'0"
0'10"
o a
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .001 (1/1000')
2076'
12'
15' 0"
150mm
9'11' >"
10' .,.
7' 11' ..
8' ,, ..
(.594")
- - -- --- - -
2906'
10' ,_,..
TV HEIGHT
12..
70'
INF
57'
412'
48'
174'
36'
ao
21 o
30'10"
17' 4"
23' 7"
15'10"
20'10"
13' 6"
16'11"
11 o
13' 2"
9' 3,
10'10"
1 5,
a s
57'
INF
48'
INF
41'
431'
32'
111'
19' 7"
34' 6"
16' 5"
25' a
15' 0"
22 5
12' 11"
18' 0"
10' 7"
13'10"
9' o
11' 3"
7' 4"
a g
FIELD OF VIEW
(w/projected image)
20'11"X11' 3"
42' 5"X 17' 9"
13'11"X 7' 6"
28' 3"x 11'10"
10' 5"x 5' a
21' 2"X a'10"
6'11"X 3' 9"
14' 1"X 5'10'
3' 5"x no
7' ox 2'11"
2' 9"x 1' 6"
5' sx 2 4"
2' sx 1' 4"
s ox 2' 1"
2' O"x 1' 1"
4' 1"x 1' 9"
1' 7"x 0'10"
3' J"X 1' 4"
1' 4"X 0' 9"
2' B"x 1' 2"
1' 1"X ll' 7"
2' 2"X 0'11"
TV HEIGHT
(.594")
15 o
tO' o
7' 6"
5' o
2' 6"
2' o
1' 9"
1' 6"
1' 2"
,. o
0'9"
......
~
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:

HYPER
nfs~~~~F
LENS
rfECEUT~
200
100
75
50
25
20
18
15
12
10
8
35mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF-FIELD. HYPERFDCAL DISTANCE & FIELD OF VIEW
200mm
5167'
3690'
2583'
1845'
1292'
922.62'
645.83'
469.70'
322.92'
f/ 1
111.4
112
f/2.8
114
f/ 5.6
118
1111
1116
f/ 22
f/ 32
1.85:1 AR
(.825"X.446")
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
ANA 2.39:1 AR
(1.676"x.700'1
140'
34a'
a2'
127'
65'
as
45' 2"
56' o
23' 9"
2s 5"
19' 2"
20'10'12"
17' 4"
18' 8v,
14' 4"
15' 4',?
15' 6"
1
11' av.
11' 9 ',"
12' 2'
12' 33,."
9' 91'2"
9'10'
10' 2"
10' 2'
7'10l
7'10'"
124'
525'
76'
145'
61'
9a'
43' 4"
59' 2"
23' 2"
27' 1"
1a'10"
21' 4"
192' 7"
208' r
sa 1"
102' o
73'11"
76' 1"
49'
6 '',~
50' 6"
24'10\Y
25' 1'12"
19'11"
20' 1"
17'11 '1'
18' 3!."
14'11'12"
15' 'h"
11'1H'4"
12' \4''
9'111."
10' 'I
8' 0"
a 0"
190'
1a6'
211'
217'
97' 4"
96' 3"
104 o
102' 9"
73' 6"
72'10"
76' r
77' 3"
49' v,
49' 4"
50' a;, 51' o
24'10"
24' 9"
25' 2"
25' 3"
19'103/."
19' 10V
20' 1'1" 20' 2"
17'11"
17'10v.
Ia' 1"
18' l W'
14'11V..
14'11"
3
15' .-i'
15' 1"
11'1 1'.1" 11'11 '!."
12' 1\"
12' "'"
9'11'n"
9'11'
10' r.
10' 'n"
7'1B
rm
a w 8' '.&"
~
LENS
JW\1
......
~
400
200
150
100
75
50
35
25
20
18
15
lao
224'
94'10"
105' 9"
72' 1"
7a' 2"
48' a
51' 5"
24' a
25' 4"
19' 9'12"
20' 23!."
17'10"
18' 2114"
14'10"
15' l'h"
11'11"
12' 1"
9'11'1"
10' .,.
7'11'
8' \"
173'
164'
237'
255'
92'10"
90' 3"
loa 5"
112'
70'11"
69' 4"
ar a
79' 7"
4a' 2"
47' 5"
52' o
52 10"
24' 6'1" 24' 4"
25' a;,
25' 6"
19' 7"
19' a'l"
20' 3'1" 20' 5'/'
17' a
17' 9"
18' 3"
1a 4V"
14' 9"
14' a
15' 21'4"
15' 3"
11'10' ..
11'10'
12' 2"
12' 1' '
9'1031"
9'11"
10 n~
10' 1"
7' 11 ~.-
7'11 '1"
a .....
a 'II"
153'
290'
aT
11a'
67' 2"
84'10"
46' 5"
54' 2"
24' 1"
2s o
19' 5"
20' 7'h"
17' 6"
Ia' 6"
14' 6'h"
8' l W'
8' PA"
17'
'l2"
19' 1"
14' 1"
15' 9"
1r s:w
12 5,
9' at,
10' 3l
7' 9''
a 2,
lOa
INF
a9'
INF
70'
62'
174'
263'
57'
51'
110'
140'
41' 3"
38'
64'
72'
22' 7"
2r r
2a o
29' r
Ia' 5"
17'10"
21'10"
22'10"
16' 9"
16' 2"
19' 6"
20' 3"
14'
13' 9"
1s o
16' 6"
11' 5"
11' 2"
12 a
12'11'12"
9' 7"
9' 5"
10' 5' ' 10' a
7' 7h"
7'9"
8' 5"
8' 3'
20'11"X 11' 3"

42' 5"X 17' 9"
10' 5"x 5' a
21' 2"X a'10"
7' sx 4' 3"
15'10"X 6' 7"
5' 2"X 2' 9"
10 sx 4' 5"
2 1x r 5"
5' 2"X 2' 2"
2' ox 1' 1"
4' I"X 1' 9"
nox 1 o
3' ax r s
r sx 0'10"
3' I"X 1' 3"
r 2x o 8"
2' 5"x 1' o
r ox o s
2' ox 0'10"
0' 9"x 0' 5"
I' 7"x o a
14.762'
10.333'
7381'
5167'
3690'
2583'
1879'
1292'
939.4'
645.8'
Ill
111.4
112
112.8
114
115.6
118
fill
1116
1122
1132
1.85:1 AR
{.825"X.446")
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
392' 5"
407'11"
19a' 1"
202' 0"
148'11"
151' 1"
99' 6'1'
100' 6"
74' a>..
75' 3'
49'10"2"
50' p,
34'11'.\"
35' ''
24'11'\"
25'
19'11'1"
NEAR
FAR
389'
41 1'
197' 4"
202' 9"
148' 6"
151' 6"
99' 4"
100' 8"
74' 7'1,"
75' 4'"
49'10"
50' 2"
34'11"
35' 1"
24'11 '}"
25' .,.
19'11' ..
20'
17'11'.1"
18' v..
14'11'/."
15' lfi'
3a5
416'
196' 2"
204' o
147'10"
152' 2"
99' '11"
101' 0"
74' 5'"
75' 61>"
49' 9"
50' 3"
34'10'1
35' p ,
24'11'\"
25' , ..
19'11 '/z"
NEAR
FAR
379'
423'
194' 9"
205 r
147' 0"
153' 1"
9a a
101' 4"
74' 3"
75' g
49' a
50' 4"
34'10"
35' 2"
24'11"
25' 1"
19'11' "
20' ')"
17'11 V>"
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
371'
434'
197' 7"
20a' 1"
145' 9"
154' 6"
9a' 1"
102' 0"
73'11"
76' 1"
49' 6'
50' 6"
34' 9"
35' 3"
24'10'>"
25" 1'"
19'11"
20' 1"
17'11' '
361'
449'
190'
21 1'
144' 2"
156' 4"
97' 4"
102' 9"
73' 6"
76' 7"
49' 4"
5o a,
34' a
35' 4"
24'10"
25' 2"
19'101
20' 1' '
17'11"
Ia' 1"
14'11'1"
346'
473'
186'
217'
14 1' 9"
159' 3"
96' 3"
104' 0"
72'11"
77' 3"
49' .,.
51' 0"
34' 6'
35' 5'
24' 9"
25' 3"
19'10'
20' 2"
17' 10'"
1a IV>"
14'11"
15' 1"
NEAR
FAR
ANA 2.39:1 AR
tl .676"X. 700")
330'
508'
Ia I'
224'
139'
163'
94'11"
105' 8"
72' 2"
7a' 1"
4a s
51' 4"
34' 4'"
35' a
24' a
25' 4"
19' 9'7"
20' 2'
17'10"
Ia' 2"
14'10'1>"
15' 1'1"
305'
579'
173'
237'
134'
170'
92' 10"
1oa 5"
70'11"
79 r
4a 2"
52' 0"
34' 1"
35'11 '"
24' 6'1"
25' 6"
19 a.,
20' 3'"
17' g
1a' 3"
14'10"
15' 2'/ '
2a1'
697'
165'
254'
129'
17a
90' 5"
112'
69' 6"
ar 6"
47' 6"
52'10"
33' g
36' 4"
24' 4"
25 a
19' r
20' 5'
11 8"
Ia' 4' '
14' 9"
15' 3"
, .....
17'11'1"
18'
v,
15' o
15 o
20'
'd'
..
',"
17' 11 ~~
18'
(.594")
15' 0"
I
7' 6"
5'
3' g
1'10"
1' 6"
1' 4"
1' 1"
0'10"
0' a
0' 7"
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .001" {1/ 1000")
20.667'
20'
TV HEIGHT

HYPER
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .001" (1/1000')

FIELD OF VIEW
234.85' 161.46'
(w/ projecled Image)
14' 11'\"
15' 'I"
18'
1,'2"
14'11'1"
15'
114'
18'
3,~..
14'11 'h"
15'
v,
15'
l,~
247'
INF
153'
290'
122'
195'
a7'
11a'
67' 2"
84'10"
46' 5
54' 2"
33' 2"
37' 0"
24' 1"
26' o
19' 5
20' 7'
17' 6"
Ia' 6"
14' a
15' 4' '
FIELD OF VIEW
{w/ projected image)
20'1 1"X 11' 3"

42' 5"x 17' 9"
10' 5"x 5' a
21' 2"x a1o7' 9"x 4' 3"
15' 10"x 6' r
5' 2"x 2' 9"
10' sx 4' 5"
3'10"X 2' 1"
7'10">< 3' 3"
2' r x r 5"
5' 2"X 2' 2"
1' 9"x 0'11"
3' rx 1' 6"
1' 3"x 0' a
2' 6"x 1' 1"
1 ox o s
2' ox 0'10"
O'IO"x 0' 6"
r sx o 9
o s x o 5"
1' 6"x o r
TV HEIGHT
(.594")
15' o
7' 6"
5' 7"
3' 9"
2' 9"
1'10"
1' 3"
0'11"
o 8"
o a
0' 6"
I
I
......
00
"'
LENs FOCAL LENGTH:

HYPER
FOCAL
DISTANCE
LENS
FOCUS
(FEET)
25
15
8
6
4
2
1.5
1
Bmm
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006" (6/10.000")

FIELD OF VIEW
13.78'
9.84'
6.89'
4.92'
3.44'
2.46'
1.72'
1.25'
0.86'
0.63'
0.43'
(w/projected image)
1/ 1
1/1.4
1/2
1/2.8
1/4
1/5.6
118
1/ 11
111 6
1/ 22
1132
(.380"x.286")
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
9'
7'
5'
INF
INF
INF
7' 2"
5' 11"
INF
INF
5' 1'
19'
4' 2"
10' 7"
3' 1"
5' 8"
2' 5%"
3' 10"
1' 9"
2' 4"
1' 4'!."
1' av.
0'11'/'
1' 1'
4' 5'
43'
3' 9"
15' 4"
2' 10"
6' 9"
2' 3'12'
4' 4"
1' a
2' 6"
1' 3'12'
1' 9'h'
0'11"
1' 1'!."
5'
INF
3' 8"
INF
3' 3'
46'
2' 6"
9' 7"
2' 1'
5' 4'
1' 6'12'
2' 10"
1' 2 3/"
1'11'
0'10'12"
1' 2"
4'
INF
4'
INF
3' 1'
INF
2' 8"
INF
2' 3"
21'
1'10"
7' a
1' 5'
3' 4"
1' 1'/'
2' 2'
0' 10'
1' 3'
3'
2'
2'
1'
INF
INF
INF
INF
3'
2'
2'
1'
INF
INF
INF
INF
2' 5"
INF
1'11"
INF
2' 2"
INF
1' 9"
INF
1" 10"
INF
1'
23'
1'
4'
1'
2'
0'
1'
1' 6"
INF
7"
3'
8'
9'!."
5"
INF
1' 4"
INF
1' 2"
INF
1' 4"
INF
9'
Vz'
1' 5"
1' 1"
INF
1' 1"
10' 8"
0"11"
3'10"
0' 8'12"
1' 8'!.'
0' 11"
INF
o 9'12'
12'
0' 7'12'
2' 5"
1' 1'
INF
1' 0"
INF
0'1 1'
INF
0'11'
INF
0' 9'
INF
o a
INF
0' 6'1'
5' o
1'
1'
INF
INF
INF
1'
1'
INF
INF
INF
o 9'
o 5"
INF
INF
0' 7"
INF
o 9"
INF
INF
INF
30'
36'
18'
22'
9'
11'
2"X22' 8"
9"x 19'11"
1"x 13'
1"X 11'11'
7' 3"
9"x 6' 4'
7' 3"X 5' 5'
a 9"x 4' 9
4'10"X 3' 7"
5'10"X 3' 2"
3'
2' a
4' 5"x 2' 4"
2' 5" x 1'10"
2'11"X 1' 7"
1' 9"x 1' 4"
2' 2'x 1' 2"
1' 2'X 0'11"
1' 5'x o 9'
INF
INF
o 5"
INF
0' a"
o 6"
0' 5"
INF
0' 7"
INF
INF
INF
o 6"
0' 4'
INF
INF
0' 6Vz"
0' 5"
o 4"
INF
INF
INF
(.463"x.251")
o 5"
0' 9"
STD & TV
0' 5'/z'
o 4'12'
0' 3'12"
INF
INF
INF
rx
1x
LENS FOCAl lENGTH:

HYPER
FOCAL
DISTANCE
8
6
4
3
......
00
"l
2
1.5
1
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION
19.43'
13.88'
9.71'
6.94'
4.86'
3.47'
2.43'
1.77'
1.21'
0.88'
0.61 '
1/1
111.4
112
1/ 2.8
114
1/5.6
118
1111
1/ 16
1122
1/32
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
LENS
FOCUS
(FEET)
25
15
9.5mm
9'
12'
INF
a
66'
5'
13'
4'
a
3'
5'
2'
3'
6'
a
7'
7"
a
4"
0"
7'1'
6v,
93/'
23h'
1'
2'
1' 43h"
1' 7'12'
0'11'/z'
1' '/z"
INF
7' 3'
INF
7'
5'
4'
3'
INF
INF
INF
2'
2'
INF
INF
INF
5' 1'
19'
4' 2'
10' 7"
3' 1'/z'
5' 7"
2' 5'h'
3'10'
1' 9"
2' 4"
4' 5"
45'
3' 9'
15' a
2'10"
6'10"
2' 3'12"
4' 4'
1' a
2' 6'
1' 3'12'
1' 9'!."
0'11'
1' 1'!."
1' 4'1"
r av.
0'11'1'
1' 1'
5'11"
INF
5'
4'
INF
3'
2'
INF
2'
INF
INF
INF
3' 9'
INF
3' 0"
INF
3' 3'
44'
2' 6'
9'
2' 1"
5' 3"
1' 6'/z'
2' 9'/z'
1' 2W'
1'11"
0'10'12"
1' 2'
2 a
INF
2' 2'
23'
1'10''
7'10'
1' 5'
3' 5'
1' 1'A'
2' 2'
0' 10"
1' 3'
2' 5"
INF
INF
2' 2"
INF
1' 9'
INF
1'10"
INF
1'
22'
1'
4'
1'
2'
0'
1'
1'10"
1' 6'
INF
7"
1' 4'
INF
3"
9'
v,
7'12"
9'!."
4 3h'
1' 1'
11' 4'
0'11"
3' 1"
o av,
1' a'!z"
1' 5"
INF
1' 4"
INF
1' 3'
1'
1'
INF
1'
INF
INF
1'
1'
INF
1'
INF
INF
1' o
0'10"
INF
INF
r o
0' 9"
INF
INF
0' 11'
0' 9'
0' 6'
INF
1' 1'
INF
0'11'
o 9"
INF
0' 9'12'
9'11'
0' 7'!.'
2' 4"
INF
0' 7"
INF
INF
INF
INF
0'10"
o a
0' 6'
INF
INF
0' 7"
INF
o 6"
0' 5"
INF
o a
0' 6'12"
INF
INF
o 6'/z'
5' a
INF
0' 5'12'
INF
INF
INF
0' 4'12"
INF
.0006" (6/10,000")
FIElD OF VIEW
(w/projected image)
STD & TV
(.380"X.286")
SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
(.463"X.251")
25' 4'X 19'
30'11"X16'
15' 3'X1 1'
18' 6'X10'
a 1x 6'
9'10'x 5'
6' 1'X 4'
7' 5'x 4'
4' ox 3'
4' 11"x 2'
3' ox 2
3' ax 2
2' O"x 1'
2' 5'x 1'
1' 6"X 1'
1' 10"x r
1' ox o
1 3"x o
1"
9'
5'
1'
1
4"
7"
0"
0"
a"
3"
o
6"
4"
1"
o
9"
a
.....
00
00

CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006" (6/ 10.000")

HYPER
FOCAl
DISTANCE
lENS
FOCUS
(FEET)
25
15
8
6
4
3
2
1.5
1
31.00'
22.14'
15.50'
11.07'
7.75'
5.54'
3.88'
2.82'
1.94'
1.41'
0.97'
FIELD OF VIEW
(w/ projeclad image)
1/ 1
1/1.4
1/ 2
1/2.8
1/ 4
1/ 5.6
1/ 8
1/ 11
1/ 16
1/22
1/ 32
STO & TV
(.380"X.286")
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
(.463'X.251 ")
12'
INF
a'11"
46'
5'11"
12' 6"
4' 9"
a 3"
3' 4'12"
4'10'/2"
2' 7'1"
10'
INF
7' a
465'
5' 3"
16' 6"
4' 4"
9' 9"
3' 2"
5' 5"
2' 5
3' a;,
1' 9Y..
2' 3'h"
1' 4'12"
1 a
0'11'(."
a
INF
6' 4"
INF
4' a
29'
3'11"
13' 1"
2'11"
6' 3"
2' 4'/>"
4' 1"
1'
2' 5v.1' 3'1"
1' 9"
0'11"
1' 1V"
5'
INF
4'
INF
3' 3"
INF
2'11"
INF
2' 4"
14'
1'11"
6' 7"
1' 5'h"
3' 2"
1' 2Y"
2' y,
0'10'(."
1' 23tt
3'
INF
3'
INF
2' 7"
INF
2' 4"
INF
2 o
INF
1' a
13'
1' 4"
4' 2"
1' 1"
2' 5v,
0' 9Y
1' 4'k"
14'
129'
10' 1"
29'
6' 4"
10' 9"
5' ;,
7' 5"
3' 5;,
4' r
2' 9"
3' 3'11"
1'10'h"
2' 1'1
1 5'1.1' 7"
0'11'/..
1' %-'"
3'
5 3~~-
1'10"
2' 2Yz"
1' 4'1"
1' 7'(."
0'11 'h"
1' 'h"
1'
~~
at.
6'
INF
5' 1"
INF
3'11"
INF
3' 5
27'
2 a
a 3
2' 2"
4'11"
1' 7"
2' a;,
1' 3"
nov.0' 10'!."
1' , ,..
3'
INF
2'
INF
2' ()"
INF
1'11"
INF
r a
INF
r 5"
INF
1' 2"
6'11"
1' o
3' 2"
0' 9"
1' 6Yz"
2'
INF
2'
INF
1' 7"
INF
r 6"
INF
1' 4"
INF
1' 2"
INF
1' ()"
INF
0'10"
6' a
cr a
2' 1"
1'
INF
1'
INF
1' o
INF
1' o
INF
r o
INF
r o
INF
0'10"
INF
0' 9"
INF
0' 7"
3' 5"

CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006' (6/ 10,000")

HYPERFOCAl
DISTANCE
55.1 1'
39.37'
27.56'
19.68'
13.78'
9.84'
6.89'
5.01'
3.44'
2.51'
1.72'
FIELD OF VIEW
(w/projeclad image)
1/ 1
1/1.4
1/2
1/2.8
1/ 4
1/5.6
1/ 8
1111
1/ 16
1/ 22
1/ 32
STO & TV
(.380"X.286")
lENS
FOCUS
(FEET)
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
(.463"X.251")
50
25
15
10
26'
539'
17' 2"
46'
12' ()"
20'
a 5
12' 3"
7' o
9' 4"
5' 5
6' 9"
4' r
5' 6"
3' 83/..
4' 3'1"
22'
INF
15' 4"
69'
10'10"
24' 3"
a o
13' 5
6' a
10' ()"
5' 2'h"
7' 1"
4' 5'->"
5' 9"
3' 7'/z"
4' 5v,
2' 9'h"
3' 3"
1'103A"
2' 1'(."
1a
INF
13'
270'
9' 9"
33'
7' 4"
15' a
6' 2"
11' 3"
4'11"
1 a
4' 3"
6' 1"
3 6"
4' 8"
2 8'h"
3' 411t'
1'10'"
2' 2"
11'
JNF
9'
INF
7'2"
INF
5'10"
36'
5 1
19'
4' 2"
10' 7"
3' a
7'10"
3' 1"
5' 8"
2' 5'12"
3' 10"
1' g
2' 4"
a
INF
7'
INF
5'11"
INF
5' o
INF
4' 5"
43'
3' 9"
15' 4"
3' 4"
10' 2"
2'10"
6' 9"
2' 3'12"
4' 4"
1' 8"
2' 6"
6'
INF
5'
INF
5'
INF
4' 1"
INF
3' a
INF
3' 3"
46'
2'11"
1a'
2' 6"
9' 7"
2' 1"
5' 4"
1' 6'o"
2'10"
8
6
5
4
3
.....
20' 1"X15' 1"

24' 6"X13' 3"
12' ox 9' 1"
14' ax 7' 11"
6' 5"x 4' 10"
7'10"X 4' 3"
4'10"X 3' 7"
5'10"x 3' 2"
3' 2x 2' 5
3'11"X 2' 1"
2' 5"x 1' 9"
2'11"X 1' 7"
1' 7"x 1' 2"
1'11"X 1' ()"
1' 2"X 0'11"
r 5"x cr 9'
0' 9"x 0' 7'
cr11x cr 6"
,,
"\
00
\0
1'
INF
1'
INF
0'10"
INF
0'10"
INF
0' 9"
INF
o 9"
INF
o a
INF
o r
INF
0' 6"
INF
2' 1Q I,~
3' 2"
1'11 '!."
2' 1"
14'
INF
11'
INF
a 6"
63'
5 a
20'
5 a
13' 6"
4' r
a a
4' o
6' a
3' 4"
5' 0"
2 1v.
3' 5;,
1 s~
2' 2 3~
5'
INF
4'
INF
4'
INF
3' 4"
INF
3' 1"
INF
2'9"
INF
2' 5
INF
2' 3"
20'
1'11"
7' 6"
1' 5
3' 4"
3'
INF
3'
INF
3'
INF
2' 7"
INF
2 5"
INF
2' 2"
INF
2' 1"
INF
no
INF
1'7"
23'
1' 3"
4' g
2'
INF
2'
INF
2'
INF
2' o
INF
1'11"
INF
1' 9"
INF
1' a
INF
1' 7"
INF
1' 4"
INF
1' 1112"
9'11"
2'
INF
2'
INF
2'
INF
1' 6"
INF
1' 5"
INF
1' 4"
INF
1' 34"
INF
1' 2"
INF
1' 1"
INF
0'11"
INF
30' 2"x 22' a

36' 9"X 19'11"
15' 1"X 11' 4"
1a 4"X 9'11"
9' ox 6' 9"
11' ox 6' 0"
6' ox 4' 5
7' 4"x 4' 0"
4' 9"x 3' r
5'10"x 3' 2"
3'
2' a
4' 4"X 2' 4"
3' O"x 2' 3
3' ax 2' o2' 5"x 1' 9
2'11"x 1 r
1' 9"x r 4"
2' 2"x 1' 2"
1' 2"x 0'11"
r 5"x o 9"
rx
......
\D
0
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:

134.6'
96.11'
62.27'
48.05'
33.64'
24.03'
16.82'
12.23'
8.41 '
6.12'
4.20'
FIELD OF VIEW
Il l
1/ 1.4
1/2
1/ 2.8
1/ 4
1/ 5.6
1/ 8
1111
1116
1/ 22
1/ 32
STD & TV
(.380"X.286")
LENS
FOCUS
(FEET)
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
(.463"x.2511
50
25
15
10
36'
80'
21' 1"
30' a
13' 6'
16'11'
9' 3'1>"
10' 9'/z"
7' 6'/z'
a 6'
5' 9"
6' 3'1'
4' 93.~"'
5' 2'1<'
3'10Yz"
4' 1Yz'
2'11 Y'
3' 3~..
1'11'1\"
33'
104'
19'10"
33' 9'
13' o
17' 9'
9' 'I>"
11' 2"
7' 4'12"
a 9"
5' 7'1'
6' 4'1"
4' 9"
5' av.3'10"
4' 2"
2'1 1"
3' 1'/'
1'11'h"
2' 'h"
29'
195'
16' 3'
40'
12' 3'
19' 4'
a 9'
11' 9'
7' 2'
9' 1"
5' 6'
6'
4' 73/.'
5 4't.'
3' 9'!."
4' 3"
2'10'12"
3' H~
1' 11 '!."
2' ~,
25'
INF
16' s
52'
11' 5'
21'10'
a 3'
12 r
6'10'
9'
5' 4'
6' 10'/z'
4' 6'1'
5' r
3' av.
4' 4Y<'
2' 931~
3' 2'h'
1'11"
2' 1"
20'
INF
14'
9a'
10' 5'
27'
7' 9'
14' 3"
6' 6"
10' 6"
5' 1'
7' 4"
4' 4'
5'10'z"
3' 631<'
4' 611>"
2'9"
3' 3'12"
1'10'\"
2' 11tz"'
16'
INF
12'
INF
9' J
40'
7' 1'
17' 2'
6' o
12 o
4'10'
a 1l"
4' m
6' 4'
a 5"
4' 9Yz'
2' a
3' 5v.
1'10'/"
2' 2""
13'
INF
10'
INF
7'11'
139'
6' 3'
25'
5' 5'
15' 3'
4' 5'
9' 4"
3' 10"
7' 1'
3' 3"
5' 3'
2' 6'h"
a a
10'
INF
6'
INF
6' 9'
INF
s 6'
55'
4'10'
23'
4' o
11' 9'
a
a 5
a o
5' 11'
2' 5"
3'11 '12'
1' a~.
2' HI"
7'
INF
6'
INF
5' 5'
INF
4'
INF
4' 1'
164'
3' 6'
21'
3' 2'
12' 4"
2' 9"
r a
2' 2Yz"
4' a
1' 7'h"
2' 7'h"
5'
INF
5'
INF
4'
INF
3'10'
INF
3' 6'
INF
a o
317'
2' 9"
27'
2' 5'
1r r
2' 1l"
5'11"
1 6"
2'11Yz"
4'
INF
4'
INF
3'
INF
a o
INF
2' 9"
INF
2' 6'
INF
2' 3'
INF
2' 1"
a2
1' 9"
10' 5
1' 4Vz"
3'10"
HYPER
FOCAL
DISTANCE
5
4
3
2'
~~
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:

HYPER
FOCAL
DISTANCE
LENS
FOCUS
(FEET)
50
25
15
10
8
6
5
4
3
......
......
\D

25mm
1' 9'1"
2 av.
19 3'>- 14' 6'

23' 6'x 12' 9'
9' l"x 7' 3'
11' 9'x 6' 4'
5' 9'x 4' 4'
7' ox 3'10'
3'10'X 2'11'
4' ax 2' 6"
3' 1"x 2' 4'
a 9'x 2 o
2' 3'X 1' 9'
2' 9"X 1' 6'
1'11'X 1' 5'
2' 4'X 1' 3'
1' 6'x r 2'
1'11l"x 1' 1l"
1' 2"X 0'10"
1' 4'x 0' 9"
o 9"x 1l' r
0'11"X I)' 6"

CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006" (6/10,000")
35mm
263.7'
188.4'
131.9'
94.18'
65.93'
47.09'
32.96'
23.97'
16.48'
12.0'
8.24'
FIELD OF VIEW
(w/ pro)ecled Image)
1/ 1
111.4
1/2
112.8
1/ 4
115.6
1/ 8
1111
1116
1/22
1/ 32
STD & TV
(.380"x .286")
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
42' o
62'
22'10'
27' r
14' 2'h"
15'11"
9'7'h'
10' 4'!."
7' 9"
a 3"
5'10'h"
6' 1 3~"'
4'11"
NEAR
FAR
SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
(.463"X.251")
40'
6a'
22' 1'
2a'11l"
13'11"
16' 4"
9' 6"
10' 6'h'
7' a
8' 4 1,1~
5' 9 3.tl"
6' 2'k'
4'10'h'
3'11"
4' 1'
2'11 '/z'
3' 'lz'
1'1pf,
2' v.
33'
107'
19' 9'
34' 1l"
12'11"
17'10'
9' 'h"
11' 2"
7' 4'h'
a 9"
5 1r.
6' 5
4' 9'
5' 3'.1"'
3'10'
4' 2''
2'11'
3' 1't."
1' 11 1/z"
2' '/z'
2a'
207'
1a' 2"
40'
12' J
19' 5
a a
11' g
7' 1'>"
9' 1'
5' 6"
6' r
4' 7'..
5' 5"
3'11 '/.'
4' 3~
2' 11'.1"
3' r.
1'11'/.'
2' Vl'
36'
a1'
21' 1l"
30'10'
13' 6'
16'11'
9' 3'n'
10'10'
7' 6'h"
a 6"
5' 9"
6' 3'h'
4' 93~
5' 2'h"
3'10'/z"
4' 1Yz"
2'11 '1'
24'
INF
16' 4"
53'
11 s
22' 1l"
a 3'
12' a
6'10'
9'7"
5' 4'
6'10'
4' 6.5' 7"
3' ar.4' 4Yz'
2' 934"
3' 2'h"
1'11'
2' 1"
20'
INF
14'
104'
10' 4"
2a
7' a
14' 4"
6' 5"
10' 7"
5' 1"
7' 4"
4' 4'
5'10'/z"
3' 6'1"
4' 6'1z'
2' 9"
3' 3'1z"
16'
INF
12'
INF
9' 3'
40'
7' 1"
17' 2"
6' 1l"
12' 1l"
4'10'
a 1l"
4' 1'k"
6' 4"
3' 5"
4' 9'12'
2' a
a 5't
1'10'1"
2' 2'1"
12'
INF
10'
INF
7'10'
167'
6' 3'
25'
5' 5'
15' 6"
4' 5'
9' 5"
3'10'
7' 2"
3' 2'/z'
5' J
2' 6'h"
a a
s 1 ~.
s p ~
,.,,w..
a w
2'
3' 9"''
4' 3'
2'10'12'
3' 1 ~~
nw.
2' ,,.
1'10 3.~"'
2' 1'k"
1' 9'1"
2' 3'1<'
10'
INF
a
INF
5' a
INF
s 5"
60'
4'10'
24'
4' 1l"
12' 1l"
a 5
a 7'
3' 1l"
6' o
2 5"
4' 1l"
1' ay,
2' 43/.'
7'
INF
6'
INF
5'
INF
4' 6"
INF
4' 1"
273'
s 6'
22'
3' 1'
12' 9"
2' 8"
7'9"
2' 2'h'
4' 9'
1' 7'/,'
2' 7'/z'
13' 9'X 10' 4'

16' 9'x 9' 1'
6'11l"X 5' 2'
a 4"x 4' 6"
4' 2'X 3' 1"
5' 1l"x 2' 9"
2' 9"x 2' 1"
3' 4"X 1'10'
2' 2"x 1' 8"
2' ax 1' 5
1' 7"X 1' 3"
2' ll"x 1' 1'
1' 4"X 1' 1l"
r sx 0'11
1' 1'X 0'10'
1' 4'X 0' 9'
o1ox o r
1' ll"x o 6'
o 5"x o 5
o ax o 4'
......
\C
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:

HYPER
FOCAl
DISTANCE
l ENS
FOCUS
(FEET)
50
25
15
10
8
6
5
4
3
8
7
5
......
~
FIELD OF VIEW
384.4'
269.1'
192.2'
134.6'
96.11'
67.27'
48.93'
33.64'
24.46'
16.82'
Il l
1/ 1.4
112
112.8
1/4
1/ 5.6
1/8
1111
f/16
1/22
1/32
STD II TV
(.380' x .286")
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
45' 9"
55' 1'
23'11'
26' 3'
14'
15' 5v.9' 9 3.~"
10' 2Y.7'10'12'
a 1'12'
5'11'/.'
6' lJ..
4'11'h'
5' 'h'
3'11'/.'
4' %."
2'11'1'
3' v.2' ()"
2' ()"
44' 3'
57' 6'
23' 6'
26' g
14' 5\:'
15' 7'h'
9' 9'
10' 3'12'
7'10'
a 2"
5'11"
6' l ''l'
4'11 '1'
5' 'I"
3'11 '/..
4' '12'
2'11'.1'
42' 2'
61'
22'11"
22' 7"
14' 2'11'
15' 10'n'
40'
68'
22' 2'
2a' 9"
13'11'
16' 3"
9' 6'
10' 6'12'
7' 6'1'
a 4'1'
5' 93..~..
6' 2V.'
4'10\7'
5' 1'h"
3'11'
4' 1'
2'11 'h'
3' 'h'
1'11'A'
2' W'
36'
80'
21' , .
30' a
13' s
16'11'
9' 3Y"
10' go;,
7' 6'/o'
a s
5' g
33'
104'
19'10"
33' g
13' ()"
17' 9"
9' h'"
11' 2'
7' 4'12'
a g
f/1
100
50
25
15
10
538.2'
9'
7~~-
10' 43A'
7' gv,
a 3"
5'10'h'
6' 13.'."
4'11"
5' , .
3'11Y'
4' 'A'
2'11\1'
3' v..
2'0"
2' o
3' IJl'
2'0"
2'0"
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:

HYPERFOCAL
1555'
DISTANCE
LENS
FOCUS
(FEEn
16mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF-FIELD. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE II FIELD OF VIEW
50m m
f/ 1.4
4' 9\'
5' 21.3'10'h"
4' 1'h"
2'11 '1..
3' ~'."
1' 1P~
2'
7~~
43
6' <"
4' g
5' 3'!.'
3'10'
4' 2"
2'11'
3' 1'/..
1'11'h'
2' 'h"
5' 6"
s
4' ] l,..
5' 4'A"
3' gv.
4' 3'
2'10'h'
3' 1 3 ~"
1'1H'.
2'
~'.
25'
20'
INF
INF
16' 7"
51'
11' 6"
21 a
a 4'
12' 7"
6'11'
9' 7"
5' 4'
6'10"
4' 6'h'
5' 7"
3' a'h'
4' 4'!."
2'10"
3' 2'12'
1'11'
2' , .
14'
97'
10' 5"
27'
7' 9"
14' 3'
6' 6"
10 6'
5' 1'
7' 4'
4' 4'
5'10'12"
3' 6'1'
4' 6Y2"
2' g
3' 3'h'
12'
10'
7'11'
139'
6' 3"
25'
5' 5'
15' 3'
4' 5"
9' 4'
3' 10"
7' ,.
,,.,,.
4'10'
7'1 1'
4' 2"
6' 3'
3' 5'h"
4' 9'12'
2' 8'
a 5'
1' 10'/..
2' 2'1..
3'
5'
2
a
1'
2'
2'1'
3"
so;,
a
9'11'
3'!."
(.463'x.2511
9' 7"x 7' 3'
11' 9'x6' 4'
4' 9'X3' 7'
5'10"X3' 2'
2'10"x 2' 2"
3' 6"X 1'11'
1' 11'x 1' 5"
2' 4'X 1' 3"
1' 6"x 0' 2'
1' 10'X 1' ()"
1' 2'x0'10"
1' 4'XO' 9"
0'11'x0' a
1' 2'XO' 7"
o gxo r
0'11'X0' 6"
o 7xo 5'
0' axo 4'
0' 4"X0' 3'
0' 5xo a
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006" (6/ 10.0001
389.9'
277.8'
194.4'
141.4'
97.21'
70.70'
48.61'
f/2
f/2.8
f/4
f/5.6
f/8
1111
f/16
1122
1132
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
94' 0"
106'10"
4a 5'
51 a
24' 7V."
25' s
14'10'1..
15' ,
9'11 '1.'
10' 'A"
7'11 'h'
8' 'h'
NEAR
FAR
91' 9"
109'11'
47'10"
52' 4'
24' 5'h'
25' 7'
14' 9Y,'
15' 2'h'
9'11'
10' ,.
a9'
115'
47' 0"
53' 5
24' 2'h'
25'10"
14' 83,~
15' 3112"
9'10'h'
10' 1'h"
7'11'
a 1'
6'11 '/.'
7' lt'."
5'11'12'
6' 'h"
4'11'/
5' '/.'
3'11'\1'
4' 'A"
a5
122'
45'11"
54'11'
23'11'
26' 2"
14' 7'/.'
15 s
9' 9'1'
10' 2Y'
7'10'!.'
a 1'h"
6'11'
7' 1'
5'11 '/.'
6' '1..
4'11 1'2'
5' 'h'
3'11',1'
4' '.4"
NEAR
FAR
aO'
135'
44' 4'
57' 4'
23' s
26' 9"
14' 5'h'
15' 7'
9' g
10' 3'
7'10"
8' 2"
6'10'h"
7' 1'h'
5'11"
6' 1"
4'11 '1
74'
156'
42' 5'
61'
22'11'
27's
14' 3'
15'10'h'
9' 7'1'
10' 4'12'
7' gy,
a 3'
6'10"
7' 2Y'
5'10'h"
6' 1'12'
4'11'
3'11'h'
4' 'it'
3'11 '!.'
4' 'A'
66'
206'
40'
67'
22' 2'
2a a
13'11'
16' 3'
9' s
1o so;,
7'
a 4'
6' 9"
7' 3'
5' 9'/.'
6' 2'!.'
4'10'h'
5' 1'h'
3'11'
4' 1'
59'
342'
37'
77'
21' 3'
30' 4'
13' 7"
16' 9"
9' 4'
10' g
7' 6'1.'
a
6' a
7' 4'1"
5' g
6' 3v.
4'10'
5' 2Y'
3'103,1
4' 1'h"
4' o
4' 0"
INF
9' 4'
39'
7' ,.
16'11'
6' o
555.5'
NEAR
FAR
6'1H~
1'10 ~
2' 1'h"
INF
778.7'
NEAR
FAR
7' '/.'
5'11'/,'
6' y,
4'11'1'
5' v.
4' ()"
4' ()"
13'
INF
NEAR
FAR
7' 11'/.'
8' .
6'11'
7' '12'
5'11'/'
6' %'
4' 11'.1'
5' .,...
16'
INF
85mm
,,,,.
6' 31,.
5'
29'
195'
1a' 3'
40'
12' 3"
19' 4'
a 9"
11' 9"
7' 2'
9' , .
l~
s 2 ~
av.
st.
49'
41'
INF
INF
33'
103'
19'11'
aa a
13' ()"
17' g
29'
171'
1a 6'
39'
12' s
19' ()"
a g
11 a
7' 2'h'
9'0"
6' 4'h'
7' g
5' 6v.
6' 6'h'
4' a
5' 4'h'
3' gy,
4' 3'
9' 'I'
11' 2'
7' 4Y,'
8'
6' 6%...
7' 6'h'
5' 7'1'
6' 43,\'
4' 9"
5' 3'1..
3'10"
4' 2'
av.
33'
INF
25'
INF
1s s
51'
11' 6'
21 a
a 4'
12' a
6'10"
9' 7"
6' 1'h '
a 2
5' 4'
6'10'
4' 6%'
5' 7'
3' ay,
4' 4'1"
FIELD OF VIEW
(w/ projeclad Image)

STD & TV
(.380'X.286")
SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
(.463"x.2511
11 4'xa s
13'10"X7' 6"
5' ax4' 3"
6'11'X3' 9"
2'10"X2' 1'
3' 5'X1'10"
1' ax 1 3'
2' O" x 1' 1'
1' 1"X0'10"
1' 4'x0' a
0' 1"XO' a
1' 1'XO' 7'
0' 9'x0' 7'
0'11'x0' 6'
o axo s
0' 9'X0' 5"
0' sxo s
0' 8'XO' 4'
0' 5'x0' 4'
0' sxo 3'
......
'
HYPER
FOCAL
DISTANCE
LENS
FOCUS
!FEET)
200
100
50
25
15
10
8
6
HYPER
FOCAL
DISTANCE
200
100
50
25
15
10
8
......
U1
FIELD OF VIEW
1538'
1076'
768.9'
538.2'
384.4'
269.1 '
196.8'
134.6'
97.85'
67.27'
(w/projecled image)
1/ 1
1/1.4
1/2
1/2.8
1/ 4
1/ 5.6
1/8
1/ 11
1/16
1/22
1/32
STD & TV
(.380"X.286")
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
146'
31a'
84'
123'
45' 9'
55' 1'
23' 11'
26' 3'
14'
1s s y,
132'
417'
79'
135'
44' 3'
57' 6'
23' 6'
26' 9'
14' 51h'
15' 71/ '
'i1 9"
10' 3y,
7'10"
a 2"
5'11'
6' 1'/..
1a3
220'
95' 7"
104'10"
4a'10"
51' 2"
24' a o;,
25' a y,
14'10'1'
15' 1'!.
9'11 %'
10' y,
7'1HI"
8' y,
177'
230'
93'11'
106'11'
48's
sr a
24' 7y,
2s s
14'10Y'
15' m
'i11 1'!
10' ....
5'11'.1'
6' y,
5' 11'.1'
6' 'A"
3923'
1/1
LENS
FOCUS
IFEET)
2153'
7'11 17'
8' 17'
LENS FOCAL LENGTH:
\D
LENs FOCAL LENGTH: 1OOmm
NEAR
FAR
190' 4'
211'
97' 6"
102' 7"
4'i1 417'
50' 8'
24'10"
25' 2"
14' 11 Y,
15' 'A'
'i111'A'
10' ""
7'11'/
a
6' 0"
6' ()"
v.
169'
246'
91' 6'
110'
47' 9'
52' s
24' 5'
25' 7"
14' 91h'
15' 21h'
'i111'
10' 1'
7'11V'
a o~
5'11'/.'
6' y,
1/ 1.4
NEAR
FAR
1a7'
215'
96' 7"
1oa a
4'i1 117'
50'11'
24' 9'1'
25' 2'A'
14'11"
15' 1"
'i111'/'
10' 'h'
7'11'1."
8'
6' 0"
6' ()"
v.-
w.
9' 9'.1"
10' 2Y,
7'1017'
a 1v.5'11 '/'
6' 'A'
115'
77'i1
73'
15'i1
42' 2"
61'
22'11'
27' 7'
14' 2'/2"
15'10'1'
'i1 7'!.'
10' 4'.1'
7' 9v.
8' 3'
5' 10'/t'
6' pj,
99'
INF
66'
204'
40'
67'
22' 2"
2a a
13'11'
16' 3"
9' 6"
10' 6Y
7'
a 4'
5' 9 ~1
6' 2'/'
at.
ao
INF
57'
3a'i1
36'
80'
21' 1'
30' a
13' 6'
16' 11'
9' 3'12'
10' 9%'
7' 617'
a 6'
s 9'
6' 3'A'
66'
INF
49'
INF
33'
103'
1'i111'
33' 7'
13' o
17' 9'
9' 1"
11' 2'
r s
8' a l7
s n.
6' 4'1
so
INF
40'
INF
2'i1
195'
la' 3'
40'
12' 3'
19' 4'
a 9'
11' 9'
7' 2"
'ill'
s 6'
6' 7"
(.463"X .251' )
19' 3"X14' 6"
23' 6"x12' 9'
a
9'
11' 9'x 6' 4'
4' 9'X 3' 7"
5"10"x 3' 2"
2' 5"x 1' 9'
2'11' X 1' 7"
1' 5"x 1' 1
1' 9'x 0'11'
0'11"x o a
1' 2'X 0' 7'
0' 9'x 0' 7"
0'11'X 0' 6"
o
0' s
o a x 0' 4'
rx r
rx
16mm CAMERA DEPTH-OF-FIELD. HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE & FJELD OF VIEW
135mm
2802'
159'
270'
aa
115'
47' 0"
sa 6'
24' 2'/t'
25'10"
14' a /2"
15' 3'12'
'i110'12"
10'
7'11'
8' 1'
5' 11 17"
6' 'h"
CIRCLE OF CONFUSION = .0006" (6/ 10.000' )
1962'
1401 '
980.9'
700.6'
490.4'
356.7'
245.2'
178.3'
122.6'
1/2
1/2.8
1/4
1/5.6
1/ 8
1/ 11
1116
1/ 22
1/ 32
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
156'
2ao
aa
117'
46' a
53'10"
24' l 'h"
25'11"
14'
15' 4"
9'10'A'
10' 1'1.'
7'11'
8' 1"
5'1117'
6' 'h'
142'
33a
aa
126'
45' s
ss a
23' 9'
26' 4'
14' 6'h"
15' 5'1
9' 9Y.
10' 21h"
7'10'h"
a l 'h"
5' 11 1/..
6' ,,..
12a
455'
7a
139'
43'10"
58' 2'
23' 4'
26'11'
14' 4'12"
15 a
'i1 a
10' 3'h"
7' 9'.1"
a 2'k"
5'10%"
6' 1'!."
94'
INF
64'
zza
39'
70'
2 1'11'
2'i1 1'
13'10"
16' 4'
9' 5'h'
10' 7"
7' 8'
a 417"
5' 9'h"
6' 2'h'
76
INF
55'
542'
36'
84'
20' 9'
31' 5"
13' 4'
17' 1"
9' 3"
10'10'h'
7' 6"
a 617"
5'
6' 3'A"
NEAR
FAR
NEAR
FAR
1a2'
223'
95' 2"
105' 4'
4a 9'
51' 4"
24' a y,
25' 3'.1"
14'10'1"
15' 1'h"
'i111 1h'
10' y,
7'11'/.'
a y,-
175'
233'
93' 4'
101 a
4a 3'
51'10"
24' 6'/.'
25' 5'h"
14'10"
15' 2'
9'11 Y'
10' ...
5'11'1"
6' v.
7'11 17"
a 17"
5'1 1'!."
6' Vi''
NEAR
FAR
166'
251'
90' 9'
111'
47' 7"
sz a
24' 417'
25' a
14' 9'1
15' 2'A"
'i110'A'
10' 1%'
7'11 Y"
a 'A"
5'11 'h'
6' 'h'
av.
110'
INF
71'
169'
41' 6'
63'
22 a
27' 10"
14' l'h'
16' o
9' 1v.
10' 5'!.
7' 9'
a a v.
5'10."
6' 1'1
a'!.
FIELD OF VIEW
(w/ projecled Image)

STD & TV
(.380'x .286")
SUPER 16 1.85:1 AR
(.463'x .251")
14' 3"X 10' 9'
17' sx 9' s
7' 1x s 4
a ax 4' a
3' 6' x 2 a
4' 4'X 2' 4'
1' 9'x 1' 4'
2' 2'X 1' 2"
1' O"x o 9'
1' ax o a
o ax o 6"
O'lO"x 0' s
o 6"x o s
0' a x 0' 4'
0' 5"x 0' 4"
0' 6"x o a
VERTICAL ANGLE VS. EFFECTIVE FOCAL LENGTH

(Focal length in Millimeters)
RANSMI TTEO
OR
PROJECTED 0.189 o.zso 0.375 o.5oo 0.158. O.Z86" O.Z51 0.446" 0.594" 0.700" 0.991" 0.870
IMAGE
TV
TV
TV
TV SUPER 16mm SUPER 35mm 35mm 35mm 35mm 65mm
ANGLE
y.,..
11/t.
'I>"
I"
-8
-16 1.85:1 TV
ANA VISTA
!DEGREES) TUBE TUBE TUBE TUBE
1.85:1 AR TRANS
AR
0.5
0.7
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
6
7
8
9
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
196
550
393
275
183
138
757 1091 1445

54 1 780 1039
378 546 728
252 364 485
189 273 364
110
92
79
69
61
55
46
39
34
30
27
18
14
11
9
8
7
6
5
5
4
4
3
3
3
151
126
108
95
84
76
63
54
47
42
38
25
19
15
12
10
9
8
7
6
3
2
2
2
6
5
5
4
4
4
3
3
3
218
182
156
136
121
109
91
78
68
61
54
36
27
21
18
15
13
11
10
9
8
7
7
6
6
5
5
4
4
291
242
208
182
162
145
121
104
91
81
73
48
36
29
24
20
17
15
14
12
11
10
9
8
8
7
6
6
5
460
328
230
153
115
92
77
66
57
51
46
38
33
29
25
23
15
11
9
7
6
6
5
4
4
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
832
595
416
277
208
166
139
119
104
92
83
69
59
52
46
42
28
21
16
14
12
10
9
8
7
6
6
5
5
4
4
4
3
3
731
522
365
244
183
146
122
104
91
81
73
61
52
46
41
36
24
18
14
12
10
9
8
7
6
6
5
5
4
4
3
3
3
3
1298 1729 2037 2884 2532

927 1235 1455 2060 1809
649 864 1019 1442 1266
433 576 679 961 844
325 432 509 721 63J
260 346 407 577 506
216 288 339 481 422
185 247 291 412 362
162 216 255 360 316
144 192 226 320 281
130 173 204 288 253
108 144 170 240 211
93 123 145 206 181
81 108 127 180 158
72 96 113 160 140
65
43
32
26
21
18
16
14
12
11
10
9
8
7
7
6
6
5
5
86
57
43
34
28
24
21
18
16
15
13
12
11
10
9
8
8
7
6
102
68
50
40
33
28
24
21
19
17
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
144 126
96 84
71 6~
57 50
47 41
40 35
35 30
30 2t
27 24
24 21
22 19
20 1t
18 16
16 14
15 n
14 12
13 11
12 10
9
11
196a
HORIZONTAL ANGLE VS. EFFECTIVE FOCAL

LENGTH (Focal Length in Millimeters)
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IMAGE
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1
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2
2.5
3
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4
4.5
5
6
7
8
9
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
733
524
367
244
183
147
122
105
92
81
73
61
52
46
41
37
24
18
14
12
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9
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7
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504 728 971
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252 364 485
201 291 388
168 242 323
144 208 277
126 182 243
112 162 216
101 145 194
84 121 162
72 104 138
63 91 121
56 81 108
50 73 97
33 45 64
25 36 48
20 29 38
16 24 32
14 20 27
12 17 23
11 15 20
9 14 18
8 12 16
8 11 15
7 10 13
6 9 12
6 8 11
5 8 10
5 7 9
4 6 8
4 6 8
4 5 7
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304
203
152
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101
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34
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61 75 133 270 240 309
55 67 120 243 216 278
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18 22 39 79 70 91
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16mm DEPTH of FIELD and EXPOSURE FACTOR
vs.
Magnification or Field of View
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Dec. Frac.
0.100 1/ 10
0.111 1/ 9
0.125 1/ 8
0.143 1/7
0.167 1/ 6
0.200 1/ 5
0.250 1/ 4
0.333 1/ 3
0.500 1/ 2
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0.875 718
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Super 16
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2.58X3.42
2.29X3.04
2.0 x 2.66
1.71x 2.28
1.43x 1.90
1.14X1.52
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.572x .760
.429x.570
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.286X.380
2.51x 4.63
2.26X4.17
2.01 X3.70
1.76x 3.24
1.50x 2.78
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f/ 8
f/11
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Increase
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0.11
0.09
0.07
0.05
0.04
0.02
0.014
0.007
0.004
0.004
0.003
0.002
0.19"
0.15
0.12
0.09
0.07
0.05
0.03
0.02
0.010
0.006
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.26"
0.22
0.17
0.13
0.10
0.07
0.05
0.03
0.014
0.009
0.007
0.006
0.005
0.37"
0.30
0.24
0.19
0.14
0. 10
0.07
0.04
0.02
0.013
0.010
0.008
0.007
0.53"
0.43
0.35
0.27
0.20
0.14
0.10
0.06
0.03
0.018
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0.010
0.74"
0.61
0.48
0.38
0.28
0.20
0.13
0.08
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.016
0.013
1.06"
0.87
0.69
0.54
0.40
0.29
0.19
0.12
0.06
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0.03
0.02
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1.19
0.95
0.74
0.55
0.40
0.26
0.16
0.08
0.05
0.04
0.03
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1.73
1.38
1.07
0.80
0.58
0.38
0.23
0.12
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0.06
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2.38
1.90
1.48
1.11
0.79
0.53
0.32
0.16
0.10
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3.46
2.76
2.15
1.61
1.15
0.77
0.46
0.23
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0.12
0.09
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1.21
1.23
1.27
1.31
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Camera Filters
Filter Factors
Camera filters are transparent or translucent optical

elements that alter the properties of light entering the earnera lens for the purpose of improving the image being recorded . Filters can affect contrast, sharpness, highlight flare,
color, and light intensity, either individually or in various
combinations. They can also create a variety of "special
effects." It is imp ortant to recognize that, even though there
are many possibly confusing variations and applications,
all filters behave in a reasonably predictable way. This section is intended to explain the basic optical characteristics
of camera filters as well as their applications. It is a foundation upon which to build through experience. Textual
data cannot fully inform. Th ere is always something new.
In their most successful applications, filter effects blend
in with the rest of the image to help get the message across.
Exercise caution when using a filte r in a way tha t d raws
attention to it8elf as an effect. Combined with all the other
elements of image-making, filters make visual statements,
manipulate emotions and thou ght, and make believable
what otherw ise would not be. They get the viewer involved.
Many filter types absorb light, and this must be compensated for when calculating exposure. These filters are
supplied with either a recommend ed "filter factor" or a
"stop value." Filter fac tors are multiples of the unfiltered
exposure. Stop values are added to the stop to be set without the fil ter. Multiple filters will add stop values. Since
each stop added is a doubling of the exposure, a fil ter factor of 2 is equal to a one-stop increase. Example: three filters of one stop each will need three additional stops, or a
filter factor of 2x2x2 = 8 times the unfiltered exposure.
When in doub t in the field about compensation
needed for a filter, you might use your light meter with the
incid ent bulb removed. If you have a fla t diffuse r, use it;
otherwise just leave the sensor bare. Aim it at an unchanging light source of sufficient intensity. On the ground, facing up at a blank sky can be a good field situation. Make a
reading without the filter. Watch out for your own shadow.
Make a reading with the filter covering the entire sensor.
No light should enter from the sides. The difference in the
readings is the compensation needed for that filter. You
could also use a spot meter, reading the same bright patch,
with similar results. There are some exceptions to this depending on the filter color, the meter sensitivity, and the
target color, but it's often better than taking a guess.
Filter Planning
Filter Grades
Filter effects can become a key part of the "look" of a

film, if consid ered in the planning stages. They can also
provide a crucial last-minu te fix to unexpected problems,
if you have them readily available. Where possible, it is best
to run advance tests for pre-conceived situations when
time allows.
Many filter types are available in a range of "grades"

of differing strengths. This allows the extent of the effect
to be tailored to suit various situations. The grade-numbering systems may vary w ith manufacturer, but genrally, the
higher the number, the stronger the effect. Unless otherwise
stated by the manufacturer, there is no mathematical relationship between the n umbers and the strengths. A grade
4 is not twice the strength of a grade 2. A grade 1 plus a
grade 4 doesn't add up to a grade 5.
by Ira Tiffen, ASC Associate Member
Filter References
There are several filter manufacturers who should be
contacted regarding available fil ter types and nomenclature. Filters of the same name, but of different manufacturers, may not have the same characteristics. The one industry standard is the Wratten system for filter colors. Wrattennumbered filters have defined transmission properties that
are at least cross-referenced by the various key suppliers.
200
Camera Filters for Both

Color and Black & White
Ultraviolet Filters
Film often exhibits a greater sensitivity to something
invisible to humans: ultraviolet light. This occurs most often outd oors, especially at high altitudes, where the UV201
absorbing atmosphere is thinner, and over long distances,

such as in marine scenes. It can show up as a bluish color
cast with color film, or it can cause a low-contrast haze that
diminishes d etails, especially when viewing faraway objects, in either color or black & w hite. Ultraviolet filters
absorb UV light generally without affecting light in the visible region.
It is important to distinguish between UV-generated
haze and that of airborne particles, such as smog. The latter is made up of opaque matter that absorbs visible light
as well as UV, and will not be appreciably removed by a
UV filter.
Ultraviolet filters come in a variety of absorption levels, usually measured by their percent transmission at 400
nanometers (nm), the visible UV wavelength boundary.
Use a filter that transmits zero percent at 400nm for aerial
and far-distant scenes; one that transmits in the ten to thirty
percent range is fine for average situations.
Infrared Filters
Certain special situations call for the use of black &
white or color infrared sensitive films. For aerial haze penetration, recording heat effects, and other purposes they are
invaluable. Their color and tonal renditions are very different, however, from other film types (consult film manufacturers for further details). Various filters are used to reduce
unwanted visible light. Red, orange, and yellow filters, as
used for panchromatic black & white film, can enhance
contrast and alter color. Total visible light absorption, transmitting only infrared, as w ith the Wratten #87 or #89 series of filters, can also be useful. The results will vary with
film type and other factors. Prior testing for most situations
is a must.
Neutral-Density Filters
When it is desirable to maintain a particular lens opening for sharpness or depth-of-field purposes, or simply to
obtain proper exposure when confronted with too much
light intensity, use a neutral-density (ND) filter. This will
absorb light evenly throughout the visible spectrum, effectively altering exposure without requiring a change in lens
opening and without introducing a color shift.
Neutral-density filters are denoted by (optical) density
value. Density is defined as the log, to base 10, of the opac-
202
ity. Opacity (degree of absorption) of a filter is the reciprocal of (and inversely proportional to) its transmittance. As
an example, a filter w ith a compensation of one stop has a
transmittance of 50%, or 0.5 times the original light intensity. The reciprocal of the transmittance, 0.5, is 2. The log,
base 10, of 2 is approximately 0.3, which is the nominal
d ensity value. The benefit of using density values is that
they can be added when combined. Thus two ND .3 filters
have a density value of 0.6. However, their combined transmittance would be found b y multiplying 0.5 x 0.5 = 0.25,
or 25% of the original light intensity.
Neutral-density fil ters are also available in combination with other filters. Since it is preferable to minimize the
number of filters used (see section on multiple filters), common combinations such as a Wra tten 85 (dayligh t conversion filter for tungsten film) with aND filter are available
from manufacturers as one fil ter, as in the 85N6. In this case,
the two-stop N D .6 valu e is in addition to th e exposure
compensation needed for the base 85 fil ter.
Gradated ND Filters, or Wedges

Often it is necessary or desirable to balance light intensity in one part of a scene with another, in situations
where you don't have total light control, as in brigh t exteriors. Exposing for the foreground will produce a washedout, overexposed sky. Exposing for the sky will leave the
foreground dark, underexp osed. Gradated, or wedge, ND
filters are part clear, p art neu tral density, with a smoothly
graded transition between. This allows the transition to be
blended into the scene, often imperceptibly. An ND .6-toclear, with a two- stop differential, will m ost often compensate the average bright sky- to-foreground situation.
These filters are also available in combination colors,
as where the entire fil ter is, for example, a Wratten 85, while
one half also combines a graded-transition neu tral d ensity,
as in the 85-to-85N6. This allows the one filter to rep lace
the need for two.
Gradated, or wedge, filters gen erally come in three
transition types. Th e most commonly used is the "soft"
gradation. It has a wide enough transition ar ea on the filter to blend smoothly into most scenes, even with a wideangle lens (which tends to narrow the transition ). A long
focal length, however, might only image in the center of the
transition. In this case, or where the blend must take place
in a narrow, straight area, use a "hard" gradation. This is
203
ideal for featureless marine horizons. For situations where

an extremely gradual blend is required, an "attenuator" is
used. It changes density almost throughout its length.
Certain types of part clear, part neutral-density filters
are called sky-control filters. They may have a sharp, not
gradated, dividing line, requiring careful alignment and
choice of lens opening to blend in the edge.
The key to getting best results with gradated filters is
to help the effect blend in as naturally as possible. Keep it
close to the lens to maximize transition softness. Avoid
having objects in the image that extend across the transition in a way that would highlight the existence of the filter. Don't move the camera unless the transition can be
maintained in proper alignment with the image throughout the move. Make all positioning judgments through a
reflex viewfinder at the actual shooting aperture, as the apparent width of the gradation is affected by a change in
aperture.
Gradated filters are best used in a square, or rectangular format, in a rotating, slidable position in a matte box.
This will allow proper location of the transition within the
image. They can be used in tandem, for example, with one
affecting the upper half and the second affecting the lower
half of the image. The center area can also be allowed to
overlap, creating a stripe of the combination of effects in the
middle, most effectively with gradated filters in colors. (See
section on "Gradated Color Filters.")
No Filter
Polarizing Filters
Polarizers allow color and contrast enhancement, as
well as reflection control, using optical principles different
from any other filter types. Most light that we record is reflected light that takes on its color and intensity from the
objects we are looking at. White light, as from the sun reflecting off a blue object, appears blue because all other
colors are absorbed by that object. A small portion of the
reflected light bounces off the object without being absorbed and colored, retaining the original (often white)
color of its source. With sufficient light intensity, such as
outdoor sunlight, this reflected "glare" has the effect of
washing out the color saturation of the object. It happens
that, for many surfaces, the reflected glare we don't want
is polarized while the colored reflection we do want isn't.
The waveform description of light defines non-polarized light as vibrating in a full 360 range of directions
204
Polarizer for reflection control.
around its travel path. Polarized light is defined as vibrating in only one such direction. A polarizing filter passes
light through in only one vibratory direction. It is generally used in a rotating mount to allow for alignment as
needed. In our example above, if it is aligned perpendicularly to the plane of vibration of the polarized reflected
glare, the glare will be absorbed. The rest of the light, the
true-colored reflection vibrating in all directions, will pass
through no matter how the polarizing filter is turned. The
result is that colors will be more strongly saturated, or
darker. This effect varies as you rotate the polarizer through
205
l
No Filter
No Filter
Polarizer for blue sky and Didymium for red enhancement.
Polarizer for exposure control.
a quarter-turn, producing the complete variation of effect,

from full to none.
Polarizers are most useful for increasing general outdoor color saturation and contrast. Polarizers can darken
a blue sky, a key application, on color as well as on black
& white film, but there are several factors to remember
when doing this. To deepen a blue sky, it must be blue to
start with, not white or hazy. Polarization is also angledependent. A blue sky will not be equally affected in all
directions. The areas of deepest blue are determined by the
following "rule of thumb. " When setting up an exterior
shot, make a right angle between thumb and forefinger.
206
Point your forefinger at the sun. The area of deepest blue

will be the band outlined by your thumb as it rotates
around the pointing axis of your forefinger, directing the
thumb from horizon to horizon. Generally, as you aim your
camera either more into or away from the sun, the effect
will gradually diminish. There is no effect directly at or
away from the sun. Do not pan with a polarizer without
checking to see that the change in camera angle doesn't
create undesirably noticeable changes in color or saturation.
Also, with an extra-wide-angle view, the area of deepest
blue may appear as a distinctly darker band in the sky. Both
207
situations are best avoided. In all cases, the effect of the

polarizer will be visible when viewing through it.
Polarizers need approximately l l-2 to 2 stops exposure
compensation, without regard to rotational orientation or
subject matter. They are also available in combination with
certain standard conversion filters, such as the 85BPOL. In
this case, add the polarizer's compensation to that of the
second filter.
Certain camera optical systems employ internal surfaces that themselves polarize light. Using a standard (linear) polarizer will cause the light to be further absorbed by
the internal optics, depending on the relative orientation.
A circular polarizer is a linear one to which has been added ,
on the side facing the camera, a quarter wave "retarder."
This "corkscrews" the plane of polarization, effectively
depolarizing it, eliminating the problem. The circular
polarizer otherwise functions in the same manner.
Polarizers can also control tmwanted reflections from
smfaces such as glass and water. For best results, be at an
angle of 32 to 34 degrees incident to the reflecting smface.
Viewing through while rotating the polarizer will show the
effect. It may not always be advisable to remove all reflections. Leaving some minimal reflection w ill preserve a
sense of context to a close-up image through the reflecting
smface. A close-up of a frog in water will appear as a frog
out of water without some tell-tale reflections.
For relatively close imaging of documents, pictures,
and small three-dimensional objects in a lighting-controlled environment, as on a copy stand, plastic polarizers
mOLmted on lights aimed at 45 degrees to the subject from
both sides of the camera will maximize the glare-reducing
efficiency of a polarizer on the camera lens. The camera, in
this case, is aimed straight at the subject smface, not at an
angle. The lighting polarizers should both be in the same,
perpendicular orientation to the one on the lens. Again, you
can judge the effect through the polarizer.
Special Effect Filters

The following fi lter types are available in a wide range
of grades useful in both color and black & white imaging.
They have no recommended filter factors, but may require
exposme compensation based on a several considerations.
Filters that lower contrast or create fla re, where contrast
and/ or light intensity is higher, will do more for any given
grade. Working with light, the more they h ave, the more
they can do. The same filter, in two differen t lighting con ditions, may produce two different effects. With diffusion ,
or image-softening filters, high er contrast scenes appear
sharper, needing more diffusion, than scenes of lower contrast. Diffusion requirements will also vary with oth er conditions. Smaller film formats will allow less diffusion, as
will large-screen projection . Color may allow less diffusion
than black & white. Producing for television may require
a greater degree of diffusion to survive the transition. These
relationships should cause you to choose exposure and filter grade based on the situation and personal experience.
Prior testing is always recommended when possible.
Diffusion Filters
Many d ifferent techniques h ave been developed to
diffuse image-forming ligh t. Stronger versions can blur
reality for a dream-like effect. In more subtle forms, diffusion can. soften wrinkles to remove years from a face. The
optical effects all involve bending a percentage of the image-forming light from its original p ath to defocus it.
Some of the .e arliest "portrait" diffusion filters are still
in use today- "nets." Fine mesh, like a stocking, stretched
across the len s, h as made man y a face appear flawlessly
youthful. More recently, these can also be obtained as standard-sized h ard optical filters. Nets fw1ction through "selective diffusion." They have a grea ter effect on small details, such as wrinkles and skin blemishes, tl1an on the rest
of the image. The clear spaces in the mesh transmit light
unchanged, preserving tl1e overall sharp appearance of the
image. Light striking the flat smface of the net lines, however, is reflected or absorbed. A ligh t-colored mesh will
reflect enough to tint shadows, either making them lighter,
which lowers contrast, or adding its color while leaving
highlight areas a lone. The effect of diffusion, however, is
produced by tl1e refraction of light that just strikes tl1e edges
of the mesh lines. This light is bent a t a different an gle,
changing its distance to the film plane, putting it ou t of focus. It happens tl1at this has a proportionately greater effect on finer details than on larger image elements. The result is that fewer wrinkles or blemishes are visible on a face
that otherwise retains an overall, relatively sharp appearance.
209
No Filter
No Filter
Low Contrast
Fog Filter
The finer the mesh, the more the image area covered
by mesh lines, and the greater the effect. Sometimes, multiple layers are used to produce even stronger results.
Mesh with a square pattern can produce small fourpoint stars from lights in the scene. Most of the time, this is
not desirable. Most mesh patterns used have a hexagonal
pattern to minimize this effect.
As with any filter that has a discrete pattern, be sure
that depth of field dpesn't cause the net filter lines to become visible in the image. Using small apertures or short
focal length lenses makes this more likely, as does using a
smaller film format. Generally, mid-range or larger apertures are suitable, but test before critical situations.
When diffusing to improve an actor's facial appearance, it is important not to draw attention to the presence
of the filter, especially with stronger grades, when diffusion is not required elsewhere. It may be desirable to lightly
diffuse adjacent scenes or subjects which would not otherwise need it, to ensure that the stronger filtration, where
needed, is not made obvious.
In diffusing faces, it is especially important that the
eyes do not get overly soft and dull. This is the theory behind what might be called circular diffusion filters. A se-
210
211
No Filter
mentioned previously. Use it to help isolate the main subject, held sharp in the clear center, while diffusing a distracting background, especially in situations where a long lens
and depth-of-field differentiation aren't possible.
Another portrait diffusion type involves the use of
small "dimples," or clear refracting shapes dispersed on an
otherwise clear optical surface. They can be round or diamond-shaped. These are capable of more efficient selective
diffusion than the net type, and have no requirement to be
aligned with the subject's eye. They don't lower contrast
by tinting shadows, as light-colored nets do. These dimples
refract light throughout their surface, not just at the edges.
For any given amount of clear space through the filter,
which is relative to overall sharpness, they can hide fine
details more efficiently than net filters. A more recent development involves a minutely detailed series of patterns,
made up of tiny "lenslets," each with a greater degree of
curvature, with more optical power, than that developed
by the dimples previously mentioned. This produces a
maximum of selective diffusion efficiency for any given
amount of overall sharpness.
The above types of filters, though most often used for
"portrait" applications, also find uses wherever general
sharpness is too great, and must be subtly altered.
Some diffusion filters also cause highlight areas to
flare. They can scatter light, having an effect on lowering
contrast. These are closely related to fog or mist filters.
These include "dot" filters which incorporate small, discrete optical elements of various sizes tl1at selectively diffuse, lower contrast, and cause mild highlight flare. They
can be very effective in acl1ieving these combined effects.
Double Fog Filter
Sliding Diffusion Filters
ries of concentric circles, sometimes also having additional

radial lines, are etched or cast into the surface of a clear filter. These patterns have the effect of selectively bending
light in a somewhat more efficient way than nets, in a more
radial orientation. This requires that the center of the circular pattern is aligned with one of the subject's eyes, not
always an easy task, to keep it sharp. The rest of the image
will exhibit the diffusion effect.
A variation on the clear-center concept is the centerspot filter. This is a special-application filter that has a moderate degree of diffusion surrounding a clear central area
that is generally larger than that of circular diffusion filters
When attempting to fine-tune the application of diffusion within a sequence, the ability to vary the strength
of the effect while filming can be invaluable. This can be
accomplished by employing an oversized filter that has a
gradated diffusion effect throughout its length. It is
mounted to allow sliding the proper grade area in front of
the lens, which can be changed "on-camera." When even
more subtle changes are required, maintaining consistent
diffusion throughout the image while varying the overall
strength, a dual" opposing gradient" filter arrangement can
be used.
212
Fog and Mist Filters

A natural fog causes lights to glow and flare. Contrast
is generally lower, and sharpness may be affected as well.
Fog and mist filters mimic the effect of atomized water
droplets in the air. The soft glow can be used to make lighting more visible. For example, the effect of humidity in a
tropical scene can be enhanced. In lighter grades, these filters can take the edge off excess contrast and sharpness.
Heavier grades can create unnatural effects, as for fantasy
sequences. In general, however, the effect of a strong nahlral fog is not produced accurately by these filters in their
stronger grades, because they are too fuzzy, with too much
contrast. For that, Double Fog or gradated fog filters are
recommended.
Gradated fog filters, sometimes called "scenic," are
part clear or light fog, and part denser fog effect. Aligrring
the clear or weaker half with the foreground and the stronger half with the background will render an effect more like
that of a natural fog, accumulating strength with distance.
Double Fogs have milder flare and softening characteristics than standard fog filters, while exhibiting a much
greater effect on contrast, especially in the stronger grades.
A very thick natural fog will still allow close-up objects to
appear sharp. So will a double fog filter. The key to the effect is the much lower contrast combined with a minimal
amotmt of highlight flare.
Mist filters generally produce highlight flare that, because it stays closer to the source, appears more as a "halo"
than the more outwardly extended flare of a fog filter. The
mist filters create an almost pearlescent glow to highlights.
The lighter grades also find uses in toning down the excessive sharpness and contrast of modern film and lens combinations without detracting from the image.
Low-Contrast Filters
There are many situations, such as bright swuit exteriors, where proper contrast is difficult to maintain, and
exposing for either highlights or shadows will leave the
other severely tmder- or overexposed. Low-contrast filters
come in two key types. The first type creates a small amount
of "localized" flare near highlight areas within the image.
This reduces contrast by lightening nearby shadow areas,
leaving highlights almost unchanged. A variation of this
type also includes a light-absorbing element in the filter
which, without exposure compensation, will reduce contrast by also darkening highlights. Use this latter filter when
lighter shadows are not desired. In both cases, the mild flare
produced from bright highlights is sometimes used as a
lighting effect.
A second, more recently developed type of filter reduces contrast without any localized flare. It uses ambient
light, not just light in the image area, to lighten shadows
evenly throughout. Use it where contrast control is needed
without any other apparent effect on sharpness or highlight
flare.
Star-Effect Filters
Lighting can be enhanced in ways that go beyond
what exists in nature. Star filters create points of light, like
"stars," streaking outward from a central light source. This
can make lighting within the scene take on a more glittering, glamorous appearance. This effect is usually produced
by a series of thin lines etched into the flat optical surface
of a clear filter. These lines act as cylindrical lenses, diffracting light points into long thin lines of light running perpendicular to the etched lines. Lines on the filter positioned
horizontally produce vertically oriented star lines.
The size and brightness of the star lines produced are
first a fw1etion of the size, shape, and brightness of the light
source. You have additional control through the choice of
a particular spacing between the lines on the filter. Generally these spacings are measured in millimeters. A 1mm
spacing has twice as many lines per unit area as a 2mm
spacing. It will produce a brighter star for any given source.
Spacings offered generally range from 1mm to 4mm, as
well as both narrower and wider distances for specialty effects.
The number of directions in which the lines rw1 determines the number of points produced. Lines in one direction produce a two-pointed star, just a streak through the
center of the light. Filters with 4, 6, 8, 12, and more points
are available. Although the more common types have a
symmetrical arrangement of points, they can also be obtained with asymmetric patterns, which tend to appear
more "natural," or less synthetic.
With an 8- or 12-point filter, the many star lines will
tend to overpower the rest of the image, so use them carefully.
As with any filter that has a discrete pattern, be sure

that depth of field doesn't cause the filter lines to become
visible in the image. Using small apertures or short focal
length lenses makes this more likely, as will using a smaller
film format, such as 16mm vs. 35mm given an equal field
of view. Generally, mid-range apertures or larger is sufficient, but test before critical situations.
Filters for Black & White

Tone-Control Filters
Black & white panchromatic film records only tonal
differences between colored objects, which appear as black,
white, or different shades of gray. Proper rendition depends on your own desires, and the differences between
film sensitivity to colors and that of the eye. The latter is
due to the fact that most emulsions are more sensitive to
blue, violet and ultraviolet than to other colors. Therefore,
blue appears to be lighter on film than it does to the eye.
This can make a blue sky light enough to appear a similar
shade of light gray as the clouds that are in it, making the
clouds "disappear." A more "correct" cloud presence is
obtained through the use of a yellow filter, such as a
Wratten #8, which can absorb blue light, darkening the sky
to more closely match what the eye would see. The #8 also
acts as a general compensator for most subjects, giving a
tonal rendition similar to that of the eye. Deeper colors,
further to the red end of the spectrum, such as Wratten #15
deep yellow, #16 orange, and #25 and #29 red filters, will
produce progressively deeper and artificially more dramatic renditions of blue sky.
Remember that, since these filters act on color differences to produce tonal differences, the required colors must
be present. The part of the sky you are recording must be
blue to be affected. Sky sections closer to the sun, or nearer
the horizon, are generally less blue than elsewhere. Use of
a gradated neutral-density filter can darken a sky relative
to the foreground, but will not increase contrast between a
blue sky and the clouds.
Using filters for contrast control can be a matter of artistic preference, or of necessity. It is possible for two disparate colors, say a certain orange and blue, to record as
the identical tone, eliminating any visible difference between them. Filters will lighten objects of their own color
and darken those of their complement. Complementary
216
color pairs are: green-red; orange-blue; violet-yellow. An

orange filter in the above case will darken the blue and
lighten the orange; a blue filter will perform the reverse.
A green filter, such as Wratten #11, can be used to
lighten green foliage to show more detail. It may also be
used to provide more pleasing skin tones outdoors, especially against blue sky.
Any filter used for the above purposes will have a
greater effect if slightly underexposed. Its function depends
on absorbing light of its complementary colors to increase
the proportion of light of colors similar to itself. Exposure
compensation is often needed to allow proper image density, but the relative difference is reduced by the addition
of light at the absorbed wavelengths through additional
exposure.
Filters for Color

Recording color involves greater knowledge about
light sources than is necessary for black & white imaging.
Sunlight, daylight and exterior lighting at different times
of day,as well as incandescent, fluorescent, and other artificial sources, all have color characteristics that vary significantly. We see images through our eyes only after they are
processed by our brain, which has the ability to make certain adjustments to the way we see color. White will still
appear white to the eye in various lighting situtations, as
long as we don't have more than one type visible at a time.
Film has no such internal compensation. It is designed to
see only a certain type of light as white - all others will
appear different to the extent of their difference. Filters are
required to provide the necessary fine-tuning.
The following discussion of Color Conversion, Light
Balancing, Color Compensating, Decamired, and Fluorescent filters will be better tmderstood after consulting the
section on color temperature and light-source characteristics.
Color-conversion Filters
Color-conversion filters are used to correct for sizable
differences in color temperature between the film and the
light source. These include both the Wratten #80 (blue) and
the Wratten #85 (amber) series of filters. Since they see frequent outdoor use, in bright sunlight, the #85 series, espe217
No Filter
No Filter
Graduated Color Fi lter
Sepia Filter
cially the #85 and #85B, are also available in combination

with various neutral- density filters for exposure control.
Color-compensating Filters
Light-balancing Filters
Light-balancing filters are used to make minor corrections in color temperature. These are comprised of both the
Wratten #81 (yellowish) and the Wratten #82 (bluish) series of filters. They are often used in comb ina !:ion with colorcon version filters. Certain #81 series filters may also be
available in combination with various neutral density filters for exposure control.
218
Color-compensating filters are used to make adjustments to the red, blue or green characteristics of light. These
find applications in correcting for color balance, light source
variations, different reversal film batches, and other color
effects. They are available in density variations of Cyan,
Magenta, Yellow, as well as Red, Blue, and Green filters.
Decamired Filters
Decarnired filters (a trademark of their manufacturer)
are designed to more easily handle unusual color tempera219
lengths, which filters alone carmot add back. This is particularly true of many types of metal halide lighting. With
other lighting types, such as fluorescent, color temperattue
measurements may not provide the correct filter requirements since color temperattue theory is based on having a
continuous spectrum, meaning light at all wavelengths. It
is possible for a light source to have a sufficient spectral
distribution to emulate a correctable color temperature
when so measured, but its effect on film can be very different. (See section on lighting for additional details.)
Gradated Color Filters, or Wedges
4 Point Star
Similar to Gradated ND filters, these filters are also

produced in a wide range of standard and custom colors,
densities, and proportions for many applications. A bluetCH:lear filter can add blue to a white, hazy sky without
affecting the foreground. An orange-tCH:lear filter can enliven a tepid sunset. Color can be added to the bottom of
the scene, as with a green-tCH:lear filter used to enrich the
appearance of a lawn.
Stripe filters are another type of gradated filter, having a thin stripe of color or neutral density running through
the center of the filter, gradating to clear on either side.
These are used to horizontally paint various colors in layers into a sky, as well as for narrow-area light balancing.
Coral Filters
Split-Field Lens
ttrre variations than previously mentioned filters. Available

m mcremental mired shifts (see lighting section on mireds)
m both a red and a blue series, decamired filters can be
readily combined to create almost any required correction.
Fluorescent and Other Discontinuous

Spectra Lighting Correction
Since filters never actually add color, but only absorb
certam wave~ength~ to mcrease the relative proportion of
others, the ongmallight source must include the colors you
want. Some sources are totally deficient in certain wave-
220
As the sun moves through the sky, the color temperahUe of its light changes. It is often necessary to compensate
for this in a variety of small steps as the day progresses, to
match the appearance of different adjacent sequences to
look as if they all took place at the same time. Coral filters
include a range of graded filters of a color similar to an 85
conversion filter. From light to heavy, any effect from basic correction to warmer or cooler than "normal" is possible.
Corals can also compensate for the overly cool blue effect
of outdoor shade.
Sepia Filters
People often associate sepia-toned images with " early
times." This makes sepia filters useful tools for producing
believable flashbacks and for period effects with color film.
Other colors are still visible, which is different from origi-
221
nal sepia-~oned photography, but these colors appear to be

uuused with an overall sepia tint.
This type of filter, whid1 may be called by a trade name

(see manufacturers), is a combination of rare earth elements
~ glass. It completely removes a portion of the spectrum
m the orange reg10n. The effect is to increase the color satu~ation intens.ity ~f certain brown, orange, and reddish obJects by eliminating the muddy tones and maximizing the
crimson. ~d scarlet components. Its most frequent use is
fo~ ~b tauung s~ongly saturated fall foliage. The effect is
muumal on obJects of other colors. Skin tones might be
overly warm. Even after color timing to correct for any
unwanted bias in these other areas, the effect on reddish
objects will still be apparent.
range of variation of the printer. These are much more Limiting than the multitude of colorants in the real world, and
the number of ways in which adjustments can be made at
the camera. Filtering on the camera brings the lab that much
closer to the desired result, providing a greater latitude of
timing options.
There will be times w hen counting on the lab is the
only choice. Labs can also produce some unus ual effects.
When faced with a low-Light situation, in daylight using
tungsten film, it may be necessary for exposure reasons to
pull the 85 filter and correct in the printing. When you do
this, however, neutral gray tones will appear slightly yellow, even w hen all else looks correct. This effect can be used
to artificially enhance lush green foliage colors through the
addition of yellow. It may have other uses, but you will not
achieve the same result as if you had used the 85 filter.
Underwater Color-correction Filters
LL-D
The LL-D (tradema rk of its manufacturer) was designed to help in the above situation. It requires no exposure compensation, and makes sufficient adjustments to the
film to enable the timer to match the color of a properly 85-filtered original. It is not an all- armmd replacement for the
85. Use it only where needed for exposure purposes, and
for subsequently printer-timed work.
Didymium Filters
. When filming underwater, the light you are recording

IS filtered by the water it passes through. Longer-wavelength reds and oranges are absorbed until only blue is left.
The. actual effect is determined by numerous factors, s uch
as hght source (sun or artificial), water quality, and the
water pa th. The la tter is the distance the light travels
through the water. In natural (sun)light, this is the depth
o~ the subJect from the surface plus the subject-to-camera
dtstance. For artificial lighting, it is the distance from the
Light to the subject to the camera. The longer the water path,
the ~eater the filtering effect of the water. In many cases,
certam color-compensating (CC) filters can absorb enough
shorter wavelengths to restore better color balance. The
difference between corrected and uncorrected color can be
dramatic. The use of faster-speed films w ill facilitate the use
of light absorbing correcting filters.
Differences Between Camera

and Lab Correction
It is the job of the lab tin1er to fine-tune the finished
color rendition of the film. This accounts for variables in
exposure, print stock and processing. Timing can also be
used to impart certain color effects, both for standard correction and special situation s. The difference is that lab
correction has only the range of colors and densities available in the film emulsion to work with, and is limited to the
222
Special Application Filters

Contrast Viewing Filters
Balancing lighting by eye is a matter of experience.
Decisions can be aided through the use of contrast viewing filters. These are designed to h andicap the eye, with its
much greater range of apparent densities, to resemble the
range of the various types of film. Use contrast viewers to
judge relative highlight and shadow densities. Th ere are
viewers for black & white film, as well as various viewer
densities for color film. A darker viewer is used for slower
film speeds, where you would tend to use brighter lighting. Faster film, which can be used in dimmer settings,
would require a lighter viewer. Details can be obtained
from the manufacturers.
Other Filter Considerations

Effect of Depth of Field
and Focal Length Changes
Standard color filters generally function without
d1ange through variations in depth of field and focal length.
This may not be true of many of the "special effect" filter
types. TI1ere are no solid rules for predicting the variation
in filter effect due to depth-of-field or focal length changes.
There are some things we can expect, however. Let's look
at a fog/ mist type filter that causes a light to glow, or flare.
Take the example of a certain grade filter where we can see
that the ratio of light diameter to glow diameter is, say, 1:3.
As we view this through a changing focal length, we will
see that the ratio remains the same, although the magnification will vary accordingly. So the decision to use a filter
of a different grade to maintain a certain appearance at different focal lengths will be based on wanting to change the
ratio, as opposed to any otherwise corresponding relationship. Tests are advisable for critical applications.
Sizes, Shapes, and Mounting Techniques

Filters are available in round and rectangular shapes
in many sizes. Round filters generally come supplied with
me tal rings that mount directly to the lens. Frugal filter
users might find it preferable to employ adapters allowing
the use of a set of filters of a single size with many lenses
of equal or smaller sizes. Round filters also can be supplied
with self-ro tating mounts, where needed, as for polarizers.
They can be readily stacked in combination. Rectangular
filters require the use of a special filter holder, or matte box.
They offer the additional benefit of allow ing slidability for
effects that must be precisely aligned within an image, such
as gradated filters. In all cases, it is advisable to use a mounting system tha t allows for sturdy support and ready manipulation. In addition, the use of a lens shade at the outermost mounting position (from the lens) will minimize the
effect of stray off-axis reflections.
Multiple Filter Use

When any single filter is not enough to prod uce the
desired results, use combinations. Ch oose carefully, to
minimize the number required. Us ually tl1e job can be done
with no more than three filters. Use filters that ind ividu224
ally add to the final effect, without canceling each other out.
For example, don' t use a polarizer, which can in~ease co!or
saturation, in combination with a low-contrast filter which
reduces saturation, unless it works for some other reason
(the polarizer could also be reducing reflections, for instance). Generally, the order in which filters are mounted
is not important.
Secondary Reflections
Lighting can cause flare problems, especially when
using more than one filter. Lights in the image pose the
greatest difficulties. They can reflect between filter surfaces
and cause unwanted secondary reflections. Maintaining
parallelism between filters, and further aligning the lights
in the image with their secondary reflections where possible, can minimize this problem. In critical situations, it
may be best to make use of a matte box with a tilting filter
stage. Tilting filter(s) of good optical quality only a .few
degrees in such a unit can div~rt the sec.onda~ reflecti<;>ns
out of the lens axis, out of the unage, without mtroducmg
unwanted distortion or noticeable changes in the filter's
effect.
Custom (Homemade and Field-Ready)

Filters
There will be times when you need an effect and don't
have time to obtain one ready- made. Certain effects can be
produced that, although different from fact~ry ~ters, can
be useful in a pinch, or for unusual custom Situations. Net
diffusion effects can be produced as they were originally,
by stretching and affixing one or more layers of stocking
material to the lens end, held in place with a rubber band.
There are also numerous possibilities with a clear filter (or
several) available. Petroleum jelly can cause flare or diffusion, or even some star-like streaks d ep ending on its application, to a clear filter, spread with a finger or cloth. The
chief benefit h ere is that the effect can also be applied only
to selected portions of the scene. Breathing on a clear fil ter
can produce interesting but temporary foglike results. Using cut gels can simulate certain gradated filter effects.
When doing this, be sure to keep the filter close to the lens,
and u se larger lens openings, to keep the visible edge as soft
as possible.
225
...
TABLE 1: FILTER COMPENSATOR
N
N
0'\
Lens slop
no Hiler
22
20
18
16
14
12.7
11
10
9
8
7
6.3
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
Filler Factors
1.25
20
18
16
14
12.7
11
10
9
8
6.3
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
1.6
18
16
14
12.7
11
10
9
8
7
6.3
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
2
16
14
12.7
11
10
9
8
7
6.3
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
2.5
14
12.7
11
10
9
8
6.3
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
3.2
12.7
11
10
9
8
7
6.3
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
4
11
10
9
8
7
6.3
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
5
10
9
8
7
6.3
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
6
9
8
7
6.3
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
....
....
12.5
6.3
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
10
7
6.3
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
8
8
7
6.3
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
16
5.6
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
Stop for correct exposure 1.4
1f3
2f3
Fac10r
%
Trans
1.26 80
1.6 63
2 50
1!J 1
stop 11/J 2.5
steps
12fJ 3.2
4
I 2
8
I 3
16
one 4
stop 5
32
steps 6
64
7 128
I 8 256
40
32
25
12.5
6.25
3
1.6
0.8
0.4
25
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
--~---
NO
Chart
- -- -- Filter
- ----- Selector
Slops
20
5
4.5
4
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
2.8
5.6
11
16
23
32
45
64
90
128 180 256
45
32
23
16
11
8
5.6
45
32
23
16
11
8
NO
Filler
.10 1.3 1.8 2.5

.20 1.1 1.6 2.2
.30 1
1.4 2
3.6
3.2
2.8
5
7
10
4.5 6.3 9
4
5.6 8
1.8
2.5
3.6
.40
.50
.60
.90
1.2
1.5
1.8
2.1
2.4
.9
1.3
.8 1.1 1.6
.7 1
1.4
.7 1
.7
2.2 3.2
2.8
2
1.4 2
1
1.4
.7 1
.7
14.3 20
12.7 18
11 16
28 40
25 . 36
23 32
10
4.5
4
2.8
2
1.4
1
.7
6.3
5.6
4
2.8
2
1.4
1
.7
9 12.7 18
11 16
8
11
5.6 8
5.6 8
4
2.8 4
5.6
2
2.8 4
2.8
1.4 2
1
1.4 2
The columns to the left of the " NO Filter" show the filter factor both numerically and
in lens stops and the percent transmission of each. Up to 0.6NO. increments are in 'h
stop steps. From 0.6ND to 2.4ND the increments are In lull stops. Densities may be
added: (0.6ND plus 0.9ND equals 1.5ND). If correct exposure indicates a very small
stop beyond the calibration of the lens AND/ OR: If It Is desired to open the lens to a
14.3 20
45
28
40
25
23
16
11
8
5.6
4
2.8
36
32
23
16
11
8
5.6
4
45
32 45
23 32
16 23
11 16
wide aperture to throw the background out of locus: Select the desired lens stop in
the column under the indie~tsd stop. and use the corresponding NO Filter from the
left shaded column. (For B&W photography. account lor the factor or any color filter
also).
KODAK COLOR COMPENSATING FILTERS
CONVERSION FILTERS FOR COLOR FILMS

Filter
Color
Filter
Number
Blue
BOA
BOB
Exposure
Increase
in Stops
Conversion
in Degrees K
Mired
Shift
Value
2
1%
1
'IJ
3200 to 5500
3400 to 5500
3800 to 5500
4200 to 5500
- 131
- 112
- 81
- 56
soc
BOD
sse
Amber
5500
5500
5500
5500
5500
5500
'IJ
2fJ
1%
2%
3%
2f3
85
85N3
85N6
85N9
85B
to 3800
to 3400
to 3400
to 3400
to 3400
to 3200
81
112
112
112
112
131
Peak
Density
.1">
...
Peak
Density
*These values are approximate. For critical work, they should be

checked by practical test, especially if more than one filter is
used.
.05
.10
.20
.30
.40
.50
Bluish
Filter
Number
Exposure
Increase
in Stops'
82C + 82C
82C + 82B
82C + 82A
82C + 82
82C
82B
82A
82
1'13
1'13
1
1
2f3
2f3
'IJ
'IJ
Yellowish
230
To obtain
3400 K
from:
2490
2570
2650
2720
2800
2900
3000
3100
K
K
K
K
K
K
K
K
2610 K
2700 K
2780 K
2870 K
2950 K
3060 K
3180 K
3290 K
3200 K
3400 K
3300 K
3400 K
3500 K
3600 K
3700 K
3850 K
3510 K
3630 K
3740 K
3850 K
3970 K
4140 K
CC-05Y
CC-10Y
CC-20Y
CC-30Y
CC-40Y
CC-50Y
CC-05M
CC-10M
CC-20M
CC-30M
CC-40M
CC-50M
'13
'h
'h
'h
'13
Red
(Absorbs Exposure
Blue and Increase
GrBBn) In Stops'
CC-05R
CC- 10R
CC-20R
CC-30R
CC-40R
CC-50R
1/3
'13
'13
'13
'13
Green
(Absorbs
Blue and
Red)
CC-05G
CC-10G
CC-20G
CC-30G
CC-40G
CC-50G
v,
Exposure
Cyan
(Absorbs Increase
In Stops'
Red)
'13
'h
CC-05C
CC-10C
CC-20C
CC-30C
CC-40C
CC-50C
Exposure
Increase
In Stops'
Blue
(Absorbs
Red and
Green)
'13
'h
2!3
'h
'h
'h
'13
'13
CC-058
CC-108
CC-208
CC-308
CC-408
CC-508
'h
'13
'h
'h
'13
1
Exposure
Increase
In Stops
'13
'13
'h
'13
11h
Mired
Shill
Value
- 89
- 77
-
65
55
45
32
21
10
\
No Filter
Necessary
81
81A
81B
81C
810
81EF
To obtain
3200 K
from:
Magenta Exposure
(Absorbs Increase
Green) In Stops '
'These values are approximate. For critical work, they should be checked
by practical test, especially if more than one filter is used.
KODAK LIGHT BALANCING FILTERS

Filter
Color
.05
.10
.20
.30
.40
.50
Yellow Exposure
(Absorbs Increase
Blue)
In Stops'
'h
'IJ
'h
'IJ
%
%
9
18
27
35
42
52
231
NOMOGRAPH FOR LIGH TSOURCECONVERSION

ORIGINAl SOURCE INK
filTER
REQUIRED
T1
10000
12
900)
11000
&
7(XXJ
j
]
5IXX)
by Jim Branch
2000
60110
Exposure Meters
CONVERTED SOURCE IN K
2500
-+
i
3000
~
2500
2000
858
85
4000
85C
81Ef
No Fllet
1-
3000
BID
- - - = F :; 8
82
-
82C
800
82C + 828
82C t 82C
828
~ 112CIl2
-
112C+82A
_~ ooc
008
BOA ---i
i
g-
1
j
I
The nomograph can be used to hnd the approximate hiler lor a particular conversion by placmg
~~:;~~~~~~:~~~ ~,i1nal source (T1) 10 a seccnd source 1121 The approxmate filter can
4000
5IXX)
6000
71100
"
8000
900)
10000
I'
The usual final adjustment of a motion-picture camera for exposure control is made with the iris diaphragm
in the camera lens. While this is a very simple adjustment,
a great deal depends upon its accuracy. Much thought has
gone into the objectives to be attained by the adjustment
of the diaphragm, and the means to obtain a correct adjustment.
It is recognized that a prime object of exposure control in motion-picture photography is to obtain consistent
and w1iform images of the principal subjects. It is very
important to obtain flesh tones which will be consistent
from one scene to the next. It is undesirable to have flesh
tones which will be light in one scene, dark in the next without reason, and again light in the next scene. Correct exposure control will provide negatives which are consistent
from scene to scene and can be printed on a very narrow
range of printer lights.
Modem exposure control is based on the use of a good
light meter. The light meter measures the effective intensity of the light, taking into account the sensitivity of the
film in the camera and the exposure time. The exposure
time is a result of the frames-per-second rate at which the
camera operates, and the angle of the shutter opening. Professional cinematographers usually think in terms of 24
frames per second and a 175-degree shutter, which give a
basic exposure time of ~ second. The light meter combines
all of the foregoing factors to give an answer in terms of the
appropriate camera lens stop.
Light meters are of two types. Some measure the incident light which illun1inates the subject. Others measure
the light which is reflected from the scene. The results obtained from the two different types may be quite different.
It is important therefore to w1derstand the differences between the two types.
Incident Light Meters

These meters are normally used at the location of the
photographic subject. They measure the light which is effective in illun1inating the subject. They give an answer in
233
r
I
terms of f-stop or T-stop for the camera lens. The camera

lens diaphragm opening is then set to match the effective
intensity of the prevailing illumination.
When the film is exposed, the various reflectances presented by the subject will then each fall into a given place
in the fiJm acceptance range. For example, a face tone of
~0% re~ectance will fall into the 30% reflectance position
m the film acceptance range. This method thus provides
consistently uniform face tones from scene to scen e.
. The incident light meter accomplish es its purpose by
domg two. things. It measures the incident light inten sity
at the loca bon of the photographic subject. It also takes into
accOLmt the conditions of illumination geometry; tha t is,
whether t~e subject has front key light, side key light, or a
back key h~ht. The me ter combines these factors and gives
an answer m terms of the correct setting for the camera lens
diaphragm.
There are several makes of incident light meters which.
~se a three-dimensional light collector. The hemispherical
light coiJector allows these meters to perform automatically
the dual fw1c tion described above.
These incident light meters are normally used at the
po~ition of the pri ncipal subject, with the hemisphere
p~u~ted at the camera lens. The hemisphere then acts as the
rnuuature face of the subject. All illumination which will
~e effec~ve. on the subject, including key light, fill light, line
light~ hatr light, eye lights, e tc., will be received, evaluated
and mtegrated by the meter. The meter will then indicate
d.irectl~ the correct -stop or T-stop for the camera lens. Inodent light meters are particularly useful because they may
be used on a scene before the principal subject appears.
They may also be carried through a scene, with the hemisphere always pointed at the camera lens, to detect uneven
illumina tion, and particularly hot spots, into which the
subJect may move during the action. This allows the scene
illun1ination to be SLtitably balanced before the principal
subject is at hand.
In the case of outdoor ph otography, it is not always
nec~ssary to take the meter to the location of the principal
su~Ject. Under sue~ conditions the illumination is usually
wuform over considerable ar eas. If the illumination is the
same at subject location and at camera location the meter
may be used at ca mera location. Care should be exercised
to point the meter in the proper direction, as though it were
at the subject location .
234
Exposure meters, in general, are either analog (with a

needle) or digital. The introduction of the analog incident
meter with the 3-D light-collecting hemisphere revolutionized the method of determining proper exposure for the
cinematographer.
Today, a number of companies throughout the world
manufacture exposure meters employing the basic incident
type principles in their design, but all due credit should be
given for the invention to Don Norwood, ASC, who patented it, and Karl Freund, ASC, who was instrumental in
its development. Most incident meters are provided with
suitable adapters so that they may be converted for use as
a reflected light meter if the occasion should so indicate. The
reflected light adapter can be used in a situation where the
cinematographer encounters difficulty in putting the meter
into a p osition to read either the illumination directly on
the subject, or illumination similar to that on the subject.
Such a situation, for example, might be encountered when
taking a picture out of the window of an airliner in flight.
The reflected light attad1ment can also be used in other situations to evaluate the relative brighmess of a background.
Special Effects
When a special effect is desired, the cinematographer
may use the incident light meter to first determine normal
exposure for the subject. Then he may then deliberately
modify that value, up or down, to achieve the desired effect. This can be done with considerable confidence because
the incident light meter will give a firm foLmdation upon
which to base ilie desired modification.
Specific Situations
There are some situations, occasionally encountered
in outdoor photography, which require special attention.
1. Unusually light or dark backgrounds are cause for
consideration. When a scene includes an unusually light
backgrow1d, the cinematographer may w ish to first use the
meter as an incident light meter to determine the basic exposure for the principal subject in the foreground. Then he
can convert the meter to a reflected light meter in order to
measure the brighmess of the unusual background. The
second reading is then used to modify somewhat the basic
incident light reading. The same procedure could be followed in the case of an unusually dark background.
235
2. Outdoor scenes that include a subject in the foregrotmd as well as distant objects, such as motmtains, in the
backgrotmd, usually also include consid erable aerial haze,
which may be invisible or only partly visible to the eye, but
s trongly visible to the camera. A frequent photographic
result is a recording of the aerial haze overlaid on the scene
backgrotmd. This would give the appearance of an overexposed backgrotmd. It is recommended that in such a situation a haze-cutting filter be used to improve the backgrotmd. In addition, use the procedure previously d escribed for the case of an tmusuallighting backgrotmd.
3. Scenes consisting of a mixture of stmshine and shade
areas, with the principal subject in a shade area, can be
handled by: (a) using the meter in the sunshine area, or (b)
opening up the lens by ~ to 2f:J f-stop from the meter indication.
Reflected Light Meters

Reflected light meters can be classified into two
groups, according to function. The meters in each group
may give exposure readings which are substantially different from those given by the meters in either of the other two
groups. This is due to differences in basic principle of operation.
Group 1. These are the meters which are designed to
measure the average brightness of an entire scene. Such
meters are usually used at camera location and pointed at
the scene. For a discriminating observer, this method appears to give acceptable results only in the case of a very
limited category of scenes, those w hich have front-lighting
and a foregrotmd subject of medium tone as well as a backgrotmd of medium tone. In other types of scenes, which
include side-lighting or backlighting, or very bright or dark
backgrotmds, or large areas of sky, the exposure results are
questionable. This is because the meter, when used by this
method, is affected not only by the unit brightness of each
portion of the scene, but also by the relative area of each.
Thus a large area of s ky would influence the meter to dictate a small lens aperture which might result in an tmderexposure of the face of the principal subject in the foregrotmd . Any backlight may strike directly into the meter
cell and cause an unduly high reading on the meter. This
also would result in w1derexposure of the foregro tmd subject. Large bright backgrotmds tend to cause meter read236
'
ings which result in underexposure of foregrotmd subjects.

Large dark backgrotmds tend to cause meter rea.dings
which result in overexposure of the foreground subject. If
this method is used it should be considered only as a very
rough guide, subject to considerable modification according to the experience of the cameraman.
It is interesting to note that this method is the one generally used in the built-in automatic exposure control systems of amateur motion-picture and s till picture cameras.
It has been noted by many that the photographic results do
not meet the high standards of professional cinematography.
Group 2: These are the spot meters. A spot meter may
be used at cam era location and aimed a t a selected spot in
the scene. The effectiveness of the meter is heavily dependent on the operator's judgment in the selection of the spot.
The selected spot must be precisely representative of the
particular combination of elements which compose the
scen e. In the use of s uch a meter the opera to r must be particularly careful when confronted with a scene iliat presents
s trong contrasts between ili.e selected spot and the scene
background. An example of such a situation would be a
case where a person in the foregrotmd is in front of a very
light backgrotmd, such as sky or white buildings, etc. In
such a case the operator should modify ilie spot reading
provided by ilie meter according to his own estimate of ilie
situation. When the use of a reflected light meter is required , ilie results of determining the exposure can be
greatly improved by using a "Kodak Neutral Test Card."
This card is a piece of sturdy 8" X 10" cardboard that
is neutral gray on one side and white on ilie oilier. The gray
side reflects 18% of ilie light falling on it, and the white side
reflects approximately 90%. Also, ilie gray side has a protective lacquer overcoat iliat reduces specular reflectance
and resists damage due to fading, fingerprints, soil, etc. To
a light meter, an average scene is one in which the tones
w hen averaged form a tone brightness iliat is equivalent
to middle gray - a tone that reflects 18% of the light illuminating it (ilie same tone and reflectance of ilie gray card).
When a scene is not average ilie gray card as a reference
helps you make ilie proper exposure judgments. A Kodak
Gray Card is manufactured tmder close tolerances to provide a neutral gray-side reflectance of 18% ( 1% ) and
white-side reflectance of approximately 90%.
237
Testing
Small errors m ay exist in meters, lens calibrations,
emulsion speeds and d evelop ment. These small errors will
freq uently cancel out wi thout und ue h arm to the final picture. It is when tl1ese errors add up in the same direction
tl1at their cumulative effect is serious. It is wise, therefore,
to test eq uipment, film and meters under simulated p roduction conditions so that errors m ay be d etected and corrected before production begins. It is always a good id ea
to "tune up to the variables."
Exposure Meters
Cinemeter II
Type: Hand-held ctigital /an alog incident meter.
Light Sensor: Large area, blue enhanced silicon p hoto
sensor. Swivel head 270 d egrees.
Measuring capability: Direct readout of photographic
exposures in full f-stops or fractional f-s tops. Also measures
illuminance level in foo tcandles and Lux.
Measuring Range: Direct-reading multiple-range linear circuit incorporates a high q uality CMOS integra ted
amplifier w hose bias current is com pensated against drift
up to 70 C. Dynamic range 250,000 to one. Digital f-stop:
f/ 0.5 to f/90 in Ylo-s top increments. Analog f-stop: f/0.63
to f/ 36 in \6-stop increments. Photographic illum inan ce:
0.20 to 6400 footcandles, 2 to 64,000 Lux.
Dis play: Vertical digital / analog bar graph which consists of 72 black liquid-crystal bars (6 bars perf-stop ), that
rise and fall depending on the light intens ity. The scale can
be used in three different display modes (Bar, Floating Zone
and Ded icated Zone), and in three d ifferent measurem en t
modes (f-stops, foo tcand les and Lux).
Display M odes:
1. Bar mode is similar to a need le-reading m eter, except that the movement is up and d own instead of left to
right.
2. Floa ting Zone mode: a single flashing bar form s a
solid bar tl1a t graphica lly incticates the ran ge of illumination in the scene. It can also be used for the m easurement
of flickering or blinking sources.
3. Decticated Zone mode is used to save up to five separate measurements.
238
Display Range:
ISO film sp eed: 12 to 2500 in \-3-stop increm ents.
Camera speed : 2 to 375.
Sh utter Angle: 45 to 90 in ~ -stop incremen ts,
90 to 205 in 1.112 f-stop increments.
Filter factors: Y-1 f-stop to 7 f-stops.
Resolution: Digital: ~ f-s top. Analog: ~ f-s top.
Accuracy: Digital ~ f-stop.
Additional Functions: Memory store and recall.
Lamp: Electroluminescent backlit liquid crystal d isplay.
Power consumption: Operating reading 5 mA with
backlight on.
Power Source: On e 9-volt battery.
Dimensions: 6% " X 3 " X H\6 "
Weight: Ap proximately 10 ounces.
Minolta Luminance ft-1, nt-1 & nt-%
Type: Reflex-viewing spot-read ing automatic/ manual

lunlinance meter.
Light Sensor: Silicon Photovoltaic cell with 1 {Y3 in
model n t-% of acceptance.
Viewing System: Focusing through-the-lens reflex
type. Objective len s 85rnm f/ 2.8. Angle of view: C ircular
9 w ith cen tral1 (Y-1 in m odel n t-\-3 ) marked circle. Magnification: 2.96X focused at infinity.
Measuring Capability: Direct readout of illuminance
level in footlamberts or candelas.
Measuring Range:
Mod el ft-1 : 0.01 to 99900 ft-L (0.01 step)
Mod el nt-1 : 0.1 to 99900 cd/ m2 (0.1 step )
Mod el nt- Y.!o: 1.0 to 99900 cd/m2 (0.1 step )
Display Range: Red (+) LED's a t the righ t of the munber disp lay incticates lOX an d lOOX the d isplay reading.
Accuracy: Within 4% of C.I.E. s tand ard 1 digit in
last cUsplay p osition.
Screen-flicker accuracy: Within 1% of average luminance with projection cycle of m ore than 72Hz and d uty
of 7% (projector at 24 fps).
Analog Output: Output voltage: 1V over full scale.
Output imped ance: 10 kilo-ohms.
Power Consumption: 6 mA in analog mode. Meter
can monitor changes in luminance for a period up to 40
hours.
0
Power Source: One 9-volt battery (Eveready 216 or

equivalent).
Estimated Battery Life: Approximately 1 year with
normal use.
Dimensions: 2 ~"X 6%" X 41\1\6"
Weight: 18\1! otu1ces, without battery.
Sp ectra Cinespot 1 Spot Meter
Type: Through-the-lens viewing spot-reading automatic/ manual luminance meter.
Light Sensor: Silicon Photovoltaic cell with 1o angle
of acceptance.
Viewing Optics: 1.6X magnification, erect system with
focusing eyepiece.
M easuring Capability: Direct readout of illuminance
level in foot lamberts or candelas.
M easuring Range: Low Range 0-30 fL (or 0-100 cd/
m 2) readings legible down to O.SfL. High Range 0-300 fL
(or 0-1,000 cd/ m2), upper limit may be increased by use of
accessory lOX or 100X attenuators.
Spectral Response: Within 4% (by area) of CIE Photopic Luminosity Ftu1ction.
Accuracy: 1% of full scale or 5% of reading (whichever is greater).
Error Due To Chopped Light: 0.5 % at 24 cycles/
second.
Power Source: One 6-volt battery. (Eveready 544 or
equivalent).
Estimated Battery Life: Approximately 1 year with
normal use.
Dimensions: 5" X 2" X 6.4"
Weight: 15 Otulces.
Spectra Profession al IV
Type: Hand-held exposure meter for measuring incid ent and reflected light.
Light Sensor: Silicon Photovoltaic cell, computer selected glass filters tailored to spectral response of the film.
Swivel head 270 degrees.
Measuring Capability: Direct readout of ph otographic exposures. Also measures illuminance level in footcandles and Lux.
Measuring Range: One million to one (20 f-stops) direct-reading multiple-range linear circuit controlled by
nucrocomputer.
Display Range: ISO film speed: 3 to 8000 in YJ stop
.
mcrements.
Camera speed: 2 to 360 frames per second .
Resolution: Digital: 0.1 f-s top. Analog: 0.2 f-s tops.
Accuracy: Digital: 0.05 f-stop.
Additional Functions: Memory store and recall.
Lamp: Optional electrol uminescen t lamp for backlit
liquid crystal display.
Power Consumption: Operating (reading) SmA. Data
retention SuA
Power Source: One 6-volt battery. (A544, PX28L or
PX28).
Estimated Battery Life: Approximately 1 year w ith
normal use.
Dimensions: 5\-2'' X 2Y2" X 2".
Weight: Approximately 6 Otulces.
Muclr of tire material i11 tit is sectio11 of tire matmal is basic, but referellce
sh ould be made to Do11 Norwood, ASC a11d Eastma11 Kodak Compa 11y for
tlte gray card i11fon11atio11.
Camera Drive System
by Edmund M. DiGiulio
ASC Associate Member
Cinema Products Corporation
When recording sOtmd simultaneously with filming,
it is necessary to provide some means of guaranteeing that
the soundtrack will be in perfect synchronism with the film.

In single-system filming, where the sound is recorded directly on the film in the camera, on either a magnetic strip
or optical sound track, this is automatically accomplished.
In double-system filming, however, sp eed variations of
camera and recorder, as well as the elasticity of the magnetic recording tape, require some positive means of keying the dialogue to its appropriate film frame.
The inclusion on the sound recorder of a second, parallel syn c or "Pilotone" track is the most common method
in use tod ay. The sync pulse is typically a sine wave of 50
to 60Hz with an RMS amplitude of approximately 1 volt.
Back in the lab, a "resolver" transfers the sound track onto
oxide-coated sprocketed film stock using the sync track as
a reference so that the transferred sound track will correspond, frame for frame, with the camera negative. Until the
introduction of crystal sync systems, this sync pulse was
derived from the camera by another means.
If, for example, the camera was being driven by a DC
motor, with some sort of governor control to hold it fairly
accurate at 24 fps, a sync pulse generator geared to the
movement or motor shaft could be employed to provide
the sync pulse output. A cable conducts the sync pulse from
camera to sound recorder. (See Fig. 1.)
An a lterna te method, used most commonly on
soundstages but also on location, was for the camera to be
driven by a synchronous motor operating from AC mains,
or on location from an AC generator. In this case the recorder used the mains or alternator as a sync pulse source
(Fig. 2).
In crystal d rive systems, a crystal oscillator of extremely high accuracy at (or in) the recorder provides the
sync pulse. The camera is in turn driven by a sp ecially designed DC motor and control circuit which is capable of
operating in exact synchronism with a self-contained crys242
tal oscillator of comparable accuracy (Fig. 3). The crystalcontrolled motor operation is analogous to that of a sync
motor operating in synchronism with AC mains. In the case
of AC synchronous operation, both camera and recorder
are tied to the AC source as a common reference. In the case
of crystal operation both camera and recorder reference to
self-contained crystal oscillators which are so accurate that
the effect is the same as if they had been tied together.
Since the reference is absolu te, any n umber of cameras
can be operated simultaneously, in perfect synchronism,
with a single recorder. The basic advantage to the crystal
drive system, however, is tha t it elimina tes the n eed for
power cables and any umbilical connection between the
camera and recorder. Most crystal motors commonly in use
today employ some means of indicating wh en the motor
is rurining out of synchronism. This is usually a beep tone
or a blinking light. This is a reliable indicator of good synchronous operation and is a corollary benefit.
Time Code
While the cordless crystal drive system guarantees
syn chronous operation between camera and recorder, it
does not provide a start mark. Slating, th erefore, must be
done either with a convention al clapstick, or by wireless
transmission of start and scene information.
A more promising approach is that of absolu te time
reference or "crystal clock." In this system we use an extremely accurate crystal time-base generator (or clock) capable of marking the film at regular intervals with a precise time reference and oth er pertinent production data. A
similar or identical clock would also be plugged in to the
recorder to mark the sow1d record in iden tical fashion. It
is only necessary for both crystal clocks to be time-synchronized a t the beginning of the day and then be plugged into
tre camera and the recorder, so that for the rest of the day's
shooting, the mark made on the film and on the sow1d
record would always occur a t precisely the same time. The
effect would be the same as if we operated clap sticks a t
regular intervals of on e second or more during the entire
day. As in the case with crystal-controlled synchronization,
any number of cameras could be tied to one recorder or
several recorders.
The EBU (European Broadcasting Union) proposed
such a time-code system in the early '70s. It involved the
243
METHODS OF SYNCHRONIZING
CAMERA AND RECORDER
SYNC
o=o I
"" INPuT I
FIG. !
\
GO Hz
2-TRACK
RECORDER TAPE
DIALOGUE ~
'~'~r-=1/
~l@J
FIG. 2
recording of time information optically on the film in the

form of 16 binary-coded decimal digits per second. In accordance with this proposal, a number of European equipment manufacturers designed and offered for sale equipment incorporating the ability to record or read the EBU
time code. This approach did not have much success in the
marketplace, however, as the only function it served was
to permit the automatic syncing of dailies. Accomplishing
this single task did not prove to be cost-effective.
Starting in the late '70s, SMPTE in the United States
began exploring the possibility of recording the SMPTE
time code that had already been established for use with
videotape, on both picture and soundtrack. By using the
same code that was already a standard for v ideotape
(uniquely identifying every frame), it was felt that a further
and more important function could be served than just
syncing up dailies. By transferring the picture and also the
SMPTE time code from film to tape, one could realize the
tremendous efficiencies of videotape editing and then use
the SMPTE time code as the means of conforming the edit
decisions from the tape to film.
From the first experiments by EBU through the early
efforts by SMPTE, the proposed method for recording time
code in the camera was optical. This app roach has the advantage of being permanent and easily duplicated in the
printing process. This technology is changing rapidly and
the most up-to-date information can be obtained from
manufacturers' representatives.
A.C. MAINS
SYNC
INPUC=[@
T TCXO
TEMP
FIG. 3
244
cfb
COMPENSATED
CRYSTAL
OSCILLATOR
245
...
Camera Supports
Cranes
Louma Crane by Samcine
The Louma Crane is a modular crane w hich incorporates a remotely-controlled pan and tilt camera mo w1ting
system. It may be fitted to any suitable dolly, including
Elemack Cricket, Hornet or Ro lls types.
The complete crane, excluding inclivi?ual wei~hts, is
packed in 10 Samcine rigidlzed cases. Maxm1Um we1ght of
any s ing le part is 116 pounds.
In largest configuration, arm with reinforcem ent stays:
Arm length 26', weight tubes 10' 10". Maximum height of
optica l axis with limited pan (fulcrum 10' high): 31' 4 'h".
Maximum height of optical axis with 360 pan (fulcrum 8'
4"): 25' 3". Maximum dimension of reinforcement s tays: 5'
8 ~"wide, 2' 11" above tube axis. Weight excluding dolly,
990 pow1ds. Smaller configuration without extension stays:
arm length 15' 7" or 3' 5".
Maximum angle of tilt upward with 360 panning: 45;
downward: 65. Maximum angle of tilt upward with lim.
ited pan: 60.
Mininlum dimension of an aperture through which
crane head will pass while supporting a Panaflex camera:
1' 7
wide X 2' 3" high. Minimum height of optical axis of
Panaflex camera above LU1der-side of p latform: 7
The LoLLma Crane command console consists of an
electronically-opera ted remote camera pan and tilt system
opera ted by two handles exactly as if it were a regular
geared cam era head like a Panahead, Samcine M~y. or
Worrall. The command center incorpora tes a televiSIOn
monitor connected to the TV viewfinder system of the camera. A second dosed-circuit TV camera is used to relay lens
calibration information to the focus assistant, who is able
to remotely control the focus, aperture an d zoom (if fitted)
fLmctions of the lens.
w.
The Crane by Matthews

Portable folding crane system. Can be mounted on
three types of wheels: pneumatic, hard, or flotation. (Special track is available.)
Basic kit:
Largest dimens ion of a disassembled module is 8
feet.
Transport weight: 2000 pounds w ith weights
Set up: Pedestal 64" x 64"
Maximum lens height: 16' 6" with typical camera.
Minimum height: 2' 6"
Reach: 144"
Recommended load: 550 pounds
Junior kit:
Transport weight: 140 pounds
Maximum height: 108"
Mininlum height: Floor (Fulcrum height 36")
Reach: 120"
Extension kit:
Maxirnwn height: 24'
Mininlwn height: Minus 19'4"
Reach: 18'4"
Maxi Extension Kit:
MC88Crane
Designed exclusively for use with Cam -Re~ote_and
other remote-control devices. The boom length 1s adjustable and requires no support cables.
Boom lengths:
Short boom: 10'
Mediwn boom: 18' 6"
Long boom: 22' 6"
Nettman Cam-Remote by Matthews

A remotely controlled head for film and television
production cameras. The head is precisely controlled over
a continuous 360 range in both pan and tilt. All lens functions are controlled via powerful and accurate motors. The
system can be used on camera cars, lighting grids by
Matthews, the MC88 Crane or any other production cranes.
User friendly controls employing "Worrall-type" hand
wheels or joystick systems are provided for the operator.
The head is normally controlled via cables but may be controlled via a serial link system.
r:
'
Chapman-Super Nova Mobile Crane

Location and stage crane.
7' 7" (232 em)
Width:
20' (589 em)
Length:
21' 6"
Length with battery pack:
Minimum Height:
9' 3" (282 em)
27' (823 em)
Lens Height (without risers):
Drop Down:
8' (244 em)
Maximum Reach:
17' 3" (526 em)
29' 3" (884 em)
Maximum with 12' extension:
28,500 lbs.
Traveling Weight:
Vert. Travel of Boom above grnd.: 23' (701 em)
27' (823 em)
(with hydraulic riser):
Vert. Travel of Boom below grnd.: 2' 7"
Boom Length fully extended:
30'11"
Max Length Boom & chassis:
37' 4"
Tread:
6' 4"
Wheel Base:
13'10"
Maximum Speed (batteries):
12' per sec
23' 3"
Minimum Turn Radius:
Maximum lifting capacity:
1,750 lbs.
Mercury Balancing Automatic leveling system.
Patented Feathering valves.
860 DC Ampere hours available.
Two 72-volt systems used in series or paralleled, total
144 volts.
Six wheel drive, six wheel steering.
Chapman-Titan II Mobile Crane

Width:
Length:
Length with spare tire:
Minimum Height:
Lens Height (without risers):
Drop Down:
Maximum Reach:
Maximum with 12' extension:
Traveling Weight:
Vert. Travel of Boom above grnd.:
(with hydraulic riser):
Vert. Travel of Boom below grnd.:
7' 7" (232 em)

20' (589 em)
21' 5"
9' 3" (282 em)
27' (823 em)
8' (244 em)
17' 3" (526 em)
29' 3" (884 em)
26,000 lbs.
23' (701 em)
27' (823 em)
3' 7"
Boom Length fully extended:

30' 11
Max Length Boom & Chassis:
37' 4"
Tread:
6'4"
Wheel Base:
13' 10"
12' per sec
Minimum Tum Radius:
23' 3"
Maximum Lifting Capacity:
1,500 lbs.
Mercury Balancing.
Automatic leveling system, Patented Feathering valves.
Six-wheel drive, six-wheel steering.
Chapman-Super Apollo Mobile Crane

Max. Lens Height:
19' 5"
Maximum Reach Beyond Chassis: 18' 9"
Vert. Travel of Boom above grnd.: 15' 5"
Vert. Travel of Boom below grnd.: 10.5"
Chassis Width:
7' 7.5"
Tread:
6'4"
Wheel Base:
10' 6.5"
860 DC Ampere hours available.
Mercury Balancing.
Patented Feathering valves.
1,700 lbs.
Chassis Length:
15' 11"
8' 4"
Minimum Chassis Height:
Traveling Weight:
19,500 lbs.
12' per sec
Minimum Tum Radius:
21' 2"
Four-wheel drive and four-wheel steering.
Chapman-Zeus Stage Crane

Lens Height:
Maximum Reach:
Vert. Travel of Boom above grnd.:
Chassis Width:
Chassis Length:
Minimum Chassis Heigh t:
Maximum length boom + chassis:
Crane operating weight:
Tread:
16' 2"
14' 6"
12'2"
3'0"
4'0"
7' 10"
5'8"
19'4"
7,200 lbs.
44"
Wheel Base:
Maximum Speed:
Minimum turn radius:
5' 7"
11.2' per sec

7' 9"
1,500 lbs.
Chapman-Electra I Stage Crane

Lens height:
Minimum height:
Reach:
Max. reach (with 3' extension):
Chassis width:
Chassis length:
Minimum chassis height:
Weight:
Minimum turning radi.us:
*Equipped with solid wheels only.
11'
ground
7'
10'
41"
81"
4' 10"
3,000 lbs.
1,500 lbs.
7' 3"
Chapman-Nike/Electra II Stage Crane

Lens height:
Maximum reach:
Vert. Travel of Boom above gmd.:
Chassis width:
Chassis length:
Minimum chassis height:
Maximum length boom & chassis:
Crane operating weight:
Tread:
Wheel base:
Maximum speed:
Minimum turn radius:
14'
14' 6"
10'
2'
44"
7' 3"
5' 3.5"
16' 9"
5,600 lbs.
40"
5'
9' 9.6" per sec.

6' 3"
1,500 lbs.
Dollies
Chapman-Sidewinder Dolly
For indoor or outdoor use. For television or motion
picture productions.
9'
Lens height (w I o added risers):
Low lens height (with extension): 22"
900 lbs.
Lifting capacity:
250
Max. horizontal reach (w I extension): 38"

Chassis length:
64"
Chassis width:
38.75"
Minimum Chassis height:
41"
Weight:
1,450 lbs.
Crab or Conventional steering.
Electric drive, full24 hours of use with each charge.
Dual rocker system, three point suspension.
Elemack Cricket Dolly

Convertible three or four w heel dolly with center hydraulic pedestal.
Basic Unit (Collapsed size):
25W' x 25W' x 25314"
Lens height:
5' 11"
Low lens height:
3' 11"
Lifting capacity:
260 lbs.
Width (wheels spread:
27 'l16"
Minimum Tracking Width:
17"
Weight:
300 lbs.
Crab or Conventional steering.
Accessories: Electro hydraulic lift drive.
Several configurations of mini cranes.
Seats and brackets; running boards.
Curved and straight track sections in two gauges.
Articulated bogey wheels for track use.
J. L. Fisher Crab Dolly

Four-wheel dolly.
30"
Chassis w idth:
01assis length:
67"
Weight:
446lbs.
Max. Height:
61"
Max. Height (w I low level head):
50"
Min. Height:
14"
Min. Height (for storing or shipping): 20"
Min. Height (with low level head):
3"
Elevation: AC, DC, or manual.
Camera mount ahead of w heels.
Full crab-brakes in rear wheels.
Four or two wheel selection for crab or steering shots.
Solid or pneumatic tires.
FGV Panther
Column drive may be operated manually or its ascent
and descent phases may be stored and recalled using builtin computer memory.
Minimum size for transport:
29" (73.6 em)
Length:
Width:
26.8" (68 em)
Height:
28" (71 em)
Total weight for transport:
260 lbs. (118 kg)
Maximum tracking width:
24.4" (62 em)
Minimum tracking clearance:
14" (36 em)
Minimum Battery performance per
charge, column moves:
200
Max. load using column drive:
551 lbs. (250 kg)
Max. w I column retracted:
1,763.7 lbs (800 kg)
Input voltage tolerance:
18-28 V
Maximum power consumption:
24 A
Battery unit specifications:
24 V 9.5 Ah
Charge cycle standard charger:
10 hours
Charge cycle charge/ballast unit: 5 hours
Max. lens height (Arri 35 BL
on Sachtler Studio Head):
74.8" (190 em)
Min. lens height (35 BL on Sachtler
Studio Head+adapter):
17.7" (45cm)
Column range:
27.6" (70 em)
Max. lens h eight w /Super-Jib (35 BL
on Sachtler+50cm Bazooka):
118" (300 em)
Max. lens heigh t w /Lightweight-Jib
(35BL on Sachtler Studio Head): 106" (270 em)
Kombi-Wheels for track or floor use.
Program stores up to 5 drive sequences.
Integrated battery maintains program memory.
Continuously variable speeds.
Modular quick-change circuit cards.
Camera Stabilizing Systems

by John Jurgens
Cinema Products Corporation
Modem camera stabilizing systems enable a camera
op erator to move about freely and make dolly-smooth
hand-held shots without the restrictions or the resultant
image unsteadiness en countered with prior methods.
These systems transfer the weight of the camera unit to the
operator's body via a support structure and weight distribution suit. This arrangemen t frees the camera from bodymotion influences. It allows the camera to be moved by the
operator through an area generally defined by the range
through which his arm can move.
Camera smoothness is con trolled by the "h and-eyebrain" human servo system that we use to carry a glass of
water ar?und a room or up and down stairs. Viewing is
acco~plished through the use of a video monitor system
that displays an actual through-the-lens image, the same
i~ag7 on e would see when looking through a reflex
VIewf_inder. The advantage of these camera stabilizing systems IS tha t the camera now moves as if it were an extension of the operator's own body, controlled by his intemal
servo system, which constantly adjusts an d corrects for
body motions whether walking or running. Th e camera
?'oves an~ glides freely in all directions - panning, tiltmg, boommg - and all movements are integrated into a
single fluid motion which makes the camera seem as if it
were suspended in mid-air and being directed to move at
will. These camera stabilizing systems tum any vehicle into
an instant camera platform.
As with remotely con trolled camera systems, servo
controls may be used for con trol of focus, iris and zoom on
the camera lens.
Cinema Products Steadicam

(Universal Model III)
The Steadicam system consists of a stabilizing support
arm which attaches at one end to the camera operator's vest
and at the other end to a floating camera mounting assembly which can accept either a 16mm, 35mm or video camera. The comfortable, adjustable, padded, dose-fitting camera operator's vest is an effective and sop histicated weight
252
253
d istribution system. It transfers and distributes the weight

of the Steadicam system (including camera and lens) across
the operator's shoulders, back and hips. The arm mounting plate may be quickly reversed to mount the stabilizer
arm on the right or left side of the front plate.
The stabilizer support arm is an articulated support
system w hich parallels the operator's arm in any position,
and almost completely counteracts the weight of the camera systems with a carefully calibrated spring force. The
double-jointed arm maximizes maneuverability with an
articulated elbow hinge, which frees the arm to move 380
degrees horizontally from the elbow. One end of the arm
attaches to either side of the vest front plate, allowing the
operator to change fo r left- or right-handed operation. A
free-floating gimbal coru1ects the stabilizer support arm to
the camera mounting assembly.
The cam era mounting assembly consists of a central
support post, arow1d which the individual components are
free to rotate as needed. One end of the post supports the
camera mounting platform, while the other end terminates
in the electronics module. The film or video camera can
rotate 180 degrees to left or right on its platform. The video
monitor is attached to a pivoting bracket which may also
slide up, down or around the post. There are scale markings on each of the components so that adjustments for
various modes of shooting may be documented and repeated. The video viewfinder monitor features a kinescope
tube of high brilliance with multiple layer coatings to eliminate reflections and permit viewing in sunlight. An electronic level indicator is visible on the CRT viewing screen
in the bottom of the picture area. Electronically generated
frame lines can be adjusted to accommodate any aspect
ratio. Positions of the components may be reversed to permit "low mode" configuration. The Steadicam w1it is internally wired to accept wireless or cable-controlled remote
servo systems for lens control. A quick-release mechanism
permits the operator to di vest himself of the entire
Steadicam unit in emergency. A 12V /3.5A NiCad battery
pack mounts on the electronics module to supply the
viewfinder system and film or video camera.
Panavision Panaglide
The Panavision Panaglide system is an integrated stabilizer system incorporating specially lightened cameras:
35mm Panaflex for sync sound, 35mm Pan-Arri for non-
254
sound, 65mm Hand-held Reflex and 16mm Panaflex

Elaine; a Pan acam model supports a video camera.
The support consists of a reinforced padded vest to
which an adjustable articulated suspension arm is pivoted.
The arm uses either a pneumatic/ spring or a spring/ cable
shock-absorbing system. A vertical telescoping staff attached to the suspension arm carries a camera platform on
one end and an electronics/battery w1it on the other. The
unit can be inverted, with the camera mounted either at top
or bottom of the staff. All swing joints and spring tensions
are adjustable.
The viewfinder uses video reflexed from the camera
lens, a 3'l2'' high brightness monitor, flexibly positioned for
convenience, and superimposed frame lines. Image can be
electronically deanamorphosed or can be reverse-scaru1ed
for over-the-shoulder shooting.
The Panaglide also features remote focus an d iris controls; illuminated level indicator; 24V battery; crystal sync
or variable camera speeds; digita l fps and footage counter;
and a quick-release vest for safety of operator.
Aerial Mounts
Continental Camera (Door, Belly and Outsid e
mounts)
Door mounts for video/16mm/35mm are Master &
Magnum mounts (cameras up to 30 lbs) and the Magnum
Elite (cameras up to 100 lbs). Belly mount can accommodate cameras up to 40 lbs; 180 field-of-view, tilts up 10,
down 90. Can be mounted with camera looking fore or aft,
and will accommodate zoom lenses, though useful only at
wide-angle portion of lens. Huffy mount is a belly mount
for cameras up to 100 lbs; will allow 160 field-of-view. Both
belly mow1ts a ttach to skid tubes of Bell206 I 206L helicopters, fitted with stand ard or high skids. Outside mount attaches to Hugh es 500 C or D model helicopters; must be
flown with specially qualified pilot. 337 FAA inspection
required for belly mounts, STC ap provals for door mounts.
Also w1ique body stabilizer, remote head and periscope
lens.
Gyrosphere (Gyro-Stabilized)
Two Gyrosphere systems were built in the mid-80's
using earlier Wescams as their starting point; the extensive
255
upgrade and redesign work represented many "firsts":

Vertical reference gyros to automate ability to hold level
horizon; integration of the Speed Aperture Computer with
an aerial system; improved stabilization and camera steering enabled faster and more accurate pans/ tilts with less
lag; improved ergonomics with hand-held joysticks; prime
lens capability. Mixed analog and digital electronics. Vertical slit curved plexiglass window.
Came ra: Modified Mitchell Mk 2 (3-36 fps) with
underslung XR-35 magazine. Also available with Empirejlex
Vista Vision camera from ILM (2-48 fps) or Vistacam from
BCS (2-48 fps).
Spacecam (Gyro-Stabilized)
Unique gyro-system using heavier gyro wheels spinning at greater RPMs. Patented powered main cardin-joint
allows more responsive and faster pans/ tilts. Digital electronics allow many abilities (i.e., clutching in sync with
helicopter turns). The lens looks through a windowless
port. Unique brackets for modified Hughes 500 helicopter
includes nose position as well as sides; unique nose and tail
position brackets for JetRanger helicopters.
Camera: custom built light-weight body and magazine
utilizing Mi tche!l NC movement (0-36 fps), as well as modified Mitchell Mk 2 (0-60 fps); Vista Vision (0-90 fps) and
Showscan (0-72 fps). All cameras incorporate pa tented
SpaceCam fiberoptic video assist system with superior lowlight capability.
Tyler Camera (Door and Nose mounts)
Middle-Mount II for video / 16mm/35mm; MajorMow1t for Arri 35-3, Arri BL or Mitchell Mk 2 (with special horizontal magazine adapter), as well as larger formats
up to lmax. Tilting nose mount (35mm/16mm/video) can
be used w ith prime lenses for Arri 35-3 as wide as 9.8mm.
Tilts from up to include rotor blades to upside-down /rearward; also can be mOLmted with camera looking aft. Does
not accommoda te zoom in 35mm, but allows zoom (if limited to wide end of lens) for video/16mm cameras. Attad1es
to nose of Bell206/206L helicopters fitted with standard or
high skids; can be fit to A-Stars/Twin-Stars if aircraft owner
has special adapter brackets installed . Available large format tilting nose-mount for cameras up to Imax; same tilt
range as standard nose mount; designed to attach to skid
256
tubes of Bell 206 /206L helicopters, fitted with standard or

high skids. FAA STC approvals for all mounts. Also unique
crane-mount, gyro-stabilized boat mount and jib arm. Exterior gyro-stabilized mount allows fast pan/ tilt rates, fast
lens changes; uses Arri 3 with custom 1000' top-loaded
magazine allowing low lens position for on-the-ground
applications. Tilt range to inverted 90 degrees. Color video
tap as well as bore-sighted video camera for low-light viewing. The lens looks through a windowless port. Ability to
lock off camera to mimic "banking horizon look" of nose
mount.
Wescam (Gyro-Stabilized)
The original (early 1960's) gyro-stabilized camera
mount. Current generation features all digital electronics
with unique abilities and may be remotely operated at the
end of a 500' cable or by radio link. The lens looks through
an optically flat anti-reflection coated glass window which
tracks with the lens during pans/tilts. This patented window system minimizes internal reflections from back or
side light; also permits use of polarizing filter, not possible
with curved plexiglass, which creates a rainbow of interference lines. FAA STC approvals for all mounts. 120 Video
units worldwide on Goodyear blimps, etc. Unique mounting brackets for Super Puma, MBB-105, 206L and Huey
helicopters, as well as boats. Also specialized track for onthe-ground moves up to 26 mph using radio link control.
Camera: Modified Mitchell Mk 2 (1-60 fps) with
unders lung Arri BL magazine. Also avai lable with
Empireflex VistaVision camera from ILM (2 - 48 fps).
Preparation of Motion Picture

Camera Equipment
felt markers, grease pencils, pens and p encils, chamois,

chalk, disposable batteries.
Invoice Check
Marty '6llstein,
Michael Hofstein & Tom 'Frisby' Fraser
All motion-picture camera equipment must be periodically inspected and maintained to insure proper performance in production. Camera rental facilities employ
skilled technicians to service and repair equipment after
each use. Once the equipment leaves the rental house, however, the camera crew must service tha t equipment
throughout the production. The camera assistant must be
prepared with the right knowledge, skills, tools, and reference materials to properly maintain all equipment in the
camera package.
The following is a list of procedures for the preparation of camera equipment needed to photograph a motion
picture. It is the responsibility of the camera assistant to
assure that all equipment and supplies needed and requested by the director of photography are present, in
working order, at the start of production.
Inventory
1) Basic equipment, from the ground up: Spreader, hihat, tripods, tripod head, camera body, batteries, all necessary cables, magazines (small & large), lenses and housings, zoom motor and control, follow-focus unit, matte box,
filters and holders, changing bag.
2) Additional accessories often requested by the director of photography: Adapter plates (quick-release, dovetail/balance, riser, tilt); speed control (for HMllights, TV
monitors, or other requirements); set of hard mattes, eyebrow, French flag; hand-held accessories (matte box, foll~w-f.oc us, shoulde r pad, viewfinde r , mag azines);
viewfinder extender, leveler, heater; barneys, rain shields;
obie light, 'assistant' light; videotap, monitor, recorder.
3) Supplies to be purchased by the production company: Raw stock, camera reports, film cores, empty film
cans, black labpack bags, labels, cloth camera tape, paper
tape, lens tissue, lens cleaning solvent, cleaning swabs, ora!]gewood sticks, slate, sp are camera fuses, rags, air cans,
Examine the rental invoice or work order, and confirm

that all equipment ordered by the director of photography
is included. Make sure that all support accessories and supplies needed by the assistants to properly perform their
tasks are also included. When the equipment is first received, use the rental invoice to check that all equipment
and supplies that have been ordered and billed for have
indeed been delivered . Confirm that the serial numbers
listed on the invoice match those engraved on the equipment.
Equipment Checkout
Set up and test each piece of equipment to determine
whether it is in working order. Label each case with cloth
tape and marker. When a case is not being used, keep at
least one latch locked to prevent an accident. Start from the
ground up and build the camera system. Thoroughly check
the entire package for completeness, compatibility, and
proper functioning . The equipment should be clean and
properly lubricated. Inunediately return any p iece of equipment that does not perform to your satisfaction.
The following list suggests standards by which to
judge each piece of equipment. They are to be used in conjunction with the appropriate camera operation manual.
Some of the procedures described, such as testing the
flange focal d epth or magazine clutch and brake tension,
require specialized test equipment. If the test equipment is
not available, or if you encounter any other questions or
problems, speak to the cam era technician who prepared the
package at the rental h ouse. It is likely tha t he has p erformed the tests himself and can give you the results.
1) Spreader
a) Runners slide smoothly and lock in all positions.
b) End receptacles accommodate the tripod points and
spurs, and hold them securely.
2) Tripods
a) Each leg extends smoothly and locks in all positions.
b) Top casting accommodates the base of the tripod

head (flat Mitchell, ball, or other).
c) Hinge bolts that attach each leg to the top casting are
adjusted to proper tension: each leg swings easily
away from top casting and remains at selected angle.
d) Wooden tripods (baby, sawed-off, standard): Legs
are solid and have no splits or breaks.
e) Metal or fiber tripods (baby, standard, 'two-stage'):
Legs are straight and have no burrs or dents.
3) Tripod Head
a) Base (Mitchell, ball, or other) fits and locks into tripod topcasting.
b) Ball base (only) adjusts smoothly and locks securely
in any position.
c) Camera lockdown screw fits into camera body, dovetail base with balance plate, riser, or tilt plate;
OR
d) Top plate of head includes a quick-release (touchand-go) base, which accommodates a quick-release
plate that bolts to camera body or any of the adapter
plates.
e) Eyepiece leveler bracket and frontbox adapter on the
head accommodate the leveler rod and frontbox being used.
f) Friction or Fluid Head:
1. Pan and tilt movement is smooth.
2. Both brake levers lock securely in all positions.
3. Both drag knobs easily adjust the tension of movement from free movement to the tension required
by the operator.
g) Gear Head:
1. Pan and tilt movement is smooth.
2. Both brake levers engage properly (gears may
move under stress).
3. Gears shift smoothly between low and high
speeds.
c) Camera interior is clean - no emulsion buildup or

film chips.
d) Camera oil and grease has been applied to lubrication points as recommended by camera manufacturer. Clean off any excess.
e) All fuses are intact and properly seated. Carry spare
fuses.
f) Movement of the shutter, pull-down claw, and registration pins is synchronized. Check by carefully
scribing a frame in the gate, then inching the motor
back and for th manually. The film should remain
stationary as long as the shutter stays open.
g) Movement of shutter and mirror is synchronized.
(Check only on certain cameras, including
Panavision.)
h) The "glow" that illuminates the ground glass is synchronized w ith the shutter- the light turns off before the shutter opens the gate. (Check only on certain cameras, including Arriflex.)
i) Camera speed holds steady at all speeds required for
the production. Thoroughly test all speed control accessories being used in camera package.
j) Pitch and loop adjustments operate properly (certain
cameras).
5) Aperture
a) Film gate has the correct aspect ra tio.
b) Gate is clean and properly seated. To confirm this:
1. Remove the gate and pressure pad.
2. Clean both w ith a chamois, and if necessary, a
proper solvent.
3. Clean channels and holes with an orangewood
stick.
c) Flange focal depth is set to manufacturer's specifications. Confirm by measurement with depth gauge.
d) Plastic gels have been removed from the gel holders.
6) Batteries and Cables

4) Camera Body
a) Accommodates and locks securely to tripod head,
balance plate, riser, tilt plate and shoulder pod with
camera lockdown screw.
b) All rollers move freely.
a) All batteries and cables are compatible- male pairs

with female, the number of pins in connectors match.
b) Batteries hold charge and cables conduct properly.
Check with voltmeter.
c) Camera motor runs film steady at desired speed
while under the load of all other current drawing ac-
261
cessories required for the production. These may include a zoom motor, assistant light, video tap, eyepiece heater, and viewfinder "glow." Check with
each battery.
7) Lamps
Lamps that require bulbs may include an out-of-sync
monitor lamp, running lamp, start-marking lamps
(older cameras), and others. All lamps must light at the
proper time. Replace all defective bulbs.
8) Variable Shutter
Mechanism operates through the full range of openings. Set shutter at opening selected by the director of
photography.
9) Viewfinder
a) Ground glass is properly seated. Ground glass depth
is within manufacturer's specifications. Check with
portable collimator.
b) The image is clear and clean. If necessary, remove
ground glass and carefully clean with proper solvent
and lint-free lens tissue.
c) Ground glass is marked for the aspect ratios requested by the director of photography.
d) Eyepiece focuses easily to the eye of the operator (adjust d iopter until the grains of the ground glass appear sharp).
e) Viewfinder extender fits properly between camera
body and eyepiece. Magnifier and ND filter operate
properly.
f) Viewfinder extender leveling rod attaches securely
to extender and to bracket on tripod head. Rod extends smoothly and locks in a ll positions.
g) Viewfinder illumination, or "glow", is synchronized
with the shutter.
10) Lenses
a) Each lens and lens housing is compatible with- and
seats securely in - the mount in the camera body.
b) Front and rear elements are clear and clean, free of
large chips and scratches, or any fingerprints or dirt.
Blow off loose material with a blower bulb, clean off
262
grease with lint-free lens tissue and proper lens cleaning solvent.
c) Iris leaves are flat and fall properly in place as they
are closed from the full open position.
d) Follow-focus assembly mounts properly. Focus gears
thread properly on the lenses.
e) Lens focus distance markings are accurate. (See Lens
Focus Calibration.)
11) Zoom Lens

a) Zoom mechanism is aligned properly and tracks
smoothly.
b) The cross-hairs on the ground glass remain centered
on a point throughout the zoom.
c) Lens focus distance markings are accurate at all focal lengths. (See Lens Focus Calibration.)
12) Zoom motor

a) Motor mounts securely and threads properly on the
lens.
b) Zoom control unit operates motor smoothly at all
speeds.
c) All cables connecting the camera, zoom control and
zoom motor conduct properly when checked with a
voltmeter.
13) Lens Housing

Distance and f-stop strips fit properly and match the
markings on the lens.
14) Filters
a) Both surfaces of each filter are clear, clean, and free
of major flaws.
b) Filters are the proper size:
1. Filters cover entire image area of each lens being
used.
2. Filters fit properly into filter holders - on lens,
lens housing, matte box, filter tray, or separate
holder.
c) Filter mounting accessories accommodate all lenses
used, and mount the number of filters on each lens
required by director of photography.
d) Rotating mount for polarizing filter turns smoothly
and locks in any position.
263
e) Sliding mow1t for graduated filters moves smoothly

and locks in any position.
f) Prepare labels for each filter (tape or velcro) for display on the side of the matte box.
15) Matte Box

a) Mounts securely to ca mera body and ex tends
smoothly along the supporting rods.
b) No ligh t passes between the matte box and the lens.
If necessary, acquire additional rings, filter trays or
rubber 'doug hnuts' to block light leaks.
16) Magazine
a) Fits snugly into the camera body.
b) Magazine doors fit and lock securely.
c) On co-axial magazines, label each "Feed" and "Takeup" door w ith tape.
d) Throat, film channels, and interior are clean, clear of
d ust or film chips.
e) Loop adj ustment operates properly (certain cameras).
f) Magazine gear timing is properly adjusted - film
runs smoothly and quietly through the magazine.
g) Clutch tension and friction brake tension have been
measured with the proper tools and are correct.
17) Video Assist: video camera, monitor

and recorder (optional)
a) Video camera (or tap) mounts securely on the camera body.
b) All cables are compatible and operate the tap, monitor and recorder.
c) The iris and focus controls adjust smoothly and produce an adequate image on the monitor.
d) The image can be centered on the monitor so that the
entire film frame is visible and level.
Lens Focus Calibration

(see "Photographic Testing and Evaluation")
1) Prime Lenses
a) 40mm or w ider: set camera at 3 feet from Focus

Chart. Focus lens vis ually, compare with lens dis-
264
tance markings. For more critical testing, shoot film

tests of each lens.
b) Longer than 40mm: set camera at 7 feet. from Foc~s
Chart. Focus lens visually, compare w1th lens distance markings.
c) />Jllenses - focus on distant object to test sharpness
at infinity.
2) Zoom Lenses: Use calibration procedure d escribed for
Prime Lenses, and repeat for several focal lengths- at
3 feet for the wide end, 7 feet for the long end, and a
distant object to test infinity for both ends.
3) Note: Other lens-to-chart distances may be used, as long
as the selected distance is marked on the lens barrel. The
chart should fill the frame as much as possible.
4) When the eye focus differs from the scale focus:
a) Consistent from lens to len s
1. Check ground glass seating and depth measurement.
2. Check lens mount.
3. Check measurement technique and tape measure
for accuracy.
b) Single discrepancy
1. Return lens for co11imation.
2. If needed immediately, encircle lens barrel with
chart tape and mark the correct distances.
Scratch Test
Run a scratch test for eacl1 magazine to determine if
iliere are any obstructions in the ca mera or magazine
mechanism that might damage the film. Load a short end
of virgin raw stock in the magazine and thread it through
the camera. Turn on the cam era m otor and run the film
through for several seconds. Turn off the motor. Rem~ve
the film from the take-up compartment of the magazme
without unthreading the film from the camera. Examine ilie
film w ith a bright lig ht and magnify ing glass. If any
scratches or oil spots appear on the emulsion or base, mark
the film, still threaded in the camera body, with a felt pen
at the following points:
a) where it exits the magazine feed rollers;
b) just before it enters the ga te;
c) just after it exits the gate;
d) where it enters the magazine take-up rollers.
Then carefully unthread the film and examine it to
determine where the damage originates. Once the problem
265
area h~s been identified, d1eck that area for dust, film chips,
emulsiOn btuldup, or burrs. Remove burrs with emery
paper, and any removable obstructions with an orangewood stick.
. Make p eriodic scra tch tests on magazines and camera
durmg production to avoid damage to the negative.
Steadiness Test
. .Test steadiness of camera movement by double-exposmgrmage.
1) Prepare chart: simple cross of one-inch white tape on
black card .
2) Mark start fram e in film gate with felt pen.
3) Roll 30. sec~nds of the chart at 50% exposure.
4) Backwmd film, or rewind film in darkroom, to place
sta rt frame back in film ga te (so as to thread on the
same perforation).
5) Offset chart by the width of the tape, and doubleexpose chart.
6) Process and project to evaluate steadiness.
Daily Preparation for Shooting

1) Clean the aperture. Suggested methods:
a) Pull the aperture plate and d ean w ith proper solvent.
b) Remove the lens and blow air through the lens port
with blower bulb.
c) Sight through the lens (possible with a lens 40mrn or
longer).
d) Remove hairs and d ust from the gate with an orangewood stick.
2) Warm up the camera:
a) Run the camera fo r several minutes without film.
b) In cold situations, run the camera for the amount of
time it would take to run one full magazine through
the camera at standard sp eed.
3) Load proper film stock in magazines.
4) Prepare slate and camera reports.
Film Tests
(See "Photographic Testing and Evaluation.")
Film te~ts ~e r~quested by the director of photographt Followmg lS a list of tests that may be useful in prep aration fo r a production. A standard gray scale and color
266
chip chart are often used for such tests, as well as models
that resemble the subjects of the film to be photographed.
1) Lens sharpness and color balance (particularly important if lenses of different manufacturers are used on the
same production): Test each lens to ensure consistent sharpness and color balance when len ses are changed. Photograph the identical subject with each lens and compare on
a one-light print.
2) Film stock and emulsion batch: Test each different
film stock and emulsion batch to be used on the production for color balance and exposure latitude.
3) Laboratory Processing: n ormal, forced, flashed. Test
processing at film laboratory selected by the production.
This is particularly important for determining the degree
of forced processing or flashing that is desired.
4) Filters: Test the effects of various filters on chosen
subjects to facilitate a selection of filters fo r the production.
5) Lighting: Test the look of new lighting instruments,
color gels, and diffusion materials on selected subjects.
6) Makeup: Test makeup on actors w1der the lighting
conditions plarmed for the p roduction.
Tools
A proper set of tools and supplies is essential to the
preparation and maintenan ce of motion-picture equipment. Although the production company should provide
the expendable supplies, a camera assistant's personal set
of tools should include most of the following items:
blower bulb - large (6")
lens brush -camel's hair or soft sable (1"; use only for
lenses, keep capped)
magazine brush- stiff bristles (1"-2")
lens tissue - lint free
cotton swabs
lens-cleaning solvent
50' flexible measuring tape
lighter fluid
scissors - straight blade, blunt ti p (2")
tweezers forceps - curved d issectin g forceps or hemostat
ground glass puller
ARRI SW2 - 2mrn hex (for variable shutters)
magnifying glass
267
small flashlight
orangewood sticks
tape:
cloth (1 ") black, white, and colors
paper( ~") white, colors
chart (Y!6") white- for lens barrel markings
velcro- (1 ") white, male & female
chalk- thick, dustless
felt marking pens
'rite-on/wipe-off' pens for plastic slates
powder puffs (to dean rub-off slates)
grease pencils - black and white
pens and pencils
film cores
camera fuses
multi meter
soldering iron
16-gauge solder
solder wick desoldering spool
folding knife
emery paper (600 grip- ferric-oxide coated)
razor blades (single-edge industrial)
rope- nylon line (Ys" x 10' long)
camera oil
camera grease
oil syringe and needle (one fine, one wide)
bubble level - small, circular
ATG-924 (snot tape)
black cloth - 2' square
set of jeweler's screwdrivers
set of hex wrenches (11!2"- :Y16" and metric)
combination pliers (6")
needlenose pliers (6"), miniature (1")
crescent wrench (6")
vice-grip pliers (4") diagonal cutters (4")
wire strippers (4")
screwdrivers (\.13'', 3/\6", w, 5/\6")
Phillips screwdrivers #0, #1, #2
Arri screwdrivers #1, #2, #3
Optional Items
Additional tools are often useful- each assistant collects his or her own personal set. Following is a list of optional items that many have found to be valuable.
insert slate
color lily (gray scale and color chip chart)
gray card
electrical adapters:
U-ground plug adapter
screw-in socket adapter
WD-40oil
assistant light
compass
depth-of-field charts
depth-of-field calcula tor
footage calculator
circle template (for cutting gels)
extra power cables
magnetic screwdriver
variable-width screwdriver
wooden wedges (to level camera)
small mirror (to create a highlight)
dentist's mirror (aids in cleaning)
alligator clips
graphite lubricant
%" x 16 bolt - short and long
2 one-inch C-damps
black automotive weather stripping
small wooden plank (for mounting camera)
The Camera Assistant

The position of camera assistant requires a wide range
of skills. The assistant must have technical knowledge of
the camera, lenses, and a myriad of support equipment. He
or she must be physically fit, capable of total concentration,
and be able to retain a sense of humor under stressful conditions.
Putting the Image On Film

The section on "Exposure" together with the adjacent
tables is intended as a quick-reference condensation of
material explained in more detail in "Lighting," "Filters,"
and elsewhere in the manua l.
Exposure
Most exposure meters incor porate some sort of calculator; some simple, some sophisticated. An exposure meter
measures amounts of light, either incident or reflected. The
calculator helps you decide how to use the measurement.
There are six specific variables entering the calculation:
Va riables:
Film exposure index
Ca mera Speed
Shutter Opening
Lens Aperture
Filter
Light
Exp ressed as:

EI,ASA/ISO
FPS (frames per second)
Degrees
T-stop
Filter factor
Meter reading:
Footcandles
Foot Lamberts
T-Stops
The "T" stop n umber is defined as being the true "f"
stop number of a lens if it completely free fro m all reflection and absorption losses. The T (transmission) number
represents the f-stop number of an open circular hole or of
a perfec t lens having 100% axial transmission. The T-stop
can be considered as the "effective" f-stop. Tt is from this
concept that the means arises for standardization ofT-stop
calibration. T-stops are calibra ted by measuring the light
in tensity electronically at the focal plane, whereas f-stops
are calculated geometrically. Thus f-s tops are based on the
light that enters a lens. T-stops are based on the intensity
of the Iight that emerges from the rear of the lens and forms
the image.
There is no fixed ratio, however, between T-stops an d
f-stops which applies to a ll lenses. The difference actua lly
represents light losses within the elements of a given lens
due to reflection from the glass-a ir surfaces and from absorption wi thin the glass itself. Consequently, this fac tor is
var iab le a nd cannot be incorporated in to an exposure
270
meter, since the meter must function in connection with

many different lenses calibrated in both f-stops and T-stops.
Many cinema tographers do not understand w hy lens
and exposure tables are p resented in f-stops when all professional cine lenses are calibrated in T-stops. The f-stops
are required for all calculations involving object-image relationships, such as depth of field, extreme close-up work
with extension tubes, e tc. Such tables are based on the size
of the "hole" or diameter of the bw1dle of ligh t rays w hich
the lens admits to form the image. The diameter of the fstop will normally be the sam e for aJJ lenses of similar focal length set at the same aperture. The T-stop, however, is
an arbitrary n umber that may resul t in the same T-stop
setting varying in aperture diameter with different lenses.
It is recommended that all p rofessional cine lenses be
calibrated in both T-stops and f-stops, particularly for color
work. T-stop calibration is especially important with zoom
len ses, the highly complex op tical design of which necessitates a far greate r number of optical elements than is required in conventional len ses. A considerable light loss is
encountered due to the large number of reflective optical
surfaces and absorption losses. A zoom lens with a geometrical rating off/2, for example, w ill transmit considerably less light than a conventional fixed focal length lens
of similar rating with fewer elements.
Exposure tables are generally based on "effective" fstops, (which are, in fact, T-stops). Small variations in emulsion speed , processing, exposure readings, e tc., tend to cancel ou t. Cinematographers should shoot tests with their
particula r lenses, meter, light and film to find best combinations for optimum results.
O ther variables, such as d irection and contrast of the
light, are factors calculated from the experience of the cinematographer, aided by such things as photospheres and
spot readings. Finally, manip ula tion of all the above, plus
off-n ormal negative processing to achieve a desired "look,"
is fro m the mind of the cinematographer.
The laboratory and choice of film are closely tied to
exp osure. It is important to keep exposure within limits
satisfactory both to the selected film and to the p rinting
range of the laboratory.
The tables will aid exposure calculation for mete rs
which lack settings for some of the factors or will aid in
calcula ting constant exposure control w hen one factor varies from another.
271
Incident Key Light/T-Stop
200 160 125 100
80
64
50
40
32
25
(Foot candles)
EIIASA
2000 1600 1250 1000 800 650 500 400 320 250
T-stop
1.4 1.25 l5
l6 l5
l8 2
2 2.5
2.5 3
3
4
4
5
2
2.5
3
2.5
4
5
6
5
6
8
10
6
8
10
6
8
10
12
8
10
12
16
12
16
20
2.2
2.5
2.8
3
4
5
4
5
6
5
6
8
6
8
10
8
10
12
10
12
16
12
16
20
16
20
25
20
25
32
25
32
40
3.2
3.6
4
6
8
10
8
10
12
10
12
16
12
16
20
16
20
25
20
25
32
25
32
40
32
40
50
40
50
64
50
64
80
4.5
5
5.6
12
16
20
16
20
25
20
25
32
25
32
40
32
40
50
40
50
64
50 64 80 100
64 80 100 125
80 100 125 160
6.3
7.1
8
25
32
40
32
40
50
40
50
64
50 64 80 100 125 160 200

64 80 100 125 160 200 250
80 100 125 160 200 250 320
9
10
11.3
50 64 80 100 125 160 200 250 320 400

64 80 100 125 160 200 250 320 400 500
80 100 125 160 200 250 320 400 500 650
12.7 100 125 160 200 250 320 400 500 650 800
14.2 125 160 200 250 320 400 500 650 800 1000
16
160 200 250 320 400 500 650 800 1000 1290
18
200 250 320 400 500 650 800 1000 1290 1625
20
250 320 400 500 650 800 1000 1290 1625 2050
22.6 320 400 500 650 800 1000 1290 1625 2050 2580
Most cmematography is at 24 frames per second. The table is calculated for foot candles incident light on a fully lighted subject at 1/ 50
second exposur_e (172.8_" precisely. but 170 to 180 varies from this by
less than a pnnter pomt for normally processed color negative). For
photography at 1/ 60 second (30 frames per second. 180 shutter: or 24
frames per second. 144 o shutter). use one-third wider lens stop or one
272
12
16
20
25
32
16
20
25
20
25
32
25
32
40
32
40
50
40
50
64
32
40
50
40
50
64
50 64 80
64 80 100
80 100 125
40
50
64
80 100
50 64 80 100
64 80 100 125
80 100 125 160
100 125 160 200
125 160 200 250
160 200 250 320
200 250 320 400
250 320 400 500
320 400 500 650
64 80 100 125 160

80 100 125 160 200
100 125 160 200 250
125 160 200 250 320 400 500 650
160 200 250 320 400 500 650 800
200 250 320 400 500 650 800 1000
250 320 400 500 650 800 1000 1290
320 400 500 650 800 1000 1290 1625
400 500 650 800 1000 1290 1625 2050
500 650 800 1000 1290 1625 2050 2580
650 800 1000 1290 1625 2050 2580 3250
800 1000 1290 1625 2050 2580 3250 4100
1000 1290 1625 2050 2580 3250 4100 5160
1290 1625 2050 2580 3250 4100 5160 6500
1625 2050 2580 3250 4100 5160 6500 8200
2050 2580 3250 4100 5160 6500 8200
2580 3250 4100 5160 6500 8200
3250 4100 5160 6500 8200
125
160
200
250
320
400
500
650
800
800 1000
1000 1290
1290 1625
1625 2050
2050 2580
2580 3250
3250 4100
4100 5160
5160 6500
6500 8200
8200
column lo _the nght (one ASA step lower) on Ihe incident light table. For
exposure mdexes less than tabulated (which are uncommon at this lime)
find lhe column which is ten times the desired index and multiply the light
by ten. Example: For El10. use the column under El100. For exposure at
T stop 2. multiply 50 by 10 and the light level desired will be 500.
273
T-Stop Compensation for Camera Speed

(constant shutter)
fps
It/min
6 7.5
22.5 28
9.5
36
12
45
15
56
19
71
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
8
9
10
11
12.7
14.3
16
18
20
23
25
28
32
36
40
45
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
8
9
10
11
12.7
14.3
16
18
20
23
25
28
32
36
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
8
9
10
11
12.7
14.3
16
18
20
23
25
28
32
1.8
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
8
9
10
11
12.7
14.3
16
18
20
23
25
28
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
8
9
10
11
12.7
14.3
16
18
20
23
25
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
8
9
10
11
12.7
14.3
16
18
20
23
25
28
32
36
40
60 76 96 120 150 192 240 300 384 484

225 285 360 450 562 720 900 1125 1440 1815
24
90
30 38 48
11 2 142 180
1.4
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
8
9
10
11
12.7
14.3
16
18
20
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
8
9
10
11
12.7
14.3
16
18
20
23
1.1
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
8
9
10
11
12.7
14.3
16
18
1
1.1
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
8
9
10
11
12.7
14.3
16
.9
1
1.1
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
8
9
10
11
12.7
14.3
.8
.7
.9
.8
.7
1
.9
.8
.7
1.1 1
.9
.8
1.3 1.1 1
.9
1.4 1.3 1.1 1
1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1
1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3
1.8 1.6 1.4
2
2.2 2
1.8 1.6
2.5 2.2 2
1.8
2.8 2.5 2.2 2
3.2 2.8 2.5 2.2
3.6 3.2 2.8 2.5
4
3.6 3.2 2.8
4.5 4
3.6 3.2
5
4.5 4
3.6
5.6 5
4.5 4
6.3 5.6 5
4.5
7
6.3 5.6 5
8
7
6.3 5.6
7
9
8
6.3
10
9
8
7
11 10
9
8
12.7 11 10
9
.7
.8
.9
1
1.1
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
8
.7
.8
.9
1
1.1
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
7
.7
.8
.9
1
1.1
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
6.3
.7
.8
.9
1
1.1
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
5.6
.7
.8
.9
1
1.1
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
4.5
5
Shutter Angle/f.p .s. /T-stop change

(for 24 or 30 f.p.s. projection)
f.p.s.
f.p.s.
Exposure change
in T-stops
24
30
22
27
20
25
19
24
18
22
16
20
15
19
lfa
14
17
2fa
Maximum
Shutter
235
200
180
170
150
140
135
215
183
165
156
138
128
124
196
16JO
150
142
125
11]0
113
188
158
143
135
119
111
107
176
150
135
128
113
105
101
15]0
133
120
113
100
93
goo
147
125
113
106
94
88
84
II it is desired to slow the camera without varying the lens stop but
maintain constant exposure:
lilt Is desired to reduce exposure without varying the lens stop:
II It Is desired to reduce the exposure lime per frame
without reducing exposure:
13]0
11]0
105
ggo
88
82
79o
12
15
9.5
12
7.6
9.5
6. 4.8(5) 3.8(4) 3 2.4

7.6 6. 5(4.8) 4(3.8) 3
1%
F/a
2%
2%
31/3
118 6
100
goo
85
75
70
68
93
79
71
67
59
55
53
74
63
57
54
48
44
43
59
50
45
43
38
35
34
47
40
36
34
30
28
27
3r
32
29
27
24
22
21
29
25
23
21
19
18
170
24
20
18
1r
15
140
14
This table gives shutter angles in one-third T stop exposure intervals (bold
columns) as well as lor some camera speeds in less than one-third stop
intervals.
Color Balancing for Existing Fluorescent Lighting

David l. Quaid. ASC
(See page 242

lor comprehensive
listing)
Filtering fluorescent lights to

match photo lights
Using existing fluorescent lighting unfiltered
Common
fluorescent lights
Photo lamp fitters

(Rosco Cinegel or equivalent)
Camera fitters
(Kodak or equivalent)
3200K film
r-
El
5500K film _
El
CC30M
Cool white
CC50R
+ # 81A
+CC05M
+#85B
Cool white deluxe
# 85C
+CC05M
# 82C
% +CC05M
Warm white
CC30M
+#81EF
CC50B
1fJ +CC15M
Warm white deluxe
CC10M
+ # 81
# BOB
% +CC05G
~ 21:
3200K
5500K
El
Camera fitter:
Tungsten Negative: #85
Daylight film: None
Camera filter: None

(Tungsten negative
or reversal)
To match 3200K El
To match 55DOK El
Minusgreen
Plusgreen
Full blue 50
% +Piusgreen
% +Third blue
+Quarter blue
+ %Piusgreen
MT54
Half blue
111: + %Piusgreen V3 +Eighth Blue
+UV Filter
+Eighth blue
Fluorfilter
+ 1f2Minusgreen
Plusgreen
Half blue
F/: +Piusgreen
0 + 1f2Piusgreen
+Sun Va CTO
+Quarter blue
Sun 112 CTO
%Piusgreen
121: +Quarter blue 113 +UV Filter
+UV Filter
- Hall blue
Minusgreen
+ %Minusgreen 1/J +Minusgreen
+ Eighth blue
+Sun % CTO
Full
blue 50
%Minusgreen
0 + %Minusgreen
- Quarter blue
Sun 1fz CTO
+ %Minusgreen % + %Minusgreen
+Quarter blue
+Eighth blue
1fJ
1!J
Balancing Daylight Windows on location Interiors
'-]
00
Emulsion
Balance
Exposure
Index
Camera
Filter
Photographic lights/Filter
Practical/Existing lights/Filters
Window filters
Balancing Interior to Daylight

3200K
Daylight
85 Neg.
85B Rev.
Daylight
Daylight
None
3200K/Full Blue 50 or Dichroic

While flame arc/Y-1
HMI, CID/Y-1"
Tungsten/Full Blue 50
Cool White Fluor/Minus green
NO as required
Balancing Ambient Lighting to 3200K

3200K
3200K
None
3200K/None
Yellow flame arc/YF101
HMI, CID/ Y-1 + MT2.
Tungsten/None
Cool White Fluor/
Fluor tiller + 'h Minus green
AC discharge/
CTO or Sun 85
plus NO as required
--
Balancing to Match Existing (Ambient) Interior lighting

Cool White Fluorescent
3200K
3200K
-1% stop
Daylight
Daylight
-o/3 stop
CC50R+ # 81A
+ CC05M
+85B
CC30M
3200K
Full Blue 50
Cool White Fluor/None
+ Plus green
+ Quarter blue
+ 'I Plus green
Tungsten/same as
Photo 3200K
White Flame ArJ Ltus Green

,t!MI, CID
+ Third Blue
Plus green
+ Third Blue
plus NO as required
Other AC Discharge Commercial lighting-see pg 242 for filters

Tungsten
See " Balancing Ambient Lighting to 3200K" above_This would be an unusual situation_ Either accept the difference between 3200K
and ambient lighting or drop voltage on 3200K photo lamps and add Vs CTO to 5500K lighting. Inefficient electrically.
'HMI and CID may vary. See pg 21 B and check with 3C meter.
The Cinematographer
and the Laboratory
Labora tories ro uti nely use the film manufacturers'
recommended specifications for processing, modified to
meet their particular eq uipment. (l11e entire system - type
of film, man ufacturers' EI recommenda tion, labo ratory
printing and processing ran ge- is calibra ted to prod uce
a pleasing rendition of fully lighted flesh tones tmder norma l projection conditions.) In addition to prod ucing normal results on the screen, most laboratories can on request
modify the screen results to prod uce a particular effect or
look.
Printer Points
The laboratory controls print density and color balan ce
by increasing or decreasing the inten sity of each primary
color of Light in steps called printer points. Since the d evelopment of the B & H model C printer most manufacturers
have standarclized on a range of 50 light points in 0.025 Log
E increments. In addition to the Lig ht points each printer
usually also has 24 trim settings (0.025 Log E) , giving an
available total of 74 ligh ts.
The ideal settings for scene-to-scene timing would be
at mid-scale (Trim 12 +Tape 25 = 37 ligh ts). In actual practice the available range is considerably less. Printer lamps
are usuaU y opera ted under their rated voltage. This reduces
the light intensity in all three colors. For example, lowering the voltage from 120 to 90 volts on a BRN 1200-watt
lamp resul ts in a rela tive change in printer points equal to
minus 12 Red, 13 Green, 17 Blue. The trims are usually used
to balance the prin ter for a given print film emulsion . A
typical emulsion migh t req uire 16 Red, 13 Green, 10 Blue,
or in terms of the idea l, plus 4 Red, plus 1 Green, minus 2
Blue. O ther factors influencing the available priJlter points
are the opera ting s peed of the printer, and the use of neutral-den sity filters in the ind ividual charmels and the main
lig ht beam.
The sum of these variables explains why a given negative might be printed Red 28, Green 29, Blue 22 at one laboratory and Red 36, Green 32, Blue 36 at another laboratory
to prod uce matched p rints. It is important to understand
that p rinter poin ts rela te only to how the printer exposes
film. A one-stop .30 LogE ch ange (12 printer poin ts X .025

LogE) is eq ual to a on e-stop exposure in the camera only
if the film in the cam era has a gamma of ap proximately 1.0.
The curren t negative films, both black & w hite and colo r,
have gammas of app roximate ly .65. Therefore, in correlating camera and printer exposure, one stop equals % x 12 =
8 printer points per stop.
Exposure Reporting
It has become the normal practice fo r laboratories to
furnish "one light" rather than timed daily rush prints. This
does not mean that all negatives are printed at the same
light points. The laboratory establishes a day exterior, day
interior, night exterior and night interior light fo r a cinematographer when he/she starts a picture, based on testing
or on the first few days of shooting. Each laboratory establishes it own me thod , but basically all try to keep usable
negative within the 1 to 50 light point scale. Eastman Kodak
proposes the LAD (Laboratory Aim Density) system, which
keep s the printer scale consta nt by adjusting p rinter trims
to compensate for process and stock variables, and p laces
a "normal" scene a t mid-scale. (Laboratories do not necessarily agree on the numerical value of the preferred midscale light point, but this is not critical as long as you know
whid1 system your laboratory uses.) Conference with your
laboratory technician will establish methods that fit your
style of photography. After that, variation in your exposure
will show as variation in the density of your dailies. Bear
in mind that if subject matter o r style of photography requires a solid black in any area of the print, exposure must
be kept at center of the printer scale or higher.
Negative raw stock from different manufacturers may
or may n ot have the same base density, maximwn density,
or density I exp osure cha racteristic ("cur ve shape"), although these d ifferences are us ually small. A rush print
made by the LAD con trol method shows the densi ty and
color ra tio at mid-scale on th e printer. Nega tive from two
man ufacturers, both exp osed correctly, may or may not
look the same a t this printer point. If n ecessa ry, an adjustment to the printer point may be made for the difference
in raw stock and this new light point used for printing dailies on the s ubject.
Special Processing
If special processing is requested: a conf~rence with th.e
laboratory representa tive and expenmentation (or expen ence) is desirable. If special processing is requested , or the
cinematographer is using high or lo.w exposure for effe.ct,
it is desirable to test the effect by gomg through the entir.e
release-print technique, including the interpositive/ duplicate negative generations, ~d to view the res~t as. ne~rly
as possible under the anhopated release-prmt viewmg
conditions. (Don' t ignore the fact that most piCtures are also
released in one of the television formats.) If the scene to be
photographed will be used in an optically ~rinted special
effect, it is wise to confer w ith the appropn ate special-effects people.
Release-Printing Procedures
After the picture negative and soundtrack n egati~e
have been assembled in their final form, the laboratory Will
analyze the picture negative fo~ scene-to-scene ~,olor ru:'d
density variations and make a prmt known as the first tnal
composite." As many trial prints are. made as ~re necessary
to resolve all printing data. The final tnal IS also ~ften
known as an "answer print." With the data thus obtamed,
one or more intermed iates are printed and from these the
release prints are made. Modern film sto<:ks used to n:ake
the intermediate positives and intermediate or d~plicate
negatives are of excellent quality, but they do en~a1l ad~ed
printing generations. The appearance of scenes m~olvmg
effects such as off-normal film exposure or processmg can
suffer if they exceed the extremes the system can handle.
(See also "Testing and Evaluation .")
Color Reversal Films

Most of the above also applies to color reversal films;
however, color reversal films are now usua lly used only
when it is intended to project the original. Exposure latitude is short compared to that of color negative films.
Proper exposure is therefore critical in order to keep all
scenes at a usable density.
282
Black & White Negative

and Reversal Films
The above also applies to black & whi te reversal films.
Black & white negative films, however, are an exception.
Both their contrast and density can be more strongly affected by developing time than color negative fiLms. While
there is mud1 more latitude in exposure with black & white
negative films as compared to color negative films, both
grain and acutance are affected by exposure variations.
Deviation from the manufacturers' recommended EI (exposure index) should be tested and evaluated.
Forced Development of Color Films

With the color films most commonly used today, it is
possible to compensate fo r underexposure by ex tended
development or "pushing." Similar to the principles of traditional black & white sensitometty, forced development
of these color films increases their contrast, graininess and
the fog level.
Therefore, forced development can never yield the
same image quality possible when films are exposed and
processed strictly according to the manufacturer's recommendations. In many instances, however, the image quality obtained with underexposure and overdevelopment is
entirely sa tisfactory, and a cinematographer may want to
take advantage of this fact when shooting under adverse
light conditions. What "pushing" means, in effect, is that
the cinematographer can deliberately w1derexpose the film
(sometimes by as much as two stops) and request that the
laboratory compensate in develop men t.
With the introduction of high-speed color negative
emulsions, there is less call for pushing the moderate speed
films, except for a special "look" or when underexposwe
is unavoidable and high-speed nega tive is not a t h and. It
is possible to push one stop in develop men t without appreciable loss in image quality. The scenes produced in this
manner can be i.ntercu t w ith scenes exposed and processed
normally.
If color negative is pushed two stops in d evelopmen t,
the increase in tl1e graininess and the fog level is substantial, but the results a re acceptable for scenes involving
night-for-night photography or available-light photography under exceptional circumstances.
Extend ing development beyond two s tops does not

appreciably contribute to the image; rather, it increases the
grain and fog level and should not be attempted even as
an emergency measure. It should be realized that with color
films the sensitometric balance of the three emulsion layers is only achieved with normal processing and that forcing the development does not accomplish a true compensation for underexposure. Forced development does not
result in a substantial increase in Exposure Index of the
negative as measured by accepted scientific methods. Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that the technique proves to
be of some practical value if it brings the underexposed
negative into an acceptable printing range.
Reversal films, unlike negative, derive their projection
density from the camera exposure. Forced processing of
underexposed film can bring up the projection density to
normal. Eastman Ektachrome Films 7240 and 7250 and
Fujicolor RT8427 and 8428 (all tungsten balanced), as well
as Ektachrome 7239 and 7251 (daylight balanced) can be
"pushed" one stop with acceptable results. In emergency
situations they can be pushed up to three s tops w ith some
loss in quality. The ability to underexpose these films and
still obtain on film a usable image should by no means be
regarded as a s uitable s ubs titute for additional lighting
when it can be provided.
If a cinematographer anticipates the need for deliberate tmderexposure during a production, he or s he should,
if possible, shoot careful tests in advance using the same
emulsion to be used for the production and have them processed by the lab that will be processing the production
film. The results can then be analyzed with the help of a
laboratory representative. Needless to say, underexposed
rolls should be clearly marked with instructions as to how
much they should be pushed when they are sent to the laboratory.
Flashing
Flashing may be described q ualitatively as subjecting
the negative film to a weak, controlled uniform fogging
exposure prior to development either before, during or after photographing the desired subject. There is no measurable difference in the effect if the flashing takes place before or after the principal exposure. As a result, because of
various unfavorable factors (such as not being able to con-
trol the time interval between the flash exposure and the
time that development will actually take place, and not
knowing the actual conditions of photography in advance),
pre-flashing is generally avoided in favor of post-flashing.
Simultaneous flashing during actual photography by
means of a special device a ttached to the front of the camera lens is described under "VariCon." A device called a
"Panaflasher" can also be used for simultaneous flashing on
Panavision cameras. The Panaflasher can be used pre- or
post-exposure.
Since color negative consists basically of three emulsion layers sensitive to red, green, and blue light, the spectral composition of the light used for flashing can be a neutral equivalent to tungsten light (3200K) or daylight (5500K)
which, depending on the film, would affect all three emulsion layers equally. The fundamental reasons for using a
neutral flash are to reduce the contrast of the image and to
increase shadow detail. This effect is accomplished because
the flashing exposure affects principally the shadow region
of the negative image.
Another reason for flashing is to achieve certain creative effects by using a non-neutral flashing exposure
which would then alter the normal color rendition of the
developed negative.
Flashing is also used sometimes to reduce contrast of
positive or reversal films when s uch films are to be used
for special effects duplication purposes, such as projection
backgrounds or aerial image compositing w ith animation.
VariCon Adjustable Contrast Filter

The Arri VariCon is a compact, va riable contrast-control system which quickly and easily slides into the dual
filter stage closest to the lens of any regular 6.6"X 6.6" matte
box. The VariCon d iffers from low-contrast filters in that it
provides fo r a continuously adjustable contrast over the
entire photometric range of the film without any loss of
resolution, and withou t any effect on the highlights. It differs from standard flashing (pre- or post-exposure) of the
negative in the lab or in the film camera magazine in that
it adds a controlled, even amount of light during the exposure, and permits the cinematographer to set the desired
con trast reduction while obser ving the resu lts in the
viewfinder, in relationship with the actual scene to be photographed. The VariCon also provides for coloring of
r
shadow areas in the image w ithout affecting the highlights.
This fea ture can be very helpful in situations when extreme
contras t comp ression wo uld res ult in extreme colo r
desaturation.
The system consists of a lig ht so urce, the Va ri Con
Glass Emitter, the 6.6" X 6.6" VariCon frame tha t holds the
Emitter (w ith a built-in slot fo r an ND filter), a digital me ter
for precise setting of conhast ranges, and a dual-level outpu t Power Supply. With the VariCon placed in the 6.6"X
6.6" stage closest to the lens, it w ill co ver virtually all w ideangle and long focal-length prime lenses, and most zooms.
With the Va riCon in position and switched OFF, it will no t
a ffect image quality or req uire f-stop compensa tion.
Adjusting the VariCon

VariCon's contrast-range adjustment is simple: turn
a single control knob (located on its left side), or turn a
sing le flexible extension shaft tha t plugs directly into the
Vm iCon just above the control knob, to adjust contrast up
o r down. The amOLmt of contrast red uction can be seen
throug h the finder, or be measured via the digita l meter for
accuracy and repeatability. Set the meter for the camera's
f-s top, the film stock's exposure index, and th e required
contrast range in va lues YB,Yz, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5. (A value of 1 is
equal to 20% flashing.) The effecti ve range of Va riCon covers situations from F1.4 with 800 ASA to F22 w ith 100 ASA.
Chang ing the colo ration of the VariCon is done w ith
a gel placed in the VariCon's slide-in gel filter holder. A
light sensor built into the VariCon works in conjunction
with the meter to compensa te fo r the Light red uction of the
gel fil ter. VariCon ca n also be used in conjtmction w ith
other fi lters to enhance their effects.
NOTE: When using the VariCon, exposing the g ray
scale/sla te with the Varicon switd1ed ON is recommended;
it's he lpful for the lab timer.
Lens Coverage:
Standard Aspect Ratio:
Zoom lenses: 18mm on up
Prime lenses: lOmm, 12mm, 16mm on up
Super 35 Aspect Ratio:
Zoom lenses: 20mm on up
Prime lenses: 12mm, and 16mm o n up
Power Sources:
Va ricon has two SOW, 12V ' BRL' Ushio halogen bulbs,
powered by llOV AC throug h a 12V AC adapto r, or from
286
12V or 24V batteries. (Cables for 24V batteries are a vailable only thro ugh special order.)
Power consumption: 96 Watts (SA@ 12V, 4A@ 24V)
Dimensions:
Upper ligh t source: 9 X 2 X 1.75 inch~s
Slide-in emitter section: 8 X 6.5 X 0.5 mches
Weight: 3 lbs.
..
Photographic Testing and
Evaluation
simple cross made of adhesive tape. Phot_ograph 20 or _30

seconds of the cross, cover the lens, backwmd to the begmning, uncover the lens, offset the chart by the wid th of the
tape, and double-expose the chart. Any tmsteadiness will
readily show between the offset lines (Do not re-t~r~~d on
a differe:-~t perfora tion - this in troduces the possibility of
unsteady perforations and compromises the cam era test.)
After photographing and processing this_and before projecting, examine the negat1 ve for perforation damage and
scratches.
B. Optical: Lenses should have been calibrated at the
factory or by the d istributor for exposure and focus an~ ~e
distributor should ha ve checked the ground glass pos1hon
with reference to the film plane. If you trust your supp lier
there is no need for extensive testing. If, however, the equipment is unfamiliar or it is necessary to field test the equipment, following are suggested procedures:
by Fred Detmers
Photographic testing and experimenting aid the cinematogra pher in evalua ting equ ipment, new fi lms and
processing, and tecl1J1iques of lighting. This a rticle is intend ed as a checklist and brief on the teclmiques of testing
and evaluation.
Each of the fac tors in creating a photographic image
relates to several other factors; it is important in evaluation
to vary one factor at a time, and continually to compare,
when possible, with a known result. ln this way, a bank of
information is acquired which can be dra wn on and expanded.
Before proceeding to photographic testing it is necessary to establish the conditions tmder which the tests wi ll
be evaluated. It is of no value to photograph a test and then
view it under anything less than first-class conditions. Standards a nd recommended practices have been set up by the
SMPTE and ANSI, and test films are available from the
SMPTE for evaluation of projection conditions. If these
conditions are not opti.JntLm, the value of the test is comp romised. Users of 16mm and Super 8 should be particularly alert to this condition because there are so many substandard projectors and lenses in use.
Through adaptation and fa tigue the eye can ch ange its
sensitivity to color, density, or subjective sharpness. When
possible use two projectors and two screens. Make direct
comparisons rather than subjective evaluations. If in doubt,
switch fi lms on the two projectors and re-eval uate.
Some of the testing referred to below ma y be pe rfo rmed on black & white film even if the subject is to be
color, thereby saving some of the cost. If the test is mechanical rather than photograph ic, the nega ti ve itself may be
projected for evaluation instead of going to a print.
I. Equipment
A. Steadiness check: Particularly whe n composite
photography is contemplated (but valuable in any case), a
check for image steadiness is advisable. The subject matter may be simple; for instance, a black background with a
1. Focus an d ground glass/film plane:
(a) Set up a focus/ defini tion chart (obtainable fro m

camera equipmen t suppliers) with center and corner targets; set up at a distance from the camera correspondmg
to a scale-calibrated distance, filling the aperture as much
as possible. Check the eye focus versus scale focus. Repeat
fo r each lens . Repeat at a mid-distance (15 to 25 feet) scale
calibration. With a zoom lens, check at several zoom settings.
.
A consistent discrepancy suggests e1ther ground glass
or index error. A discrepancy on one lens suggests error m
the setting of the scale ring. (When using Panavision wideangle lenses, read and follow the Panavision instructio_ns.)
Ln eiU1er case, photographic or collimator tests are reqwTed
to confi rm the source of error. (I you ha ve a rental or a
newly acquired camera/ lenses, send it/ them back for correction.)
.
(b) Set up the defini tion chart at a scale d1stance ~los
est to filling the frame. if the U:dex and/ or focus 7cale nngs
are provided with secondary mdex marks for adjustments,
..
use these marks as a guide; oth erwise:
On a piece of tape on U1e index, make four addJhonal
temporary marks at equal intervals above and below the
index. Space the marks to indicate 0.001 in travel of U1e lens
for each interval (see " Lens Formulas"), and label those
away from the film "plus" and those closer to the film
"minus."
r
At a wide-open aperture, using either the temporary
marks or the permanent secondary marks me ntioned
above, photograph a short take (just enough to get up to
speed) at each index mark: "plus," "N," " minus." Develop
and examine with a lOX magnifier. TheN exposure should
be noticeably sharper than the plus or minus. If it is not,
repea t the test to confirm.
Check aU lenses, and check also at another mid-distance (say 15 feet), always a t a scale-calibrated mark. If any
lens is consistently "off the mark" or if there is a pattern of
failure between lenses, send the camera/ lenses back for
reca libration or, in the field, be guided by the focus test
results.
2. Sharpness (See also "Lens Selection."):
Because sharpness is a subjective judgment based on
the composite of resolution, acuteness, contrast, flare and
aberration, a full test of each lens would encompass photography in a number of different situations. A simple comparison may be made between lenses, however, by photographing a definition chart and a simple scene with each
lens and comparing them with iden tical exposures made
with a lens of known photographic performance.
(a) The definition chart should preferably be one made
for lens testing (available from camera supply distributors)
and should have targets in the corners as well as in the center. Exposure should be made at a wide-open aperture, a
mid-aperture (one at which you would be most likely to
photograph interiors), and at a very small aperture, each
ltghted fo r normal exposure. The w ide-open exposure
should show up aberration and distortion, particularly in
the corners, should they be present. The small aperture
exposure will tell you (in comparison with the " mid-aperture" exposure) if there is lower definition because of diffraction; a lack of d efinition at wide-open or small apertures
can affect apparent d epth of field as well as intrinsic sharpness.
(b)_The tes_t scene should include a white area, a light
area (wtth d etail such as lace), and a dark area wi th detail,
as well as a person or object showing detail in mid-tones.
There should be a normal exposure and one each one stop
over and underexposed. When printed alike in the midtones and compared, this will show up contrast, and if the
lens has a tendency to flare, the overexposed scene will be
flatter than the normal and will show flare from the white
290
a rea into the sw-rotmding area. Care should be taken not

to exceed the printer scale.
(c) Comparison of (b) normal exposure with a like exposure made with a known lens is a subjective sharpness
test.
3. Exposure (T-stop), color shift:
Photograph a short length of film of a gray sca le at the
sa me T-stop and illtunination with each lens. The negati ve
gray scale may be read wi th a densitometer, if ava ilable, to
determine uniformity. If a print is made of the negative it
may be projected to see if there is a color shift between
lenses. In most instances small di fferences in color can be
corrected in printin g and will affect only the rush p rints. If
you are photographing on reversal film, you may wish to
use color correcting filters to balance tl1e lenses.
II. Laboratory/Process/Printer Scale/

Emulsion Batch
Generally these tests should be com para ti ve. We
should compare for sha rpness, grain, contrast, detail in
highlights and shadows and off-color highlights or shadows. Prints should be made for best appearance in faces
and/or mid-tones and compara tive prints should be made
to match in these tones. A gray scale included in the scene
is helpful.
Comparative tests should be made at tl1e same T-stop.
Where an exposure range is made, exposure should be
varied with shutter and /or neuhal density filters. Clear
fil ters should be used to substitute for neutral densities so
tl1e same number of filters are always in place. While the
scene used above for lens comparisons can also be used in
tllese tests, it is helpful also to include a high-key and a lowkey scene.
A. Testing new film stocks:

Photograph a ran ge of exposures of each scene from
tlle new film and on a known film, from normal to pi us and
minus 2 lens stops. If fo rced processing is intended (see
below) add a set at minus 3 stops.
291
B. Testing for off-normal processing

(including push processing and
flashing):
1. Because there are now three variables- exposure,
flash level, and developing time- unless a wide range of
combinations is budgeted, it might be well to separate tests
for flash and processing, observe the result, and then confine tests of combinations to levels likely to be useful to the
desired look. Always compare to a normally exposed and
developed scene.
2. Before committing to forced developing, compare
wi th a properly printed, underexposed, normally developed take. In some instances, the only thing forced developing does is raise the printer points.
3. Make a print of a minus-one-stop exposed, " push
one" developed take at the same lights as the normally
exposed, normally developed take. Comparison will show
just what is accomplished by "push-one" developing.
4. If the desired look is obtained but the print is made
below printer point 10 or above 40, be cautious because you
have limited your latitude.
C. Testing a new emulsion batch for
compatibility:
If the new emulsion batch is incompatible, it is more
likely to be so in off-normal densities or processes. Follow
the sam e general procedure as in testing a new film; the
exposure range need not be as great. If the printer lights
vary 2 or 3 points between scenes p hotographed the same
on the two batches of emulsion no harm will be done. If
there is a marked difference in shadow or highlight color
when faces match, caution is warranted.
III. Visual Effects: Lighting, Filters,

Image Modification
This is a subjectively judged area in which the cinematographer and laboratory technician must work together
closely. Unless based on experience, it is advisable to start
with a print at center scale. If the visual appearance is then
not correct, the decision can be made whether to vary the
photographic conditions or vary the printing conditions.
Varying both without conference between the cinematographer and laboratory technician can only lead to confusion. If the desired effect can only be achieved by off-normal printing or negative processing, it is advisable to go a
step further and evaluate the re_sult after makin g ~ither a
duplicate negative or a CRI to srmulate release-pnnt conditions. The result should then be viewed with as Large a
screen magnification as is anticipated , for the release print.
If television use is anticipated the result should also be
viewed under television conditions.
Emulsion Testing
by Steven Poste r, ASC
The object of this series of tests is to determine the best
working exposure index and the dynamic range for your
original ca mera negative. This system takes into account
any processing techniques, print stock and fmther duping
of the original camera negative.
Judging these tests should be done visually, althoug h
densitometer readings should be taken for later reference.
It is more importan t to train your eye to see the various
cha racteristics of the chain of events that result in the presentation of images that we crea te during production than
to know scienti fically all of the sensitometry that goes into
the imaging system .
Calibration
1. The basic physical nature of the film stock (i.e., how
mud1 density there is in the nega tive without any exposure)
must be calibrated. If you are going to test or use other film
stocks and /or processing techniques these should a lso be
calibrated at this time.
The lab should process a short length of un exposed
negative. If the negative is going to be pushed or pulled or
flashed, these special treahnents should be done in the proscribed way a t this time as well. You can measure the specific densities of the base density plus fog levels on a densitometer for reference. (This reference can be used later if
there is an emulsion change, lab change or just as a simple
check on your standard em ulsion.)
We know that this specific density will be used to reproduce a black tone on the final print. If this density on
the nega ti ve is not printed deep enough to reproduce a
desirable black on the print stock there wi ll be no black
tones in the fina l print and the images will be appear to have
been underexposed. If this is the case the im ages can also
develop a grai ny appearance and will not dupe well.
At this point you have a piece of tmexposed processed
negative that re flects any specia l processing techniques
done to that nega tive. You should also have noted reference densities of that negative. This leads us to the second
part of the test.
294
,.
2. In order to determine the specific a mount of light

needed to print yom test negative to a desirable black tone,
we must test the print stock and any printing tedul.iques
(flashing the print stock, ENR, bleach suppression or optical printing, for example). This is done by printing your
piece of unexposed processed film stock a t a succession of
printer lights increasing by 2 to 4 points of density (8 printer
points equals 1 stop, 4 points equals 'l2 stop, etc.). If you are
planning to use any tmusua l prin ting techniques or print
processing tedmiques, they should be applied at this point.
Any subsequent printing for these series of tests should
have these tedmiques applied as well.
A trick that I have often used to help me judge my
optinltml black density is to punch a hole in the negative
with a single-hole paper punch (not in the cen ter of the
frame) before it is printed. This w ill give you a reference to
zero density in the frame, which can help determine the
optimal visual black tone that you want. Your desired black
tone will never be as black as the portion printed through
the hole, but the reference helps to d etermine what density
you will want to achieve with your processing and p rinting techniques.
If yom lab has strip projectors which they use fo r timing proposes, this is a very good way to view these tests.
Two identical prints can be made whid1 can be viewed side
by side on these projectors, allowing you to study the results and compare different densities. If no strip projectors
are a vailable,the length of ead1 exposm e should be enough
to allow you time to view it sufficiently on the screen during projection.
Once you have determined w hich d ensity you would
like to represent black in your final print, it should be read
on the densitometer and used fo r later reference. You ca n
also read the d ensities of each level of printer lights to see
where reciprocity sets in, although this is not actually necessary because this density w ill probably be deeper than
you will actually be printing at.
A test for no-densi ty print h ighlights can also be d one
at this time by prin ting a piece of opaque leader a t the determined p rinter lights and read ing the resulting density.
The difference between your chosen black density and the
resulting white density w ill determine the dynamic range
of the print stock. In order to d etermine the speed and
working range of yom negative in relation to th at print
stock, fmther testing is necessary.
295
You should now hCive a op timtun black density and a

reference to the printer lights th<'lt it will take at your lab to
result in th<'lt density with your chosen nega ti ve stock. This
includes <'~ny tu1usuCI I processing methods and any vMiation in printing techrtiques that you choose to use. This
brings us to the third part of the test.
3. T his will be the first C<'lmera test which will d etermine the working speed or exposttre index (El) that will
allow you to judge the exposure necessary to represent the
val ues th<'lt are photogr<'~phed as normal tones on the final
print when that print is made using the recommended
density determined by the first two parts of these tests. You
must determine the amount of light that it will require to
pro~erly photograph a mid-gray tone when the negative
IS prmted to the benchmark densi ty.
There are several points worth mentioning at this stage
about testi ng methods. Everyone has their own method of
measuring light va lues. There are probably as many methods CIS there are people taking exposure readings. If your
meter and method of reading works for you it is correct.
I prefer to use a Minolta 1 spot meter and take my
neutra l readings off of a Unicolor Permanent Gray Card. I
feel that this gives me a consistent and accmate way of judgmg not only th e light falling on a subject but the reflectance
of t~at subject as ~ell. I also like to vary the arnotmt of light
falling on the subject rather then changin g the T-stop on the
lens. This gives me a more accurate series of exposures
because there is no re liable way to vary the stop by fractions, d ue to the variables and tolerances of the lens iris.
Ligh ting for these tests requires flat, even iiJtunination
over the surface of the subject, similar to copy light (Light
from two sides of the subject at a 45 a ngle fro m the camera). The color tempera ture of the light should be as close
to 3200 Kelvin possible except in tests of day light film,
when 5400 Kelvin should be used.
If you are planing to use filtration, such as di ffusion
of some kind , these filters should be used in aUsubseq uent
tests, because some of these filters can have some lightabsorption qualities. Even though this effect will be very
slight, it ca n affect the results of your tests by as much as
two-thirds o f a stop.
Make a series of exposures of an 8" x 10" gray card and
a face with neutral skin tone at a series of stops based on
variations in the manufacturer's recommended exposure
index. Sta rt the series at one stop under the EI an d increase
..
.,.
the exposure by one-third of a stop until you reach one stop

over the recommended speed.
For instance, if you were testing Kodak's 5296, the recommended speed is 500. You would sta rt your test at an
EI of 1000 and proceed to a n EJ of 250 in one-thi rd -stop increments, resulting in seven different exposures.
Remember, don't vary the T-stop. Change th e amount
of light to give the proper exposure at the T-stop you are
using.
Print the negative at the benchma rk d ensity arrived at
in the second part of the test, adjusting the p ri nter ra tio
(color balance) to reprod uce a neutral gray. Read the prin t
density of the gray in each exposu re. A proper mid-gray
print density for theater viewi ng should be R/ 1.09 G/1.06
& B/ 1.03 (status A filters).
View the print to d etermine w hich print is closest to
that recommended density. Look carefully at the quality of
the color balan ce of the skin tones in relation to the gray
card. If an emulsion cannot reproduce skin tones properly
when the gray card is printed correctly (or vice versa), this
is a good indication that there are problems wi th either the
emulsion or the lab processes that have taken place. lf this
is the case, when the skin tones arc printed properly in the
final print there w ill always be problems getting the proper
color balance in the shadows.
The print that is chosen as the best re presentation of
the gray card and skin tone will become the mid-point in
the dynamic range of your negative. Check which exposure
index was used for this test. This El will become your empitical emulsion speed. Most often I have found that the El
that is derived w ill be within one-third of a stop of the
manttfacturer's recommended speed, tmless some form of
processing modification is used (such as push or puiJ p rocessing) .
4. This is the part of the testing process that wi ll determine the usable dynamic ra nge of your nega ti ve w hen exposed, processed and prin ted using the information ga thered in the previous tests.
Make a series of expos ures using a Macbeth Color
Checker color cha rt, an 8"x10" gray ca rd, a small gray scale
and a face with neutral skin tone. Moun t the color chart
vertically wi th the gray card in the midd le and the scale
vertically next to the gray ca rd , all on one piece of card.
Mount this card on a grip stand and place it over the head
of the model. This allows you to fill the frame with the cards
The exposure di fference between first sh~dow det~il

and last highlight detail and their relation to m1d-gray ~Ill
determine the empirical dyna mic range of the negati ve,
processing and p rinting combination.
and then tilt down to see the face. Shoot the chart and the
face each for a minimum of ten seconds (more if you can
afford the film) so that you will have enough time to study
the results on the screen. If you are comparing emulsions
or processing techniques, repeat these tests for each variation.
Using the El that you deri ved from the last test, start
the series of exposwes at normal and Lmderexpose successively until you reach five stops uJ1derexposed. Do the
same with overexposure.
For example:
First Series
normal
1 stop under
1 \.-3 stops Lmder
1 2/l stops under
2 stops und er
2 \.-3 stops under
2 2,6 stops under
3 stops under
4 stops Lmder
5 stops Lmder
Second Series
normal
1 stop over
2 stops over
3 stops over
3 \.-3 stops over
3 2h stops over
4 stops over
4 \.-3 stops over
5 stops over
The use of w1even increments of exposure is based on

experience. I know that the fi rst shadow de tail will fall
somewhere within the range of 2 and 3 stops Lmderexposed
and that the last highlight detai l will fall between 4 and 5
stops over.l also know from experience that the increments
between 1 and 2 comprise very usefu l shadow d ensities to
have a visual reference to.
Print these tests again a t the benchmark densities.
View th e work prin t to make sure the color ratios are correct. If possible, at this point an interpositive, dupe negati ve an d final print should be produced using an y special
printing tecru1iques i.ntended for the fin al release (such as
ENR or flashing the interpositive). This will allow you to
view the results as they would be viewed in the theater. If
this is no t possi ble, enough usefu l info rmation can be
learned by viewing the work print.
When you view the results p rojected, either in motion
or on strip projectors, you will begin to see the effects of
exposure on different tones and colors. If you are comparing different emulsions or processing techniques, theresults should be viewed side by side for proper comparison.
298
Conclusion
It is important to remember that these t~sts are not
scientific but empirical. They are meant to tram your eye
to the d ynamic range of your emulsion ur~der workmg
conditions. The tests should be a good workmg reference.
In fact I have often taken frames of each exposure and
moLm ted them in slide moLmts fo r viewing on the set if T
want to know exac tly where to place a specific tone ~n the
scale so that it w ill be represented exactly as I wan t m the
final print. To do this you will need a small light box properly color-corrected and with an illumina tion of 425 FC +/
- 10%.
It is most important to learn to trust your eye rather
than relying on too many exposure read ings. These tests
should give you a_ better un~er~tandi ng of_t~e results of
exposing, processmg and pn nhng your ongmal camera
negative so that you can predict exactly what the unages
you make will look like. With this knowled_ge you should
be able to make more consisten t d rama tic 1mages to help
tell the story of your motion picture.
299
16mm FOOTAGE TABLE
16mm FOOTAGE TABLE
25 F.P.S. European Television Film Sound Speed

(1 foot = 40 frames)
24 F.P.S. Sound Speed (1 foot = 40 frames)

SECONDS
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24
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32
16
10
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16
24
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24
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360
11
396
12
432
13
468
14
504
15
540
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576
17
612
18 . 648
19
684
20
720
21
756
22
792
23
828
24
864
25
900
26
936
27
972
28 1008
29 1044
30 1080
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31
32
33
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1-
1116
1152
1188
1224
1260
1296
1332
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1476
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2052
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2124
2160
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20 50
5 51
30 52
15 53
54
25 55
10 56
35 57
20 58
5 59
30 60
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37
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112
150
187
225
262
300
337
375
412
450
487
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562
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675
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1762 20
1800
1837 20
1875
1912 20
1950
1987 20
2025
2062 20
2100
2137 20
2175
2212 20
2250
16mm FOOTAGE TABLE

29.97 F.P.S. u.s. Television Film Sound Speed
(1 foot = 40 frames)
SECONDS
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20 899
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11 16
12 18
13 19
14 21
15 22
16 24
17 25
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21 31
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23 34
24 36
25 37
26 39
27 40
28 42
29 43
30 45
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8
8
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24 F.P.S. Sound Speed

SECONDS
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MINUTES
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90
180
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630
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810
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11
990
12 1080
13 1170
14 1260
15 1350
16 1440
17 1530
18 1620
19 1710
20 1800
21 1890
22 1980
23 2070
24 2160
25 2250
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2790
2880
2970
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3150
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3690
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3960
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4140
4230
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5130
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5310
5400
::::>
:!!:
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5
6
7
8
9
10
::::>
35mm FOOTAGE TABLE
35mm FOOTAGE TABLE

29.97 F.P.S. U.S. Television Film Sound Speed
foot = 16 frames)
25 F.P.S. European Television Film Sound Speed

(1 foot = 16 frames!
SECONDS
MINUTES
V>
Cl
... .......
Cl
(.)
.....
V>
1 1
2 3
3 4
4 6
5 7
6 9
7 10
8 12
9 14
10 15
11 17
12 18
13 20
14 21
15 23
16 25
17 26
18 28
19 29
20 31
21 32
22 34
23 35
24 37
25 39
26 40
27 42
28 43
29 45
30 , 46
...
V>
cc
....a:
9
2
11
4
13
6
15
8
1
10
3
12
5
14
7
9
2
11
4
13
6
15
8
1
10
3
12
5
14
V>
Cl
... ...............
0
(.)
V>
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
48
50
51
53
54
56
57
59
60
62
64
65
67
68
70
71
73
75
76
78
79
81
82
84
85
87
89
90
92
93
... ........
V>
::::>
a:
....
cc
7
9
2
11
4
13
6
15
8
1
10
3
12
5
14
7
9
2
11
4
13
6
15
8
1
10
3
12
... ........
V>
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
V>
........ ...cc
93
187
281
375
468
562
656
750
843
937
1031
1125
1218
1312
1406
1500
1593
1687
1781
1875
1968
2062
2156
2250
2343
2437
2531
2625
2718
2812
V>
::::>
a:
:e
12 31
8 32
4 33
34
12 35
8 36
4 37
38
12 39
8 40
4 41
42
12 43
8 44
4 45
46
12 47
8 48
4 49
50
12 51
8 52
4 53
54
12 55
8 56
4 57
58
12 59
8 60
...
.............. ...cc
V>
a:
2906
3000
3093
3187
3281
3375
3468
3562
3656
3750
3843
3937
4031
4125
4218
4312
4406
4500
4593
4687
4781
4875
4968
5062
5156
5250
5343
5437
5531
5625
4
12
8
4
12
8
4
12
8
4
12
8
4
12
8
4
12
8
4
12
8
4
SECONDS
en
en
Cl
:z
C)
~
Ll.l
en
Ll.l
I-
:e
<
..... .....
=
Ll.l
Ll.l
MINUTES
en
en
Cl
:z
C)
~
Ll.l
en
Ll.l
I-
:e
<
..... .....
=
Ll.l
Ll.l
en
en
Ll.l
I:::1
:z
~
Ll.l
I-
:e
<
en
Ll.l
I-
:e
3484
3596
3708
3821
3933
.. 4045
4158
4270
4383
4495
4607
42 4720
43 4832
4.4. 4945
45 5057
46 5169
47 5282
48 5394
49 5507
50 5619
51 5731
52 5844
53 5956
54 6068
55 6181
1
6293
7
6406
6518
6630
. 6743
0
6
13
3
9
15
5
12
2
8
14
4
11
1
7
13
3
10
0
6
12
2
9
15
5
11
1
8
14
4
..... .....
=
Ll.l
Ll.l
en
Ll.l
I:::1
:z
~
<
..... .....
=
Ll.l
Ll.l
65/70mm FOOTAGE TABLE

24 F.P.S. SOUND SPEED
(1 foot = 12.8 frames)
SECONDS
"'
=
:z
C)
(..)
1LL.I
"'
=
w
"'
:z
::E
<
cc
C)
(..)
"' .... .... "'

w
1
3
3 5
4 7
5 9
I 6. 11
7 13
8 15
9 16
10 18
11t 20
12' 22
13 24
14 26
15 28
JQ 30
it 31
18 33
t9 35
20 37
?1 ... 39
'22I 41
23 43
24 45
25 . 46
26 48
iii 50
2a. 52
29 54
30 56
11.2
9.6
8.0
6.4
4.8
3.2
1.6
0
11.2
9.6
8.0
6.4
4.8
3.2
1.6
0
11.2
9.6
8.0
6.4
4.8
3.2
1.6
0
11.2
9.6
8.0
6.4
4.8
3.2
MINUTES
1-
w
w
w
"'
::E
"'
w
1:::::0
:z
<
cc
~
.... ....
31 58 1.6 :J
32 60 0 2
33 61 11.2 3
34 63 9.6 4
35 65 8.0 5
36. 67 6.4 iLS
. ,. . 7
37 69 4.8
38 71 3.2 8
39 73 1.6 9
40 75 0 JO
4t . . 76 11.2
4t 78 9.6
43 80 8.0 l3
44 82 6.4 J4
45 84 4.8 J5
46 86 3.2 "16
41 88 1.6
48 90 0 u
49 91 11.2 19
50 93 9.6 20
51 95 8.0 Z1
52 97 6.4 rzz
53 99 4.8 23
54 101 3.2 24
55 103 1.6 25
56 105 0 26 .
~1 106 11.2 b
58 108 9.6 28
59 110 8.0
60 112 6.4
~~\
ih
h
,o
1-
w
w
w
"'
w
"'
1::E
<
cc
.... ....
112
225
337
450
562
675
787
900
1012
1125
1237
1350
1462
1575
1687
1800
1912
2025
2137
2250
2362
2475
2587
2700
2812
2925
3037
3150
3262
3375
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
6.4
0
:::::0
:z
1-
w
"'
::E
.....
....
w
w
(/)
<
cc
~v 3487 6.4
32 3600 0
33 3712 6.4
34 3825 0
~5 3937 6.4
0
~6 . 4050
37 4162 6.4
38 4275 0
39 4387 6.4
;40 4500 0
:4:1. 4612 6.4
0
;if~\ 4725
4837 6.4
44 4950 0
45 5062 6.4
0
I~g 5175
?lt l 5287 6.4
'48 5400 0
49 5512 6.4
50 5625 0
51 5737 6.4
5850 0
a
isa 5962 6.4
54 6075 0
55 6187 6.4
56 6300 0
s.i~! 6412 6.4
sif 6525 0
"59 6637 6.4
60 6750 0
1---t--t--+~
00
v
N
Q)
00
1---t--t--+---il---l---+----1
~
(/)
Q)
1--+--+----1 E
II
(/)
Q)
00
II
II
g g g
t--+--t--+----t-1-+---l ~ ~ ~
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("'')
00
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(/)
(/)
~ l t l ~i ., ~ ~ ~li'
"'
Q)
Q)
~
~
N
M
V
N
II
II
"'
35mm FILM FOOTAGE + FRAMES OBTAINED AT VARIOUS CAMERA SPEEDS

(1 Ft = 16 frames)
p::~:~ 1
12
16
20
22
5+ 0 6+4
24
32
48
64
96
120 128
SEC
5
0'+5fr. 0+ 10
1+4
2+8
3+ 12
10
0+ 10 1+4
2+8
5+ 0
7+8
15
0+ 15 1+ 14
3+12
7+8 11 +4
20
1+4
5+o
1o+o 15+o
2o+o 25+ 0 27+8 Ii~.!~ 4o+ o 6o+o 8o+ o 12o+ o 15o+o 16o+ o
15+ o 22+8
3o+o 37 +8 41+4 :~!lA.: 6o+ o 9o+o 12o+ o 18o+ o 225+ 0 24o+ o
2+8
6+ 14 11
10+0 15+ 0 20+0 30+ 0 37+8 40+ 0
10+0 12+8 13+4 1111~
20+ 0 30+ 0 40+0 60+ 0 75+0 80+ 0
15+ 0 18+ 12 20+ 10
3o
1+ 14 3+ 12
7+8
6o
3+ 12 7+8
15+ 0 3o+ o 45+ 0 60+0 75+0 82+8
,ggffil
30+0 45+0 60+0 90+ 0 112+8 120+ 0
sa+nr120+ 0 180+ 0 240+0 360+ 0 450+ 0 480+0
:::::::::=~~=::::::::::::::;::::
65mm FILM FOOTAGE + FRAMES OBTAINED AT VARIOUS CAMERA SPEEDS

(1 Ft = 12-4/5 frames)
PER SEC I
--
1 I 2 I 4 I 8 I 12
16
20
22
24
32
48
64
96
SEC
5
10
0'+5fr. 0+1 0
0+ 10
1+7
3+ 2
6+ 3
15
20
1+ 2
2+4
4+ 9
9+ 5 14+ 1 18+ 10 23+ 6
1+7
3+ 2
6+ 3 12+ 6
30
60
2+4
4+9
4+9
9+ 5
1+ 7
3+ 2
4+ 9
9+ 5
6+3
7+ 10
12+ 6 15+8
18+ 10 25+ 0 31 + 3
8+8 ij[i~tl
12+6 18+ 1
17+ 2
~ l~fl1:p
25+ 0 37+6
25+ 10
i la t
37+6 56+3 75+0 112+ 6

50+0 75+0 100+0 150+ 0
34+ 5
tiiwl~i
_i;IIJ;!i
50+0
75+ 0
9+ 5 18+ 10 28+4 37+ 6 46+ 11 51 + 7

75+0 112+6 150+ 0 225+ 0
18+ 10 37+6 56+ 3 75+ 0 93+10 103+ 2 i;i~m.sr 150+0 225+0 300+ 0 450+0
--------------------------------~~
3Smm CAMERA RECOMMENDED PANNING SPEEDS

APPRO X. 180 SHUTTER- FOR STATIC SCENES
For go Sweep With Various Camera Speeds and Different Focal Length Lenses
EXAMPLE: 24 f.p.s. with 50mm Lens Should Take 23 Seconds to Pan go Sweep
FOCAL LENGTH OF LENS IN MM
CAMERA
SPEED
FRAMES
PER/ SEC.
8
12
16
20
24
32
48
60
75
90
120
150
18 to 20
25 to 28
35
40
50
75
85
100
150
2.5
1,5
3.0
'4.0
2.0
2.5
180
300
PANNING SPEED
Unshaded Numbers: SECONDS
45
55
27
36
30
18
27
23
13
22
11
18
18
15
9
11
14
7
9
7.5
4.5
7
3.5
6
6
3
5
2.4
4
5
4
3
1.8
3
2.4
1.4
60
42
32
25
21
16
11
8
7
6
4
3.5
1:5
. z.o}" .
54
41
27
23
20
13
11
9
7
5
4
70
55
43
36
27
18
14
12
10
7
6
Shaded Numbers: MINUTES
70
60
50
38
25
20
17
14
10
8
' " 1.5

70
<z;o , \i
1.5
80
60
40
32
26
21
16
13
60
45
30
24
19
16
12
10
s.tr tvt.oJSt
3.5
2'!5} \
' 5.0 .,_ .,}
l''tts.s,,mr:
j a,Q h
2..0
t l i5f . 'J2iSit?
wz.o ''}
75
55
40
35
29
22
17
75
60
50
40
30
25
3Smm CAMERA RECOMMENDED PANNING SPEEDS IN DEGREES PER SECOND

(For Static Scenes)
Approximately 180 Shutter
For Various Camera Speeds and Different Focal Length Lenses

EXAMPLE: 24 f.p.s. with 50mm Lens Should Be Panned 3.6 Per Second or 36 in 10 Seconds, etc.
VJ
.....
.....
LENS FOCAL
LENGTH: mm
17
25
28
32
35
50
75
85
100
125
150
180
300
500
24 f.p.s.
60 f.p.s.
80 f.p.s.
1DO f.p.s.
9.9
7.o
6.3
5.5
5.o
25.o
17.5
15.7"
13.7"
12.7"
8.7 0
6.o
4.3
3.9
3.3
2.8
2.4
1.50
0.64
33.3
23.3
20.9
18.2
16.9
11.7
a.o 0
5.8
5.2
4.3
3.7"
3.2
1.9 0
0.9
41.6
29.1
26.1
22.9
21.10
14.6
9.9
7.2
6.4
5.4 0
4.6
4.0
2.4
1.07"
3.6~
2.4
1.7"
1.5 0
1.30
u
0.95
0.58
0.36
120 f.p.s.
49.9
34.9
31.3
27.4
25.4
17.5
12.0
8.7"
7.7"
6.5
5.5
4.7"
2.9
1.30
0
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00
Light Sources
and Lighting Filters
by Rid1ard B. Glickman, Consul ting Engineer
The a dven t of fas ter films has d1anged many of the
ru.les for well-established ligh ting techniques. Feature-fil m
photography is now rou tinely accomplished in "natu ra l
lighting" situa tions, and nigh t scenes a re p hotogra phed
with only the light available from street ligh ting and shop
windows. The speed o f these new emu lsions has made
possible a new degree of realism, and greater freedom in
selecting loca tions fo r photography.
Quality p hotography sti ll demands consistent lighting.
Consistency often depend s on a n understa ndin g of the
characte ristics of va rious light somces. Ligh t sou rces may
be mixed in any lighting situa tion, so long as care is taken
to apply the a ppropriate filtering to ensu re a consisten t
color balance. The following sections will deal wi th those
requirements.
The use of lighting filte rs, formerly reshicted to a few
blues and an1bers, has now advanced to the point w here
relatively refined adjushnen ts ca n be made in the spectra l
energy output of the wide va riety of sources. The use of th is
more sophistica ted range of lighting filters has been made
practical by the development of convenient color temperature meters that produce relatively sophistica ted information about lig ht sources.
The actua l ligh ting of a scene is an a rtistic process
whid 1 is beyond the scope of this work. Those artistic decisions involve many considerations, such as the type of
story being told, the d esi red mood and the emotional content of the materia l. The cinematographer's efforts in those
directions, and the specific tools he or she uses, are the ha llmarks of the work of any given cinematographer.
Characteristics of Light Sources

The predominance of locati on p hotography makes a
basic w1derstan ding of typica.lly encow1tered light sources
essential. Particularly important, d ue to their widespread
use, are the AC enclosed arc d ischarge lamps such as H Mltypes. Today's cin ematographer must have a grasp of the
basic opera tional d1a racteristics of th ese light sources.
313
COMPARISON OF SOME TYPICAL

COMMERCIAL/ INDUSTRIAL LIGHT
SOURCE CHARACTERISTICS
Description
Fluorescent Types
Daylight
Design White
Cool White
Deluxe Cool White
Natural White
White
Warm White
Deluxe Warm
White
Incandescent
Mercury Vapor
Types
Clear Mercury
White Deluxe
Warm Deluxe
Metal Halide
Additive Types
Multi-arc'"; Metal
Vapor'"
Metalarc C'"
High Pressure
Sodium
Lucalox'"
Lumalux'"
Correlated
Color
Temperature
(Kelvin)
Correlated
Color
Temperature
(at rated
voltage)
Mired
Value
Efficacy
Lumens/watt
3200K
3350K
3400K
4800K
313
299
294
208
26
32
34
Carbon arc (225A Brute)

White flame, Y-1 filter
" "
no filter
Yellow flame YF 101 filter
5100K
5800K
3350K
196
172
299
24
*Xenon, high pressure DC short

arc
6000K
167
35-50
*Metal halide additive AC arc

HMI
CID
CSI
5600K
5600K
4200K
179
179
238
80-102
80
85
Description
Color
Rendering
Index
Efficacy
(Lumens/Watt)
6500
5200
4300
4100
3700
3500
3050
79
82
67
86
81
62
55
60
50
70
50
45
70
70
2950
2700
73
90
45
35
5900
4000
3500
17
45
62
5900
3800
65
70
2100
Comparison of Photographic Light Sources
25
50
5L - 70
80-115
80-115
80-140
For a d eta il ed explanation of the paramete rs o f Correlated Color

Temperature, Color Rendering Index and Efficacy, reference should be
made to page 319.
In this section, a wide range of photographic, conunercial and industrial light sources will be dealt with i.J_1 s<;Hne
detail. The accompanying tables give the reader a bnef tdea
of the range of ch aracteristics to be encotmtered .
Physical Characteristics of Light Sources

.Figure 1 shows the various lamp envelope configurations and the designations that are common to them. The
Incandescent
Standard and tungsten I
halogen
CP gas filled
Phototlood
Daylight blue phototlood
*Need filtering for color photography.
use of this fig ure reveals the envelope's configura tion by

simply knowi.J1g tha t the code letters associated with the
lamp designation arc the di mensional descripti ve data.
The following exa mp les are offered to clarify this descriptive process:
a.) R40- This is a re fl ector flood ("R" type envelope),
which is 4%ths of an iJlch in diameter.
b.) PAR 64- The desig nation "PAR" refers to the
sealed beam lamp type (Para bolic Alumin ized Reflector)
wh.idl is 64/sths of an mch in d iame ter.
c.) QlOOO PAR 64 - This is the envelope as in (b.), but
the "Q" designates a tungsten halogen lam p of 1000 wa tts
inside. ("Q" is a hangover from the early days of tungsten
halogen when these lamps were referred to as Q uartz Iodine.)
d) QlOOOT3 - A tungsten ha logen lamp, 1,000 watts,
with a tubular envelope %ths of an inch in diameter.
315
Another importa n t ele ment in the construction of

lamps is the basing. Figure 2 shows the most common base
arrangements used on incandescent-type lamps (a lso applicable to certain discharge types). This figure can be helpful in establishing whethe r a particular lamp can be mated
to a given fixture.
Cand
Me
M~d
Sc
'il
Mrd Skt
SC 8.1v
I')C Bv
DC PI
SC PI
u
Mog Sc
Med Pf
Mog Pf
~L;}L~trrW
2PM
PAR
Mrd 2P
Mog8p
~~~
l.:;l_,~ \li&
rrR - R1JT lJFJ RSCu
Tf
]PAGC
'2PAG
2PP
Rect ASC
~ =~ ~~ -~r.
Figure 1. Lamp envelope configurations.
V[j~~1$'~
Color Temperature
Color temperature describes the actual temperature of
a "black body radiator" and thereby completely defines the
spectral energy distribution (SED) of the object. When the
object becomes luminous and radiates energy in the visible
portion of the spectrum, it is said to be incandescen t. Simply stated, this means that when an object is heated to an
appropriate temperature, some of its radiated energy is
visible.
The color tempera ture is usually d escribed in terms of
degrees Kelvin. This simply refers to a temperature scale,
like Fahrenheit or Centigrade (Celsius). lt is in fact the absolute Centigrade (Celsius) scale, which is the temperature
in degrees Centigrade (Celsius) plus 273 degrees.
When metal is gradually heated, the first visible color
is "dull cherry red. " As the temperature is raised, it visually becomes "Orange," then "Yellow," and finally "White"
hot. The actual effect of increasing color temperature on the
spectral energy distribution is best seen in Figure 3.
Strictly speaking, tungsten filaments are not true black
bodies. However, from a practical standpoint, both standard incandescent lamps and tungsten halogen types can
be so considered.
~ R
MSP
Can<l
DC Boy
DC PI
EMEP
F
Me
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doubte-corna<:t p ekxu5 candetM>ra
eJttended mogul end prong
lent* contact
MogSc
Mog8p
MogPI
MS
MSP
Reel RSC
RM2P
RSC
medium prelocus
medium Sklfted
medium two pn
mogul end prong
(also e:.:t8flded mogul end prong)
..,....,.,_
mogUl belOit
mogul preioeus
m~turscrew
(wtth rtlerence ~~
(also Tru.loc mlfllalure screw)
~m
medium saew
medium blposl
3P
s
SC Bay
tne<llum Side prong

rectangutar recesMd lingle conlact
""' mount two p.n
recessed s;ngte contact
(also s!OQit contact recessed)
metal sk!teve
single-contact oayonet candctabra
Stnglo-contact p!CIOCUS
screw t e~ mlnat
trubeam two pin
trutocus (also: lour p.n)
Tru-Loc mlf'lature tc:rew
(also: m.ntacure screw wlh reference &hOUider)
wedge
two bullon
two p.n . . glln
SCI PI
ST
TB2P
Tt
TLMS
WOOge
28
2PAG
2PAGC
2PM
lwo p.n al glaSS (C"'II'I'IIC coYet')
lwo pen mnature
preiocus
2PP
IWO JW1
3P
INft prong
R Wdcates speaal relerence pont IOf LCL Note belOw
(RR . at 0 531 inch diameter)
Notes:
Fig ure 2. Common incandescent lamp bases (not to scale).
One of the most important characteristics of incandescent radiators is that they have a continuous spectrum. This
~neans that energy is being radiated at all the wavelengths
mtts spcctrw11. Color temperature is only properly applied
to rad iating sources that can meet this requirement. Therefore, for exa mple, the application of the term "color temperature" to describe the color of fluorescent tubes is incorrect for the following reasons: Fluorescen t lamps do not
have continuous spectra, and fluorescent lamps do not emi t
visible rad iati on due to incandescence (beca use of thei r
temperature). ln practice the term is applied to many other
sou rces. When it is appl ied to these non-incandescent
sources, it really refers to "correlated color temperature."
Correlated Color Temperature of

Typical Light Sources
Artificial Light
Source
Match flame
Candle flame
Tungsten-gas tilled lamps:
40-100W
200500W
1000W
):)~
'0<:5 ' '
: .... -'.: ...
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r::,O
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. ....:--:
100
+ ultra-violel
400
r.amera filter
2650-2900K 828 (100W)
2980K
82A
2990K
82A
Mireds
588
541
317-345
336
334
Daylight
'
'
y---....
*- ' . '
:..
><.?
a:
1700K
1850K
700
1000
1300
1600
infra-red
__.
"-.r--J
VISible spectrum
Sunlight:
Sunrise or sunset
One hour after sunrise
Early Morning, late Afternoon
Average noon, (Wash. D.C.)
Midsummer
Overcast sky
Average Summer Daylight
Light Summer Shade
Average Summer Shade
Partly cloudy sky
Summer skylight
WAVELENGTH (nm)
2000K
3500K
4300K
5400K
5800K
6000K
6500K
7100K
8000K
8000
-10000K
9500
-30000K
500
286
233
185
172
167
154
141
125
125-100
105-33
Figure 3. Relative radian t energy distribution for sources at various color

tem peratures.
Correlated Color Temperature

The term correlated color tempera ture is used to in dica te a visual match where the source bein g described is no t
a ~lac~ body r~di~tor. The te rm is often abused, an example
bemg 1ts applica hon to such light sources as mercu ry vapor lamps.
Fro111 n photographic standpoint, the correlated color temfemture cnn b~ extremely 111islending. It is important to keep
mmd that 1ts connotations are visual. It is a number to

be approached w ith extreme caution by the cinematographer.
111
318
Sunlig h t should n ot b e confused w ith dayl ight. Sunlight is the light of

the sun o nly. Day lig ht is a combination of sunlig ht and s kylight. These
values are approximate since many factors affect th e Corre lated Color
Temperature. For con s is ten cy, 5500K is con s idered to be Nominal
Photog raphic Daylig ht. T h e di ffe ren ce between SOOOK and 6000K is only
33 Mireds, th e same photographic or vis ual di fference as that between
household tu gsten lights and 3200K p hoto lam ps (the ap proximate
equivalent of y, Blue or 'k Orange lig hlin g filters).
The MIRED System

When dealing w ith sunlight and incandescent somces
(both standard and tungsten halogen types), the MIRED
system offers a convenient means for dealing w ith the problems of measurement when adjusting from one color tem-
perature to another. This system is only for sources that can

truly be described as having a color temperature. The term
MIRED is an acronym for Micro Reciprocal Degrees. The
MIRED number for a given color temperature is d etermined by using the following relationship:
1,000,000
MIRED Value=
[1()6 ]
Color Tempe rature (degrees Kelvin)
As a convenience, refer to page 323, which is a quick

reference for determining the MIRED values for color temperatures between 2000K and 6900K in 100-degree steps.
Filters which change the effective color temperature of
a source by a definite amo unt can be characterized by a
"MIRED shift value." This value is computed as follows:
MIRED Shift Value= (
~]
- [
~]
Tl = Kelvin tempe rature of the original source.

T2= Kelvu1 tempe rature of the original source as measured
through the filter.
MIRED shift values can be positive (yellowish or minus blue filters) or negative (blue or minus red/ green filters). The same filter (representing a single MIRED shift value),
applied on light sources with different color temperatures, will

produce significantly different color temperature shifts. Occasionally, the term Decamireds will be found in use for describing color temperature and filter effects. Decamireds is
simply MIREDs divided by 10.
Color Rendering Index

The Color Rendering Index (CRI) is used to specify the
stated characteristic of a light source as it might be used for
critical visual color examinations such as in color matching or inspection of objects. The CRI is established by a standard procedure involving the calculated visual appearance
of standard colors viewed under the test source and under
a standard illurninant. The CRI is not an absolute number,
and there is no particular relative merit to be determined
by comparing the CRls of several sources.
The CRI is of importance photographically only when it is
between 90 and 100. This is accepted to mean that such a
source has color rendering properties that are a commer-
320
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EXAMPLES OF MIRED SHIFT VALUE (FILTER) EFFECTS

Initial Source
OK
10 ,000
6,000
5,000
2,600
2,900
3,200
Filtered Source
Mireds
Filter
Mired Shift
Mireds
OK
Kelvin
Change
100
167
200
385
345
312
+ 112
+112
+112
-21
-21
-21
212
279
312
364
324
291
4720
3600
3200
2750
3090
3440
5280
2400
1800
150
190
240
Mired Values of Color Temperatures from 2000-6900K
(;J
(;J
OK
+0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
500
333
250
200
167
476
323
244
196
164
455
312
238
192
161
435
303
233
189
159
417
294
227
185
156
400
286
222
182
154
385
278
217
179
152
370
270
213
175
149
357
263
208
172
147
345
256
204
169
145
cia! match to the reference source. For examp le, the HMI
lamps have a CRI of 90 to 93, referred to the 0 55 stand ard
illuminant (0 55 is the artificial matd1 to s tandard daylight
of 5500K).
..-----r----r---.-------r--- . - -----, ,20,000
90 ,000
Spectral Energy Distribution

The spectral energy distribution (SED) is the s tandard
means fo r exhibiting the relative amounts of energy being
radiated by a source as a hmction of wavelength. This is
sometimes called the spectral power distribution (SPD).
The visible spectrum (see Fig. 4), which is also the useful photographic spectr um, comprises the energy whose
wavelengths are between approximately 400 and 700 nanometers (nm). Wavelengths s horter than 400 nm are in the
ultraviolet region of the spectrum, and those longer than
700nm are in the infrared region.
The electromag ne tic radiant ene rgy sp ectrum is
shown in Figure 4. The SED for a lamp at 3000K is shown
in Figw e 5. A comparison of the spectral energy distrib_utions of 3200K, natural daylight an d a carbon arc (wh1te
flame carbon) can be seen in Figure 6.
60 ,000
30,000
Angle from centerline
Fig ure 7. Luminaire intensity distribution-rectan gular.
Illumination Data
The purpose of this section is to explain simple general rules for dealing w ith illumination data. In particular,
it will provide the means for interpreting data offered by
manufac turers and for interpolating readings based on
measurements made by the cameraman.
1. Lighting Quantities- Intensity

Intensity is measured in units of "candelas." An earlier term for this is candlepower. Normally, a value for candelas is also accompanied by directional information. In
former times the intensity on axis was referred to as center
bea m candlepower.
The unique property of intensity rela tive to the source
of light in a given direction is that it is not d ependent on
distance from the source. The intensity is the sam e no matter how far away. The only restriction is that it has reduced
accuracy if measurements are made closer to the source
than approximately ten times the maximum diameter of the
lighting unit. For example, for a 12 fresnel lens spotlight,
the .i ntensity figures are only accura te at a d istance greater
than about 10 fee t.
324
Figure 8. Luminaire intensity distribution-polar.
There are two ways that the intensity information is

normally shown. Examples of these are shown in Figures
7 and 8. The only difference between these is that in one
case the data is presented in a rectan gula r coord inate format, and in the other polar coordinates are used . Most lighting manufacturers supplying instruments to the motionpicture industry tend to present their data in a rectangular
format. The polar presentation is more likely to be encountered with commercial/ indushial type fixtures.
Where the intensity distribution of a lighting source
is known, the illumination produced by the unit can be
325
calculated using the inverse square law. This is expressed

as follows:
Maximum Intensity
Intensity (candelas)
Illumination (foot candles)=
0 2(0 = distance in feet)

50% of Maximum
Intensity
Intensity (candelas)
lllumination (Lux ) = - - - - - -- - - D2(D=distance in meters)
(Example: A fixture is described as having a center
intensity (or center beam candlepower) of 50,000 Candelas.
What is the illumination at 25 fee t? What is the illumination at 10 meters?
50,000
50,000
(a) at 25 feet = - - - = - - - = 80 footca ndles
25 X 25
625
50,000
50,000
(b) at 10 meters = - - - = - - - = 500 Lux
10x10
100
2. Lighting Quantities-Coverage
All lighting fixtures have a lighting distribution w hich
may be visible as projected on a fla t w al L Often this is expressed as shown in Figure 9 and defined as an illumination dishibution curve. The important standard measuring
points for such a distribution are as follows:
Beam Coverage: This is described as the lintit of the
area covered to w ithin 50'!/o of the maximum in tensity.
Field Coverage: Th is is described as the area covered
to within 10% of the max im um intensity.
Of the two areas described above, the beam coverage
is the more important pho tographically. It describes the
area that is illuminated at a level that is no t lower than 1
stop d own from the cen ter intensity. The assumption is
made, where a single distribution is shown, that the d istribution pattern is essentially circular.
Calculating Coverage from Beam Angle: The following expression allows the computation of the coverage diameter (W) for any distance (D) and a given beam angle
(Refer to Figu re 10). The expression is:
W = 2 x (D) x [Tangent ('I! Beam Angle)]
10% of
--1---+---.l.......---+--+~Maximum Intensity
Field Coverage
Figure 9. Definilion o f inten sity d istribution curves.
(Example: For a rustance of 50 feet and a known beam

angle of 26 d egrees, what is th e coverage d iameter of the
beam (50% of the center)?
D = 50 feet; Beam Angle= 26 degrees.
'h Beam Angle = 13 degrees
Tangen t of 13 degrees = .231
W = 2 X 50 X .231 = 100 X .231 = 23.1 fee t
3. General Comments on Calculations

Most manufacturers are now offeri ng both ca ndela
information and angular coverage. This is actually sufficient information to make some approximations of what to
expect from the lighting fixtures using the procedures outlined above.
In the event that it is necessary to convert hom footcandles to lux, the val ue of footcand lesshould be multiplied
by 10.8. To convert lux to foo tcand les, d ivide lux by 10.8.
Usually, lux va lues will be associated with d istances
measured in meters, and foo tcandles w.ith d istances measured in feet. In the case of the Lllum ination calculations
above, the use of feet or meters as the units of distance wilJ
auto matically yield illumination values in foo tcandles o r
lux respectively.
1
Figure 10. Definition of terms for calcu lati ng coverage.
TANGENT FUNCTION
Angle
Tangent
Angle
Tangent
Angle
Tangent
Angle
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
.0 18
.035
.052
.070
.088
.105
.123
141
. 158
. 176
. 194
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
.2 13
.231
.249
.268
.287
.306
.325
.344
.364
.384
404
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
.425
.445
.466
.488
.510
.532
.554
.577
.601
.625
.649
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
20
21
22
Tangent
.675
.700
.727
.754
.781
.810
.839
.869
.900
.933
.966
1.000
been scattered and fil tered in the ea rth's atmosphere. Since

the shortest wavelengths are the ones least filtered by the
atmosphe re, this results in the blue sky. Figure 11 represents the spectra l energy d istribution fo r the sun compared
to a 5400K source.
Dayhght conditions a re highly varied, from a photographic viewpoin t, based on the local atmospheric conditions, location on the earth, time of year, hour of the day
and the amount of atmospheric poll utants that may be
present. A brief summary of some of the possibilities is
presented on page 319.
In addition to color temperature variations, the degree
of diffusion in daylight varies from the least to the most
diffuse lighting condi tions that can be experienced.
Least Diffuse- I.n clear cloud less sunl ight, the sun as
the ma in ligh ting source (key) is tru ly a point. This p roduces the hardest, most d istinct shadows. The incident light
level from the sw1 on such a day ca n be as much as 9,500
footcand les. The skylight conh"ibution (fill) is about 1,500
foo tcandles. This produces a lighting ratio of about 7:1 (key
to fill) .
Ligh ting con tro l in these situations may req uire
booster lighting or the use of certain grip devices such as
large overhead scrims.
Most Diffuse - A completely overcast day is essentially shad ow less lighting. The entire sky, horizon to horizon, becomes the light source. The inciden t level may be
as low as 200 footcandles.
Photographic Light Sources

The sotu-ces covered in this section include the more
familiar man-made types, such as incandescent, carbon arc
and AC arc d ischarge lamps as well as an exposition on
natural day light.
The general characteristics of each type are delineated
in moderate de tail, including spectral energy distributions
and electrical characteristics. In addition, any special considerations for the cinematographer are carefully noted.
Each sub-section on a pa rticular class of light source closes
wi th detailed information on filtering the source.
Natural Daylight
Natural daylight, on a clear day, is the sum of sunligh t
and skylight. The sunlight is directly from the sun, whose
surface is about 6,000K. Skylight is from sunlight that has
,.""' ...... .:..... -~

...........
5400K
Jsun
>-
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.....
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c
Q)
Q)
.2:
iii
Qi
a:
300
400
500
600
700
BOO
900
nm
Figure 11. Similarity of sunlight to a theoretical 5400 K light source.
329
Filters for Control of Natural Daylight

A family of ma te rials, mos tly on polyester plasticbased film, arc made for light control in these situations.
These are norma lly supplied in rolls that are from 48 to 58
inches wide (122 to 147 em). In addition, the 85, and ND3,
ND6 and ND9 types a re a lso available as rigid acrylic panels, usually 4 by 8 feet in size (1.22 x 2.44 meters).
Reference should be made to pages 323 and 278 in
read ing this section. Page 323 lists the MIRED shift values
for the va rious materials, and their effect o n sources of two
d ifferent colo r temperatures. Page 278 summarizes the filter requiremen ts for each element of the lighting system
and camera for interior cinematography againstdaylighted
w indows.
When prope rly a pplied, sharp focus can be carried
through windows hea ted with either the plastic fil m mate rial s or the ac rylic pa nels. The panels are partic ula rly
useful where wind o r strong air movement may cause the
plastic fi lm to move and produce visible highlights.
tic films or as rigid acryl ic sheets. Normally they can be

obtained in den sities w hich red uce the incident light by Y2,
1, 2, or 3 stops (ND.15, N0.3, N0.6, and N0.9).
Combination Filters
Combinations of 85 and neutral density o r CTO with
neutral density are a lso available. These a re utilized to reduce th e number of materials wh ich must be installed in
order to accomplish both the conversion and the red uction
of lighting level.
Incandescent Light Sources

The incandescent source is characterized by hav ing a
filament structure through which current is passed to produce heating.
When the fi lament is heated to very high temperatures
it radiates visible ligh t as a part of its radiant energy output. .Figure 12 show the relative spectra l energy distributions fo r some incandescent lamps at va rious color temperatu res.
Incandescent sou rces, relative to the visible spectrum,
radiate at all wavelengths in that spectrum. The proportion
Conversion-Type Filters
These materia ls are intended for application at openings {doors, w indows, etc.) where natural daylight is entering an interio r w hich is to be photographed at a 3200K
balance. The "full " convers ion materials available are
known as "CTO" and "85." In USA lighting practice, the
"85" has been the type most widely applied (it i~ really a
Wratten 85B equivalent). The Emopean practice has been
to use the deeper correction such as the "CTO." The choice
of filter will obviously be determined by the actual daylight
conditions being dea lt wi th, or by artistic considerations.
.Filters wh ich accomplish less than the full correction
to 3200K are also ava ilable, and are widely used to deal w ith
the variatio ns in daylight conditions that may be encountered. They arc also used where the artistic effect wan ted
is different from "natural" dayl ight (page 367).
>-
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w
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20
Neutral-Density Filters
Where it is desired to use a daylight balance inside the
space in which photography is taking place, the only filter
normally ind ica ted for the windows w ill be neutral density. These are usually required due to the overpowering
levels of sunlight which are often encountered in natural
settings. Typica lly these filters are available as either plas-
330
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
WAVELENGTH IN NANOMETERS
Figure 12. Spectra l energy dis tributio n cu rves for incandescent lamps
at various color temperatures.
331
of energy at the different wavelengths (the spectra l energy

distribution) is solely dependent on the Kelvin temperature
at w hich the filamen t is operated. Some of the typical filament configurations encountered in the photographic types
of somces are show n in Figure 13. The designations for the
various conformations are standard in the USA.
Incandescen t sources may be operated on either altern ating or direct current. A very w ide range of light somces
has been design ed with nominal operating voltages to meet
the requirements of bo th USA and international requirements. There are two basic s ubdivisions w ithin the class of
incan descent somces.
C-2V
CC-2V
C-6
CC-6
C-8
CC-8
2C-8
2CC-8
....
.SC CTION A A
11
C-11
CC-11
c -13
CC-13
C-138
CC- 13 B
C-130
A color film and 3200K lamps are used for all professional
color motion pictme films.
Tungsten-Halogen Lamps
The tungsten-halogen lamp is an incandescent lamp.
Its radiant energy output is based strictly on the temperature of its filament, but it offers an important d ifference in
operating principles w hen compared to the standard incand escen t type.
The addition of a halogen gas in the fill p lus the use of
high temperatme materials in the envelope of the la mp
(quartz or fused silica, and recently hard glass), has resulted
in a design which does not experience the blackening effect with age that is characteristic of the standard incandescent types. Due to the presence of the "halogen cycle"
within the lamp, the tungsten is not p ermitted to deposit
on the bulb walls (as long as the wall temperature is above
250 d egrees C). It is, in fact, re-deposited on the filament
(See Figure 14). The results of this development have been
manifold:
1. Tungsten-halogen lamps have minimal loss in lumen output and no significant shift in color temperatme
dming their entire life.
2. Tungsten-ha logen la mps with similar con figu rations, wattages and initial lumen outputs as standard incandescent typ es are now produced with s ubstantia lly
longer useful life.
3. Because of the requirement for high bulb wall temperatmes, it has been necessary to shrink the envelope size
of these lamps, resu lting in comple tely new families of
lamps with m uch sma ller external dimensions than the
standard incandescent equivalent.
Figu r e 1 3. Comm o n in cande scen t fila m en t form s and th eir

d esignations.
Standard Incandescent
The standard incandescent source utilizes a tungsten
fi lament in a gas-filled enclosure of commercial glass. These
basic lamp types have been available for man y years of
motion-pictme production. It has been traditional to produce two ranges of Kelvin temperatme for professional use
in these types of lamps. Typically, at the rated voltage (i.e.,
120 volts), a 3200K and a 3350K design have been ava ilable.
3350K lamps are close to the Photoflood ba lance of Type
Figure 14. Diagram of Halogen Cycle within lamp.
333
In all other respects, the tungsten-halogen lamp should

be considered the sam e as the standard incandescent. They
may be operated on e ither alterna ting or direct current.
Care ~hould be taken during insta lla tion to prevent fi ngermarkmg of the en velope since there is a tendency for some
degradation of the envelope to occur if fingerprints or dirt
are left on dwing opera tion.
~ + 80
:;
a.
:; + 60
0 + 40
c
+ 20
E
"'
::>
...J
'0
"'
iii
0::
Incandescent Lamp Operation
Following are some characteristic curves which will

explain more clearly the relationship of various of the parameters associated with incandescent lamp operations.
These curves are applicable to both standard incandescent
(when the lamp is relati vely new) and to tungsten-halogen
lamps.
"'c
.s::.
"'
Color Temperature Degrees Kelvin
3800
3400
3000
2600
220G
--
J--
0>
- 20
- 40
- 60
- 80
(.)
60
40
80
100
120
Rated Voltage of lamp (%)
Figure 16. Curve showing change of lumen output of lamp as voltage is

chang ed. This has been normalized so that the percentages of lumen
o utput ch ange to p ercentage change in rated voltage can be eas ily
related.
Q'
~
:;
"'
+ 300
iii + 200
Q;
a.
E + 100
~
0
0 - 100
0 - 200
(.)
1800
"'
"'
0>
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
lumens Per Watt

Approximate l amp Efficacy (Efficiency)
c - 300
.s::.
(.)
80
90
100
110
120
Rated Voltages(% )
Fig ure 15. Incandescent lamp efficacy as a function of color temperature.
Lumens are a measure of the total ligh t outp ut of a

source. In the case of incandescent lamps the lumen output depends almost entire ly on the temperature of the filament and the amount of power. The efficacy of the lan1p
(lumens/watt) is almost entirely d ependent on the temperature of the fi lam ent, and beca use of this relationship
the color temperature and lumens per watt (efficacy of the
lamp) can be related. This is demonstrated in Figure 15.
The rela tionship between the lumen output and the
operati1:'g v?lta?e of the lamp can also be d emonstra ted as
shown m Ftgure 16. Tlu s has been normalized so that the
334
Fig ure 17. Curve showing change of color tempera ture (deg rees K) as
voltage is changed.
percentages of lumen output change to percentage chan ge

in rated voltage can be easily rela ted.
There is a di rect relationship between the shift in
Ke lvin te mperature and the operating vol tage of an incandescent lamp. This is shown in Figure 17 in terms of an
absolute change in color temperature for a percentage shift
in the rated voltage. The rule of thu mb that has been used
with 120-volt-rated lamps is that a one-volt chan ge (up or
down) results in a 10-degree Kelvin shift. This approxima-
100
standard mortality curve for incandescent lamps is shown

in Figure 19.
Tungsten-Halogen Lamp
60
Standard Inc
andescem L
i
60
(/)
c
E
Boosted-Voltage Operation
amp
"'
::l
..J
40
20
0
20
40
60
60
100
Operating life (%)
Figure 18. C urve showing lumen output of lamp during life.
100
~~
"~
Ol
c
;;:
;;:
"
60
U)
(/)
Q.
60
"'
40
20
:.E
0
"'Q;
\'
a..
tainty that the lamp has been specifically designed for use in a
boosted-voltage system. Using the standard incandescent
1\
..J
0
20
40
60
60
100
~' ~-
120
140
160
160
Percent of Rated Average life
Figure 19. Life expectancy curve for tungsten filam ent lamps.
tion is reasonably accurate as long as the percentage change

in voltage is within 10-15% of the rated value.
Figure 18 compares the percentage of initial lumens
versus the percentage of operating life between conventional incan descent and ttmgsten-halogen lamps. Note that
the tw1gsten-halogen type has only a very nominal shift in
the lumen output during the course of its entire life compared with the standard incandescent lamp.
The life rating of all types of incandescent lamps is
based on the following concept: if a very large group of
lamps is started at the sam e tin1e, the life rating represents
the time at whid1 50% of the group will still be burning. A
336
It is possible to over-voltage a wide range of standard

120-voll, 2800-2900K lamp types and convert them effectively to p hotographic lamp types. This system ("Colortran" boosting) was widely in use in many places around
the world until the substantial advent of the rungsten-halogen lamp. Although little-used in the USA now, it is still in
wide use in other parts of the world and offers some interesting advantages. There are many situations in which this
system may be both cost-effective and fLmctionally desirable for particular circumstances.
The system is designed to utilize standard 120-voltrated tungsten filament lamps wh ose rated life at 120 volts
is 750 hours or more. The system must not be used with standard tungsten-halogen incandescent types, unless there is a cer-
types, a very broad range of lamp types, including many

of ilie sealed beams and the "R" series as well as many other
standard incandescent lamps, may be utilized and operated
at 3200K or higher.
Typically, when lamps are operated at 165 volts, the
color tempera ture should be approximately 3100K to
3200K. It is possible to continue the boosting operation, and
some lamp types will actually yield 3300-3400K when operated at approximately 185 volts. Due to the low pressure
in the standard incandescent, long-life lamps, this is a safe
type of operation.
In the past, equipment was manufactured to accomplish this voltage-boosting fLmction with push-button control of a tapped autotransformer. The Colortran converters
usually provide input voltage selection (provision is built
in to adjust the unit for input voltages between 100 and 250
volts) and adjustment so that the full boost range was available under any of these input conditions. This permi tted
the use of the same lamps anywhere in the world. This
equipment is still in use in many places, and should be
given consideration where economics and fw1ction dictate
tl1e feasibility.
A further advantage of this system is iliat the standard
incandescent types utilized in it tend to be very much less
expensive than the photographic lamp types that are rated
337
at 3200K a t the operating voltage. Further, the expected life

of many of these lamps at 3200K operation is directly comparable to the life that can be expected from 3200K type
photographic lamps operated a t their rated voltages.
Filters for Incandescent Lamps

These fi lters are typ ica ll y applied to inca nd escent
sources, which may be "quartz," standard incandescent or
"boosted" incandescent types. These filters are normally for
the purpose of changing the SED to an approximation of
daylight. They are referred to as conversion fil ters (see page
367).
The original sta nda rd for this conversion was a glass
filter, the MacBeth "Whiterlite" type. This filter transmits
only about 35% of the light, and has been largely superseded by the dichroic types which transmit about 50% of
the incident light. The dichr oic is an interference-type filter, and most of these convert the 3200K source to approximately 5000K to 5200K.
Care must be exercised in the use of the dich roic filters since they do not have the same filtering characteristics for light inciden t on the fil ter at w idely varying angles.
When used on some types of focusing light (particularly
some of the open reflector "quartz" types), there may be
changes in color as the light is focused. Generally, the light
at the ed ge of the field wi ll show some shift in color on
wide-beam floqdligh ts using dichroic filters.
The re m ay also be suffi cie nt diffe rence be tween
dichroics so that if used on multiple keys in the same scene,
there could be significant enough differe nces in the various areas being lit. A three-color type of color meter should
be used in making the measurements in such circumstances.
A range of very good conversion filters to meet this
requirement is available in the form of sheets an d rolls of
colored polyester materia ls. The polyester film shows good
heat resistance even when applied to relatively high-powered luminaires. The use of some of the multiple-lam p fixtures (Mini-Brutes), with the requirement for some degree
of diffusion material, has resulted in a diffusion material
which incorporates the conversion color for this and similar applications. Reference should be made to page 367 for
a detailed listing of the filters available.
Conversion filters- 3200K to daylight: The conversion fi lter is usJd where it is desirable that the converted
338
NATIONAL CARBONS FOR STUDIO LIGHTING

Fix tare
Type
Carbon
No.
Posllln
Oescrlpllon
Carbon
No.
Negative
Oescriplion
Arc D.C.
Eleclrlcal
Amperes
Rallng
Volls
40
36
120
58
Ouarc
8mm x 12 in.
CC MP Studio
7mm x 9 in.
CC MP Studio
M.A. 90
13.6mm x 22 in.
H.l. Studio
7/16 in. x 8'12 in.

CC MP Studio
M.A. 170
16mm x 20 in.
H.l. Studio
M.A. Brute
16mm x 22 in.
Super H.l. StudiO
Positive-White
Flame
16mm x 22 ln.
Super H.I. Studio
Positive-Yellow
Flame
16mm x 25 in.
Ultrex HIWF
Studio
M.A. Titan
tO
1
1'1 in. x 8'/ in.
CC MP Studio
150
68
11
17/32 in. x 9 in.

Special CC
225
73
350
79
300
73
t2
16mm x 25 in.
HIYF Special
Studio
11/16 in. x 9 in.

CC MP Studio
un10n Carbide Corp. Carbon Products Division
color temperature be approximately 5500K. The light loss

associa ted with these types of filters is approxima tely 1 to
1-Y.! stops These filters are referred to as "full blue 50," " full
blue" or "CTB."
Partial Conversion Filters - 3200K to less than dayLight: These materials are related to the conversion types,
in tha t they provide a pa rtial conversion. These are made
in several grades to permit a range of choices for the cinematographer.
The application of these materials allows for adjustment in light sources due to voltage variation, the fading
of d ichroic coatings on certain types of lamps, and to
achieve desired aesthetic effects which require less than a
"full" daylight conversion. These filters may also be used
to adjust the spectral energy distribution of the commercial / industrial light sources so that they match standard
photographic color balance (3200K or 5500K).
339
DC Carbon Arc Sources

The open carbon arc remains in w ide use, and in particular the 225 ampere "Brute" fresnel len s sp otlight. The
table summarizes the various carbon arc wuts, as well as
the type of carbons necessary for each type. There is also a
summary of the electrical characteristics of these arcs when
properly operated.
Electrical Operating Characteristics

All of the ca rbon arcs d escribed operate from direct
ctu-rent only. The actual arc voltage of these units is typically about 72 volts. They ar e normally utilized from 120volt DC sources by using a resistive g rid (ballast) to drop
the supply voltage 48 volts.
More recently, s pecially wound or tapped genera tors
have been u tilized which produce tl1e arc voltage directly
and eliminate tl1e need for the grid or ballas t. This is a significantly more efficient m ode o f opera tion in terms of
power utilization but d oes require special equipment.
Color Temperature
In tl1e Brute and Titan the carbons are available in both
white-flame and yellow-flame positives. The correlated
color temperature with white-flame carbon is 5800K. The
correlated color temperature with the yellow-flame carbon
is3350K.
Filters
The use o these filters, o rig inally as gelatin-based
types, is well-established practice. New, more durable filter materials are now available to accomplish these functions. These filters are used w ith the different carbons in
order to provide light which is a better m a tch to "daylight"
or 3200K. In some cases, the a rc color is adjusted in order
to meet the requirements of matching "daylight" at earlier
or later times of the day. The basic conversions are as follows. The designations are the most commonly accepted,
although some of the filter manufacturers have chosen to
create new cod es:
Y-1: Used yvith w hite-flame carbon to provide a better match for "daylight." The Y-1 is pale yellow in color, and
has about 90% transmission. An LCT Yellow filter rnay also
be used.
340
MT-2 + Y-1: Used with white-flame carbons to convert

to approximately 3200K for color negative. (Filtered light
is slightly blue for 3200K reversal types.) The MTY filter is
available w hich combines these two in a single material. An
LCT Yellow plus Full CTO may also be used.
Other filters, particularly the \1 MT-2, may be used to
"warm" the arc color as d eemed necessa ry by the cinematographer. The CTO series of filters are all applicable to the
arc w ith white-flame carbons for various d egrees of adjustment.
Enclosed AC Arcs
These are enclosed light sources which are based on
the principle of a medium length mercury arc to w hich
various materials have been added to modify the spectral
energy dis tribution. The additives typically are me tal halides.
All o f these lamps are operated from alternating current o nly, and require the use of a high-voltage ignition
device to start and to re-strike them when hot, as well as a
ballasting d evice to limit the current.
As a general characteristic, all of these lamps tend to
have a light output wluch is modula ted in relation to time.
This is due to the fact that the light outpu t follows the current, and these lamps are operated on alternating current.
As the curren t rises through zero and up to a maximum and
back down through zero to the opposite polarity p eak, the
light output tends to modulate between a minimum and a
maximum value. Th e deg ree of m odulation is different for
the various sources.
This characteris tic is importa n t, s ince it can be the
source of " flicker" problems. With some of the lamps it
becom es necessary to be sure that the power source to the
lamp and the framing rate of the camera and the shutter
angle are held in certain specific relationships. There is a
detailed analysis of this phenomenon in a following section
(page 376).
Another common characteristic of these sources is that
they are approximations of daylight. Typical correlated
color temperatures are approximately 5600K. There will be
some variation in Ws, as well as in tl1e m anufacturing tolerances for color temperature for the individ ual lamp types.
The following sections will offer more detailed information
for each type.
341
HMI Lamps
The most widely used of the new types of photographic enclosed-arc AC discharge lamps are known as
HMls. This term is a trademark of Osram, but has become
very much the generic term for this family of lamps. Some
of the other trademarked brand names for these sources are
BRITEARC, DAYMAX, TRU-ARC, MSR and DiLite. An
assortment of these lamps is shown in Figure 20. These are
fundamentally mercury arcs with me tal halide additives to
adjust the color balance. All of the various sizes of this lamp
are rated by the manufacturers at approximately 5600K (see
Figure 21). This is normally stated as having a plus or minus 400K tolerance. Color Rendering lndex (CRI) of the
lamp is greater than 90 for all types. As will be noted from
the color temperature and its tolerance, there can be some
variation in the color rendering characteristics from lamp
to lamp. Also, accoLmt must be taken of the age of the lamp
since this tends to resuJtin a reduction of the color temperature. In normal daylight fill applications, these variations
are probably not significant.
as adjustment of the color temperature. With the proper

meter, and the right fil ter materials at hand, it is literally a
matter of minutes to balance lights to an extremely close
match. lf this practice is not foll owed, it is possible to have
significant variation in color rendering from two keys in the
same scene. Refer to the section on "Filters for Arc Sources."
ij4Jthft ~1
), \1
),~IJ='I4fl~vj
400
500
700
6CX)
wavelength 'A -
nm
BCX)
--
Figure 21. (a) Relative s pectral power distribution of radian t energy

of H MI 575-W and s pectral rad ian ce distributi on (b) of da y light at
6500 K.
J~~~- 1200 WATIS

2500 WATIS
4000WATIS
Figure 20. Comparative sizes of some HM! Iamps.
Where more than one light will be used as key in a

scene, and these are likely to be seen in a single shot, it is
strongly recommended that these keys be measured with
a three-color type of color-temperature meter. Appropriate filtering materials are available for application to these
Lmits that allows correction of green-magenta shifts as well
342
Page 345 is a brief summary of the electrical and physical characteristics of the lamps comprising the full range of
HMI sources. Fig ure 22 is a graphic presentation of the
various parameters of HMI a mps expressed in terms of
percentage changes in the supply voltage. It is of particular interest to note that the color tempera tu re increases with
decreasing voltage.
Like aJl metal vapor lamps, HMI lamps requiJ:e a certa.iJ1 period after starting LmtiJ final operating conditions are
reached. The warm-up period varies with the lamp wattage, but typically is of the order of a minute or two from a
cold start. Figure 23 shows curves of the electric and ph otometric data during warming-up of the lamp in operation
with a standard inductive ballast. After ignition the lamp
current a t first increases. Power consumption, operati ng
voltage and luminous flux, however, are lower during the
warm-up stage than w hen in fu ll opera tion. TI1e warm-up
period a fter igniting a hot lamp is considerably shorter.
Lighting fixtures have been designed specificaJJy for
these light sources, d ue to their particular requirements for
cooHng and the arrangements for mountin g and electrically
343
120
/
~.
115
0
0
0
N
110
PL 105
"'
0
0
0
co
-.:co
<D
]i o
c::LO
:;::
," +I
:X:
0
0
0
N
N
"'
<I>L
.,.;
,-
..,
LO
N
N
co
0
0
ci
,-
0
0
LO
co
SC::LO
o
:;:: ,-
. +I
:X:
100
IL
0
0
0
<D
95
TF
UL
LO
N
N
0
0
0
LO
LO
,-
<D
"'
...J
90
LO
ci
LO
"'
]i
o
C::LO
:;::,-
" tl
:X:
c(
0(1)
-o
a:_
85
0
0
0
1-t-
....
ocn
w90
95
100
105
Supply vo\\age (~I Uv ~

Figure 22. HMI 2500-W pow er consumption PL, luminou s flu x OL,
current in tens ity IL, nearest color temperature TF, and operating voltage
UL (relative valu es), as a function of the su p ply voltage Uv.
connecting these lamps. Also, to utilize the substantial light

output of these fixtures with any degree of efficiency requires some special considerations. Fixtures are made by
a large number of manufacturers at this point and include
conventional fresnel lens spotlights, flood lights and even
some softlight configurations.
Norma lly the lighting units are supplied with a mating ballast, although this equipment can be purchased separately. The ballasting systems are normally conventional
inductive types. These ballast types have no effect on the
tendency for this light to mod ulate as a fw1ction of time
(flicker).
When opera ted on a standard inductive type ballast, this
lamp mod ulates approxima te ly 83%. Tha t is to say, the
mininlwn light output is approxinlately 17% of the peak
va lue. This modulation characteristic, w hich is shown in
Figure 43 (page 377), is responsible for the " flicker" phenomenon which can occur wh en proper attention is not
paid to the sync11ronization of the power line frequency for
the lamp, the shutter angle and framing rate of the camera.
This particular problem is dealt with in some detail in a fol-
0
<D
"'
0
0
0
0
0
-.iN
,-
0
0
LO
-.:-
...Ja:
<a
-C::LO
o
2 ,-
" +I
:X:
ww
LL.I-
0~
0
0
0>
....
>a:
a:ct
0
0
0
<D
LO
.,.;
;:
<D
ci
0>
-.:-
0
0
LO
]i
o
C::LO
2,-
" +I
:X:
c(l:
:!!0
:iiE...J
:Jet
0
0
N
co
cno
l <ii
en>
a. ::I:
:!Ea.
c(C
...JZ
...........
co
~
co
0
0
0
co
0
0
,-
ci
,-
0
0
0
LO
,....:
0>
N
0>
,._
LO
co
LO
,._
0
0
LO
>.
c::
<(
,-
0>-
>.
c::
<(
-.:-
_c(
:!!!
:I:
""
,;
co
]i o
0
0
0
,-
0>
,-
C>
co
<Ci
,-
"'
C::LO
2,"+I
:X:
c:_j
Q)
Ol
3-E
!!!
.._ u;- <.>c.
0
CD.: E
>
,.-:;
Ol
co:.: u"'
c::-~
.......
..,_
a.. ~
...
E.S
_,
a:
c::
c...C:
"'"'"'
~
-o
Q)
c:
~
:::>
:E
-~-'
"'
~c::
Ol
c::
Q)
x"'
=> E
~
:::>
"'
;s
(.)
(.) ~
:E i
U:::3 ws:
E .S 2:. c.
c. "' ~ .5
c::
0
0 ~
-~ "5
. ~~ c.<n c."'
E -"' Ec. E.9-~ ~ c
"'E
_,
::s_ =>:::>
::E> .Ol ~g
:::>
>.
Q)
-' 0
"'-:::>en
o c::
c::
Q)
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c::
~
0
::::;
Q)
Ol
Q)
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c..
Ol
c::
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co
345
160 ~------~------,--------.-------,
!ti
u,
:; ,
40
,: r
'i'i.
20
[:--"
i
2
min .
Warm-up time - - -- - -
Fig ure 23. HM I 2500-W powe r cons u m p tion PL, lumi n o us fl ux OL,
current intens ity IL, neares t color temperature T R, an d operating voltage
UL (relative values), as a function of lime a fter starting th e cold lam p.
lowing section (page 376). Many types of electronic ballasts

are now available fo r the fuJI range of HMI-type lamp s. AJl
of these can be considered "flicker-free" in the normal range
of camera operation.
The servic;e life of the HMI type lamps depends to
some extent on the number of s tarts and might even exceed
the values given in the table. However it is ma inly gove r~ed
by the permissible to lerances of color temperature (which
may very according to application). During lamp ~ife, the
color temperature w ill drop at an average of app roxt ma t~ly
1 degree Kelvin per operating hour. The Color Rende rmg
lndex w ill remain unchanged and the decrease of the luminous efficacy and lum inous flux will be very low (Figure 24).
HMI lamps that have had long use can, w ith the use
of a three-color color tem perature meter and the appropriate correction filters, have thei r colo r temperature and
green-magenta balance adjus ted . This practice w ill assure
that the end life for these lamps is the moment at w hich they
can no longer be s tarted using the ir specified ignition and
ballast eqLLipment, ra the r than the po in t at w hich their
unfi ltered color bala nce is n o longer acceptable. AdjuSt-
ments of the color balance of HMllamps is d one with the

ran ge of filters described herein. A n umber of the types of
electronic ballasts offer a limited range of "color tem peratu re adjus tment." Ca utio n should be exercised in using
these con trols rela tive to green-magenta axis s hifts, and in
particula r where applied to keylig hts.
CAUTION:
1. The HMI source is extreme ly rich in ul travio.let
energ y. All commercia l fixtures presently sold have
been ca refully designed to assure that there is no leakage of the ultraviolet energy. There mus t be a lens or
cover g lass of a pp ropriate composition over the opening of this fix ture in o rder to screen out this ultraviolet.
All of th e commercial fixtures in use have interlocking
systems w hich assure tha t the lamp will n ot operate if
an y of the lens open in gs or access doors a re no t p rop e rly closed . IT IS EXTREMELY IMPORTANT THAT
THESE INTERLOCKS BE RESPECTED. SINCE EXPOSURE TO THESE HIGH LEVELS OF U LTRA VIOL ET CAN RESU LT I N SEV ERE SUN BURN ING
AN D P A IN FU L EYE BURNS.
2. All commercial systems of HMI equipment are
electricall y g rounded (ear thed ). This ind e pendent
g roLmd circuit must be respected, since there a1e circums tances w1der w hich hazardous voltages may be presented to an opera to r if this connection is o mitted.
Where HMI equipment is operated from a portable genera tor, a grounding s take must be used to assure that
the generator and its s tructure are properly grounded .
UNDER NO Cffi.CUMSTANCES SHOULD THIS SYST EM BE OPERA T ED UNLESS A COM PLET E
GROUNDING CIRCUIT IS CONNECTED.
DCJTM - DC Metal Halide Arc

Discharge Lamps
DCJTM lamps a re represented as silent and " flickerfree." These are generally very similar in their physical appearance to HMI types, and a number of their operating
characteris tics are the sa me. They are rated at 5600 degrees
Kelvin, with a Color Rend ering In d ex above 90, and life
ratin gs are very similar to HMI la mps of similar wattage.
The elechode configura tion is sin1ilar to that found in DC
1m
W r---.---.---,----.--~---,--~~
100 ~~~~--~---4--~--~-==4-d
ao r---+---~---+---4----+---~--~~
so r---t---+---1---~---+---4--~~
40r---+---~---+--~,---+---~--~~
20 ~--~--~----L---~--~----L---J-~
100
200
300
400
500
600
700 750 h
Ope ra ting time

Figure 24. Luminous efficacy of HMI 575-W as a fun ction o f operating
time.
short arc Xenon lamps. There are, however some significant differences between DCI and HMI:
a.) Due to the fac t that the lamp operates on DC, the
arc source is located at one electrode all of the time, which
yields a smaller effective source size, a nd should show
some improvement in utilizing the lumen output of this
source. Further, because tile arc is operating on DC, it can be
used at any camera jrn111ing rate from 1 to 10,000frames per second without concern for flicker.
b.) The DCI lamp ballast will be much simpler, and
should therefore more reliable and less expensive than the
somewhat complex flicker-free ballasts required for the AC
arcs.
c.) The claim for siJent operation is based on the DC
operation of the lamp as compared to the HMI types when
operated on square-wave type ballasts.
This lamp has onJy recently appeared, and is currently
projected to be ava ilable in 800W, lSOOW, 2500W, SOOOW,
and lO,OOOW sizes. At this w riting, the lamps have been
successfully fitted to existing HMI Fresnel Lens Spotlights.
CSI Lamps
The Compact Sou rce Iodide Lamps (CSI) are also
metal halide additive-type lamps. Typically, these are available in either a single-ended configuration or in a PAR 64
(sealed bean1) enclosure. The configuration of the various
lamps in this series is shown in Figure 25.
This particular lamp has been used more widely in
Europe than in the USA. It is specified as having a correlated color temperatu re of 4200K plus or minus 400K.
Clea rly it is necessary to do some filtering of the light to use
it either in a "daylight" balance situation or for 3200K applica tion. The efficacy of the lamp is high and its initial
348
output represents 90 lumens per watt. Lwnen maintenance

(the amount by which the light falls off during life) is
claimed to be 90%. l11e tolerance spread for the correlated
color temperature (which is not true color temperature)
would in dicate that the lamp could be anything from 3800K
to 4600K as received from the manufacturer.
. When operated on a standard inductive type ballast,
th~s ~amp modulates approximately 62%. That is to say, the
mmunum light outputs approximately 38% of the peak
value. "Flicker" ca n be a problem under some circumstances, and appropriate precautions shouJd be taken.
f--- a1 -- ~
....
1689~
1~-..
.
; ;
. . .
--. :
holding &edge
LfFTI
1-1.,50 1
Figure 25. Config urations and dimensions fo r the 1000-W CS I and CID
lamps.
This discharge lamp is avai lable in a sea led-beam

(PAR 64) enclosure whicl1 affords simple hand ling and has
made it attractive fo r large area lighting of locations and
sports settin gs fo r both television and film.
Appropriate filtering for CSI lamps is available from
the range of ligh t source correction media listed on page
367. Because of tl1e character of tl1e radiant energy distribution of this source, it is essen tial that a three-color reading color temperature meter be used in order to assure that
CAUTION: The same cautionary note as shown under
the HMI lamp type relative to ultraviolet exposure and
to grounding and electrical safety is applicable to the use
of these sources. The sealed beam PAR 64 bulb emits
no UV provided that the oute r bulb is intact.
reasonable corrections are being achieved with these lamps

fo r critical color work.
Typical spectral power

Xlo'
2 ,-~--------~-----------------.
Spec tral Power Dstr ibutton _ _
CID Lamps
-;;:;
of l kW C10 Lamp.
E
"
5500K 10551.
This metal ha lide additive-typ e lamp utilizes the iodides of ti n and in dium . The physical configurations are
identical to the CSIIamps (see Figure 25), except that in the
CID type, a 2500-watt version is also available. This is pictured in Figure 26. The spectral power distribution and
transient sta rting characteristics are shown in Figures 27
and 28.
The correlated color te mpera ture of CID la mps is
5500K plus or minus 400K throughout life. It is claimed that
CID lamps ca n be dimmed to 40% maximum outp ut (usin g suitable ballast) without affecting color te mperature.
The claimed lumen maintenance for this source is 90% for
all of its types and va riations.
When operated on standard inducti ve ballasts, the
lamp modulates to 45%. That is to say, the minimum light
output is approximately 55% of the peak. This represents
a significant irnprovement over the basic modulation char-
Reconsututed Oayhght at
.....
c:=:::J
Wavelength tnml
Fig ure 27. Typical spectral power distribution for CID lamps.
100
.<:?
iO
>
Q)
Ol
c"'
Q)
60
Q;
a.
40
0
0
0
.,.;
20
30 sec.
1 min. 1 min . 30 sec.
Time from switch-on
2 min .
Fig ure 28. Trans ient characte ristics of la mp from switch-o n.
Figure 26. 2500-W com pact iodide daylig ht (CID).
acteristics of the HMJ and CST types, but precautions regarding flicker must still be observed.
Filters for adjusting the spectral energy distribution of
CID lamps are Listed on pages 366-367.
351
Light-Source Filters
These light sources vary not only in color tempera ture,
but there are likely to be significant green-magenta shifts.
It is recommended that anyone regularly working with the
types of AC arc discharge sources delineated above should
have a three-color color temperature meter. With such an
instrument, and the system of filters created by Rosco Laboratories, Inc., i~ is possible to deal properly with all of the
variations that are likely to be encountered with these
lamps.
The possible range of lamp-to-lamp variations in color
balance is primarily due to aging and manufacturing variations. In many situations, it will be highly desirable oressential to assure that the lamps in use will have the same
color rendering characteristics.
Some claims have been made for single conversion
filters for the HMl and CSI type lamps, but it is difficult to
tmderstand how a single filter could even come close to
meeting the wide range of possible lamp color balances that
are likely to be encountered within a given type. The range
of available materials has been proven in practice to meet
the requirements of color balancing lights so that minimum
variations are present.
High-Pressure DC Short Arc Xenon Light

Sources
This source is the best commercially ava ilable light
somce for use in higher-powered projection systems. The
very small size and very high brightness of the arc source,
and the stability of the arc location due to the DC operation, make it the source of choice around the world for
motion-picturtj p rojection.
The efficacy of high-pressme xenon som ces (lumens/
watt) ranges from 35 to 50 LPW. Ballasting is very simple,
CAUTION: These lamps have high internal pressme even wh,en cold. They are supplied with a protective jacket over the bulb, and this should not be removed
tmtil the lamp is fully installed. It is required that a suitable face shield, body jacket and gauntlets be used any
time that the protective jacket is removed. When removing a lamp the protective jacket should be installed before steps are taken to disconnect and remove the lamp.
requiring on!y a current-lirni ting rectifier tha t can p rod uce

DC that has less than 5% ripple. A high-voltage igniter is
necessary to start these lamps, and they can be hot re-struck.
These lamps permit the creation of an intense foc used beam
of pme, slightly cold daylight color balance light (about
6000 K), and have a Color Rendering Index of 95 to 98.
They have found some limited applica tion in motion-picture photographic lighting. The somce is available in a wide
va riety of wattages up to lOKW.
Stroboscopic Lighting
Stroboscopic ("strobe") lighting for motion p ictmes
has been available commercially for about 30 years. Typ ically these utilize xenon flash tubes which produce a good
approximation of daylight (about 6000K), and a relatively
stable color temperatme throughout life. Due to the fact that
the flashtubes that are suitable for this application are either long slim som ces or helical shapes, they can really only
produce soft lightin g. They can be color-corrected or adjusted using the same filter ma terials described for application to any o f the n ormally utilized light sources and
lighting instruments.
It is common practice to utilize con tin uou s sources
(such as tungsten ) with strobes. Typical practice is to light
2 stops under the strobe with tl1e tungsten lighting up to
one stop over. The more tungsten lighting, the softer the
image. The control equipment fo r these light sources permits an expos m e dmation of between Yso.ooo and Yioo.ooo of a
second. This permits stop motion with extraordinary sharpness of various ph en omena, and delinea tes detail in realtime movement th at is a blur in normal photography (even
with very small shutter an gles). TI1e sharpness of results in
slow-motion effects is tmmatched by other techniques.
The strobes must be synchronized to the camera shutter. Usually the strobes are driven by the shutter p ulse from
the camera, and it is impera tive that the tmits flash when
the shutter is full y clear of the gate (otherwise a partially
exposed frame will result). To check camera synchronization, the lens should be removed, and the cavity illuminated
with the strobe with the camera turned on. The shu tter
should appear to be frozen in one position.
The control equipment for these strobes permits the
addition of d elay to the pulse in degree incremen ts. The
position of the shutter will either move forward or back-
353
wm:~ in relationship to the ga te w1til it is in the proper
pos1hon. For reflex cameras the strobe fires twice for each
fram e, once to illuminate the subject and a second time to
illuminate the viewfinder.
CAU~ION : People wi th pho tose ns iti ve e pile psy
should be informed that strobe lighting will be in use.
lightiJ1g. (Aitematively, most laboratories could correct for

the temperature deficiency in printing from color negative.)
If used, supplemental lighting can be reduced in colortempera ture to match the ambient light; this would be done
most easily by the addition of filters to the luminaires. It
could also be accomplished by the use of a dimmer.
Commercial/Industrial Light Sources
AC Discharge Lighting
This section will present information about the most

com monl y encountered types o f commercial/industrial
light sources which may be fou nd in loca tion situa tions.
For man y exterior situations, there is little or nothing
that ca n b: done about the color of the existing light (e.g.,
roadw~y h~htin9 ~r large-area exterior lighting). In many
other Situations 1t 1s comple tely practical and/or possible
to apply filters to the light sources that are encOLmtered i11
a loc~ tion settin g. This can result in minimizing the problems 111 the set-up, and achieving a more natura l look (more
nea rly as the scene appears to the eye).
A further altemative is the use of camera filters to compensate for the color balance of the avai lable light. In order to usc conventional photographic lights for supplementa l lighting, it is only necessary that they be filtered so tha t
their color balance is the same as the dominant ambient
lighting. This a,pproach makes it possible to reta in the
"character" or "look" of the loca tion lighting, a nd still allows tl~e c~eahve freedom to add such supplementa llightmg as md1cated fo r the desired dramatic or artistic effect.
The cinematogra pher on loca tion assignment is more

and more likely to encounter various types of d isd1arge
lamps. These may be in use for both interior lighting in
stores and commercial buildings and for exterior lighting
in sports stadiwns, parking lots, shopping malls, and fo r
street lightin g.
Many of these types of ligh t sources give excellent
color rendering fo r the eye, and th e ma nufacturers often
give a correlated color tempera rure value to the sowce. This
"Kelvin" temperature usually has no meaning for the purposes of color p hotography.
The following sections offer the means for dealing with
these light sources to assure acceptable photographic results that should be well within the labora tory tolerances
for correction of color negative film. (See "Color Bala ncing.")
Domestic Incandescent Lighting

Non-photographic types of incru1descent lighting tend
to have color temperatures tha t may range from 2400K up
throug h 2900K or so at their rated voltages. The color temperature is directly related to th e wattage of the lamp, wi th
very-low-wattage types hav ing the lowest color temperatures. Refer to page 319.
lf the?e sources are providin.g sufficient light for exposure, and 1t IS felt that no supplemental lighting is required,
then a camera filte.r car~ be used to correct the lighting balance to an approx1matton of 3200K. Typically, this would
represent applica tion of one or more of the Wratten 82 series fi lters. The table on page 230 gives an approxima tion
of the appropriate Wratten filte r or fil ters required and the
e ffect of that fil ter on the color temperature of the ambie nt
Existing Fluorescent Lighting on Location

This is probably the most widely used type of interior
lighting in commercial and industrial settings. lt is not
unusual to find commercial or industrial locations which
are lighted to 125 or so footcru1dles using fluorescent lighting. Considering the speed and other characteristics of the
newest film emulsions, this level is certainly sufficient to
obtain reasonable exposure settings.
By making use of th e ambien t fl uorescen t ligh t, the
cinematographer can maintain the lighting quality ru1d the
character of the setting, th at is to say, a more nearly "softlighted" appearance.
Most fl uorescent illumina tion, beca use of its d iscontinuous spectrum, is not well-suited to color cinematography (see Figures 29 through 34). The correlated color temperature of a fl uorescent lamp may p rovide a visua l color
match for a hlngsten lamp of similar color temperarure, but
photographic color results will be quite dissimilar. Exposure may no longer be a problem w1der these conditions
355
Figure 29. Cool White F40CW.
Figure 31. Cool White Deluxe F40CWX.
Figure 30. Warm White F40WW.
Figure 32. Warm White Deluxe F40WWX.
but color rendition remains a serious consideration with

fluorescents found in commercial or industrial situations.
If color film is exposed without filter correction, the
results will have a blue-green cast with weak reds, even
with daylight type emulsions. The result is not at all what
the viewer expects to see in a fluorescent-lighted setting.
Mercury Vapor and Color Improved

Mercury Lamps
356
The clear mercury vapor lamp will not produce acceptable color photographic results with any degree of filtering. The reason for this can be seen by examining the spec-
357
Fluorescent Lighting
for Motion Pictures
by Freider Hochheim, President of KinoFlo, Inc.
Fig ure 33. Natural F40N.
Fig ure 34. Incandescent Fluorescent F401F.
trum in Figure 35. Note that there is essentially no light

outp ut in the red portion of the spectrum and only line
spectrum output in the blue and blue-green portions. Obviously, there is no way to compensate for the lack of red
energy, so that this source must either be overpowered with
Fluorescent lighting has traditionally had the

reputation of being an inappropriate light source for
motion picture production. The p rimary criticism has
revolved around noisy ballasts, poor color rendering,
green skin tones, 60Hz flicker and low light output.
These criticisms are now a thing of the past. Technology has ad vanced to the point where high-quality
fluorescent p roducts are now being p rod uced specifically for the motion-picture and television ind ustry. The cinematographer can now consider using
fluorescent lights not only in situations which are
motivated by existing loca tion fl uorescent environments but ra ther in an y situation requiring either
daylight or 3200 Kelvin light.
The fluorescent lamp by its very nature has an
indirect or ambient light quality which is d esirable
in situations calling for natural light quality. Instead
of bouncing the light from an HMI or an incandescent fixture, the cinematographer can utilize a fluorescen t light source which embodies the characteristics of a bounce board . The ligh t is soft and has a
sp read and drop-off very similar to bow1ced light.
Finding this quality of light in a long narrow light
source which can be easily hidden in a set opens up
new lighting possibilities and provides new solutions
for old problems. The low heat and low power requirem ents give this technology added ap pea l
amongst actors and electricians alike.
KinoFlo p rovides some of the m ost recent innovations. It is prod ucin g a line of loca tion and studio
lighting systems offering lightweigh t and portable,
high-frequency flicker-free, color-correct fluorescent
ligh ting instruments. KinoFlo offers a broad selection
of color-correct lamps in sizes ranging from the micro at l OOmm in length to the KF55 at 8 fee t and in
5500 Kelvin an d 3200 Kelvin color temperatures.
other lighting, or allowed to render its subjects with only

blue/ blue green energy.
A number of other types of mercury lamps have been
made in which a phosphor coating has been put on the
inside of the outer jacket of the lamps. In principle, this has
worked very much like a fluorescent lamp and has resulted
in an improved color rendering capability. A number of
these types, such as the Color Improved Mercury, have
sufficiently complete spectral energy distribution so that
they are now finding application in certain types of commercial interior use.
00
10!Kll !
70
l I
60
5
1-
30
2.0
10
350
11410
100
~ 11 63 - f- 1454
90
...
!l
500
550
--j
..1
650
700
Correla"ed Color "\.~e --3600'!\

OE~cry- : 400 y
360
Figure 36. Spectral energy distribution of 400-W Warm Deluxe mercury

lamp (H33GL-400-WDX).
8_70
~ 60
450
,. --=
H
1-'
14.14
E6o
2
50
~ JO
~ 30
~ 20
2~
60~----~----+----4---,
10
350
450
500
550
600
650
700
Wavelenglh '" Nanometers
Correlated Color ~lure--5900'K

CIE Om"naldy-x ~ .320 y 379
Color Rendemg lndex-22
Figure 35. Spectral energy distri bution of 400- W Clear mercury lamp.
Spectral energy distributions for some of these lamps

are shown in Figures 36 through 38. It is evident from the
examination of these distributions that there is a substantial improvement in the availability of energy at the intermediate wavelengths between the mercury lines. This results in improved color rendering.
Figure 37. Spectral energy distribution of 400-W Color Improved

mercury lamp (H33GL-400C).
Metal Halide Additive Lamps
40.
The metal halide additive lamps known by a variety

of trademarked names such as Metalarc, Multi-Vapor and
HQI, for example, are essentially mercury vapor lamps
which have had small additions of various metal halides
made inside the arc tube. These lamps have generally high
efficacies (approximately 85lumens per watt typically).
These lamps are widely used in sports lighting as well
as in shopping malls, and a wide variety of other commercial / industrial applications. Some typical spectral energy
360
350
Correla:oo Color enpern~~e
Ct( Ovono11
'
363 y
12001<
419
distributions for these types are shown in figures 39 and
Sodium Lamps
High-pressure sodium lamps have become an extremely important light source for roadway and large-area
lighting such as parking lots. These lamps are known by
various trademarked names such as Lucalox and Lumalux.
These are high-efficacy lamps, up to 120 lumens per watt.
They have a characteristically yellow-orange color. A typical spectral energy distribution is shown in Figure 41.
361
1278-y--- . 131-'
100
E 90
Lsr----t--t----1--
g 80
70
~
i
~
60
50
--
40
30
20
350
400
~50 - .r
50
10 ~----+-----+-----~----~---
. frA) ...
550
+---+----+-----1
OOl
w~nNancrreers
Conela1ed Colo< i!mpefa!U<e- 4000

OE 0m:>na1c - x = 382 y ~ 385
Colo Render
Index
43
Spectral energy dstnbuton of 400Wan Metalarc Clear lamp
Figure 38. Spectral energy distribution of 400-W Brite-Wh ite Deluxe

mercury lamp (H33-400DX).
Figu re 40. Spectral e n ergy distribution of 1000-W Metalarc/C lamp

(coated).
~ ------.----..----..----..----.-----r----
.1,
15 f------t---t------t-----+--
rJ I
51
~ 10 ~----+-----+-----1------r---
~ 5 ~~~--~--~~
500
550
liOO
100
WiNI!Jmt;lh in Non:rne1ers
Spectral energy d1stnbu11on of 4QO-Wall Metalarc/C lamp
Figure 39. Spectral e n ergy di stribution of 400-W Meta larc clear lamp .
Low-pressw-e sodium lamps have been widely used

in Europe for many years for the same applications. There
are some installations in the US. This is the highest efficacy
commercial lamp available (approximately 160 to 180 lumens per watt) .
The spectral energy distribution for this lamp reveals
that it is monochromatic; in effect, this is a yellow-only
lamp. No degree of filtering w ill permit proper color rendition. These light sow-cesare easily recognized (the source
is quite large and relatively low brighb1ess, particularly
compared to the high-pressw-e sodium).
0
350
I
400
450
500
~..__
550
Wavelength in Nanometers
OOl
650
700
Figure 41. S pectral power distribution of 400-W sodiu m lamp, s imil a r

to types known as Lucelox or Lu m alux.
Color Balancing for Photography

. A series of approaches is outlined in the following sections to deal with lighting when any of the commercial/
industrial AC arc discharge or fluorescent sow-cesare encountered as the dominant ambient lighting environment.
Exceptions are pw-e mercw-y and low-pressw-e sodium.
363
A. Leaving the Ambient Discharge Lighting

" ON" - With Standard Photographic
Lighting Equipment Used Supplementally
monly followed in newsgathering or documentary situation s.
Where the ambient ill umina tion is adequate for exposure, and assuming (1) reasonable uniformity in the types
of lamps in the installation, and (2) that no sup plemental
lighting will be used, it would only be necessary to apply
the appropriate filte ring to the camera. When using color
nega tive film and the req uired correction at the cam era is
small, it is possible that no camera filter be used, and the
laboratory told to ma ke the necessary correction.
If some supplemental lighting is required or necessary
for drama tic o r artistic reasons, the supplemental light
should be filtered to match the dominant color balance of
the ambien t lighting. It is also possible to utilize the same
type of lamps as the ambient lighting, on floor stands, for
supplemental lighting (see pages 366-375 for cam era and
lighting fil ters).
CAUTION:
1.) There may be significan t color variation encountered between the various types of lamps and even
between lamps of the same type made by the same
manufacturer. Some of the reasons for these variations
may be age, burning position, temperature and man ufacturing tolerances. A three-color type of color temperature meter is necessary for accomplishing the measurements required fo r some of th e approaches described in the following section. (If the lamps can be
identified, the tables noted below provide filter data for
most situations; the 3C me ter may then be used to
verify the balance between lamps.)
2.) It is strongly recommended that film tests be
run wherever there is great concern for color accuracy.
These tests should be done under circumstan ces such
that the anticip ated operating conditions of the actual
produ ction are well d uplicated.
3.) AC lamps are s ubject to the "flicker" phen omenon. That is to say, there is varia tion in the light output with time. For 24 fps exp osure (crystal-controlled),
where the p ower to the lamp is derived from a stable
60 Hertz source, there is very little likelihood of a flicker
p roblem. O vercranking, very small shutter angles and
some o ther combin ation s in volving power s upplied
from unregulated genera tors may result in flicker. A
more detailed treatment of the fl icker problem can be
found elsewhere in this manual.
B. Mixed or Unknown Types of Ambient

Lighting as the Dominant Light Source
Many interiors are lighted by mixed types of fluorescent lamps, or the fluorescent illumination may be mixed
with daylight or tungsten lighting. ln shopping malls, it is
possible to encoun ter several typ es of high-intensity d ischarge lamps. The use of a three-color type of color meter
should make it possib le to establish wha t the dominant
color balance is. Some of the same procedures described
above in (A) would then be applicable.
C. Filtering the Ambient Light Sources

Where the access to th e ambient lighting fix tures is
reasonable, and the quanti ty of th em no t too grea t, the ind ividual ligh ts or fixtures can be filtered to either a 3200K
or a 5500K balance. It is then possible to util ize standard
photographic lumina ires for supplemental ligh ting.
D . Overpowering the Ambient Lighting

Directly illumina te the subject with or 5500K illumination. If this is done at a level such that this lighting becomes the dominant source for the exposure of the subject,
then daylight-balan ced film can be used without any ca mera filters. The background would, of course, be blue-green
in color but this may be acceptable. This practice is com364
Filter Selection
Filters for color balancing commercial/industrial lighting sources for color photography (tables 366-375) were
d erived and confirmed ph otographically by David L.
Quaid, ASC, and copyrighted by him. They are accurate for
the particular lamps tested; see the ca ution pa ragraph
above about variation and testing, and page 238 about exposure meter varia tion. Deviation of typical exposure
meters is indicated in T-stops next to certain filtered lights
in the tables. When measurin g incident fil tered light from
these lamps, adj ust th e ASA on the meter to compensate.
365
r
Neutral Density and Combinations (for windows)
Neutral Density
Stops
Rasco #3415
Lee #298
Rasco #3402
Lee #209
Rasco #3403
Lee #210
Rasco #3404
Lee #211
Lee #299
N.15
.15ND
N.3
.30ND
N.6
.BOND
N.9
.90ND
1.20ND
Lee #207 Full CTO +.3ND

Lee #208 Full CTO +.6ND
Rasco #3405 Roscosun 85N.3
Rasco #3406 Roscosun 85N.6
.15
.15
.30
.30
.60
.60
.90
.90
1.20
1/2
1/2
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
Mired
+159
+159
+131
+131
Effect on
5500' K 6000'K
2930' K 3070' K
2930' K 3070' K
3200'K 3360' K
3200'K 3360' K
Lighting Filters
Green/Magenta Adjusting for Arc Discharge
& Fluorescent (Used with Blue/Amber Color Temperature Filters)
Green Filters (Decrease Red/Blue [magenta])
Rasco #3304 Tough Plusgreen
Lee #244 Plus Green
Rasco #3315 Tough 1/2 Plusgreen
Lee #245 Hall Plus Green
Lee #246 Quarter Plus Green
Rasco #3306 Tough Plusgreen 50
Lee #241 Fluorescent 5700' Kelvin
CC Equivalent
CC30G
CC30G
CC15G
CC15G
CC075G
CC035G
CC04G
CC30 G +85B
CC30G +BOA
CC30 G +80C
CC30 G +82B
Magenta Filters (Decrease Green)

Rasco #3308 Tough Minusgreen
Lee #247 Minus Green
Rasco #3313 Tough 1/2 Minusgreen
Lee #248 Half Minus Green
Rasco #3314 Tough 1/4 Minusgreen
Lee #249 Quarter Minus Green
Rasco #3318 Tough 118 Minusgreen
CC30M
CC30M
CC15M
CC15M
CC075 M
CC075 M
CC04M
Rasco #3310 Fluorfilter
366
(CC30M +85B)
Lighting Filters: Color Temperature Adjusting

Increase color temperature (Blue)
Effect on
Mired
3200' K 2900' K
Value
(312
(345
Mired)
Mired)
137
Lee #201 Full C.T. Blue
Rasco #3202 Full Blue
131
Lee #281 3/4 C.T. Blue
113
78
Lee #202 Half C.T. Blue
Rosco #3204 Half Blue
- 68
Rosco #3206 Third Blue
- 49
Lee #203 Quarter C.T.Biue
- 35
Rasco #3208 Quarter Blue
-30
18
Lee #218 Eighth C.T. Blue
- 12
Rasco #3216 Eighth Blue
Diffusing Blue
-137
Lee #224 Daylight Blue Frost
Rasco #3017 Full Blue Frost
-131
Lee #221 Blue Frost
- 49
49
Rasco #3013 Tough Booster Frost
30
Rasco #3012 Tough Booster Silk
18
Lee #217 Blue Diffusion
Decrease Color Temperature (Amber)
Rasco #33407 Roscosun CTO
+167
Rasco #3441 Full Straw (CTS)
+167
Lee #204 Full C.T. Orange
+159
Rosco#3401 Roscosun 85
+131
Lee #205 Hall C.T. Orange
+109
Rasco #3408 Roscosun 1/2 CTO
+ 81
Rasco #3442 Half Straw (1/2 CTS)
+ 81
Lee #206 Quarter C.T. Orange
+64
Rasco #3409 Roscosun 1/4 CTO
+ 42
Rasco #3443 Quarter Straw {1/4 CTS)
+ 42
5700' K 4810' K
5500' K 4670' K
SOOO' K 4314' K
4270' K 3750' K
4100' K 3610' K
3800' K 3380'K
3610' K 3230'K
3550' K 3180'K
3400' K 3060' K
3330' K 3000' K
5700' K
5500' K
3800' K
3800' K
3550' K
3330' K
4810' K
4670'K
3380'K
3380'K
3180'K
3000'K
2865' K
2865' K
2930' K
3200' K
3440' K
3800' K
3800'K
4060' K
4480' K
4480' K
3000' K
3000' K
3070' K
3360' K
3629' K
4030' K
4030' K
4330' K
4800'K
4800'K
Lighting Filters: Color Temperature Adjusting

Mired
Value
Effect on
5500' K 6000' K
(182
(167
Mired)
Mired)
+ 26
+ 20
+ 20
+ 8
+ 2
4600'K
4950' K
4950' K
5260' K
5440' K
5180' K
5350' K
5350'K
5710' K
5930' K
+134
+131
+131
+110
+ 49
+38
+ 35
3170' K
3200' K
3200' K
3425'K
4330'K
4545' K
4610'K
3226' K
3360' K
3000' K
3790' K
4640' K
5210' K
5290'K
Decrease Color Temperature (Amber)
Lee #223 Eighth C.T. Orange

Rasco #341 0 Roscosun 1/8 CTO
Rasco #3444 Eighth Straw (1/8 CTS)
Rasco #3414 UV filter
Lee UV
Red-Amber
Lee #236 HMI (to Tungsten)
Lee #237 CID (to Tungsten)
Rasco #3106 Tough MTY
Rasco #31 02 Tough MT2
Lee #238 CSI (to Tungsten)
Rasco #3115 Tough 1/2 MT2
Rasco #3134 Tough MT54
""
Color Balancing for Existing Fluorescent Lighting
~
oo
Camera filters: Symbol "#" convers1on or light balanc1ng senes. "CC" Color Compensating senes (Pages 124 and 125) El
column IS exposure compensation 1n T stops lor filters.
Photo lamp filters: (Pages 366 and 367) El column IS dev1at1on o f typ1cal exposure meters due to color Imbalance When
read1ng exposure 1n filtered light from these un1ts. reduce the ASA/ISO me ter setting (1 e 1ncrease the light level) by the number o f
T stops 1nd1cated Where correcuon IS "m1nus" (-). decrease the light level (1ncrease the ASA/ISO setting)
~David

(' A page 241)
Camera filters
Manufacturer
Lamp type
3200K film
r-
5500K film
Photo lamp filters

~
El
El
3200K
.--
5500K
El
\0
El
Camera fllter:
Tungsten Negative: # 85
Daylight film: None
To match 3200K El
To match 5500K El
#81EF
+ CC05M
+#85
# 81B
1
13 + CC1 0M
Full blue 50
Third blue
Sun 85
- V.Minusgreen
2fJ + %Piusgreen '13 + '!.Piusgreen 0 + '!.Minusgreen '13 +Sun Vs CTO
+Quarter blue
+Sun Vs CTO
Durotest
Vita light
CC10M
+#81
+#85
CC10M
1 +#81
Full blue 50
Quarter blue
Sun 85
'/2Minusgreen
'13 + '!.Piusgreen '13 + 'hPiusgreen '13 + YMinusgreen 0
+Sun 'Is CTO
'13
Durotest
Optima 50
# 85
# 82A
213 + CC05M
Durotest
Optima 32
# 81
+ CC05M
# SOC
'13 +#82A
Full blue 50
'/Piusgreen
Sun 'h CTO
2f3 +Sun '!. CTO '13
0
Quarter blue
Sun 'h CTO
'/Minusgreen
0 + Sun y, CTO 0 + Sun Vs CTO
1'/: + UV Filter
General Electric
Chroma 75
# 81A
+ # 85B
# 81B
1 + CC05M
General Electric
Lite White
CC60M
+#81C
+#85
CC50M
~~.
General Electric
SP-41
CC50M
+#818
+ # 85
CC30M
Third blue
Full blue 50
2fJ + Quarter blue 'h
+ '!.Minusgreen
Sun CTO
0 + Eighth blue
'/Minusgreen
0 + Quarter blue
Half blue
0 +Quarter blue
'13
- Sun Ye CTO
'13
'13
'131
Minusgreen
Minusgreen
Full Blue 50
Third blue
,jJ
2fJ +Piusgreen 2fJ + Y2Minusgreen 0 + Y2Minusgreen
1 +Half blue
+Sun 'h CTO
+ 2x(Piusgreen
+ 'hPiusgreen
+ Sun 'Ia CTO
+Eighth blue
+ t.Minusgreen
+ '/Piusgreen
Minusgreen
Minusgreen
Plusgreen
Full blue 50
0 + Eighth blue
'h
2fJ +Piusgreen % + Third blue 'h + Sun 'h CTO
+ Sun Ye CTO
+ VPiusgreen
+Quarter blue
- '/Minusgreen Sun % CTO
t.Piusgreen
Full blue 50
213 + '!.Piusgreen 0
0 + v. Minusgreen 'h + Quarter blue 'h
+Sun '/e CTO
CC 10M
CC05M
1 +#82A
+ # 81
+#85
All Mfrs-Cool White, Cool White Deluxe, Warm White, Warm White Deluxe: See page 167
VJ
Camera filter: None

(Tungslen negative
or reversal)
Durotest
Color Glasser 75
General Electric
Chroma 50
a-
L. Quaid. ASC

match photo lights ('I C page 241)
Manufacturer
Lamp type
General Electric
White
General Electric
SP-35
General Electric
SPX-35
General Electric
Regal white
Vl

match photo lights
Camera filters
Photo lamp filters
Camera filter: None
(Tungsten negative
or reversal)
3200K fil111 r 5500K film ,3200K r5500K
El
El
El
Ef
To IIIIlCh 3200K
CC50R
CC30M
Full blue 50
Plusgreen
Minusgreen
+ CC10M
'lf: +#82B
1 + Piusgreen '13 + 'IPiusgreen 0 + '12Minusgreen
+ 'IPiusgreen
+ Quarter blue
+Sun V. CTO
+Sun 'Is CTO
CC50R
CC30M
Full blue 50
Plusgreen
Minusgreen
+#82
n2fa +#82C
1'/: + Piusgreen %
0 + '!.Minusgreen
+ Sun 'h CTO
CC40R
CC15M
Half blue
Plusgreen
'hMinusgreen
+#81A
1 + CC30B
1'/: + 2X
% + 'hPiusgreen 0 +Sun '!. CTO
('hPiusgreen)
+ '/,Minusgreen
+ Third blue
+Sun 'Is CTO
CC30M
CC50B
Half blue
Plusgreen
Minusgreen
12/: + Piusgreen % + Sun 'Is CTO % +Sun 'I CTO
+#85C
1 + CC05M
+#81
+ Quarter blue
General Electric
SP-30
SPX-30
CC30M
+ # 81 EF
CC50B
1 +CC05M
GTE Sylvania
Lite White Deluxe
CC50M
+#82A
+#85B
'h
GTE Sylvania
Octron-41K
CC30M
+#81A
+#85
21
GTE Sylvania
Design 50
CC05M
+ # 81
+#85
CC10M
1 + #82A
GTE Sylvania
Deluxe White
CC40M
+ # 82A
+#85
CC30M
'h + n82B
GTE Sylvania
Natural White
tt85C
CC35M
Full blue 50
Plusgreen
Minusgreen
'h + '12Piusgreen % + '!.Minusgreen
+ 'I<Piusgreen
+Quarter blue
+ Sun 'h CTO
+ Quarter blue
+Sun 'Is CTO
+Eighth blue
Plusgreen
Minusgreen
Full blue 50
1 + Plusgreen 'h +Quarter blue 0 +Sun '12 CTO
+UV filter
+Sun '!. CTO
'!.Piusgreen
Full blue 50
Sun 'h CTO
2JJ + '~Pi usgreen 0
0 + '!.Minusgreen
+Sun 'le CTO
Full blue 50
Plusgreen
Minusgreen
w + Piusgreen 2fJ + '!.Piusgreen 0 +Sun '!. CTO
+ '!.Piusgreen
+Sun 'le CTO
+Sun 'Is CTO
Half blue
'I<Minusgreen
Sun 'I CTO
2fa +Eighth blue 0 +UV Filter
0 +Sun 'Is CTO
2fa +Piusgreen
CC30M
+#82
#82C
'Ia
Half blue
Plusgreen
Minusgreen
12/: +Piusgreen 'h + '!.Piusgreen '13 +Sun 'Is CTO
+ 'IPiusgreen
+Sun '!. CTO
+UV Filter
+ Quarter blue
Camera filter:
Daylight fil11: None
El
To match 5500K El
Minusgreen
0 +Quarter blue
'h
Minusgreen
0 + Quarter blue
+Eighth blue
'13
Half blue
0 + 'hMinusgreen
+ '!.Minusgreen
'13
Half blue
0 +Minusgreen
+ Eighth blue
'h
- Half blue
3 +2x
('12Minusgreen)
+Eighth blue
Minusgreen
0 +Eighth blue
'h
Minusgreen
0 +Quarter blue
'3
- '!.Minusgreen
+Quarter blue
1J
Third blue
0 +Minusgreen
'a
- Half blue
'J
'l
"''I
(;J
tj
Using existing fluorescent llghling unfillered

Camera fillers
Manufacturer
3200K film
lamp type
r-Ef
5500K film
GTE Sylvania
Warm Lite Deluxe
CC40M
+#810
#SOC
'h +CC30M
+#81
GTE Sylvania
Octron 31K
CC30M
+#85C
CC508
1 + CC05M
+#81
GTE Sylvania
3K Royal White
CC35M
+#81EF
CC508
'IJ + CC10M
GTE Sylvania
Incandescent
# 82C
#80A
# 82A
'!J +#82C
+ CC_05M _ _
+ CC05M
.1uor~scent
Flllerlng fluorescent lights to

match photo lights
Photo lamp fillers

r-Et
3200K
El
5500K
El
Camera filler: None

(Tungsten negalive
Camera filler:
or reversal)
Daylight film: None
To match 3200K El
Half blue
Plusgreen
Minusgreen
2 + Piusgreen 0 +'hPiusgreen 'h +Sun '!. CTO
+ 'IPiusgreen
+Sun Va CTO
+Quarter blue
Half blue
Plusgreen
121: +Piusgreen 'h + '/Piusgreen 0
+Quarter blue
+Sun 1/a CTO
+ Eighth blue
Plusgreen
Plusgreen
Fl: +'!.Piusgreen 'IJ + '/,Piusgreen 0
+Half blue
+ Sun '/aCTO
+Quarter blue
Sun '/e CTO
Sun CTO
?21: + Sun v. CTO '!J +Eighth blue 'IJ
To match 5500K El
Half blue
0 +Minusgreen
+Eighth blue
Minusgreen
+ Sun '!. CTO
+ 2x(UV Filter)
Half blue
0 +V2Minusgreen
+ 'IMinusgreen
+Eighth blue
Half blue
0 +Minusgreen
+ Quarter blue
Minusgreen
+ Sun y, CTO
Third blue
+Eighth blue
- Full blue 50
+ 1'2Minusgreen
+Quarter blue
'J
J
0
'J
113
Minusgreen
0 +Sun '/a CTO
Minusgreen
v.Minusgreen
'IJ
North American
CC50R
Philips Ultralume 50 + #81EF
CC30M
2 + #8 18
North American
CC50R
Philips Ultralume 41 +#818
CC30M
2fJ +#82
North American
CC30M
Philips Ultralume 30 +#81EF
CC508
1 + CC10M
North American
CC05M
Philips Colortone 50 + #81
+#85
Verilux Corp
#81EF
Veri lux
+ CC10M
+#85
CC10M
1 + # 82A
--
Full blue 50
Plusgreen
Fluorfilter
1 + Piusgreen 'h + Third blue 0 +Sun Va CTO
+Third blue
Full blue 50
Plusgreen
Minusgreen
1 + Plusgreen % + '!.Piusgreen 0 + Sun 1'2 CTO
+Eighth blue
+ Quarter blue
+Sun l'a CTO
Half blue
Plusgreen
'hMinusgreen
F/: 2x
0 + 'IPiusgreen 0 + v.Minusgreen
('hPiusgreen)
+ Sun l'a CTO
+Sun 'I CTO
+Quarter blue
Full blue 50
V<Piusgreen
% + '!.Piusgreen 0
(j
Sun 'h CTO

+ 'IMinusgreen
Half blue
+Minusgreen
+Eighth blue
v.Minusgreen
+Quarter blue
'IJ
'hi
+ Sun Ve CTO
CC10M
~ h +#818
Full blue 50
Third blue
Sun 85
'!.Minusgreen
213 + 1/.Piusgreen 'lJ + 'IPiusgreen 0 + V2Minusgreen 0 +Sun Va CTO
+Quarter blue
+UV Filter
----
(;J
'hi
Color Balancing for Commercial/Industrial

High Intensity AC Arc Discharge Lighting
Mfr.
Lamp
Camera filters: Symbol "II" converston or light balanctng senes. cc-

Color Compensa11ng senes (Pages 230 and 231) El column IS exposure
compensatton 1n T stops for f1l1ers
Photo lamp filters: (Pages 366 and 36 7) El column IS dev1a110n of typ1cal
exposure meters due 10 color 1mbalance When read1ng exposure 1n filtered
light from these untts. reduce the ASA/ISO meter setung (1 e 1ncrease the
light level) by the number of T stops 1nd1ca1ed
Note: To avo1d excess1ve l1ltrat10n. the use of daylight-balanced film for
Metal Halide and M ercury hghung IS advtsed If the lab can accommodate.
and exposure ts accura1e. some or all camera !titers may be left off
Mfr.
Lamp
Camera Fillers
Film
3200K Lamp
El
5500K Lamp
CC50M
t 858
CC40M
GTE
MS400/
3K/8U
ONLY
1'81EF
GE
MVR400/
CC50M
GE
MVR400/
C/U
Ef
5500K Lamp
Ef
HIGH
PRESSURE
SODIUM
u80A
2x (Piusgreen)
GE
CC508
LU250/DX tCCJOM 2'h ; CC50B 3V,
1CCI OM
Slr1 CTO
1Plusgreen
-t t~P1usgreen
'"
+Eighth blue
2x (Piusgreen)
u80A
; CC508 3'h 1 Sun 'Ia CTO
I u 82A
GTE
LU250
u808
CC30M
+CC408 \':! t CC50B 3
'h
GTE
H37KC
250/N
Film
Plusgreen
~ 'kPiusgreen
t v.Piusgreen
"'
Sun CTO
+Piusgreen
\':!
Sun CTO
+ Piusgreen
'h
'h
2x(Piusgreen)
+Hall blue
+Third blue
'h
lUI Blue 50
1 2x(Piusgreen)
+ Sun'/aCTO
\':!
Full blue 50
+ 3X(Piusgreen)
+ Third blue
"'
MERCURY
GTE
M400/
C/U
3200K Lamp
Film
El
METAL
HALIDE
GTE
MM400/
BUHOR
Film
tt80C
+CC50M 2
Photo Lamp Fillers
3200K Ef 5500K El
3200K Ef 5500K El
GE
LU250
David l. Quaid. ASC
Photo Lamp Fillers
Camera Fillers
CC35M
Full blue 50
F a 1 u 810 l 'a 1 Plusgreen
1 ', Plusgreen
, Third blue
CC35M
' "818 F, 1 r. 81A
+::85
; CC IOM ' '
,,
Full blue 50
t Piusgreen
1 Quarter blue
ccsoc
1./J
Half blue
+CC25M l' J f 1,. Plusgreen
t Eighth blue
.,
CC35M
Full blue 50
1'818 l 'a 1 Plusgreen
t 1Piusgreen
' Third blue
1 Eighth blue
,,
~u 858 J IJ I
CC50M
CC30M
I " 858 I' a
,,
Full blue 50
1 Plusgreen
+ ' .Piusgreen
t Third blue
+Einhth blue
.,
Hall blue
1 Plusgreen
+-' Plus green
1 Ouarter blue
Half blue
1 Plusgreen
', Plusgreen
t Sun 'I CTO
t Slr1 ' aCTO
Third blue
1 Plusgreen
+1 .-Piusgreen
t Ouarter blue
Half blue
t Ptusgreen
Full blue 50
CC50R
CCSSM
+CC40M 2'h uS IA 1'1' t Piusgreen
+uSIA
1 Third blue
GTE H37
CC85M
KC250/ DX +u858 2
CC60M
Full blue 50
1 u81D FA. +Half blue
+ 3x(Piusgreen)
+ Third blue
GE H250/
OX37
Not recommended
CCBOM
+#85 2't
Not
recommended
'Ia
.,
375
Supply Cycles
Figure 43. Waveform for an HMIIamp.
Figure 42. HMI applied lamp current and voltage with resultant ligh t
o ut put vers us ti me; resu lts for s tandard reacta nce-type ballast a re
represented.
[Exa mple: The firs t listed fluorescent light on page 368

(Dmotest Color Classer 75) calls fo r filter adj us tmen t of 1 YJ
stops; using 3200K film at EI 320, read the expos u re meter
at EI 125 for the ambient fluorescent ligh ting. if filtered incandescent supplementary lig hts are used, the El colunm
calls for Y1stop, set the exposure me ter to 100 to read them.
If arcs or HMI s upplementary lig hts are used, no further
adjushnent is requ ired, so us e the meter a t 125, the same
as for ambient ligh ting.] After color balancing as directed
by the tables, a Minolta Color Meter 11 may be used to detect and correct for diffe rences between indiv idual lamps
if desired.
AC Arc Lamp Flicker Problem

All o f the AC photograph ic arc lamps described in the
Lighting Section and in the Commercial/ Industrial light
sources section can exh ibit the "flicker" phenomenon. This
includ es fl uorescents, mercury vapor, metal halide additive
types, and h igh-p ressure sodium as well as the photographic types like HMJ, CSI and CID.
Supply Cycles
Figure 44. Waveform for a 1000-W CSI lamp.
A ll of the noted types o f lamps require the use of a

ba llas ting system to provid e cu rrent limiti ng a fter the a rc
is s tr uck. The m ost commonly e nco untered ty pe o f
ballasting device is the inducto r or "choke." When use_d _on
si111pfe inductive bnllnst syste111s, n/1 of these fn111ps Will exlublt n

chnrncteristic which is properly designated ns tuue-111odulntwn
of the light output ("flicker"). This is due to the fact that the
ligh t ou tpu t of these types of la mps fo llows the curren t
wave fo rm. T he d egree o f mo du la ti on, o r amo u n t o f
" flicker" is differen t for each of the noted lamp types.
Reference to Fig ure 42 s hows the effect as it is d isplayed for an HMl lamp. Note the voltage waveform wl1Jch
377
r:
in the case of the HMI lamp shown in Figure 43, note
that the modulation at its minimum represents only 17%
or so of the peak light outpu t. With the CSllamp, this number is approximately 38% of peak (Figure 44), and for th e
newer CID types, it is reported that this quanti ty is only 55%
of the peak light output. Obviously, the depth of the modulation will determine the amount of tolerance there ma y be
in filming with this light relative to the necessa ry d~g ree
of control of those pa rameters which affect the stead mess
of the exposure.
.
.
The time-related factors that are involved m assu n ng
that a uniform exposure from frame to hame is guaranteed
using these types of light soLu-ces (i.e., flicker-free) are the
following:
1. Stability of th e power freq uency to the la mp ballast;
2. Camera framing rate;
3. Stability of camera speed;
4. Camera shutter angle;
5. Phase of shutter re lative to light (particula rly at
high camera speed).
r
65
60
,:..
c
" 55
CT
~
~
,.
i5.
c.
., 50
~
c.
45
60
90
B 25fps
IN=1
120 150 180 210 240 270 300

camera shutter ang le, degrees
I
N =2
N= 3
65
~
,:..
60
"c
~
~
CT
~,.
55
i5.
c.
., 50
c.
~
- m=4
90
120 150 180 210 240 270 300

camera shutter angle, degrees
Figure 45A and B. Contours of safe lamp supply frequencie s for one
ripple ration value. m is the n earest whole number to the number of
ripple cycles in the camera frame period. N is the nearest whole number
to the number of ripple cycles in the exposure interval.
is characteristic of the effect of an inductance in a circuit,

and further that the amperage is generally sinusoidal. The
light ou tput closely tracks the amperage waveform (not
going negative). The resul t is that there are two light pulsa tions for each full cycle of the power line fundamental
frequency (for 60-cycle systems, there are 120 pulses per
second; for a 50-cycle system, there are 100 light pulses p er
second).
378
Simply stated, it is necessary to be sure that the same

number of light p ulsations are present dum., g.each exp?sure interva l of the film . The amOLmt of va natJon permttted is different for d ifferen t va I ues of the para meters noted
above.
In the case where a very stable power line is avai lable,
as is true in most technically advanced countries, opera ting from the normal power net with a camera that is crystal-controlled, the shutter angle may be van ed through a
very w ide range. There has certainly been ad equate testing of this principle for shutter angles between 90 and 200
degrees.
It is important, however, to be aware that there are
conditions where only a slight va riation in one ofthe parameters of power line freq uency or camera franung rate
will result in flicker. Where possible, it is desirable to stay
at the shutter an gles shown in the "windows" that can be
.
observed in Figures 45A and 45B.
These "windows" show where the range of operahng
tole rances is greatest. For example, in Figure 45A the in tersection on the presentation at 60 cycles per second and 144
degrees shutter angle represents the middle of a "w indow."
When opera ting a t these condt hons, a substantwlly la rge
379
,.
variation is possible, probably plus or minus 5%, on all the

parameters which are subject to variation.
In a practical sense, operating with a 24 fps camera
from a generator w here there is uncertainty about its degree of regulation, it would be prudent to operate with the
144 shutter angle. In such an instance, moderate variations
in the frequency of the generator output will not produce
flicker. Plus or minus 2 cycles in the output power frequency would probably be acceptable when ope rating
within the window location for a 144 shutter angle and 24
fps. A similar presentation is made for the 25 fps operation
in Figure 458.
Although the data shown is specifically for HMI, it
must be reiterated that it is applicable for any AC arc discharge source. The w indow openings in Figure 45 are specifically determined fo r HMI.
They would tend to be very conservative for CSI, even
more conservative for CID and possibly for some othe r
commercial sources. However, particularly where one is
encountering lamps opera ted from single phase systems,
caution should be exercised . This cha rt can provide the cinematographer w ith those po ints of operation which w ill
give him or her the maximum protection against the flicker
phenomenon.
Electronic and some other types of ballasting systems
which provide flicker-free ballasting are now available for
a limited ran ge of wa ttages of the HMT light sources. Some
of these ballasts are constructed in such a way that they
increase the operating freq uency of the power to the lamp.
The result of this is that there are man y more pulsations per
second so that small variations in the number of pulsa tions
per shutter opening become unimportant. In addition, and
of at least equal importance, the output waveform of essentially all of these devices is an approximation of a square
wave rather than being sinusoidal. This further reduces the
"off" time and w ith it the tendency to flicker.
The 200-watt HMJ flicker-free systems have been in the
field fo r the longest time of any of these types of ballas ts.
There is now s uch equipment for HMI a t several other
power levels.
Luminaires
In this section a brief d escription is offered of the optical systems and general performance characteristics of the
basic types of luminaires utilized in cinematography.
380
Fresnel Lens Spotlights

Fresnel spotlights are made for standard incandescent
and tungs ten halogen incandescent sources, and also for the
range of HMI, CID and CSI arc discharge lamps. The range
of wattages, taking into account aU types is from 200 watts
or so to 12,000 watts.
Filament
Spherical
Reflector
Flood
Beam
Specular
Finish
Figure 46. Optical system of Standard Fresnel Spotl ight when in full
flood position.
Filament
Spherical
Reflector
Lens
Spot
Beam
Specular
Finish
Figure 47. Optical system of Standard Fres n el Spotlight when in spot

position.
These lum inaires represent the most w idely used

motion-picture lighting units. They provide the means fo r
changing the beam diameter and center intensity through
a relatively broad range. Using s tandard incandescent
lamps, the "spot" to "flood" ratio may be of the order of 6
to 1 or so, and with a tungsten halogen la mp, it may be
381
Tungsten-Halogen
Lamp
Figure 48. Optical syst em of Fresnel Spotlight when adapted for

Tungsten-Halogen lamp.
c,:.
"
--'
Narrow Spot
<n
Q)
uc
"'
&
Medium Flood
ciii
c
Q)
-10
-5
+5
+ 10
Coverage (Ft.)
Fig ure 49. Ch aracteris tic intensity curve of Fresnel Spotl ights.
possible to extend this ratio to 8 or even 9 to 1 Lmder some

circu mstances.
The optical system of these luminaires is the same for
all the variations that may be presented . The light source
and a spherical reflector are located iJl a fixed relationship
to one another. This combination of light source and back
reflector is designed so that the sph erical reflector reflects
the energy being rad iated toward the back of the housing
tlu-ough tl1e filament and towards the lens. The effect intended is tl1at tl1e energy being radiated to ilie lens appears
to come from a single source. The combination of the reflector and lig ht source are moved in rela tion to the lens to
accomplish tl1e focusing.
382
Figures 46 and 47 sh ow the op ti cal system of the

fresnel in the sp ot and flood positions. Note that the flood
position is accomplished by moving the light source/ reflector combination very close to ilie lens. When the tLmgsten
halogen light sources are utilized in these systems, d ue to
tl1e fact fuat the envelope is much smaller, it is p ossible to
move fue light source/ reflector combination even closer to
the lens resulting in a wider flood beam d istribution. This
is shown in Figure 48.
This is a very attractive feature, since the highest efficiency is achieved in the flood p osition, and iliere need be
no sacrifice in the spot performance. Typical efficiencies in
ilie beam (tl1e portion of fue p attern that is wifuin 50% of
fue center intensity) in "spot" focu s for fresnels would be
from 7% to9%and in tl1e "flood" position from30% to40%.
One of the most importan t features of the fresnel lens
spotlight is its ability to barndoor sharply in the w ide flood
focus position. This property is less ap pa rent as the focus
is moved towards a spot (a t spot focus it is not effective at
all). The bamdoor accessory u sed wi fu this spotlight p rovides the cinematographer wifu the means for convenient
light conh-ol. The sharp cutoff at the wide flood is, of course,
due to fue fact that the single-source effect produces a totally divergent light b eam. The action of the barndoor then
is to create a relatively d istinct shadow line.
Occasionally it may be desirable to optimize the spot
performance of these un its, and for fuis situation "hot"
lenses are avai lable. These tend to produce a very narrow
beam with very high intensity. It is important to remember fuat ilie flood focus is also narrowed when these lenses
are used. Figme 49 shows characteristic intensity curves for
fresnel spotlights.
Dedolight
The Dedoligh t, introd uced within the last severa l
years, is a lighting instrwnent whose concept is wuque, and
which offers a remaTkable range of performance combined
wifu small size, and low p ower requirements (see Figure
50).
The optical system is sh own in Figure 51 . Note that the
moving element in fue system is the light source wi th a
collection mirror behind it, and meniscus lens opposi te. To
change the focus of the unit, these tlu-ee elements, wluch
are fixed with regard to each other, are moved as a wut
relative to a clear fixed condenser lens.
383
r
7000 Lux
fc
600
6000
500
Figure 50. T h e Dcdolight.
5000
Condenser Lens
Spherical Reflectors
400
Filament
Meniscus Lens
4000
1>/
, ,,,,
. / mJ1'
- ):-: ,,.
.,
~~~/
.....
1\
\\
\'',
,..
I
r!_.:_, 1
-~-
300
3000
I-.U;
:v.
I
Figu re 51. Dedolight Optical System.
The performance of the light is shown in Figure 52,

where the 25:1 focusing range ca n be seen, and the unus ually flat, even and soft-edged illumination fields are evident
at all foc us positions.
When fitted w ith an accessory projection attad1ment,
the beam can be controlled further by the use of an iris or
framing shutters. It projects Rasco "M"-size gobos and will
project patterns with hard edges and wtthout co.lor ~rm~
ing. Where a diffuse or soft-edged pattern prOJectlon IS
desired, the front lens of the projection accessory can be
adjusted to accomplish this effect.
The Dedolight is made as either a 12-volt or a 24-volt
150-watt unit. Th e 100-watt unit can utilize a family of
la mps including (at 12 volts) 20,50 and 100 watts. The units
can be battery operated or can be used from 120- ?r ~40vol t AC supplies offered for use w tth these lummatres
whid1 permit selection of 3000 K, 3200K or 3400K operation.
200
2000
1000
100
Figure 52. Ded olight performan ce with lOOw source, 10ft. distance, s pot
3.4, flood 40.
Open Reflector Variable Beam Spotlights

These are typicaJJy the tLmgsten-haJogen open reflector spo tlig hts. There are also some low-wattage H.l'vll-typcs
available. These non-lens systems provide "focusing" ac-
385
,..
r
The great a ttraction of these luminaires is that they a re
substantially more efficient than the fresnel lens spotlights.
Typical efficiencies in the spot position give 20 to 25% of
the source ILunens in the beam (50% of the center intensity
area) and in flood, efficiencies of 45 to 50% are not w1Common. Figure 49 shows typica l intensi ty distribu tions for
these units.
Typical spot to flood intensity ratios for these types of
units is between 3:1 and 6:1.
li)
Q)
Spot Position
:0
Wide Flood Position
"'
()
Figure 53. Optical system of non-lens spotlight (variable beam).
0
0
!:!:.
:!'
v;
li)
Q)
Q)
:0
c
Coverage (Ft.)
"'
()
Spot Posilion
Figure 55. C haracteristic intensity curve of tungsten-halogen floodlight

(broad) (horizontal axis).
~
:!'
v;
Wide Flood
Tungsten-Halogen Floodlights
A variety of tungsten-halogen floodlighting fixtures

have been developed, taking advantage of these compact
somces. Two of the more typical forms are treated here.
These fixtures are available in wattages from about 400
through 2,000 watts.
The so-called " broad" normally uses a linear source
and represents a relatively high efficiency system. Barn door
control of the light is effective with the edge of the door that
is parallel to the light source. Typical characteristic intensity cm ve for the broad is shown in Figu re 55.
Q)
Coverage (Ft. )
Figure 54. Characteristic intensity cu rves of non-le ns spotlight (variable

beam).
tion, and therefore a variable diameter beam, by moving

the light source in re lationship to the reflector (or vice
versa). These types of units are available for somces ranging from 400 to 2,000 watts. Refer to Figures 53 and 54. One
of the drawbacks of this system, when compared with the
fresnel lens spotlights, is that th ere are always two light
somces operative. The il1Llfl1ination field produced by these
systems is the sum of the light output directly from the bulb
and the energy reaching the field from the reflector. The use
of the barndoor accessory with these lights does not produced a single shadow, due to this double-sowce characteristic. Typically a double shadow is cast from the edge of
the barndoor. Figure 48 shows the optical systems of these
open reflector spotlights in both the spot and wide flood
positions.
386
Coverage (Ft.)
Figure 56. C ha racteristic intensity curve of"min i" floodlight (horizonta l

axjs).
387
r
r
There are types of "mini" floodlights using the coiledcoil short filament tungsten-halogen lamps which provide
very even, flat coverage with extremely sharp barndoor
control in both directions. Due to the design of the reflector in this system, the light output from this fixed-focus
flood Light appears to have a single source. This accounts
for the improved barndoor characteristics. The intensity
characteristics of the "mini" floodlights on the horizontal
axis is shown in Figure 56.
Painted
Surface
Cone lighl
<.\]t:::iljp)+- ; - - Reflector
TungstenShield
Halogen
Standard Lamp
lncandescer
Lamp
Folded ''Soft"" light
Distribution Shown for Unit 3 ft.

From Vertical Surface
~
Q)
0>
"'iii
. Distribution Shown for Unit tO ft .

From Vertical Surface
>
TungstenHalogen
Lamp
(.)
"Soft" light
Intensity (Foot Candles)
Umbrella light
Figure 58. Optical system of various "soft" lights.
Figure 57. Characteristic intensity curve for cyclorama light.
Cyclorama Luminaires
These lighting fix tures were originally developed for
Lighting backings in television, but have broad application
in similar types of situations in film. Because of the design
of the reflector system, it is possible to utilize these fixtures
very close to the backing that is being Lit and accomplish a
very wuform distribution for a considerable vertical distance. Typically these wuts are made for tungsten-halogen
linear sources ranging from 500 to 1,500 watts.
Based on the variations in design, some of these may
be used as close as 3 to 6 feet from the backing being illuminated. The spacing of the lunU.naires from one another
along the length of the backing is in part determined by the
distance of these fixtures from the backing itself. A typical
intensity distribution is shown for a floor positioned w1it
Lighting a vertical backing in Figure 57.
Soft Lights
The soft light, which attempts to produce essentially
shadow less illumination, is now a fundamental tool in cin-
Coverage (Ft.)
Figure 59. Characteristic intens ity cu rves of "soft" lights.
ema lighting. Currently, th ese are made in wa ttages from

500 up to about 8,000, and typically utilize multiple lOOOW
linear tube tungsten halogen lamps.
The degree of softness is determined by the effective
area of the source. All of these fixtures are indirect, in the
sense that no direct radiation is permitted from the light
sources into the beam of illumi nation. The "reflecting"
surfaces vary in finish from matte white paint to a variety
of sen1i-specular surfaces. The degree of specularity of the
backing is not as important as the size of the reflecting sur-
face whid1 is w1iformly illuminated and re flects the energy

which makes up the ill um ination beam.
Formerly these were available only in the form of the
Cone Light, but now a variety of other configurations have
been developed largely d ue to the availabili ty of the linear
source hmgsten halogen lamp. Figure 58 shows the configurations of some of the types of soft lights in current use.
Typical intensity distribu tions are shown in Figure 59.
There are several types of light sources which are supplied by the manufacturers as essen tially complete lighting systems.
The effectiveness of the barndoor is reduced as the focus is

moved toward spot and is totally without useful effect at
the spot focus.
The e ffectiveness of the barndoor as an accessory on
other types of luminaires varies sharply with the design of
the specific item. In a mm1ber of the open reflector tungsten halogen systems (particularly floodlights) barndoor
effectiveness is limited to the edge of the barndoor w hich
is parallel to the source.
Overall, this is one of the most important and useful
lighting accessories available to the cinematographer.
Sealed-Beam Types (PAR Lamps)
Scrim
The most popular of these are the PAR 64 and PAR 36

configu rations. These la mps have a parabolic reflector
wh ich has a high reflectance a luminized coating, and a
prismatic type of front lens. Typically they are supplied in
VNSP (very narrow spot), NSP (na rrow spot), MFL (medium flood) and WFL (wide flood) lens systems. They are
extremely efficient optical systems.
Fixtures arc available which assemble multiples of
these types of lamp for daylight fill applications or for longthrow stadium a nd arena lighting requirements. Both
3200K type and the d ich roic coa ted versions of these (approximately 5000K) are available.
The type of scrim referred to here is placed directly in

the accessory mounting clips on a lum.inaire. This type of
scrim is normally w ire netting, sometimes stainless steel
wire, which is used as a mechanical dimmer. There are
normally accessory clips at the front of the luminaire to
accept the appropriate size scrim.
The advantage of the scrim is that it permits a reduction in light intensity in several steps (single and d ouble
scrims) without changing the color temperature or the focus of the luminaire. Contrary to p opula r belief, it is not a
diffuser.
The half-scrim is an extremely useful variation on the
full scrim. It permits the placement of a scrim material in
only half of the beam, and is widely used on fresnel spotlights. It overcomes the problem encountered wh en the
fresnel is used at fairly high angles. The portion of the beam
striking the floor or objects near the floor closest to the
luminaire produces intensities that are too high to match
the desired level at the distance associated with the center
of the bea m. The reason for this, of course, is the substantial variation in the distances that the illwnination energy
travels. The half-scrim applied on the portion of the beam
impinging on the nearest objects can overcome this problem.
Light-Control Accessories
The most typical lighting accessory supplied wi th the
luminaires of various types described in the preceding sections would be the barndoors and scrim. Provision is made
fo r mounting these accessories on nea rly a ll of the luminaires described.
Barn doors
These ha ve been briefly described in the section on
fresnel lens spotlights. The purpose of this accessory is to
prevent the illumination beam from the fix ture from reaching certain portions of the set. It is intended that a relati vely
well-defined edge can be established defining the end of
an illuminated area and the beginning of an unmuminated
zone.
Barndoors are most effective when used on fresnel lens
spotlights w hen the spotlight is in the wide flood position.
390
Gel Frames
Different forms of these holde rs are made and designed to fit into the accessory clips on the front of most
luminaires. They permit the convenient use of various types
of plastic filter materials to modify the characteristics of the
beam. Color media may be put in these holders for effect
391
color and a w ide ra nge of diffusion products are available

which may a lso be moLmted.
Grip Accessories for Light Control

Typically, grip equipment for lighting conhol represents devices not d irectly mounted to the light.
Diffusers
There are various d iffusion materials sewn o n wire
frames of d iffere nt types and size which permit the diffusion of both artificial and natural somces.
Typically these are known as scrims. They are generally hanslucent materials (various textiles) w hkh truly act
as diffusion. Special forms of these scrims may be called
dots or fingers, which describe their size and/ or geometry.
When s uppl ied in very large sizes which are supported
from a single poin t, they are called butterflies, and where
the frame becomes ex tremely large and is supported from
two or more points it is called an overhead. Overheads are
avai lable to 20 X 20 feet in size.
Specialized devices and stands are available for the
mounting of these various scrims, dots, fingers, etc. These
stands and hold ing devices must deal wi th the fact that the
loads suppl ied to them are often offset, and a high degree
of stability is required. For this reason, it is usual to sandbag the base of these holders.
for use as set illumination. Reflectors come in a w ide range

of sizes and constructions, and a number of d ifferent s urfacing materials are available for accomplishing the reflecting surfaces.
These boards have been surfaced wi th various reflecting media, including sign painter's leaf. However, the trend
now is toward plastic laminates for this purpose. These are
now available from Rosco in surface finishes ranging from
an absolutely clear mirror th rough various degrees of diffusion of the mirror characteristics.
These variations permit the selection of surfaces which
accomplish both reflection aJ1d diffusion. A graded series
of these is avai lable an d are also, due to the lam ina ted conshuction, very stable repeatable surfaces. T11ey are not damaged by weath er or by dust or dirt since they can be easily
cleaned.
[n addition to bein g able to reflect and d iffuse at the
same time, there aTe versions of these new laminate materia ls which also do color filtering. One version of a "soft"
reflector has a slight blue tint which corrects the sunlight
to a closer approximation to daylight. Gold reflectors are
also ava ilable in these systems.
Gobos
Gobos come in the same form as the various scrims,
dots, fingers, butterflies and overheads, but are opaque. In
this form they a re utilized to keep light from fall ing in a
given area, and permit very fine adjustment of the lig hting
in a large area. The sa me assortment of holders and stands
is ava ilable for mounting these devices.
A s pecialized va riation of the gobo is the cucoloris,
wh ich is a cut-out pattern placed in the path of the spotlight in order to cast a shadow that might be comparable
to the light coming through the leaves on a tree. Several
versions of these devices are available.
Reflectors
Reflector boards are widely used for redirecting sunlight and modifying its characteristics so that it is suitable
392
393
Special Visual Effects

Recent years have brough t a high level of sophistication to the mechanics of special visual effects, allowing cinematographers' imaginations a greater degree of freedom.
This d1apter is intended to give the cinematographer an
overv iew of the techniques available, including front and
rear projection, the optical printer, motion control photography, and digital image manipulation.
Shooting Background Plates

Scenes projected on a translucent screen and re-photographed as a backgrOLmd for a live-action foreground
have been trad itionally called "plates" or "keys." Gu idelines for the origina l photography of such scenes also apply when the scenes are to be composited by most of the
methods d iscussed in this section.
General Requirements
A pin-registered motion-picture camera should be
employed for filming a ll sta tionary backgrow1d plates.
Since the plate will later be re-photographed in combination with a live fo reground scene, often employing the use
of a solid set piece, th e slightest amotmt of film movement
d ue to poor regishation will be readily detectable. It is not
absolutely necessary, but desirable, that a pin-registered
camera be employed for filmin g traveling pla tes. A full
camera aperture is desirable, although an Academy apertu re may be employed if it is the only size ava ilab le.
Vista Vision and 65mm cameras a re also often used. The
larger nega tive areas lead to finer-grained, sharper comp osite images. Medium-speed emulsions are the usual choice
of most background plate ca mera men for grain and sharp ness. High-speed nega tive may be used tmder special circumstances.
Exposure should be on the full side; if in doubt, slightly
overexpose rather than underexpose. A crisp, fu ll-scale
print with rich blacks and clean highlights is desirable. A
muddy print made from a thin, underexposed negative is
w1satisfactory and would be very difficult to match when
the composite scene is later photographed . Backlighted
scenes, except for e ffects such as swilight shimmering on
water, should be avoided. Background pla tes fal l into two

disti nct categories: stationary and traveli ng.
Stationary Camera
A stationary p late is photographed with a rigidly fixed
camera, tied down and fi rmly braced . Knowing exactly
how and for what pttrpose the plate will be used is a great
aid in setting up. An im portant factor in fi lming stationa ry
plates is recording the p roper perspective, with the correct
vanishing point, to provide an appa rent match wi th the
foregrotmd scene in the final composite picture. Unless the
va nishing point is properly posi tioned, the linea r convergence in the fo regrmmd scene wi ll not ma tch that recorded
on the pla te.
Camera eleva tion and tilt and horizon placement must
be given serious considera tion in order to meet these requi rements. If in doubt, or if the plate is for library use, place
the horizon d ead center since it may be moved up or down
when composited and a llow the most leeway in fitting
various composite situations. The ideal situation, of cou rse
is to fi lm three p la tes: one with the sky ~ from the top, one
with the horizon centered, and one with the sky occupying .; of the frame. This wi ll all ow for any eventuality and
give the director added scope if he decides to shoot up or
dow n. Usually, however, the horizon is placed about 2/; of
the d istance from the top of the frame. It is advisable to have
slightly more foreground, whethe r wa ter, pavement, or
scenery. If sufficient foregrmmd is not provided on the
filmed image, it may be necessary to blow up a portion of
the pictu re to provide it, resul ting in increased grain and
poorer image qua lity.
Plates shot to script are usually ordered with sufficient
data for the cameraman to do the job properly. Stock plates,
filmed fo r library use, are a little more d ifficult since they
must be photograph ed in a manner that will allow using
them m a more general way to fi ll various si tuations.
Backgrmmd images should be sized so that the fullest possible area of the filmed frame ca n be utili zed. This
provides the finest photographic qua lity, least grain and
sharpest picture, and result in a top quality combination of
plate and foreground. It is inadvisable to employ a lens
shorter than 35mm (for 35mm photography) w1less only a
part of the image is later utilized. Some background scenes
shot with an exhemely wide-angle lens may present very
difficult ma tching problems w hen composited. Slightly

longer lenses, on the order of 40mm and SOmm, are best.
(Lenses o f com pa ra ble ang le a re recomme nded fo r
Vista Vision or 65mm photography.)
An excellent method for securing an accurate ma tch
fo r a plate shot to script is to use stand-ins positioned exactly the same as tl1e players w ill later be positioned in front
of the background. A few feet of film should be sh ot with
the stand-ins in p osition and they then should be moved
o ut a n~ .the plate pho togr a phe d. This w ill g ive the
composhng cameraman a good idea of how the final shot
should l?ok and is particularly valuable if the pla te cameraman IS on an extended location trip and might not be
ava ilable should questions arise. While the plate is being
shot, be certain tl1at no one walks closer to the cam era than
the positions occupied by the stand-ins. If someone were
to wa lk between the stand-in position and the camera, tl1e
pe.rs.on w ould appear too large, upsetting the required dimffilshing perspective. To be safe, keep everyone ten feet
or more behind the positions occupied by the stand-ins.
Background views seen thro ugh a d oor or w indow are
less critical to shoot, since the view is a distant one and does
not require an perfectly integrated rela tionship with the
foreground. The ca mera an gle must be correct, however,
and present the p roper vanishing point. A scene supposedly occurring in an office on the 20th floor sho uld h ave a
w ind~w plate possess0 g a view taken from tha t apparent
elev~tion, and presentmg the proper viewpoint. While a
cons1de~able amount of "chea ting" can be tolera ted (such
as shoohng from the lOth floor of a building), the view presented sho~ld be one t~at would appear normal to a person on the live set looking out the w indow. The plate camera could not, for instance, be angled up or d own; it must
be shot dead level so that a "sq uare on" view w ith vertical
lines is recorded. A special backgrOLmd slate should be used
to film all pertinent da ta: production number, scene number, camera height, cam era angle, sun an gle, focal length
? f lens, et cetera. This da ta w ill be a help later in d uplicatmg the setup w hen the composite scene is filmed . The backgro und plate camera person should bear in mind that he is
not expected to record bea utiful compositions in themselves. He is simply furnishing the background to back up
the combined scene.
396
Moving Camera
. Travelin9 backgr.ou~ d plates for rear process projecti?n are ~sed m com.b mahon w ith supposedly moving veh!cles, ru.rplanes, trams or boats. They may be filmed w ith
etl~er smgle or multi ple cameras. In order to provide the
va nous plates necessary for shooting various combinations
of group shots, close-ups, over-the-sho ulder scenes, etc.,
severa l angles m~s t be filmed from the m oving camera
platf? rm. It 1s ad visable to use a single camera w henever
possible to allow "d1eating" the s unlight so that a time interval between runs may be chosen which w ill record each
plate with t_h e b~st li~ht condition. Camera car speed may
a lso be van ed, if desi red, for the various a ngles, if plates
are shot individually.
Single camera pla tes w ill usually s uffice, since the
ch an ge in ca mera a n g le w h en the process scen e is
pho tgr.aphed is usually sufficient to cover any misma tch
that exsts. Remember that the audience is intent on watching ~e foreground action an d the background p late will
not distract ~ess something very jarring appears. Nor~ally, a considerable am ount of "cheating" is permissible
(mdeed, often required) in order to record the best possible
set of iJiates, in.the pr?per light, at the correct rate of speed.
Sometimes a smgle s1de of tl1e street is filmed to serve for
b_oth side an9les :- by shooting left rear going one way and
nght rear gomg m the opposite direction. Or, a single p late
may be tumed ?ver in projection (if no telltale signs appear)
to serve both s1des of the street. Turning the plate over is
usually reserved for coun try roads, since its use on trafficl~den streets may be more obvious (parked cars on e ither
Side of the street w ill point the same direction).
Of great impo rtance in filming mov ing plates is that
the ca mera be at the correct height. For autos the height
should. be at the shoul~ers (not the eye level) of a person
seated u~ the car w ho ~Ill later be seen in the rea r projected
composite shot. Tlus w1ll vary, for example, w ith low-slung
sports cars and buses. It would not d o to look outside a
spo~ts ca r win dow ~n d see the roofs of cars following
(which would result 1f tl1e plate camera were too high).
On the oth.er h~d, a low-an gle shot shooting up into
trees an d buildmgs s equally bad because it is not feasible
to ang.le a earner~ in a car to photograph seated people and
see th1s perspecnve through the window. The p la te camera should be tilted slightly downward - just a trifle be-
397
low horizonta l. The vanishing point of a straight-on shot

would be just above dead center of the screen. Remember
it is always better to have a little more pavement than sky.
A set-up may req ui re tilting down on a mock-up car, so
add itional image in the lower corners of the frame is desirable. Traveling plates should be photographed with 35mm
or 40mm lenses on side and three-quarter angle shots. A
35mm, or some times a SOmm if only a small area of the
plate will be utilized, is used on straight-back shots.
Speed vs. Angle

The camera angle on a moving shot affects the apparof the projected image. Plates shot from straight
Side angles appear to move much faster than those filmed
from ei tl~er stra ight forwa rd or straight backward angles
-even If the speed of the vehicle from whk h the shots
were made was the san~e. It is often.necessary, tiJerefore,
to chea t the can,era veh.1cle speed (not the ca m!lfa speed)
so that all angles will appear at the same rela tive speed
when rear-projected. This effect is less apparent in open
cow1try than in city streets with closely packed traffic and
nearby buildings. It is advisable to use normal 24 fra mes
p7r second camera speed whenever possible so that pedestnan~ appear to be moving normally. It may be necessary
on wtld d1ase shots to w1dercrank since this is the only way
to record ultra-fast vehicle speeds with safety.
The following d iagram will be useful for estimating
cam~ra ca r ?peeds fo r various camera angles.111is is for city
traffic. Va nous angle plates may be filmed in open country at the same ca mera car speed for all angles if nothing
close to the camera appears in the plate.
60%
80%
e~t speed
100%
100%
60%
80%
For example, if the camera car travels at 50 miles per

hour for the straight shots, it should travel at 40 miles for
398
the three-quarter angles and at 30 miles for the side shots.

Be certain to set the camera at the same height and with the
same slight d ownward tilt for all. angles.
Plate Print Preparation for Back Or Front

Projection Or Aerial Image Compositing
Color matci1ing is affected by the lenses, arc mirror,
quar tz protector plate, cooling water cell, and by the screen
itself. Preproduction testing is suggested . Pla te prints
should incorporate color ratio correction for projection conditions. Print contrast may be lowered b y flashing and / or
using low-contrast print (TV) film; both will also affect color
saturation . Masking h as also been suggested (American
Cinematographer Magazine, Nov. 1984, p. 109, J. Danforth).
Prints should be on B & H p erforated stock.
Front-Projection Process
by Petro Vlahos
The front projection p rocess of composite photography was m ade possible by the development of a highly
directional reflective material by 3-M (Scotchlite #7610).
Scotchlite is a glass beaded reflex reflector that returns
most of the reflected light back to its source. The gain of
Scotchlite is so high that a frac tion of a footcandle of background image intensity is sufficien t to balance a 200-footcandle foreground illumina tion.
Although the projected image fa lls upon foreground
subjects, its intensity is so low that it is not visible on the
subject. When the camera is exactly aligned on the optical
axis of the projector, it will not see the shadow cast by the
foreground subject. The very low level of illumination required by the Scotchlite screen makes possible background
screen s as large as 30,000 sq. ft. when using an arc projector.
The practical use of fron t projection requires careful
al ignment of the cam era and projector lenses to (optically)
superimpose their front nodal points. When the nodal
points are misaligned, or when the subject is too close for
a given len s focal length and f-s top, a d ark halo is developed . The appendix at the end of this section defines a safe
399
minimum object dis tance as a function of screen distance,

lens focal length and f-stop. By observing tl1e limitations
of the front-projection process, excellent results have been
obtained.
Geometric Relationships
.
The shadows cast by an actor, or any fo reground object, are largely obscured by the object as the projector is
brought close to the camera. The shadows are completely
h1dden from the camera w hen the camera and projector
lenses occupy the same position. Since this is not physically
poss1ble, the axes of both lenses are made to coincide optica lly by the use of a semi-transparent mirror. The arrangement of the camera, projecto r, mirro r and screen are s hown
in Fig. 1.
The fw1etion of the semi-mirror is to bend the axis of
the projector in a right angle so tl1at the light which reaches
the screen appears to originate from within the camera lens.
Si~ce tl:e camera cannot see arow1d or behind a foreground
Object, 1t _w1ll n~t see th_e shadow cast by tl1at object if t11e
sha~ow 1s confined str1ctly to the area behind the object.
Placmg tl1e projector axis coincident with the camera axis
accom plishes this objective within certain limitations tha t
5 C 0 T C H L I i E
S C R. E E Nt
I
\
FOREGROUND I
0 8 ../ECTS
I
\\
\
I
\
I
\
I
\
..... ...........
BLACK
ABSORBER
SCR.EEN
,/
\~/MIRROR
\
',,, u '
;;-LJ
\
J.
.... .l,l,
;;
PRO./ECTO>e
CAMERA
Figme 1. Arrangement of came ra, projector, mirror and screen.
400
will be described. Although the projector is loca ted to the

right of the camera in Fig. 1, it may be loca ted on eith er side
or may project into the mirror from above or below. It is
also permissible, from a functional point of view, to interchange the camera and projecto r locations.
The mirror, at 45 to the projector and camera ax is,
reflects the projected image on to the screen; but the mirror, being semi-transparent, allows about hal f of the projected light to go directly thro ugh tl1e mirror onto the nearest wall and be wasted. Such wastage is w1avoidable since
the mirror must be semi-transparent to permit light from
the foreground scene, as well as from the backgrow1d itself, to reach the came ra lens.
The 45 mirror is also a par tial mirror as seen by the
camera, and p rovides to tl1e camera a view of the side wall
of the stage as well as a second image resulting from the
projector waste light. To elimin ate these secondary images
a s mall, d ull black screen is placed opposite th e p rojector,
as shown in Fig. 1.
Introvision (Hollywood) replaces portions of the black
screen with a piece of Scotchlite screen. Su pplementary
lenses permit focusing tl1e projected image onto the supplementary segments. When matched to black flats on the
main set, it is possible to have actors appear to emerge from
d oorways and from behind objects in the projected backgroLmd.
Another development by Courier Films Limited, the
Zoptic Process, employs a zoom lens on the camera and the
projector and interlocks the zoom controls. By simultaneous zooming of tl1e foreground and background lenses
in tl1e same direction, objects in the field appear to move
toward or away from the camera. This technique was used
exten sively in the 1978 p roduction of Superman. The transmission / reflection ratio of the mirror is not critical; h owever, for best u tiliza tion of foreground and projection illumination, transmission sh ould always equ al or exceed reflection. Their relationship is shown in Fig. 2. The projector light that finally enters the camera experiences a reflection at the mirror to get to the screen, and then a transmission through the mirror to get to the camera. Utilization is
therefore a function of the product of the reflection and
transmission percentages. Even if one assumes no losses,
tl1e maximum efficiency carmot exceed 25% and it occurs
a t a 50/50 ratio. In front p rojection, one should expect two
s tops of light loss.
401
r
25
20
15
Nofei-EFF.
F.G. - T
Nofe2 -LOSs~o
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 eo 6 5 70 TRANSMISSION 'It>
90
60
70
60
50
40
30Rf.FLCTANCE "fo
Fig ure 2. Front projection mirror; trans mission/reflection ratio and

efficiency.
Since film exposure of foreground objects reqwres a

given amount of light at the camera, any transmission loss
through the mirror must be made up by increasing the illumination of the foreground. Thus transmission should be
as rugh as possible. The efficiency of utilization of the foreground (FG) illumina tion is a linear function of transmission and increases as the transmission increases. An increase of transmission from 50% to a value of 60% results
in a 12% increase in the utilization of the foreground illumillation. It can be seen from the figure that tills change
from 50 to 60% in the transmission results in a drop of only
4% (25 dow n to 24) in the u tilization efficiency of the background (BG) illumination.
The scene being projected onto the screen is also being p rojected on to the fo reground objects and actors .
Whether or not the scene being projected on foreground
objects wiJI be visible in the photography depends upon the
intensity of the projected light relative to the intensity of the
foreground illllll1ffiation. A specific rugh-gain inten sity relationship is thus far solely a property of the Scotchlite
screen.
The Scotchlite Screen

The special properties of the front-projection screen
make front projection practicable. One screen made by the
3M Company, commonly known as Scotchljte, Type 7610,
is a reflex reflector- that is, it has the property of reflect-
402
ing light back to its source. A reflex reflector can be made

by using corner mirrors or glass beads. The 3M screen uses
glass beads. The limited angular distribution of reflection
is illustrated in Fig. 3. Because of the controlled angle of the
reflected Jjgh t, the screen has a very rugh gain. If one observes the screen from a van tage point not more than about
Y.t 0 from the axis of the projector, it will appear to be nearly
1,000 times brighter than wou ld a matte wh ite surface receivi ng the san1e illumjnation. Because of this hjgh gain of
Scotch lite, very little illumination is required from the projector; therefore front projection can provide backgrounds
of almost any desired size. A 130-A arc lamp projector can
easily illuminate a 30,000 sq. ft. screen of Scotchlite to balance a 200-fc-key foregrotmd scene. Thus, screens up to 120
X 250 fee t can be used.
!\
1200 \
1000
800
600
400
200
\
\
r-- ~
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

DIVERGENCE ANGLE
Figure 3. Relative angular distributio n o f reflection o f J M Scotch lite

refl ecti ve sheeting Type 7610.
The abili ty to use large backgrow1d screens is one of

the principal advantages of fron t projection. By comparison, rear projection was limi ted to a screen size of 20 to 30
ft., even when ill uminated by three rugh-powered projectors. Even considering the losses of the semi-mirror, one
need only use about one footcandle of illllll1ffiation on the
screen to balance a foreground key light of 200 fc. Thjs is a
net ratio of about200:1 and is more than adequate to result
403
in invisibility of the image projected on foreground objects

- even a white shirt. If one considers a white shirt to be
nearly 100% reflective, and the reflectivity of black velvet
. to be approximately 2%, this represents a ratio of only 50:1.
Thus a white shirt is so d ull compa red to Scotchlite (200:1)
that it appears to be blacker than black velvet when the
Scotchli te is illuminated to the brighb1ess of the foregrow1d
scene.
The ScotchJite ma terial is available in two-foot-wide
rolls. The screen can be constructed by simp ly papering the
material onto a wall-like s urface or wooden backing or
hanging it in horizontal strips. It is only necessary to cover
all of the screen area. Butt edges are not required, and pieces
may be overlapped . It is advisable, h owever, to prep are a
screen from the same production batch since a second batch
may differ slightly in brighmess gain.
Tesselating The Screen

Irregula1ities in reflection of the ScotchJite material
may be minimized by cutting or tearing the ScotchJite
into small pieces, scrambling the pieces, and reassembling them into a mosaic. This, however, is wastefuJ of
material an d is labor intensive. Apogee, Inc. has designed a d ie which cu ts Scotchlite into symmetrical
hexagons with curved edges; w ith the aid of a templa te
the tiles are mounted on a prepared Dacron and Mylar
shee t w ith a 3% overlap . The comple ted screen is
checked by photographing it using a ring light and highcontrast film in order to exaggera te any imperfections
that might exist. (Apogee, Inc. holds a patent #4,548,470
covering this method of screen fabrication and supplies
either the complete screen assemblies or separate ti les
for the user's applica tion.) It is not necessary tha t
Scotchli te be absolutely flat or square to the ca mera since
its gain is quite wuform over a rather wide angle of incidence, as shown in Fig. 4.
Alignment of Nodal Points

The practical usage of front projection requires careful alignment of the camera and projector lenses. All multielement lenses, whether for camera or projector usage, have
two or more nodal points. In the front-projection process
we are interested only in the fro nt nodal point. For the pro-
"'
:::.
800
~~
___. ~ ~
~~
[31::;; '-'
~ ~
c,_[B
600
r-
---
CC>.
~~
::;;i!:
"'<:
400
10
20
30
40
INCIDENCE ANGLE
*AT ooINCIDENCE
,,
Fig ure 4. G ain of Scotchlite screen as a functio n of the angle o f incid ence,
for a cons tant d ivergen ce an g le of ;,o b etween incident bea m and
measuring axis.
jector lens, the front n odal point is th at position within the

lens from wluch the light appears to emanate. For the can1era len s, the fron t nodal point is that point within the lens
toward which all incoming light appears to converge. Since
the camera lens has a finite field angle, and since it is p ossible to h ave foreground objects anywhere witl1in the field
of view of the camera, there is only one position of the camera lens that w ill eliminate shadows for all objects w ithin
its field of view.
This position is obtained when the fron t n odal point
of the camera lens is effectively coincident in all axes with
the fron t n odal point of the p rojector lens. If fuese nodal
points are not effectively coincident, a black shadow line
w ill appear at fue edge of foreground objects.
Where there is only one foregrow1d object in the scene,
and that object is located symmetrically on the camera axis
(as in a closeup of one person ), it is possible and sometimes
desirable to place the camera nodal p oint ahead of the projector nodal point. The desirability of tlus proced ure will
be explained later, in the discussion of shadow gradients.
The camera and projector each have three degrees of
freedom in translational motion. A sliding movement of the
camera o r projector to th e left or right is a translation along
the x-axis. Sin1ilarly, a change of elevation is tran sla tion
a long the y-axis; movemen t toward or away from the
screen is translation along th e z-axis. Adjustment of the
position of the camera or p rojector along these three axes
is required to obtail1 effective coincidence of their lens nodal
405
points. An adjustable base for the projector or camera facilitates this adjustment.
It is the virtual, or reflected, nodal point of the projector that IS to be co-located with the nodal point of the camera lens. Thus an y adjustment of the mirror's placement or
angle shifts the position of the projector noda l point with
respect to that of the ca mera. Since the noda l poin t of a lens
is a single point somew here within the lens, it is not accessible for making a direct mechanical aUgnment. There fore
it is necessary to make the alignment optically by using test
t~rgets located in .the camera field. The degree of permisSible error 111 the alignment of the lens nodal points is a ftmction of several variables.
. The principal variable is the separation of fo regrow1d
ObJ.ects from the screen. When the foreground objects a re
qlllte close to the screen, one may misalign the camera by
a~ ~uch as an inch. in any direction wi thout ind uci ng a
v1s1ble shadow !me m photography. As foregroLmd objects
app roach the camera, the align ment becomes more critical,
un til only YJz in . of a lignment error can cause a visible
shadow line. Thus, when alignment targets are used, they
should be placed close to the camera to simplify the alignment procedure and to asSLLre a lignment accuracy.
The type of alignment target used can impose some
problems. The use of white card s requires sepaTate illumination, and balancing the brightness can be a bit of a chore.
Small sections of the Scotchlite screen may be used, but
si:nce the brighh1ess varies inversely with the squaTe of the
d 1stance, they are over-bright when brought close to the
camera. A good proced ure is to stop down the projector
and camera lenses to f/22, if possible, and tip the Scotchli te
targets well past 45. At a very steep angle, their brightness
can be made to match that of the so-een. Under these conditions, a misalignment of as little as YJz in . can be readily
observed.
The source of ligh t that produces a shadow line originates from the projector lens, wh.id1 in turn receives its light
from the lamphouse and its optics. The a lignment of the
lamphouse and its optics should resuJt in symmetrical illumination of U1e exit pupil of the projector lens. When the
exit pu pi! is not symmetrically iII umi.na ted, the center of the
emerging light bw1dJe is not a t the lens center. And whi le
this off-center illumina ti on in no way affects the background scene, it does result in shifting the shadows to one
side or the other, just as though one had shifted the projec-
406
tor. Any change of the p rojector lens iris then acts not onJy
to change ligh t level, but produces the equivalent of a shift
in x or y of the whole projector. An iris chan ge on a projector with a poorly cen tered lamp can resuJt in up to ~ in. of
apparent misaligrLIDent.
A computer-generated table has been prepared to
show the alignment error that induces a 0.0002 in. shadow
line on the can1era negative under a varie ty of cond itions.
This din1ension (0.0002 in.) represents the thl"eshold of visibility of a line projected on a large screen. The primary
utility of this data, found in th e appendix on page 413, is
to show the rela tive influence of the object-to-screen separation, and to indicate the magnitude of alignment accuracy required. The actual alignment error ilia t can be accepted is reduced by the halo effect, which will be discussed
a little Later.
Alignment of Anamorphic Lens
The use of anamorphic lenses introduces special problems in fron t projection. Such lenses have two fron t nodal
points, one associated with the vertical tiJt motion and the
oU1er with panning motion. Both nodal points exist in the
camera an d projector lens, since these lenses have, in effec t, two different focal lengths. lf these nodal points in the
came ra and projector lenses are not equally spaced, there
is no way to sirnuJtaneously superimpose both sets of nodal
points.
The problem can be rninintized by splitting the distance between front nodal points for each lens and co-locating this median position. SirnuJtaneously, one shouJd
keep fo reground objects relatively close to the screen,
whereby rather large misalignment of nodal points can be
tolerated without introducing a shadow line.
Pan, Tilt and Zoom

It is possible in front projection to pan and tiJt the camera during photography, provided tha t the x, y, z rela tionships of the nodal points are maintained. To do this, it becomes necessary to use a nodaJ-point camera mount that
permits the front nodaJ point of the camera lens to be located at the center of rotation for both pan and tiJt motions.
This requirement of maintaining a co-location of projector
and camera lens nodal points also applies to a zoom lens.
407
Because the front nodal point of a zoom lens may shift

by several inches during a change of focal length, it is necessary to shift the camera body an equal distan ce, in order
to mai11tain a fixed spa tial relationship between the two
axes of rotation and the nodal point. An alternative, of
course, is to limi t tl1e zoom range, and to place all foregrow1d objects close to the screen , tllus taking advantage
of the resultant increased tolerance of nodal-point positioning, as mentioned earlier.
resolution and increase in grain, it wi!J look like a 16mm

background.
.
.
If, on tlle other hand, the entire background 1mage IS
projected onto a small screen that represent~, for example,
a window tllen one can zoom in un til tlle wmdow fills tlle
camera vi~wfinder. At th is point the copy ratio has agali1
dropped to 1.0. Figure 5 ill ustrates the _relative loss of m1age quality as a fun ction of the copy raho. Note tl1e advantage of usiJ1g a 65mm BG.
-----------------------------------------
The Halo Effect

,.
'\.,AX. RATIO FOR EQIJAL S I Z e

PLATE AND CAMERA NEG.
TYPICAL RATIO 'NHEN 35MM. NEG.

SEES~ OF 35MM Pi..A TE
1D
1.+
COPY RA.TIO -
2.0
MM
2.4
PLATE/ NN N EG.
3.0
Figure 5. Re lative loss of image quality as a function of copy ratio.
Problems of Grain in Front Projection

There are rather severe limitations on tlle use of zooming in a fro nt projection scen e and these limitations are
caused by image grain. It mus t be remembered tha t the
scene being projected was once photographed by a camera on negative film. ln front projection, tJUs scene is being
copied onto the fi lm in the camera and this film i s a negative. Thus tlle backgrow1d p art of the scene is a dupe that
has been made on camera negative ratller tllan a fine gra.i.n
duping stock. The graininess is therefore increased.
If, fo r example, botll the camera and projector films are
35mm, and if the en tire projected scen e just fits the full
aperture on the camera ground glass, tllen there is a oneto-one relationship between the linage on tlle projected film
and this same image as it is being exposed in the camera.
In tJUs case we have a 1:1 copy ratio. If one now zooms to
twice the mitial focallengtll, only 1,2 of tlle width and \-2 of
the height (or Y.! of the area) of tlle projected prmt is being
copied. This is in reality a 16mm area. Owing to the loss of
408
From tlle earlier discussion on the al ignment of nod al

points, we may have implied that once exa~t a li g1~m_e nt is
achieved there will be no visible shad ow lme; th1s IS not
necessarily tlle case. Perfect aligmnent of nodal points assures tlle absence of a shadow line only when both the projector and camera len s apertu~es are as ~mall as pinholes.
Normal lenses do not approximate a pmhole. Actual entrance pupil diameters are in the order of one inch , as is the
case for a 100mm lens a t f/ 4.0. Since lenses have aperture
dimensions significantly larger tllan a pinhole, their deptll
of focus is limited as a function of aperture.
When a foregrow1d object is in focus and the backgrow1d is not in focus, a black halo f? rms a ~ound ~1e foreground object on tlle cam~ra nega ti ve._ Th~s halo 1s not _a
black line, such as is expen enced by_ m1sahgnment, but ~s
best described as a bnghmess grad1ent tllat falls to 50 ~o
intensity at tlle edge of the foregrow1d object. The halo 1s
most often seen on closeups.
As objects recede from the camera and appro~ch tlle
screen tlle halo shrlilks to a faint lli1e and, at some d1stance
it see~s to disappear. This edge-gradien_t halo is most conspicuous wh en the background scene IS a clear sky or a
blank wall. It is less noticeable on backgrow1ds such as dark
~~.
.
.
The halo phenomenon 1s explamed by refe_rence t? F1g.
6. If the camera is focused on a foregro w1d ObJect, tlus object will be m sharp focus at th_e film plan e. If ~ne as~ wnes,
for tlle moment, tllat tlle prOJector aperture IS a pmhole,
tllen tlle shadow cast by tlle foregrow1d object will appear
quite sharp on tlle screen.ln tlle ca ~era, the ~roj ected background image and tl1e shadow w11l botl1 be m sl~arp focus
at some plane ah ead of tlle film, but not on tlle film: Fr?m
the diagram it can be seen that the light rays, conhnwng
409
WIDTH OF POINT 0
PLAN 0""
IPREEN FOCUS
_,.,...
--
F. G.
--Q
OB.JECT
-----~
-------
----
_.,..,..- 8 2
~
- - - ----
--
- A
SCREEN----.
FILM PLAN
AND F. G. FOCUS
SHADOW GRADIENT
~ roor----.:.A..;,.,~!i0j----~ ---- rOO%
~
~
~
~
50%
i:::
UNSJ.IARP B . G.
"l:
SCREEN IMAGES
SHARPLY
FOCUSED
~
F. 6. OfVCTS
0
~ 0~--~~------L-------=--J- - - -- " " CAMERA N EGAT IVE
Figure 6. The halo phenomenon.
past this plane of focus, diverge as they reach the film plane
and become a blur on the film. Point A on the screen can
be seen by all of the camera lens; but point 0, the edge of
the sharp shadow, can be seen by only half the lens. Thus
A is at full intensity at the film plane, but as point 0 is
reached, the light has fallen to half intensity on the film
(because half the lens has been occluded). This gradient is
shown in the lower part of the figure and exists for all objects.
The edge gradient described above is produced by the
camera len s aperture alone, because the projector was assumed to be a pinhole. In practice the projector aperture is
not a pinhole, but has some finite diameter. This real diameter of the exit pupil of the p rojector lens causes the shadow
on the screen to have a soft edge and this edge spreads out
for some real distance on the screen. However, the gradient already produced by the camera lens aperture does not
see this second gradient (produced by the projector lens)
as long as the size of the projector lens aperture is equal to
or smaller than that of the camera aperture.
This conclusion was verified by computi ng the size

and shape of the edge gradient for two extreme cond~tions;
one condi tion was a knife-edged screen shadow, while th e
other condition was a Wliformly increasing shadow extending from A to B. These two conditions cover all possible
projector lens apertures up to and equaling that of the camera aperture. The gradien t on the camera negative was
identical in size and in shape for both cases. The edge gradient halo is therefore a function of whichever lens aperture is larger.
In practice it can be concluded that one should always
stop down the projector tmtil its exit pupil diameter is less
than the diameter of the entrance pupil of the camera. lf
both lenses have a focal length of two inches (SOmm) and
the camera is at fI 4.0, then th e projector can be at fI 4.0 or
5.6 or any smaller aperture. But if the projector lens has a
fo ur-inch focal length (lOOmm), it must be stopped down
to f18.0 to match the entrance pupil diameter of a two-inch
camera lens at fl 4.0.
Minimum Foreground-Object
Distances
A table has been prepared that specifies the closest
distance that foregrow1d objects may approach the camera
fo r a 0.0002 in. half-grad ient halo as a function of screen
distance, camera focal length and lens aperture setting. This
table appears on page 413.
Afte r the camera a nd projector nodal points are
aligned in all three axes (x, y, z) by the method described,
one must then be concerned with the halo effect. Appendix I may be used as a practical guide to determine safe
object distances that will not result in a visible halo. ~e
Appendix is organized by lens focal length . After selectmg
the table corr-esponding to the camera lens, find the camera-to-screen distance located in the left-hand column. The
row of mtmbers opposi te the screen distance represents the
closest d istance objects may safely approach the camera
without developing a visible halo. This distance is listed for
several lens stops. These lens stops are for the camera, or
for the projector lens if its aperture is the larger. (Note: fl
2.8 is a larger relative aperture than fl 4.0.)
The near distance limits Listed in the tables of Appendix 1w ill result in a halo around the object of 0.0004 in. on
the film. Since the halo is a gradient, the first half of the
411
gradient between A and 0 (Fig. 6) is of low visibility. Therefore, only the steeper half of the gradient is consid ered as
capable of producing a visible shadow. The tables, therefore, define an object distance for which the steeper half of
the grad ient will produce a 0.0002 in. shadow line on the
negative; there is always some question as to how much
halo can be present before it is visible. The 0.0002 in. value
has been used by Technicolor, for example, as a limit for
color registra tion. It represents \13 in. on a 50-ft. screen. The
exact width at which a shadow line is visible or invisible
depends upon how close one sits to the screen, the quality
and sharpness of the projection lens, contrasts in the picture, and of cow-se one's own visua l acuity.
Perhaps the most significant variable affecting the visibility of halo is picture contrast. The most critical scene is
white against white, since these objects match in color and
are at high lwninance. The darker and more mottled the
backgrmmd, the less visible the halo. The Appendix is for
the worst case, white aga inst w hite. Most scenes do not
present these critical brightness conditions. It is therefore
practica l in many cases, where the background is dark or
mottled, to accept the nearer closeup limi t indicated for the
next smaller stop. With a dark foliage background, even
closer subject-camera d istances can be tolerated .
Z-Axis Displacement for Closeups

When it is essential to make a ra ther extreme closeup
of a single object or person, it can be done without a halo
by observing a special rule. lf the single foreground object
extends outward in all directions from the cen ter of the
camera-lens axis, it then becomes possible to move the camera forward by several inches, placing it well within the
shadow cone of the projector. This action would normally
produce a severe shadow on the inside edge of all off-center objects. But the single object (or person) that extend s outward in a ll diJ"ections from the ca mera center has no inside
edges, and thus no shadow line or ha lo will be visible.
Brightness and Color Matching

Segments of the front-projec tion screen material can
be placed in positions fo rward of the main screen for certain special effects, such as doorways. It should be remembered that the inverse square law a lso applies to Scotchlite.
If one places a piece of the material at half the screen dis-
412
Appendix I
Minimum Object Distance (in ft.) for 0.0002-in.
Half-Gradient Halo.
Lens aperture and object
distance
Screen
distance
25mm lens
10
20
40
60
80
100
120
32mm lens
10
20
40
60
80
100
120
40mm lens
10
20
40
60
80
100
120
50mm lens
10
20
40
60
80
100
120
75mm lens
10
20
40
60
80
100
120
100mm lens
10
20
40
60
80
100
120
150mm lens
10
20
40
60
80
100
120
f/
f/
f/
f/
f/
f/
2.8
4.0
5.6
8 .0
11
16
8
13
19
23
25
27
28
7
11
16
18
19
20
21
6
10
12
14
15
15
16
6
8
10
11
11
11
11
5
6
8
8
8
8
9
4
5
6
6
6
6
6
9
15
24
30
34
37
40
8
14
20
25
27
29
31
8
12
17
20
22
23
24
7
10
14
15
17
17
18
6
9
11
12
13
13
13
5
7
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9
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28
36
43
48
52
9
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42
8
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33
8
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7
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18
19
20
6
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52
59
66
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55
9
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8
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20
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10
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64
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79
9
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9
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99
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93
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413
tance, for example, it w ill be 4X (2 stops) brighter tha n the

main screen. Thus all such applications should strive to
keep supplemen tary sc reen ma terial close to the main
screen.
As in rear projection, the eye is not an adequate instrument to determine color or lighting balance between foregrou.nd and background. Where the background is simply
passmg scenery, eye-ba lance may be sufficient. When the
foreground is a continua tion of the background, photographtc tests should be made to ensw-e a good color and
brightness match. Lens coa tings, the ultraviolet cutoff of
optical glass and the spectral sensitivity of color negati ve
material are all infl uential in determinin<> color balance of
fi~m. The color response of t1.1e h uman eye is significa ntl y
dtfferent from that of color ftlm. The eye, therefore, is not
an accura te predictor of the film's color rendition in tllis application.
Steps to Avoid Shadows and Halos

1. Align camera and projector lens front nodal points
by pl~cing targets of Scotchl ite a t the f/ 16 d istance of Appendtx l. Place ta rgets at left, center, and right of camera
field. Tip targets w1til tl1eir brighb1ess matches that of main
screen. Stop down camera and projector. Position camera
and projector for no shadow on any target. Camera is correctly located on nodal head when the camera is panned
to place nght target at left edge of ca mera field and no
shadow appears.
2. Set camera lens to desired f-stop. Set projector lens
to a smaller f-stop. Recheck fo r shadows at edge of ta rgets.
A non-uniform field of ligh t into the projector lens will
cause a shadow line as projector stop is changed.
. 3. Observe minimum object distance of Appendix l to
avotd halo. Projector exit p upil should not be larger than
ca mera entrance pupil. (Pupils are equal when tl1e depth
of field is the same for botl1 lenses. Use lens tables.)
4. If using a zoom lens, line up shot at maximum focal
lengtl1 to be used in the shot, and then check for shadows
at mit1imun1 foca l length. If shadows appear, reduce zoom
range or use proper nodal head that couples to zoom conhol.
5. If projected image is larger than camera field of view,
backgrow1d plate negative should be larger than camera
negative, otherwise background will be grainy.
6. When using anamorphic camera lens, keep objects

d ose to screen and co-locate a median point between the
two front nodal points of the camera lens with nodal point
median of ilie projector.
? If camera is moved forward of normal nodal point
locahon to make an extreme closeup, ilie object must be on
camera center and have no inside edges (i.e., no space between arms and body).
8. Supplementary screen set forward of main screen
should be kept very dose to main screen to avoid a brightness change.
9. When background is a continuation of foreground,
ph otographic tests are n eeded to assw-e a good color and
brightness match.
Additional informa tion on front projection and on
Scotchlite front p rojection screens 7610 and 7615 high contrast sheeting is available from Safety and Security Systems
Division /3M, 225-4N-14, St. Paul, Minnesota, 55144-1000,
(612) 733-4433, (800) 328-7098.
Compositing
William Hansard
President, Hansard Enterprises
Rear-Screen Projection
Rear-screen projection process essentially consists of
filming live foreground action aga inst a specially photographed background "plate" which is being rear-projected
onto a translucent screen. The following items are required:
1. Special background projector wiili camera-type registration and 220 volt, 3-phase, AC sync motor.
2. Motion-picture camera with crystal-controlled motor wiili a camera/projector electronically phaseable shutter sync box.
3. Specially prepared print on print stock wiili B & H
perforations, made from pla te negative filmed to production specification or from stock library plate material.
4. Translucent projection screen.
Process shots usually a re filmed on a motion-picture

stage or in a warehouse. Portable process projectors and
screens can be rolled on to any set and employed to back
up the action by fumish.i ng the "view" seen through a window or door of a house, plane, train , automobile, etc.
Camera and projector are electrically locked so tha t
their shutters open and close simultaneously. The projector does not have a "flicker blade" as in theater projectors,
to interrupt the screened image and shorten the dark interval between frames.
Process projectors have ca mera-type shutters and
movements so that the individual frames are in perfect sync
with the ca mera's filming action. This results in a visual
"flickering" picture but a photographically perfect image
since ead1 frame of film is projected for the entire interval
the ca mera shutter is open and therefore provides maximum light exposme frame for frame. If the projected image is a stationary plate it must perfectly registered, because
any Lmsteadiness would be readily discernible when filmed
in combination with a fixed foreground set.
Cam era and projector must be lined up so that the screen image is
photographed with equal brill iance across its full width. Camera #2 will
photograph screen" A-B" with even brilliance. Camera 1 will record the
"B" s ide of the screen darker. Camera #3 will record the" A" side of the
screen darker.
Traveling plates need not be critically registered since

their movement will usually cover any inherent unsteadiness. A step printer (with camera-type registration) should
be employed to print stationary plates. A con tinuous
printer may be used for traveling plates. A center line is
drawn on the stage floor so that camera and projector may
be set up in line with each other. Generally speaking, camera and projector should be lined up, although the screen
may be swung at a slight angle, if desired, to the foreground
set. If the camera is n ot squa1ely on the projector center line,
416
a n unevenly illuminated screen image, with one side

darker, wi ll result. However, you do have the liberty of
getting off center line approximately five degrees on :ach
side with a Hi-Trans screen and 45 degrees with a Lumtflex
screen.
There is absolutely no substitute for experi ence in
photographing process scenes. They cannot be done "by
the book" - too many technical ru1d artistic factors are in volved . It is up to the director of photography, along with
the process coordinator, to base decisions on previous experience, inherent skill and basic knowledge of the many
variables in each setup.
One basic problem is balancing the light on the screen
wi th the foreground illumination. The angle, shadow effec ts and light quality of the illumination on the live set
must match the p rojected p late to form an acceptable overall pictme. Care must to taken to keep all light illuminating tl1e foreground set off the backgrow1d screen or it wil l
wash out the projected picture.
Screen brightness will vary with the plate in use. Measuring is a matter of balancing by eye; preferably with a
monotone viewing filter and an out-of-phase sync box for
direct viewing through the camera (to achieve perfect balance w hile the ca mera is rlll"U1ing without film). The screen
is illUJ11i.nated only half the ti me, while the foreground set
is constantly illuminated. The screen image is projected
with a carbon arc light, which requires a daylight film index for black & white films, and tl1e foregrOLmd is lit by
tungsten lamps. "YellowFlame" carbons are used for projecting color plates so that tl1eir color temperature ma tches
tl1e tungsten-illUJ11i.nated foreground set.
The camera should be positioned at an elevation relative to that employed by the camera used to filmed the
original plate. The floor of tl1e set should be regarded as tl1e
camera floor- do not use tl1e stage floor if tl1e set is built
higher on a false floor. Preserving the relationship between
foreground and background is of paramount importance
- elements must appear to have been photographed together. Best results are achieved only when cam era angles
and lighting are matched to preserve perspective, space
relationship, convergence of lines and photographic tonal
values.
On stage, short focus lenses should be avoided. The
closer the camera is to tl1e process screen, the more b~illiant
tl1e center of the screen, causing w hat is known as a hotspot.
417
Longer focal length lenses on both camera and projector

will p roduce the best results. A 5-inch projection lens and
a 2-inch cam era lens is a popular combination. A 40mm lens
should be the shortest employed on the camera if the full
screen is being filmed . A wide-angle lens may be used on
a large set where the process screen is only partially used,
or when a relatively smaLl projected image is used for a
view through a window or door. Care should be taken to
keep the ca mera and projector lined up when filming a
pa rtial screen image on one side of a live set. The foreground set and the players should be positioned as close
to the screen as possible, so tha t the projected picture is
photographed as sharp as the available depth of field permits.
Camera and projector must be lined up when the camera is panned from
a screen image on one side of a live set to the action on the opposite s ide.
l' rojector#2 is correctly pos itioned . Projector#( would result in a darker
image on the " B" s ide of the screen.
Another ad vantage in working with the action close

to the screen is that it requires a smaller projected p icture.
The result is greater image compression, lending colors
richness and brilliance. O n moving background shots, such
as a rocking boat, rocking the ca mera slightly aids the illusion of motion. Such rocking must not be apparent, but give
the appearance of integra ted motion of foreground and
backgrow1d action.
Print density will depend on the subject ma tter. It is
advisable to have two prints for 35mm and three p rints for
VistaVision. One copy should be of good, rich normal density with normal color, and the second copy should be %
of a stop lighter in density.
Overall screen brightness can be controlled by varying the amperage on the projector arc, adjusting the projection lens diaphragm and by employing neutral-density
418
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filters. Very little can be done to alter the tonal conhast inherent i.n an ind ividual print.
A sim ple rule of thumb for calculating projection distances and focal length of projection lens for a particular
screen size: the projector lens focal length multiplied by the
screen width p lus 10% equals the projection distance give or take a few feet. Thus a 5-inch lens will fill a 20-ft.
screen from approxima tely 110 feet away .
Static backgrOLmd scenes can be handled with greater
economy by using a 4" X 5" stereopticon slide projector.
Ti me is saved between takes since the film does not have
to be rewound. Also, color slides may be used for black &
white film photography; i.n fact they are often preferable
because they present a less grainy image and be tter black
& white separation. Rear projection slide projec tors are
usually equipped w ith arc la mps, although sometimes
tw1gsten bulbs are employed for sma ll screens. Specially
prepared 3 Y.t X 4" or 4" X 5" slides are used. The emulsion
is removed from the base and hansferred onto Pyrex glass
to eliminate burning or bleaching of the transparency; this
also results in sharper focus and facilitates cooling of the
tran sparency and glass mow1ts.
One final note: the professional result of any process
scene is only as good as the backgrow1d plates provided.
Photographing Miniatures
by Dennis Muren, ASC
The recent increase in the use of miniatures in moti on pictures means that live-action cinematographers
may now be called upon to photograph minia tures, a n
area usua ll y ha nd led by specialists. Today's p inpointsharp lenses, very fine-grain color negatives, and crystalclear 70mm release prints can reveal flaws, and the solutions require the utmost attention to detail by every member of the effects team. Th e cin ematograp her should talk
to the director, the live-action director of photography,
and the effects crew. He or she should look at as much
footage from the job as possible, especially immediately
preceding and following the miniature shot. Based on this
material, he should then visualize how th e shot wou ld
have been photographed had it been built full-sized and

apply that information to the following:
1. The notion tha t miniatures look big when photographed w ith wide-angle lenses fro m a low view point is
somewhat true. But when cut into a sequence filmed from
above c r with long lenses the shot may look out of p lace.
2. A small f-stop is us ually necessary to hold the
depth of field needed to keep the model in foc us.
3. The entire mode l a nd set must appea r to be infocus, as it probably would have been if the scene had been
built full-size.
4. When shooting a fully miniature shot, a D-1 filter
on the ca mera ca n give an artificial atmosphere which
enhances the sense of reality.
5. Ma tch the preceding and following li ve-action
photography as closely as possible. Lightin g units should
be placed at the scaled d istance from the model to duplicate na tural light fall-off. Small uni ts h elp the scale.
6. Artificial smoke can be used to slightly cloud the
atmosphere in a miniature and give a realistic aerial haze.
In instances where more control is needed , bridal veil
material can be tightly stretched wi th in a set and separately lit.
7. Panning, til ting, trucking, even jolts and shakes can
ad d greatly to a shot if they a re a ppropria te with that
moment.
8. High-speed film s tocks allow for extra stopping
down. Perforation size and location can be checked on
each roll to help insure rock-steady images, if necessa ry.
9. For hi gh-speed shoo tin g any renta l cameras
should be loaded and tested by the assistant who will use
them. Registration s teady tests should be made a t the
chosen speeds, if necessa ry.
Model Size
Water, fire, and exploding models should be as large
as the budget and safety allows, even half-size if possible
and shot high-speed.lntense wi nd ca n he lp break up out
of scale water droplets a nd in some cases, fire. Exploding models should be pre-broken, reassembled, and exploded within slow-moving, low-powered, and colorful
pyrotechnics p referably w ith two or more blasts. Other
typ es of models can be buil t just big enough to be adequately detailed and still carry depth of field .
421
Minia ture explosions and fire can be dangerous beca use the ca mera may need to be in close proximi ty to the
miniature. Plan according ly.
Shooting Speeds
If there is no motion on the miniature, it ca n be photographed at any speed. Water, fire, explosions, a nd falling effec ts are usua ll y done wi th large models and camera speeds up to 360 fps. The exact speed depends upon
the scale of the mode l and the effect desired. The accompanying chart is a starting point, but for the best results,
tests shou ld be m ade (page 423).
High-speed shots can often be expensive and unp red ictable events because of the uncertainty of requ ired
camera speeds, pyrotechnics, winds, mechanical equipment, human error, and the need to sequence events in
much fas ter succession than they will be viewed. Tf an
explosion is photographed at fo ur times normal speed (96
fps), then a ll other controllab le actions within the shot
must happen four times faster. Achieving an adeq ua te
level of good-looking ligh tin g can be very d ifficu lt if
shoo ting high-speed at a sma ll f-stop. If using H Mis,
make sure that the re w ill be no flicke r a t the filmi ng
speed s. Scenes w hich are supposed to take place outdoors
should be shoot outdoors if wea ther permits.
With stop-motion, shooting is accomplished a t one
frame at a time w ith the object bein g sligh tly moved by
hand between each frame. One-fourth-second exposures
or more per frame a llow for grea t depth of field i.n low
light levels. Stop-motion photography is used to give a
freedom of movement and exp ression to an object or figure.
Motion-control photogra phy is used when an object
or figure is moved by computer-controlled motors at very
slow speeds. Long exposu re times p er frame allow for
very small f-s tops. The computer can repea t the movements of the motors, w hich a llows for multiple exposures.
Any face t of a shot can be isola ted and wedged for in te nsity, color, filtra tion, and a tmosphere. The image can be
buil t up through multiple exposures made from the chosen wedge fra mes, while the computer repea ts the sa me
motions each time.
Go-motion shooting is used when shoo ting an ima l
or creature models. The major body parts are attached to
rods which are moved by computer-controlled motors.
422
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r
Detail movements are anima ted by hand each frame.
Single frame shoo ting allows for small f-stops at long
exposure times. Cove rage at various angles and camera
speeds is especially useful to help cush.ion the risks on
high-speed shots.
Calculating Camera Speed

Explanation of table (Page 424)
The scale of the model may be stated as "inches per
foot" or as a fraction of full size. In photographing a miniature, portraying any motion when the speed of that
motion depends on gravity, the frame rate of the camera
is governed by the scale. This includes falling objects or
water, wave action, fire or smoke, explosions in which
objects are thrown into the air, etc. O n the other hand, any
object (for instance, an au tomobile) moving at a controllable speed ca n be related to the selected camera speed
in the first instance (gravi ty), the ca mera frame rate is
increased as the inverse square root of the scale fraction
(the square root of the relation of full size to miniature).
For instance, for a miniature Y16 full size (3/t"=1'), the inverse of the fraction is 16. The square root of 16 is 4 and
the frame ra te should be 4X normal= 96 fps.
In the same set, an au tomobile portrayed as traveling 60 miles per hour should move lfi6th that speed because of the scale, but increased 4 times because of the
frame rate.
(Scale fraction) x (portrayed speed) x (frame rate)
(normal frame rate)
Yt6 x 60 x %;2. = 15 mph (or 22ft/sec)
Motion-Control Cinematography
by Richard Edltmd, ASC
Motion-control has become an inseparable part of film
grammar. Inexpensive solid-state digital electronics, a technology born of the space race in the late '60s, made it possible to accurately record and play back motion with sufficient reliability to achieve the robotic camera systems nec-
424
essary to p rod uce the space sequences in Star Wars, the

success of which brought on a renaissance of motion-picture visual effects. Since that time a majority of the top ten
box office grossers have relied on motion con trol for crucial scenes. Prior to the advent of digital teclu1ology, the
control of motion had been attempted with various degrees
of success by using analog electronics, selsyn motors and
gears, even by hand-cranking mechanisms using a metronome for synchronization I
To define it, motion control is an electronically controlled mechanical system that allows the physical motions
of a camera and / or other objects to be recorded, enabling
successive passes to be photographed "on the fly" with the
corresponding motion blm characteristics of normal motion-picture cameras, so that composites can be created in
an optical printer or digitally. The composi tes may comprise separately photographed actors, miniatures, backgrmmds, and a myriad of other creative possibilities. Thus,
travelin g matte systems of varying kinds can be used, foregrow1ds and backgrotmds of differing scales can be used
with a moving can1era, and when synchronized with video
playback systems, actors can perform within impossible
sets and locations, interacting with creatures and miniatures shot previously or subsequently. In practice, the production company will generally contract with a visual effects company to carry out specific shots and sequences that
will require fuis equipment and these teclmiques.
Several companies have developed field recording
units, hybrid systems wh.ich have various facilities, such as
speed and distance of travel, tracking, parming, tilting,
booming, follow-focus, remote operation, p re-programmability, ease of set-up, quietness of operation for sound, and
adaptability to various formats sucl1 as 65mm, VistaVision,
or 35mm. Sucl1 a company will assign a visual effects supervisor to work with the director, director of photography
and other appropriate crew members to achieve the p roper
set-up time for any given pla te. Of cowse there is responsibility implied to achieve a given plate within reason able
and predictable set-up time, an d for this reason careful
preproduction planning is necessary between the effects
company and the U.P.M. When shooting actors within the
principal production schedule, usually blue-screen photography is required and in these cases even the wa rdrobe
should be discussed with the visual effects supervisor.
425
Motion-Control Equipment: Field

In the field (defined here as outside the walls of an
effects studio, with the camera operating at sonnd speed)
there are different requirements. The director will usually
want a moving camera if he/she can h ave it, but this h~s
been (and still is) difficult to achieve in effect shots. If this
is to be d one, the following equipment is required:
1. A steady camera, usually of a larger format than ~e
production is originating with, w ith a sp~cial motor tha t .1s
slavable to the motion-control electrorucs, and tha t will
provide frame/shutte r position accuracy in succe~sive
passes. Though not imperative, ~e can1era should b~ silent,
so d ialogue can be recorded, and 1t should have a calibrated
videotap viewfinder.
.
2. A reliable follow-focus syste m tha t 1s repea table.
Double-pass shots must exactly repeat with hig~ resolution.
3. A pan-tilt head which by any of a van ety of.t~d1niques can provide scaleable lens entrance-pupal posthons
for subsequent repeat passes on less than full-scale propers or miniatures. This pan-tiJt head should ~ave a ren:ote
opera ting console with hand-wheels and v1deo moru~or.
Usually such a head w iJI have DC serv.o motors to prov1de
real-time normal to high-speed pan/ tilt range. .
4. A dolly with track, having a powerful trackmg motor, motorized boom, and positional encoders for both axes
which allow for either d olly grip control as in normal shots
or remote opera tion or pre-programmed ~o~es. The above
equipment should be as stan dard as poss1ble m appearance
and operational characteristics, and operate on standard
prod uction dolly track.
.
5. A motion-control electrorucs console, operated by
a suitably wizened tedmk ian who c~ efficiently log and
store motion files, shot-by-shot, uw1s1bly to the rest of the
.
.
production.
6. A videotap flicker-free con sole, which will store
shots on tape or laserdisc, as the shots are made, and play
back instantly for directorial scrutiny. This system should
be able to provide on-the-spot video composites for comparisons of A to Bscene action, and the ~bility to pl~yback
A while recording B, etc. The video reqwremen ts wtll vary
with the shot requirements.
7. A bookkeeping detail which will log actors' positions and distances, camera and track positions within the
set, and other ma thematical and geographical information.
Again, this should happen systematically and invisibly to

the rest of the prod uction. This is crucial to the crea tion of
the rest of the jigsaw puzzle of elements that make up any
given shot.
Motion Control Equipment: Studio

A versatile motion-control system for photographing
miniatures consists of a stead y p in-registered camera, built
into a pa n-tilt-roll head wherein the entran ce pupil of the
lens can be situa ted a t the vertex of all axes, htmg from a
boom arm, all mo w1ted on a track of at least 50 feet in
length. Various mode l movers, rotators, or pylons a re usua lly mow1ted on another track of 20 feet or so set perpend icular to the camera track. Again, there a re ma ny variations on this basic theme incorporating various levels of
engineering prowess within the indushy and the precision
and reliability of such syste ms provide the operators with
d ifferent levels of creative freedom.
An electronic system runs the motors (usually stepping motors tmless considerable speed or power is needed,
in which case DC closed-loop servo motors are used), then
stores th e motion files laid down by the operator and enables the ope ra tor to i11teract w ith the system. There are
many bells and whistles which include move-smoothing
programs, graphics tablets, and specialized software ad
infi ni tum.
Studio motion-control equipment often has p rovisions
to control the camera shutter angle over a wide range in
order to control the apparent motion blur. The exposure
ran ge is from about Y.J second to extremely long. Most systems have several ways to program moves and any or aU
of the following methods may be used.
Joysticks (usua lly potentiometers or rotary optical
shaft encoders) are used to manually move the motors that
opera te th e various pa rts of the system. The joystick might
control the speed or p osition of on e or more motors at a
time and all these motions are recorded for future playback.
This is sinlilar to remote controlling a model airplan e or car
and making an exact record of what happened .
The joystick might be used to move the system to a
series of fixed positions while a record is made of tl1ese key
posi tions. 1l1e system could later generate a mathematically
smooth path through these poin ts. This is simila r to a n
animator drawing key frames and then creating all the inbetweens automaticall y.
Tf the system has a computer keyboard, then a move
could be created using only start and end positions wi th
ease-ins and ease-outs much like an animator's exposure
sheet. Much more complex methods of move generation
are ava ilable using computer graphics. The move files can
be edited and modified in as many ways as there are motion-control systems. Some computer-control systems have
graphics which allow the operator to preview the shot befo re the camera is used.
A number of commercial electronic motion-control
systems are available, as well as mechanical systems. Some
of th e major visual effects studios build their own motioncontrol syste ms. Although the use of motion control in
modern effects work is commonplace, the process can be
expensive and ti me-consuming, but when properly approached, high-quality visual effects ca n be produced at
budget and on time.
Motion Control Extends Cinematic

Capabilities
Motion-control systems are used in many ways for
visual effects. TI1e following list is certainly not exhaustive:
1. The ability to program model shots so that the motion of objects in an effects scene is believable, and to preview these moves and modify them as needed for approvaL
2. The abi lity to repeat these scenes fo r fron t-light/
back-light or front-light/ front-light matte passes if needed.
3. The ability to repeat these scenes for enhancement
effects such as engine passes, rwming lights, smoke-room
effects, filtration, etc.
4. Precision fly-by and extremely close approaches to
objects ca n be accomplished smoothly and in perfect (p rogrammable) foc us.
5. Stop-motion animation can be included in scenes
that have field-recorded moving camera.
6. Go-motion anima tion is made possible by using
extremely complex mechanical systems with upwards of
50 motion-control cham1els to create impossible creatures
in motion. This system was pioneered in Drngonslayer.
7. Mo-motion - a system w herein field recorded
scenes with pa n, tilt, track, boom are combined with par-
tially motorized rod puppets (controlled mostly by puppeteers). This technique was developed for Alien3 It also included a laserdisc video processing system capable of converting any filming rate, from 1 fps to 48 fps, back to 24 fps
on the spot so scenes could be video-com posited during the
shooting day to enable interaction of a Y3 -scale Alien pup pet with live actors in field-recorded scenes.
8. Optical printers can be equipped with motion control so that op tical pans, tilts, zooms, fades, diffusion, wipes
and dissolves can be repeated for successive passes.
9. Animation cameras can become much more versatile, since all axes can be programmed; objects, miniatures,
etc. can even be shot against miniature blue screens; and
front-light/ backlight repeat passes can be accomplished.
Motion-Control Technique
. ~en working on Star Wars, we started with an empty
bwldmg and had to amass, modify and build our motioncontrol equipment before we could produce any images.
We had built up visual "violins" and had to learn to
p lay them. Fortw1ately, the picture hit and a large audience
showed up for our motion-control recitals. Since tl1en,
m~y innova tions h ave come abou t in the equipment
(which are not seen directly by the film-going public) and
many good motion-control cinematographers have developed.
There are two main techniques for programming
motion files: One is to use start and end positions for each
axis of motion (there could be any number up to perhaps
16) and have the computer generate the moves. The other
allows the camera person to generate the move by joystick.
It is my opinion that the computer-generated method is
superior for graphics and animation purposes, and the
human interface is best for most miniature and model
photography. If sh ots are crea ted using a computer, tl1e
moves will have mathematically perfect curves, slow-ins,
slow-outs, etc., and no heartbeat or verve- especially in
action sequences - therefore becoming subliminally predictable and less interesting to the audience. Hwnan operators do not produce this mathematical perfection; ins te~d t!"'ey ~ailor the ~amera move to what is interesting in
theu viewfinder. This hwnan sense of curiosity is present
in the work of a great operator, and this transfers to the
audience.
Traveling Matte Composite

Photography
Development of dual film systems has not kept pace

wi th improvements in the blue screen system, and beginrung in the Star Wars era, the blue screen system became
overwhelmingly the metl1od of choice.
by Petro Vlahos and Bill Taylor, ASC

In this type of composite photography, the compositing is done on an optical printer. Both the foregrow1d and
background scenes are printed onto a dupe negative. A
sill1ouette (male) matte is employed to prevent the backgrow1d scene from exposing the area occupied by the FG
action. A cover (female) matte is used to protect the background scene from veiling when the FG action is printed
onto the dupe negative (see figures 1-5).
There are two basic teclu1iques for generating the
matte: dual film, and single film. The d ual film technique
employs a dual film camera an d beam splitter. A color
negative records the action, and a black & white film
record s a matte (sill1ouette) of the action. The backing behind the actor requires special illumination w hich will expose the B & W matte film, but will not expose the separate color negative. Various illuminators have been used
including Ultraviolet, Jnfrared, and Sodiwn.
The sodium system is by far the most-used dual film
matte system . As originally used in England, it required a
backing ill uminated by monochromatic sodium light.
Didymiu m g lass filters were required on all set lamps to
subtract the sodium wavelength from the foreground lighting. These filters caused a light loss of abou t two stops.
An improved sodium system initially introduced in
1959 employed a special beamsplitter and narrow band filter in the ca mera. It d oes not require filters on the set lamps
and does not s ignificantly a ffect exposure. This improved
sodiu m system was used extensively at Disney Studios and
is still used occasionally, as in the feature Dick Tracy.
The sod ium system (or any dual fi lm system) has the
basic disadvantage of requ iring separa tion between the
backi ng and the actor. The actor must be kept well away
fro m the backin g so as not to be contaminated by sodium
illwnination. For this reason the actor (and his feet and his
shadow) cannot get into and among the elements of the
backgrow1d scene. Set pieces may be photographed with
the actor and matted into the background scene along with
him, but it is very difficult to perfectly match (say) a foregrow1d floor to a floor in the background witl1out a test.
Blue Screen Process

The Color Difference Traveling Matte System is the
mos t flexible of all compositing techniques. It can be used
with any pin-registered camera, and with normal unfiltered
set ligh ting lamps. The only special requ irement is that one
mus t pain t the backing a n appropria te blue. The bluescreen traveling matte techniq ue prior to 1959 had as its
trademark a blue halo following a ll moving objects (and
freque~tly non-moving objects). The Color Difference system ehnunates the blue halo and provides n early all the
advantages offered by other compositing systems but w ithou t their disadvantages or limitations.
The Color Difference Traveling Matte System properly
mattes rapid motion, smoke, glassware, water, fine detail,
and so forth. It also permi ts an actor in the FG to move in,
among and behind objects in the backgrow1d scene. Further, the actor's shadow can be caused to fall realis tically
upon the objects in the BG scene even when that scene is
in rea lity a miniature. No other com positing technique offers this range of flexibility.
The theory of the Color Difference system is based on
colorimetry, and is sta ted as follows: (1) Excepting the colors blue and magenta, all colors have a blue content that is
equal to, or less than, their green content. (2) AUthe remaining colors excep t yell ow an d green have equal blue and
green content.
When the blue and green content of a scene is equal,
the blue and green B & W separa tions wi ll be identical.
Th us, there is no need to make a blue sepa ration to reproduce such colors as reds, flesh tones, all shades of pink,
white, gray, and all saturations of cya n. Since tl1e blu e and
green separations (for these specific colo rs) are identical,
one would simply use the green separa tion twice; once as
the green printing separation, and once as the blue printing separation.
When this select group of colors appears in ilie foreground of a blue-screen shot, the g reen sep ara tion h as one
W1ique difference as compared to the blue sepa ration .
Whereas the blue screen area is essentially clear on the blue
Fig . 1. Action as filmed in front

of plain (blue) backing.
Fig . 2. Female matte of action

in Fig . 1; also called "matte
master."
Fig. 3 Male matte o f action on

Fig. 1. (In practice, a print
from film shown in Fig . 2.)
Fig . 4. Background sc ene to

be combined with foregro und
action in Fig. 1.
Fig. 5. The final composite

print; Fig. 1 plus Fig . 4, via
Figs. 2 and 3.
separa tion, this area is quite dense (black) on the green

separation. Because of this density, the blue screen reprod uces as a black screen when the green separation is substituted for the blue separa tion. Very little cover (female)
ma tte is needed because of the high density on the green
separation in the blue backing area.
A cover matte density of 0.6 to 0.9 is generally sufficient when using an excellent blue screen such as tl1e rearilluminated Stewart T-matte blue. The problem with the
blue separation is that it is essentially clear in the blue back-
432
ing area and requires a very dense cover matte which rarely
fits.
The green separa tion is an almost ideal replacement
for the blue separation beca use of its high d ensity (blackness) in the blue-screen area and because it has the correct
d ensity for all of the foreground colors except for yellow
and green.
The green separa tion wo uld be a perfect blue replacement if a way could be fo und to add a little extra density
where green and yellow objects occur. The addition of this
needed extra density for green and yellow is the fw1Ction
of the Color Difference matte. The Color Difference matte
is otherwise a clear film except for a few spots of density
where a yellow or green object existed .
The Color Difference ma tte is made by p rinting with
blue light through a bi-pack consisting of tl1e original negative and the green separa tion positive. The only areas that
are simultaneously clear on both films are those areas that
were green or yellow in the original scene.
When tl1e Color Difference matte is laid over the green
separation, and their combined densities are compared to
tl1e blue separation, they will be identical in all areas except
the blue-screen area, which will be black instead of clear.
Thus, the Color Difference matte togetl1er with the green
separation area makes a perfect replacement for the blue
separation. This "synthetic" blue separation is perfect beca use it has all the correct densities for foreground colors
while remaining essentially black in the blue backing area.
The only limitation of the system as described is that
it cannot rep roduce colors in which blue content exceeds
green content, e.g., blue and magen ta. Desaturated blues
(like blue jeans) reproduce acceptably.
When it is necessary to reproduce a saturated blue in
the foreground, a green backing may be substituted for the
blue one. While this is a common p ractice in video matting,
it's harder to get a good res ult in film because the blue
record (the grainiest of the three layers) must then be used
twice. Good pure-green illuminators are not widely available.
Because all three separa tions (with blue being replaced
with the synthetic blue) are essentially black in the bluescreen region there is no need to use high-con trast, highdensity cover mattes. The mattes should be made on film
stocks having essentially the same gm a as the B & W
separations. The male matte should be transparent to the
r
deg ree the subject was h'ctnsparent and should be no denser
than is necessa ry to jus t prevent print-through. Such semitransparent mattes permit th e reproduction of semi-transparen t objects.
When it is practical to eliminate yellow and green from
the foreground objects, it is possible to sin1ply su bstitute the
green separation for the blue separation and achieve the full
flexibility of the Color Difference system.
When it is permissible to allow a reduction of sa turation of yellow objects and a shlft of green objects a little
toward cyan, the blue separation can be made by a mixed
blue/green exposure. The blue backing area w ill be quite
dark. Actually, it is on ly one s top (about 0.3 density) below
that of the green separation. The use of a slightly denser
cover matte (increased abo ut 0.3) is all that is need ed to
prevent veiling of the background. Thls mixed blue/green
technique is a sim p.l ification and p roduces acceptable results w hen it is not necessary to reproduce sa turated yellow or g reen.
Screen Types and Lighting:

Back-lit screens
A perfect blue backing would expose only the bluesensitive layer of the color negative. Crosstalk in the negative layers, imperfect ill uminators, and s pill Lig ht on the set
all compro mise this ideal. Nevertheless, thanks to the joint
efforts of the visual effects community and film manufacturers, the best current combinations of screen illumination
and negative type yield backings of unprecedented q uality.
Either of two types of blue backings can be used in the
blue-screen matte process. lf the background scene is one
into which the acto r (or subject) will not enter, then a simp le
vertical blue su rface is all that is n eeded for matting. An
excellent blue backing for this purpose is the rear-illuminated Stewa rt T-matte bl ue screen.
The best illuminators available today are banks of
narrow band fluo rescent tubes driven by high-frequency
(flickerless) e lectronic ballasts. These tubes can be filmed
at any camera speed w itho ut frame-to-frame variation in
illumination. The phosphors in these tubes are formulated
to produce a sharply-cut blue lig ht that w ill not expose the
green sensitive layer of the 5248 and 5296 color negative to
any harmful degree, and w ill not expose the red-sensitive
434
layer at all. These nearly-perfect blue illu.rniJ.1ators allow the

use of the thum est possib le cover matte for best res ults in
reproducing smoke, transparencies, blowing hair, reflections, et cetera.
Manufacturers of these special purpose tubes and fixtures include the originator, Jonathan Erland, at Composite Components Co. in Los Angeles, who can also supply
fabric and paint. Lightweight fix tures and hlgh frequency
ballasts are available for rent from Kinoflo in Sun Va lley,
California. Ballasts mad e by these co mpa n ies can be
dimmed; a great convenience in adjusting screen brightness. The only drawback of these setu ps is cost.
Fair res ults (at much less expense) can be ach ieved
w ith commercial daylight-blue fl uorescent tubes wrapped
w ith deep blue Rosco or other manufacturers' filter sheets.
The combil1ation of the Stewart screen and the fil ters eliminate most of the green lig ht from the tubes. Although commercial blue-print tubes have also been used , this is not recommended because of their very high UV o utput.
Regular 60-cycle ballasts can be used w ith any of these
tubes a t the cost of weight and power efficiency. The drawback is that 24 fps filming must be crystal-controlled to
avoid flicker, and any hlgh-speed work must be at crystalcon trolled multiples of 30 fps. These tubes are somewhat
forgiving of off-speed fi lming beca use of the slight "lag"
of the phosphors.
In the pas t, Stewart translucent screens have been Lit
by large banks of Par reflector floods. Since i11candescent
lamps are a very inefficient source of blue light, the fluorescent system has made this method obsolete.
Front-lit Screens
The pril1cipal advantage of the rear-illuminated screen
is the ins tant uniform illumination obtained at the flip of a
switch. Unfortu.nately, few s tudios have perman ent facilities for la rge back-lit screens. A front-illuminated bluepainted surface is also accep table fo r traveling matte photography. It has the advan tage of availability. Any smooth
surface tha t can be pain ted, incl uding flats, a can vas backing, and so forth, can be used as the blue backing.
An increasing ly popular illu mina tor fo r fr ont-lit
screens are arrays of the special-purpose blue fl uorescents
described above. The broad, soft-light nature of fluorescents
makes it relatively easy to illuminate screens of 100 feet or
435
r
Front-lit Blue Screen Materials
more in width. More care must be taken to eliminate spill

illumination on front-lit screens. With care, front-lit screens
can produce a result every bit as good as back-lit scenes.
Blue screens ca n also be front-lit with blue-filtered
HMI or Carbon Arc Lamps. Getting even illUI11ination with
these sources is a time-consuming challenge, and filters
must be carefully watched for fading. Photographic results
are good to fair. Least desirable by a large margin (for film
purposes) is a blue surface front-illUI11inated with w hite
light. White ligh t, however, is essential when the actor and
his shadow must appear to enter into the background
scene.
Composite Components and the Dazian Company

supply a useful screen ma terial in blue or green; the fabric
is slightly stretchy and has a fuzzy surface that helps to kill
reflections of foreground lights. It is not the preferred choice
for a white-lit floor. An acceptable blue paint is the 5720
Ultimatte Blue from Rosco Laboratories.
A new backing material is the Stewart-Ultimatte Blue
Screen designed for front illumination. It is a plastic sheet
material that can be rolled or stretched on a frame. It is
tough enough to walk on and is washable. This material is
slightly photographically superior to any of the paints for
matting. It is available in sizes up to 40' x 90'. Since this
material is quite expensive, it is best used for floors where
its scuff-resistance is most valuable. The material may be
used with walls and backings painted with high quality
blue paint.
Blue Floor Shooting

If the actor is to get into and walk about in the backgrow1d scene, then the floor must also be painted blue. The
same type of (white) light and lighting fi xtures that light
the actor (subject) are also used to light the blue floor and
backing. A shadow cast on a blue-painted wall or floor by
the subject can be transferred (when desired) into the background scene together with the subject.
Floor shootin g is the most difficult kind of traveling
matte shot to light. It is also the most rewarding because it
permits the actor to walk or sit upon objects in the background as well as to enter or exit d oorways, even when the
background scene is a miniature. When the actor's shadow
is made to fall upon the ground or other surfaces in the
background scene, the composite scene is readily accepted
as real.
Matte contrast must be high in a floor shot to achieve
separation from the contaminated blue of the floor. The
problem is often compow1ded by glare from back ligh ting.
Cover mattes must be heavy, and will take on a "cut-out"
appearan ce W1less measures are taken to soften the edge.
Necessarily, reproduction of fine edge detail will suffer. An acceptable compromise between edge softness and
detail is sometimes impossible. When it is possible toreproduce the actors' shadows, the shadows are often unacceptably grainy. Industrial Light & Magic's tiny "brownies" in Willow are th e most successful white-light blue-floor
composites to date, partly because the costume color was
controlled to stay on the warm side of the spectrum. Even
so, their shadows had to be entirely hand-anima ted. The
finest-quality blue-floor shots are yet to come, from electronic compositing (see below).
Front-Projected Blue Backings

Blue backings of almost W1lirnited size may be frontprojected onto Scotchlite material using a beamsplitter and
a special blue illUI11ina tor. A refined system of this type is
the Apogee Blue Max projector, now owned and operated
by Sony Studios. An ingenious extension of this system,
known as Reverse Front Projection, can create a blue backing that will not reflect in even the shiniest foreground
objects. Space helmets and completely silvered p rops were
matted using this system in 2010 and other films. These
systems are described elsewhere in this book.
Light Level for the Stewart T-matte

Blue Translucent Screen
A paper gray scale and a Wratten 47 blue filter may
be used to set the ligh t level on the translucent Stewart Tmatte screen. When the p aper gray scale is in the p osition
of the actor and illuminated for n ormal exposure nt the desiredfs top, the blue backing illUI11ina tion should be adjusted
when the gray scale and screen are viewed simultaneously
through the 47 blue filter. The iliUI11ina tion is proper an d
sufficiently uniform when it falls within the range defin ed
by white and the first step below w hite on the gray scale.
I
Note that the blue screen negative density should be

the same at all f-stops. A spot meter may be calibrated for
use with the appropriate blue fi lter to read f-stops d irectly.
Lighting a Front-Illuminated Backing

Backings illuminated separately from the subject, such
as those lit by blue fl uorescent lamps, may be balanced by
the same procedure as the translucent screens above.
If one is using a relatively efficient blue surface lit with
white light, such as the Stewart-Ultimatte Front-Lit blue
screen mentioned ea rlier, the proper inciden t light level on
the backi ng is the same as th at illumina ting the subject.
Thus, whatever value is used to light the actor's face is also
the correct va lue fo r the backing.
Lighting Procedure for Holding the

Shadow
I. Tu rn on the key light so as to cast the desired
shadow.
2. Adjust the fill light in the shadow to achieve the
desired shadow density.
3. Measure the brightness on the floor just outside the
shadow (use a spot brightness meter an d blue filter).
4. Light all the rest of the bl ue floor to this measured
brightness. while adding as little light as possible to the
shadow a rea.
5. Light the blue walls to achieve the same brightness
as the floor.
6. Reduce fi ll in the shadow, if necessary, to reta in
shadow density. Shadow density is controlled by adjusting the fi ll light, not by adjusting the keylight.
Outside the shadow, the entire blue set sh ould appear
to have equal and w1ifo rm intensity as seen from the camera position.
Si.n ce the hu man eye has a fast automatic iris fo r small
light changes, it is not a good measuring device. It is necessa ry to use a spot brightness meter and blue fil ter to d1eck
for uniform brighh1ess. A Polaroid camera with black &
white fi lm and a blue fi lter is also useful for making a quick
check of lighting LUlifo rmity. Beca use of the relatively flat
angle between the came ra and floor, the floor w ill not appear to be as blue as the back wall. A diffused, polarized
white light component is reflected by the floor because of
438
the fla t angle. For hold ing good shadows it is essential to

use a p olarizin g filter over the ca mera lens. The HN38 is
recommended. Rota te the filter until the floor glare is canceled.
Lighting to Eliminate the Shadow

1. Light the entire blue set un iformly with large area
di ffused light sources.
2. Check Wlifo rmity as noted in the preceding paragraph.
3. Place the actor in position. If he casts a shadow add
additional low-level lighti ng to return the ligh t level ti, the
shadow to its orig inal level.
~-Add a mod est key ligh t to crea te d esired modeling,
and Ignore the shadow it casts. The added key light will
cause a_ sh adow to be visible to the eye, but because the key
hght d1d not reduce the blue intensity of the floor (in the
shadow it has crea ted), the shad ow can be made to dropout in the matting process.
Lighting to Match the Background

. There is more to lightin g a convincing composite than
sun ply matchin~ the d irectio~ an d color of the lights on the
background. It IS not unmed1ately obvious, but for practical purposes, a person on a blue stage is (from a lighting
standpoint) standing on and /or in fron t of black velvet.
Since the ~att:i.ng process drops out the blue backing and
the blue kick from ~e edges of the FG object, the object may
as well have been m a black stage. This blackness causes
no problem If the background scene is a night scene that is
essentially dark.
~ow ever, if the backgroLmd is to be a ligh t day scen e,
then 1f t~e person h ad realJy been in that day environment,
that envrronment ':"ould h~ve provided back and edge light
well as reflected hg_ht to hght up the hair and to provide
the normal edge bnghtness along arms, sides of the face,
etc. _Th e cinem_atographer m ust back- and side-ligh t the
subject to provide about the same amount an d direction of
lighting the environment would have provided . If this is
not done, edges of arms and legs and faces go dark an d the
scene looks like a cutout.
Inappropriate lighting will compromise a shot the instant it comes on the screen, while faulty com positing tedlnique may be noticeable only to experts.
439
Other Lighting Considerations

Blue illumination and blue reflections from the screen
on the subject must be minimized for top-quality results.
It should be noted that i!lwllilwtion and reflection are separate issues!
.
Blue illumination from the screen can be made negligible by movin g the actors away from the screen (at least
15', 25' is better) and by masking off a Uthe screen area that
is not actually needed behind the actors ..(The rest ?~ the
frame can be filled i.n wi th window mattes m compos1hng.)
Reflections can be controlled by reducing the screen
size or disguised wi th dulli ng spray, but som~times cannot be e liminated. ln the worst case, reflections make
"holes" in the matte whid1 must be filled in with hand work
in compositing. Of course when the actor must stand~ t~e
middle of a blue-painted set, some blue contammahon LS
w1avoidab le.
Using the UltiMatte Video Previewer

UltiMatte is a video matting device that can provi~e a
preview of the final composite scene 01~ a color .m~mtor
prior to and during photography. The Ul~Matte eli.nuna.tes
much of the ~ruesswork and Lmcertamty m photographing
complex sce~es in which the actor must be realistically integra ted a mong people a nd objects in the back9round
scene. Prior to UltiMatte, complex blue-screen shoohng was
slow, difficult, and often w1successful.
A small color video camera is used to observe the scene
to be photographed. A videocassette player is used t? provide a background scene. if the background scene .ts unava ilable, UltiMatte genera tes a test scene. The UltiMatte
accepts and mattes both scenes to show the comp~stte on
a color monitor. The Ulti Matte generates electromc male
and female mattes which are the equivalent of the mattes
genera ted by the Color I?ifference Blue ?creen Pr?cess.
What one sees on the mom tor correlates qwte well w tth the
subsequent film composite.
The UltiMatte Previewer does the

following:
1. lt observes the blue backing and ind icates visually
any areas that are under-i llu~ated. This reduces lighting
to a fraction of the norma l hme.
2. It displays the male matte and determines whe ther
or not the subject can be matted. It shows exactly where a

d ulling spray or a change of angle of a set piece is needed.
3. It displays the fully matted picture and indicates
what lighting adjustments may be needed to successfully
hold or eliminate a shadow.
4. !t permits exact positioning of set pieces to match
positions of objects in the background scene.
5. It permi ts all the problems on the set to be detected
and corrected before shooting. This is a prerequisite to getting a good matting job from the lab. After the quality of
the foreground image is ascertained through the UltiMatte
previewer, a motion picture camera replaces the video camera and the process continues in the conventional mam1er.
Laboratory Procedures for

Compositing
The Color Difference Blue Screen Traveling Ma tte
System permits a high level of realism. To maintain this
realism in.such items as smoke, glassware, fine detail, an d
so for th, special care must be exercised in selecting the density and gamma of the separations and ma ttes. All sepa rations (and certain mattes) are to be made on a black & white
pan ch romatic film stock at a n ominal gamma of 1.0. (with
aU printing factors, such as the "Callier Q Effect," taken into
account). The Eastman 5235 film is suitable. Each positive
separation of a gray scale, when superimposed over the
color negative, should result in a consta nt density-sum for
aU steps on the scale. Furthermore all the steps on the gray
scale must lie on the straight line portion of the D-Log E
curve for each layer of the color negative and for all three
separation positives.
Upon examining the red separation positive (Red+) it
will be seen that the film is quite dark in the blue-screen
region. The Red needs very little add itional density to fully
protect the dupe negative. Dep ending upon the red contamination in the blue backing, a cover matte adding
as little as 0.3 to 0.6 density may be adequate to prevent red
veiling.
The green separation w ill be less dense in the blue
backing region and will require additional d ensity to protect the dupe negative from veiling. The fac t tha t as much
as 0.9 add itional density may be needed in dica tes a substantial green leakage. If tl1e added density is obtained on
a separate piece of film having density of 0.9, this low-den-
441
r
sity female cover matte may be under-sized, reswting in a
greenish edge that may be visible against the background.
If the additional density is added as additional exposure before developin g the green printing sepa ration, normal edge growth is acrueved and no green fringe occurs.
The female matte should have a gamma of 1.0. It may be
made directly or printed from a male matte.
The green cover matte is genera lly too dense to use for
printing the red sepa ration . If the same cover matte is used
for this purpose, transparent objects and the blurred edge
of moving objects will have a cyan tint. The density difference between a white object and the blue backin g (with
cover ma tte) showd be the same for both separations.
The gamma of the color difference ma tte must bearrived at by experiment to match the contrast of the separation positives. A gamma of 1.0 is a good starting place. The
color difference matte can exist as a separa te film, or be
combined with one of the other films.
The male ma tte should be just dense enough in the
subject area to avoid print-through, while being relatively
clear in the blue backing region to permit printing in the
BG scene. Depending on the na ture of the two scenes and
the lack of purity in the blue backing, it may be necessary
to increase the gamma of the male matte to as high as 1.5
to 2.0 to obtain enough density to avoid print-through.
The gamma of the male matte should not be increased
more than is necessary to prevent print-through b ecause
excessive gamma causes noise in shadow areas, a loss of
fine detail, and a loss of transparency ran ge.
The following table lists alternative methods that may
be used to produce the various mattes and printing records.
Choices a re d etermined in part by the colors in the FG
scene.
Current Film Stocks are:
Color Negative:
B&W Separations:
Matte Films:
Color Du pe Negative:
442
Eastman EXR 5248 & 5296

Eastman Panachroma tic
Separa tion Film 5235
Eastman Panachromatic
Separation Film 5235 & 50202
developed to high gam ma o r
Eastman High Contrast
Panachroma tic Film 5369
developed to a low gamma.
Eas tman Color intermediate 5244
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Electronic and Digital Compositing
Because Ultimatte video composites are much more
forgiving of contaminated backings, it was a natural progression to adapt Ultima tte matting logic to create film
composites by both analog and digital means.
The Sony high-definition cameras, together with th e
30 Mhz. high-definition Ultimatte-6, have produced some
scenes for theatrical motion pictures in Japan and Italy.
More recently, Sony Hi-Definition Facilities, Inc. in Culver
City, California has offered a film-to-film service using the
same high definition video equipment. Feature films using
this comp ositing process are in production.
Already the line between optical effects companies,
computer graphics companies and video post houses has
begun to blur as digital film composites become widely
available from these sources.
Most visual effects companies, such as ILM and Boss
Film have developed proprietary systems. Computer
Graphics creators such as the pioneering Digital Film Company and Pacific Data Images provide digital composites
along with their other services. Composite Image Systems
in Hollywood offers their "D.O.T" process, another 1000+
line, film-to-film system. There are certainly many more to
follow.
At tlus writing, a most advanced digital film-to-film
system is being demonstrated as a pilot project of the
Eastman Kodak Company. Their Cineon system can create d igital dupe negatives indistinguishable from the original on the screen. Ultimatte Compositing technology is
employed in their work stations at Kodak's Cinesite, which
offers a 4000 line ultra high-resolution film-to-film scanning, printing, and composi ting service. Effects teams for
several feature films, including Super Mario Brothers, have
used Cinesite services.
Ultimatte Digital Compositing, which now includes
screen correction, represents a major advance in image
compositing. Ultimatte Cinefusion compositing software
is available for several computer platforms.
Digital compositing greatly expands the scope and
application of blue-screen photography. White-lit screens
are much less of a problem. Ultimatte Screen correction, at
the touch of a button, provides instant lighting uniformity
on walls and floor having non-uniform illumination and
varying shades of blue.
444
_ Particularly excit!ng is the prospect of shooting frontht blue screen compost tes outdoors in natural light; it's relattvely easy to get good results in the electronic realm, but
nea rly impossible wi th present purely photo-mechanical
methods.
With all that said, even in this digi tal age, we should
not forget tl1a t fi rst-class composites can still be made on
inexpensive, widely ava ilable optical printers. In jonathan
Erland's phrase, op tical printilig is "parallel processi ng at
the speed of light!"
Black & White Self-Matting Process

The Stewart T-matte translucent blue backing provides
a blue of sufficient puri ty to make possible a self-matting
process. The subject is illumina ted with yellow ligh t and
tS photographed on Eastman 5248 color negative, or a color
reversal film. When the n egative is used, a color print is
made. (The yellow fi lter should pass no blue light in the400
to 500 nanometer range.)
_ TJ:e color positive is printed to a B & W dupe negative usmg yellow hght. The blue field on the print is its own
cover matte, and no exposure occurs in the blue field area.
Ne~t, the color posi tive is used as a male matte through
whtch the B & W background scene is printed on the same
dupe negative with blue light. The color print prevents
exposure i11 the subject a rea by blue light.
In tlus system, no other separations or mattes are required. The process holds smoke, glassware and hair detaiL It is not an important system in an era when almost all
films are made in color.
The Future for Traveling Matte

Composite Photography
by Jonathan Erland, FSMPTE
Executive Vice President,
The Technology Council of the Motion Picture/Television Industry
The 1977 release of Star Wars precipitated a new era

of visual-effects wizardry that continues to the present. In
~a ct, with t~e adv_ent of d igital film scartning, electronic
tmage mampulatwn and computer-generated imagery
445
(CGI) added to the still-growing wealth of evolving photochemical and in-camera compositing technique, the art
and craft of cinematography finds itself in possession of
w1precedented power over the moving image. Implicit in
this newly acquired capability is a requirement for an increased awareness and sensitivity to the new and evolving
technology on the part of a ll the craftspeople involved in
cine matography. Composite cinematography should be
preceded by careful analysis of both the method and the
material most appropriate to achieve the desired resul t.
Film Stock
Improvements in film stocks are now occurring wi th
such rapidity as to preclude the prior practice of providing comparative data in this manual. Instead, guidelines for
use in selecting and testi ng appropriate stocks for composite photography will be discussed.
The importance of color d ifference matting in composite photography has now been sufficiently well established
that all manufactu rers have made efforts to achieve th e
requisite d1romatic discretion in their product. Recent years
have seen the advent of a major breakthrough in fi lm stock
construction. This is attributed to the development of tabular-shaped silver halide crystals, commonly called "T"
grain, in which the crystal is as little as one-tenth as thick
as it is wide. The goal of the new crystal design is to provide a relatively la rger target for a given mass of crystal.
This has two effects: one, the speed versus grain ratio is
in creased, producing a finer grain image fo r a given speed;
two, the various layers tl1a t make up the total emulsion are
relatively thinner, providing for less light scattering witlun
the emulsion a nd producing a clearer, sharper image
(greater accutance).
The new grain structure is a substantial improvement,
and still better performance is promised for the fu ture.
However, cinematographers intending to prod uce composite photography must be aware that sud1 enh anced performa nce is accompanied by increased susceptibility to instabili ty; tl1e very high-speed film stocks are sensitive to physical stress. Certain types of ca mera movements disrupt the
silver-halide crystals within the emulsion, causing uneven
exposwe of one or more color records. In tw1gsten stocks,
this is usually the blue (and fastest) record.ln normal conventional production, the effect is usually so subtle as to be
inconsequential. However, in the far more cri tica l realm of

composite photography, such effects can be very serious.
Thus it is ever more important to test both the film stock
and the camera prior to embarking on any composite cinematography.
Split-screen composites are particularly susceptible to
high-speed emulsion stress syndrome, as the tvvo (or more)
elemen ts will be acqui red from different takes. Since the
effect is erratic, the result is to reveal the spli t. In blue screen
composites, the effect can cause tl1e mattes (usually derived
from the blue record) to beat (fl uctuate) from subtle size
changes.
Therefore, film stocks an d cameras under consideration for the production should be subjected to a simple
test. Expose the candida te film stock in the camera of choice
so that a wliformly illu minated 18 percent grey card fills
the frame. Incl ude a slate in the field to record perti nent
da ta. Make two successive takes. In take one, allow the
camera to run norma lly for several seconds. In take two,
allow the camera to come to speed and then intermittently
interfere with the feed pulley of the magazine by pinching
the pulley with the fingers. This action has the effect of
sending a shock wave through the film as it passes through
the camera, exacerbating any tendency on the part of either
the film stock or the ca mera to emulsion stress syndrome.
On projection, the print may exhibit density and colorimetry changes corresponding to the interference applied to
the magazine. If the print does exhibit such changes, it is
probably the result of emu lsion stress.
What is occurring is a transient d isorientation of the
silver-halide crystals due to their uniquely thin and flat
structure. The consequence is a piezoelectric effect in which
electrons are momentarily dislocated. This temporary phenomenon affects the rela tive speed of th e emulsion, which
translates into the characteristic fluctuations in image density. The degree of fluctuation observed wi ll indicate the
magnitude of risk. If fl uctuations are observed in the initial and unstressed take, the stock should be absolutely
avoided. If needed, a careful analysis can be made by having black & white color separation positives made from the
negative on a high-contrast stock such as Eastman 5269.
This test will more read ily reveal tl1e degree of density fluctuation in the separate color records of tl1e stock. Altematively, the negative may be run on a telecine, permitting any
fluctuations to be observed on a waveform monitor.
Remember that the stress syndrome is a function of

both the stock and the camera, so that a change of either
may rectify the problem. In some cases the necessary camera modification is quite simple. For example, the modification for the Mitchell Standard is the substitution of a large
diameter (.700") first id ler roller for the stock (.366") roller.
The camera must a lso be rigorously tested for steadiness of the movement and should preferably have provision fo r the incl usion of a fil m clip in the viewfinder system to facilitate the lineup of the other elemen ts of the composite photography.
Colorimetry tests should now be cond ucted wh.id1 wiLl
determine the suitability for the color d ifference travelingmatte technique. For these tests, the frame should consist
of a blue field of the type anticipated in production (a d iscussion of various types of backing follows). Also included
in the frame should be an 18 percent grey card, as well as a
black void. The black void is created by lining a box, tin can
or other vessel with black velvet and displaying it to the
camera in sud1 a way that no light falls on the interior, the
object being to provide an area on the negative in which
no exposure has occurred.
This particular test is useful in revealing any tendency
of the lens to "veil" blue light across non-blue areas of the
image, and also to ind icate the presence of excessive ultraviolet radia tion scattering in the lens an d ca mera body.
While the ultraviolet can be blocked with a filter (such as a
Wratten 2E), nothing much can be done about a lens tha t
is veiling blue, and in sucl1 a case an alternative lens should
be selected. If possible, the frame should also contain a pure
bl ue reference. For the test only, both the blue backing field
and the gray card should be illuminated equally when read
by a spotmeter. A wedge should be shot extending two
stops above and ttuee stops below nominal at half-stop increments.
The developed negative should be read on a color
densitometer, preferably in consul tation with the technician
responsible for the com positing process. For sin1plicity, the
densitometer can be nulled to zero on a clear, unexposed
portion of the negative. TI1is permits subsequent readings
to produce values for each record above D min. For a photochemical composite process, the candidate film stock
should exhibit a high degree of color discretion. (For an
electronic composite process different criteria apply, and
these wi ll be discussed separately). Sample readi ngs from
448
an actual desirable film stock are: Red .02, Green .16, and
Blue 1.20. This yields a Bl ue/Green d ifference of 1.04 density units. Sample readings from a less-than-desi rable film
stock are: Red .04, Green .44, and Blue 1.24., yielding a Blue/
Green difference of .80 density wlits.
As is observed in Petro Vlahos' tutorial on blue screen,
the degree of green densi ty in the blue-screen area will
determine the d ensity of the cover matte, w hich in turn
determines the quality of the final composite. Thus the low
green reading of the first example is very desirable compared to the considerably higher read ing of the second
example.
Tf the wedge reveals that a desired balance between a
low green density a nd a sufficient blue density results in
an underexposed gray card, then an adjushnent to the luminance of the blue backi ng is called for. In p ractice, this
frequently results in a blue backing Jwninance about one
stop lower than the fo reground illumination . Some optical
camera opera tors prefer a slightl y overexposed foreg round
scene, which can increase still further the spread between
fo reground and blue backing. On the other hand, other
operators prefer a lligher backing lunlinance. Moreover, the
lwninance of tl1e background plate will influence the selection of backing lumi nance values, with high-lu minance
pla tes (i.e., bald sky) requi ring higher luminance backings
and 1light scenes calling for lower backing levels. The lesson here is to consult witl1 the op erator at the earliest possible opportunity.
While the catalogue of techniques for enhancing the
results of blue screen process is too extensive to explore in
this tutoria l, tl1ere a re two relati vely simple tactics that can
make a significant d ifference. The first procedure is to rerate the film stock to half its normal ra ted speed, thus overexposing it by one stop, and then compensate for tllis overexposure by instructing the lab to pull process one stop,
thus reducing the development. Tllis man euver results in
a normally exposed negative but with a noticeable reduction in graininess and improved resolution. The second
procedure is to select a fine-grain daylight-balanced stock
for the blue screen photography. This requires either lighting with HM1 or filtering tw1gsten light appropriately. The
main reason this is effective is that the blue screen process
makes use of the blue record of the nega ti ve to deri ve
ma ttes; and while this is a fast, relatively coarse-grain
record in a tungsten-balanced stock, it is a very fine-grained
449
record in a daylight-balanced stock. The tradeoff for both

of these maneuvers is the relatively extravagant use of ligh t.
Video and Electronic Scanning

The cri teria for backing exposures for telecine transfer and electronic scanning intended for compu ter image
manipulation ca n differ qui te s ignificantly from photoch em ica l requirements. In genera l, a negative p roperly
exposed for fi lm compositing wil l have a blue luminance
level at, or above, the upper limit for optimu m video matting. A sophistica ted video m a tting system s uch as the
Ultimatte is capable of producing a matte from as li ttle as
40 l.R.E. video units, which would occur at abou t four stops
lower backi ng lu minance than for a fiJm blue screen composite. Video "clipping" occurs at about 100 l.R.E. video
units. Thus, with a high-luminance blue backing, the blue
level will reach clip and ca nnot increase fur ther, w hile U1e
inevitable green density may continue to rise, reducing the
d egree of separation between green and blue. Mo reover,
excessive lum inance of the backing threatens the image
d etail a t the matte edge, w hich wi ll detract from the qua lity of the composite. A target, then, is a poi11t wiUW1 thecapability of both the optical and video processes, and this
occurs at the 1.20 density Ullits above D min. in the blue
record. Below this point, fi lm com positing becomes difficult, whil e above it, v ideo ma tting suffers.
Ultimatte "Screen Correction"

Video matting from film via the Ultima tte can a lso
avail itself of the screen-correction feature. To use this attr ibute, a take should be prepared of the blue-screen scene
exactly as it will be shot for the p roduction, w ith a lockedoff camera but withou t any of th e live action. If the scene
req uires camera moves, a mo tion-control system sho uld be
p rov ided for the camera, and the ca libration take r un with
the m oti on-contro l p rogra m for each s ho t. No fur the r
changes s ho uld be made to s uch mo tion-control programs
w1less another calibration take is also made.
In the postprod uction compositing process, the ca libra tion take will be used to "map" the blue-screen area and
correct for any deficiencies. Thereafter, actua l production
takes w ill use this information as a reference and correct
the deficiencies fo r all subsequent takes. The main advantage of this procedure is to lessen the burd en on th e stage
crew in providing effective matting backings, thus speeding setups an d reducing costs. Permitting this technology
to become a panacea, however, entails risk; if the Ultimatte
is Ullavailable or the calibration take is Ullusable fo r any
reason, it w ill then be difficult to fall back on m ore conventional techniques. The result will be very costly and timeconsuming to overcome. It's a good idea to make screencorrection calibration takes wh ile also making every reasonable effort to p rovid e a functional blue screen in the
original photography, relying on the screen correction only
as an insurance policy.
Electronic Scanned Film for FeatureQuality Composites

As this edition of the manual goes to press, a variety
of d igital electronic film scanning systems are making their
appeara nce in the fea ture fil m industry . The Eastman
Kodak facility, C inesite, is one. Others include: Computer
Film Co. (London and Los Angeles); Component Video,
(Los Angeles); Pacific Title, (Los Angeles); Pacific Data
Images, (Los Angeles); Video Image, (Los Angeles) and
Sony H igh-Definition Facilities, (Los Angeles). Various
other faciJities are p rovid ing work s ta hons for d igi ta l image manip ulation. As w ith photochemical and video matting technique, these new systems have their own optimal
performance parameters.
While it is theoretica lly true that digital electron ic
ma tting can be performed on any color coordinates, the
sa fer p ractice is to select one of the three primary colors. The
main d eterminan t in selecting the backing color will be the
color conten t of the fo reg rOLmd scene. However, other issues to be consid ered are: U1e matting perfo rmance of the
particula r film s tock, the software program on w hich the
co mpos ite will be performed a nd the ci rcums tances in
whid1 the matte w ill be acq uired. [n the latter case, a variety of new options w ill become available to the cinematographer. Green backin gs, for exa mple, can be provided for
effecti ve daylig h t exterior traveli ng ma ttes more read ily
than can blue.
U ltimatte composi tes including the "screen correction" fea tuJe are also available on worksta tions that have
Licensed U1e p rocess. Feature-film p roductions intend ing to
use this method of com positing should observe U1e guide-
451
lines for preparing fo r video matting via Ultimatte, and the

lower backing lwninance values generally apply.
It is always wise to shoot a wedge tes t, if the opportunity exists. Such tests should include foreground detail
similar to the actua l s hoot. Thus costum e materia ls and
colors, as well as props, s ho uld be included where possible.
Stand-ins for principal players with similar hair and other
characteristics are helpful. TI1e foreground sho uld be properly exposed so that an 18% gray card will yield prope r
LAD#'s. (Laboratory Aim Dens ity vaJuesare read from the
d eveloped nega tive and should be approxi mately: Red 80,
Green 1.20 and Blue 1.60). Artis tically desired "deviations"
from this "norma l" expos ure and development can more
effectively be accomplished in the s ubsequent image processing than in original photography, w here they can compromise the scanning process.
A series of short takes is then made in which the luminance of the backing screen is progressively adjusted
from "par" wi th the foreground to two and a half stops
below par, in half-stop increments. TIUs test is then scanned
and test composites made on th e workstation of choice. In
p ractice, it may be more practical to adjus t the foreground
light than the backing illumination, compensating for exposure via ND filters.
TI1e cinematographer should make it a practice to include the gray card and gray sca le at the head of each take.
It is convenient to display th ese to the camera along with
the s late wuess the slate is illwninated with a separate sla te
light. Additionally, the running camera should be b riefl y
"capped" so as to provide a short length of film d evoid of
exposure, so that a D-mi.n. reference is produced to assist
in calibration at the sca nner.
Front-Lit Backing Materials

As with film s tocks, backing materials currently w1d ergo revision too rapidly to permit fuJ I discussion here.
The new ly emerging electronic m atting p rocesses will
m ake use of pa ints, fabrics an d plastics only now being
developed. Inquiry directed to th e followin g providers of
such m aterials w ill yield current information: 7-K Colo r
(Los Angeles); Compos ite Components Company (Los
Angeles); Daizians (New York and Los Angeles); Gothic
Color (New York); Param ount Paint (Los Angeles); Rosco
(worldwide); Stewart Filmscreen (Los Angeles).
Transmission Blue Screen

~transmission blue screen, the source lights, power
s upplies and color of the screen itself have aU seen changes.
Incan descent lights, impractical because of their low bl ue
c.ontent, have been replaced by fluo rescent lamps, in particular by lamps containing the single phosphor strontium
py rophosphate: Europium. Such la mps have a na rrow
b~d output peaking at 420 nanometers. They may be obtamed from the m aJOr lamp manufacturers and are identified by th e prefix SOB (Super Diazo Blue). These lamps (indeed a ll fl uorescen t lamps) emit a certain amount of ultrav io let lig ht; therefore, it is w ise to use a Wra tten 2E a t the
camera or a comparable UV filte r at the lamp.
It should be mentioned that there .is some evidence to
suggest that the blue end of the spectrum, particularly the
area arotmd 440 nanometers, causes accelerated agi ng of
the retina. This should no t be confused with cataracts and
problems that relate to short-wave ultraviolet. There is no
cause fo r concern for people who are casually exposed to
blue light, such as actors or s tage crew, w ho may only
spe nd a few days a year working around blue screens.
H?wever,. J?eople who spend many weeks a year working
w1th SigmfJcant amounts of blue ligh t should take some
precaution to limit their exposure. Excellent filtered glasses,
known as " Blue Blockers," are now available that will completely block ~ot only the UV but most blue light.
Stewart Filmscreen can produce transmission greenscreen materia l; a polychromatic screen can be made from
Rosco black-screen rear-projection m a terial and illuminated with the appropriate filtered lig ht to achieve any
desired backing color.
The s trobing associated w ith 60-cycle AC-driven fluorescent lamps may be essentially overcome by the use of
special high-frequency solid-state power s upplies.
Reverse Blue Screen

This process was d eveloped in response to a require':'ent to be able to matte objects incorporating hig hly reflective surfaces, s uch as g lossy pai nt (even blue paint) or
specular m etallic materials, as well as de tails s uch as m esh,
thin wire~, and the !iJ<e. Such characteris tics have proved
to be di.~ficult, and m some cases, impossible to matte by
conventional blue screen or fron tlit/ backlit processes. The
process requires a sophis ticated motion-control system
capable of multiple passes in registr~tion, and consequently

.
cannot be used for live-achon filnung.
Reverse blue screen derives its name from the bas1c
concept that, instead of trying to phot?gra~h an opaque
object against an illuminated scree~, 1t IS des1rable to p~o
tograph an illumina ting source_agamst ~ bl_ac~ or otherwise
contrasting background. In thiS way, lirrutahons inherent
in the blue screen p rocess, notabl y the tendency of_ the
screen to reflect off the surface of the foreground subject,
can be avoided.
The subject to be photo~raphed, fo r example a model
on a motion-control stage, IS coated with a transparent
medium, sud1 as lacquer or acrylic, contai_nin~ one or more
phosphors which are invisible under white hght. ~e s~b
ject is photographed, illuminated by normal stageh ghhng
sources. A second pass is then filmed, on the same film lo~d,
bu t consecutive to it. This time the stage lights a re extmguished, and the subject is irradiated with ultraviole t radiation of a wave length of about 360 nanometers ~black
Light). This process is a pp lied to stop~motwn by ~Imply
filming alternate w hite light and black light fran1es ~stead
of complete sequences. The LLltraviOle t radiation IS converted by the phosphors on the surface of the subject from
360 nanometers to ei ther 450 (blue); 550 (green); or 650 nanometers (red) and re-emi tted as visibl~ lig_h t. If a color
stock (such as EK 5248) is being use~, tlus WI!l usually be
red so it will record on the finest-gram emulsiOn layer.
The subject is now functioning as a_n illurni~atin_g
source rather than as a reflector of Light fallmg upon It. It IS
this source which is photographed. Further refined by _the
use of a color separating fil ter at the ca mera lens, the I_mage is formed primarily by the selected phosphor coatu:g
on the surface of the model, with relatively little vestigial
inlaging fiom the model itself. (In the case of red, a Wratten
23A blue, a blue dichroic plus a Wratten 2E; and green, a
gre~n dicluoic alone.) In this way, variations on the mo?~l
brought about by paint color, texture changes, etc. ~r~ rrurumized, as the object is to produce a mon_ochrom~tiC m1age
with as uniform a density as possible. It IS some times helpful to red uce the contrast range in the subject to avoid the
juxtaposition of brilliant white and jet black areas (1.e.,
space-shu ttle models). but ~s sh~uld usually be ~one as
a matter of course in prepanng subjects for coml?osit~ photography, since the ensuing ?P~cal processes will build up
contrast in the final compostte Image.
454
In addition to the desired elimination of reshictions on

subject cha racteristics, this method of obtaining mattes
provides the following advantages: First, there are fewer
steps an d fewer pieces of film required in the optical composi tion sequence. Second, even under some extreme conditions, such as a subject receding into the distance and
becoming quite sma ll, the matte image retains its integrity
and refuses to d isintegrate, as happens when the same shot
is attempted via conventional blue screen. Third, camera
freedom increases, in that a backing screen is not req uired
to be kept in the camera view; consequently, the camera can
make a 360-degree turn around a subject.
The procedure in tl1e optical department is straightforward, fast and economical. The original negative matte
image is printed to a high contrast stock via the appropriate fil ter. The exposure of best contrast between the clear
subject area and the opaque background area, usually a
density of approxi ma tely 2.6 to 2.7, is printed. The selected
d ensity tends to "pinch " the subject image slightly, thus
affording a tight fit. The reverse is then printed from this
matte, completing the set. The firs t matte, or "burn-in," is
tilen simp ly bi-packed with a posi tive of the original negative, printed and followed by a bi-pack of tile background
scene with the " hold-out" matte.
A more complex version of this process p rovides for
the add ition of a contrasting phosph or backing (usually
blue) and model moLmt w hich is recorded via the appropriate filter onto the previously recorded phosphor in1age.
Or, with appropriate fil tra tion (Wratten #31) botl1 phosphors may be recorded simultaneously. The result is the
creation of an image capable of providing both ma le an d
female mattes in one generation. One situation in which tilis
is helpful is the case of a model w ith extreme texture or
holes that carmot be adequately penetrated by the black
light. If used alone, such an incomplete image would result in holes in th e matte. However, when each side of tl1e
set of mattes is made from its own respective phosphor, tile
result is that dark areas of the burn-in matte remain dark
and do not permit the p rint-through of the background
scene.
Such mattes can have t11e added p roperty of containing slightly but importantly different information from
each other. Subtracting one matte image from the other
therefore yields a tl1ird wh ich represen ts the difference
between its two predecessors. This is known as a "matte-
455
difference-ma tte" and may be used to create add itional

effects (such as the re-entry glow on a spacecraft). Further,
it na turally follows that this concept can be extended to
include the green record, obtaining a total of three original
ma ttes plus any number of permu tational de rivatives.
Apogee, Inc., holds a Patent (#4,417,791) on Reverse Blue
Screen a nd supplies the process under license.
Front Projection Blue

This process provides a method for producing blue
screen of exceptional p urity, with grea t economy and, if
needed, on a truly large scale.
Demands mad e for very large-scale blue screen composites prompted Apogee to build a dedica ted, high-power
blue fl ux fron t projector. This device, known as " BlueMax," incorporates the best fea tures of both blue screen and
front-projection compositing. From blue screen, we acquire
the ability to com posite a fina l image in which the foreground and the background are of the same generation one
to the other. From fron t projection, we acquire the absence
of blue spill and th e almost tmli mited screen size plus the
modest expense of operating a 5000-watt lamp rather th an
a la rge transmission screen. Moreover, we can perform
multi-plane effects which permit the actors to appear both
in front of and behind portions of the blue field, or we can
use flags to obscure apparatus such as lights a nd rigging.
At the same time, we have d ispensed with the front-projection restrictions of poor re-photography of the projected
pla te. By using a na rrow band interference coated bea m
splitter designed to split only the desired matting line, we
can eliminate the necessity of lighting the foregrou nd scene
one stop hotter to compensate for the one-stop loss of a
conventional beam splitter.
The " Blue-Max" consists of the following basic elements:
1. The light source, a 5000-watt Mercury-Xenon shortarc lamp.
2. A ligh t collection and delivery system based on a
mod ified Abbe illumination system in w hich the a rc is reimaged by an optical integrator and from there mod ified
by lenses to conform to the d1aracteristics of the camera lens
in use.
3. A series o f fil ters designed to isolate with great accuracy the selected ma tti ng color: Red, Yellow (for Sodium
Vapor two-strip process), Green or Blue.
4. An a tte_nuation system which can modify the ou t-
pu t?~ the projector du n ng a shot in order to ma intain a
speof1ed screen brigh tness level.

5. A selection of beam splitters of various reflection and
tra~s~ssion ratios, including some having the property of
spltttmg only the matting line in use, so as to reduce unnecessary foreground light losses.
6. A light ~rap i nco:p~rated with the projector so as to
allow for rela ti vely unl1m1ted camera movemen t.
The set~up for a "Blue-Max" shot is very similar to that
fo r co~ventiona l fro1~t pr~jection. It is perhaps even more
essen_tial to keep amb1ent hght contamination off U1e screen.
The hght l_e vel at _the screen is measured on a ground glass
motmted m the fi lm gate by use of a fiberoptic probe connected to a light meter. In front-projection blue, it is not
necessary to ca rry focus to the screen as in conventional
front projection.
Reverse Front Projection

In both front projection and tran smission blue-screen
compositing, extreme close-ups have presented various
problems. In close-up photography via transm ission blue
?lu~ spi~ is the principal villain encow1tered. In front pro~
jection, tf a subject approaches very close to the camera/
p ro!ect~r ap~ aratus, the projected light will record on the
sub!ect m sptte of the vast differe nce in gain be tween the
subject and the ScotchJite screen. Furthermore, certain rules
have long existed in front p rojection technique regarding
the spatial relationships between the camera, the subject
and ~1e screen. (See Front Projection section.) TI1ese rules
are dtrected at preventing the fringino- of the subject that
results from having a soft shadow rendered at the screen
the conseq uence of a rela tively short subject-to-camera dis~
tanc~ versus a re la tively long subject-to-screen d istance.
~dd1t1onal p~oblems are in trod uced if the subject includes
lughly reflective surfaces, e.g., silver lame clothing or space
helmets; and all these problem.s a re exacerbated if the subject is backli t.
In " Blue-Max" composi ting, these difficu lties can be
reso~ved by U1e adoption of "Reverse Front Projection." 1n
1ts Simplest ter~s, Reverse Front Projection can be de~cn?ed as a rad1cal rear r_angement of the basic front-projection setup. In conventional fron t projection, in which a
camera ~ nd a projector a re d isposed at 90 degrees to each
other w1th a beam splitter arranged between them at 45
457
BlAO< VWJET SCR EEN
LIGHTS
BEAMSPUnER
!PLAfE GLASS~ oi--l,-~~
SCREEN
Fig ure 1. Diagram of reverse front projection.
degrees to both, a subject to be photographed is posi tioned

in fro nt of the camera / projector apparatus, and a frontprojection screen on which the projector will form an image is deployed beyond the subject. The camera is thus able
to record and combine both the returning projected image
and the foregrotmd subject.
.
ln Reverse Fron t Projection, the camera and proJector
are still at 90 degrees to each other, but separa ted ?Y a considerable distance, and the foreground subjeCt IS placed
between a very large beam splitter (which may be plain
glass, or preferably a pellicle) and the camera. The frontprojection screen faces the projector in stead of the camera,
while the camera faces the light trap normally confron ted
by the projector. (See Figure 1.) The effect of thi~ arrangement is to take the diverging projected cone of light from
the projector and deliver it as a converging cone of light,
having turned it 90 degrees. We then position the camera
so that the nodal point of its lens coincides with the focal
point at which the p rojected cone of light converges.
By this process, we acquire all the advantages of frontprojected blue, in terms of the purity of color as well as the
absence of blue spill, without having to project the blue onto
the subject. We have also eLiminated the fringing resulting
458
from poor alignment of projector and camera nodal points,

as there is no shadow at all cast upon the screen by the foreground subject. Furthermore, we have eliminated the haloing resulting from the backsca t-tered light that occurs
when the subject is backl it. This is d ue to a "diode e ffect"
prod uced by the arrangement of elements in Reverse Front
Projection. In normal front p rojection, a ray of light striking the back surface of a fo regrotmd subject is reflected back
to the Scotchlite screen and then returns aga in along the
sa me axis, pl us or minus some 2%. Therefore some of the
light restri kes the subject, while some passes the subject,
making its way back to the camera to produce the objectionable halo.
By contrast, the "diode effect beamsplitter" handles the
situation in the following manner: a ray of light striking the
rear of the foreground subject is reflected back towards the
beam splitter; approxima tely 92% of it is passed through
the beam splitter to the black velvet screen, where it is absorbed. The remaining 8% is reflected back to the Scotchlite
screen, and from thence returns to the beam spli tter, w here
aga in 92% is passed through and 8% is reflected towards
U1e foregrotmd subject. Thus, only 8% of 8%, or .64%, is
made available to the camera to record as halo. To be sure,
only 8% of the projected blue light is being made ava ilable
to the camera a lso, but that is not a serious problem to U1e
Blue-Max w ith its massive output. It should also be borne
in mind that in conven tional front projection, only a theoretical25% of the projected light survives the journey to the
camera, so we are, in fact, sacrificing approximately one
and a half stops.
We sacrifice some degree of camera flexibility in using Reverse Front Projection, as the camera cannot move
from the nodal point defin ed by the projector unless provision is made to move boU1 the ca mera and p rojector in
synchrony. In some cases, it may be easier to move the subject in rela tion to the ca mera. Zooming is certainly possible,
as are all noda l-point moves for the ca me ra, and these
should cover most requirements for close-ups. Apogee has
applied for patent protection on Reverse Front Projection
as well as the "Blue-Max," an d both are available to the
industry w1der license.
Current backing materials include the following pai nts
and fa brics. Paints: Paramow1t Ultra-Marine Blue #8580 (a
tough surface paint that resists scuffing, but is more applicable to television than to film, as it lacks su fficient color
459
saturation); 7-K Infinity Blue (for years the industry standard); Apogee Process Blue, Rosco Ultra Blue and Gothic
Ultra Blue. Fabrics: "FRP 100" (fla me re ta rdant) a nd
"Tempo," (not flame-retardant though it has superior color
saturation and a felt-like texture with a thin foam-rubber
backing), both available from Daizians in New York and
Los Angeles, and a new material from Rosco. Besides these
there is a vinyl plastic sheet material from Stewarts called
Ultimatte Front Lit Blue. This material, besides providing
a very clean blue, is also very du rable-- stu rdy enough to
d rive vehicles on.
Digital Effects Cinematography

by Dennis Muren, ASC
The arrival of theatrical-quality digital in1age manipulation brings to the cinematographer new responsibilities.
It is important that we do our best to understand and eventually master the capabilities of this new tool. On the set,
we will soon be asked, "Can we keep shooting and fix it
d igitally?" or "Can't we just paint out the w ires?" As of
now, there are no industry-wide standards defining image
quality, and there are only a handful of computer artists
who know our expectations. Our participation is vital. Perhaps within th is decade en tire fil ms wi ll begin passing
through a digital printer, where the choices of color timings
will be only one of a dozen possible alterations. The cinematographer will need to be at these sessions to follow through
on his vision. He may have chosen to light and expose the
negative in specific ways, knowing that w ith digital manipulation he will later alter the image to best create a specific mood or effect.
Many of these techniques are available for TV at video
post houses. But we have no control over how a home
viewer ch ooses to adjust his TV. In fea ture films, it is the
cinematographer who can have the final say, because he
works with the color timer and often approves the release
prints.
For a few years, digita l manipulation will be restricted
to special instances where the expense is justified. The work
will be done at a film effects house or a high-end video
house. One way to begin feelin g comfortable with this technology is to tour a number of suppliers' facilities. Ask to
see their sample reel on film, not tape. Then trust your own
eye in evaluating the work. Since equipment costs change
as technology adva nces, pricing should not be assumed.
Feel free to consult experts whom you trust. There is still
no substitute for experience on a set. On a show with difficult effects work, an experienced expert should be there
whenever possible. Later, you may want to check the final
manipulated film that has been cut into the workprint, and
project it if possible. It should be up to the video house to
ensure that a shot will intercut, but they may in fact have
very little film experience.
Here is a brief smary of the three steps needed to
transfer film into a computer and back onto film. Each step
is controlled by a computer:
1. Input: The original nega tive or interpositive is
scanned by a sensor, wh.id1 produces the electronic equivalent of a p hotograph. Each frame is subdivided into millions
of discrete dots, and each dot's position, color and brightness is stored on digital tape or disks.
2. Manipulating: The digital tape or disks are read into
a computer wh ere the image is reassembled on a monitor
for viewing. It can then be manipulated with computerpainting and image-processing programs, either by an artist a frame at a time or preprogrammed and recorded unattended, and then stored onto digital tape or disks.
3. Output: The digital tape or disks are read into a computer where the image is put back onto film, either through
photographing a high -quality TV image or by lasers scanning onto film an d reconstructing each dot's position, color
and brightness. The film is then processed and printed for
viewing.
It is during step two that we have an opportunity to
alter the image. We work with a computer artist who runs
the computer, much like in a postprod uction video suite.
For now, moni tors are not exact represen ta tions of what
will show on film. But their usefulness lies in makin g judgments of images relative to one another or within the fram e.
As we have learned to interpret how a set will look on film
by using our eye, we will need to learn to interpret how a
monitor's image will look on film. Today, the processing
of the images happens much more slowly than in a post
suite. So before a job is completed, a wedge of one frame
can be requested and checked for final approval before
461
r
rwming the job. Here are a few specific manipulation ted1niques now available:
Image Processin g: This will become both a creative tool
and a worry for cine matographers. Color, contrast, sa turation, sharpness, a nd even the apparent shape of objects can
be altered. Single color can be changed , areas can be isolated, and the changes will only affect tha t area. These tools
may eventually be in the printing laboratory, which will
make a completely new negative to be used for release
printing.
Painting: Wires or supports can be painted out and not
appear on the film. This can make stLmt work safer. Unwanted objects can be painted out. If a d ifficult effects shot
has an arti fact, it might be easier to paint the defect out than
try to correct it at an earlier step.
Compositing: For blue-screen work, in some cases the
qua li ty of the blue backgrotmd need not be prefect if the
composite is to be made d igitally. This m eans we can set
up fas ter. The screen can be posi tioned in difficult places
or at extreme angles. Green or red screen may work better, depending upon the colors in the subject. Mattes can
be made from d ifferences in color and brightness at the
sa me tin1e. Since the process is self-contained within the
comp uter, there are no problems with film shrinkage, Lmsteadi.ness, exposure fl uctuation, or photochemical development as there are with optica.l prin ting. The composite
is viewed on a moni tor and adjusted at every step. When
properly photographed, compositing can now be perfectly
executed.
High-Resolution Electronic
Intermediate System for Film
by Don Miskowich
Eastman Kodak Company has developed a high-resolution electronic intermediate system designed for the contemporary needs of the motion-pictm e industry. This system can be used to scan and digitize frames of motion picture film so they ca n be in teractively manipulated and
composited at computer workstations. The d igi tal p ictmes
can be recorded back onto film wi thout compromising

image quality.
There are many significant advantages to this technology. By converting film to digita.l form (l 's and O's in the
computer), the images can be endlessly manipulated without losing quality. The system is capab le of accommodating th e full-resolution and d ynamic-range of ana.log pictures captured on cmrently avai lable fine-gra in 35mm
films. With this tedm ology it is as feasible technically to
combine 25 layers of imagery as it is to combine a sim ple
foregroLmd and background . lmage input and output time
is approximately three second s per frame at full resolution.
The system can also be used at one-quarter and one-half
resolution, which is comparable to NTSC/PAL an d HDTV
image qua.lity.
Applications fall into three genera.! categories-painting, image processing and com positing. Pain ting includes
such applications as guide wire and artifac t remova.l. It is
also possible to repai r scratched or otherwise damaged
film.
Image processing includes such applications as the
manipulation of colors, contrast, saturation, sharpness and
even th e apparent shap e of images. Single colors can be
a.ltered in isolated areas of individ ual frames. While th.is
capability can be used to resolve problems, it also is a potentia.lly p owerful artistic tool which gives the cinematographer a second d1ance to a.lter tile emotiona.l content as
well as tl1e quality of images.
Digital image compositing should m ake the biggest
im pact. Th ere will be less stringent requirements for setting
up blue-screen photography since it is possible to solve
many problems at the image composing workstation. For
example, blue-spill- blue reflections on shiny objects that
get too close to the blue screen - can be eliminated at the
image-comp uting workstation .
The Kodak system has four main compon en ts: a film
scanner, an image computing workstation the necessary
software, digita.l da ta cassette recorders, and a fi lm recorder.
The scarmer uses a proprietary CCD trilinear sensor
with three linear 4096-pixel photosite arrays. The arrays are
covered with red , green and blue filters. These are optimized to match the dyes in contemporary color negative
films. A xenon light somce and integrating filter provide
high-p ower diffused illumination.
463
r
The scanner also employs unique signal processing
electronics and a proprietary transport design using frameindexed, pin-registration and film-surface positioning. The
latter features are crucial for seamless compos-ibng of diffe rent picture elements.
The image computing workstation is based on currently available technology. It incorporates a Sun microprocessor platform wi th VME backplane and UNIX operating
system. The workstation can be in a stan d-alone or networked environment. It provides a previewing capability
on a video monitor. This allows the operator and members
of the creative team to make interactive decisions in a very
tight loop. They can look at images composited in various
ways, make decisions, and view the results in minutes.
A transputer-based, image-processing accelerator was
developed for the workstation to provide high-speed image manipulation. In addition its capability was extended
to provide direct memory access (DMA) on the edge nodes.
The design flexibility allows users to size the transputer
processing array to match their budget and their imageprocessing interact:ivity and productivity needs. The system is config ured w ith a minimum of 8 gigabytes of parallel disk storage and uses a high-speed, industry-standard
SCSI-2 data bus for da ta transfer. On-line d isk storage can
be increased by adding disk drives to the array. Industrystandard peripherals can be used, including the Exabyte
8mm data recorder, and DD-2 digital cassette recorders
which can support data transfer rates in excess of 15 megabytes per second.
State-of-the-art software has been developed for the
wo rkstation. It uses concepts and symbols familia r to
people already working w ith images at video postproduction facilities, computer-genera ted image houses and
optical effects facilities. Main features include interactivity
with selectable windows providing immediate updates of
processed images.
The software uses flexible image processing tools, including color grading, filtering, resizing, repositioning and
painting. Images can be imported fro m and exported to
other major sof~are packages. Kodak has also licensed the
use of adjustable algorithms for blue screen compositing
developed by the Ultimatte Corporation. Ultimatte has
been a leader in the development of flexible programs for
electronic com positing at NTSC, PAL and HDTV resolution. This is the first use of these programs for making film-
resolution composites. The latest generation of Ultimatte

software provides filmmakers with greater flexibility fo r
creating credible composites.
. .
Previously, blue screen photography was limited to
silhouette-style shots against rear-lit, perfect blue screens.
The new algorithms allow actors to move in the foregro~md
of front-lit blue screen s an d cast shadows. They can clunb
on and arow1d blue set pieces, and move within the backgrow1d instead of just performing in the foregrow1d.
The final component is the film recorder. The recorder
uses three visible gas lasers to copy digital pictures onto a
high-resolution color intermediate film. Blue light is provid ed by a 458nm Argon laser; green light by a 543nm
HelilU11 Neon laser; and red light by a 633nm Hel.ium Neon
laser. The film recorder also uses w1ique lenses and beamshaping optics optimized for this application. ~e proprietary transport d esign employs the same p~~c ise frameindexed pin registra tion and film surface pos1 horung used
by the film scanne r.
Both the scanner and recorder are designed to work
a t a resolution of 167 pixels per mm in the film plane. This
was selected to preserve the resolution of the original camera film, and also to p rovide the maximum sample size of
4096 pixels across full-width formats such as Super 35 and
VistaVision. Preserving the aspect ratio of the Super 35
camera aperture, the system produces an image with 4~96
pixels across and 3114lines down. This is more than twice
the horizontal sampling of the 1125 line HDTV forma t,
which has 1920 samples horizontally and 1035 visible lines
vertically. The following table summarizes the image dimensions for the formats supported by the scanner and the
recorder.
Format
Super 35
Academy
Aperture
CinemaScope
Vista Vision
Horizontal
Lines
Vertical
Lines
Aspect
Ra tio
4096
3112
1.32:1
3656
3656
6144
2664
3112
4096
1.33:1
2.36:1
1.50:1
For example, an Academy-aperture 35mrn frame is

scanned to capture 3656 lines of horizontal resolution with
2664 picture elements, or pixels, on every line. To record
465
r
the range of density captured on the negative, while pro~iding "headroom" for creative digital image manipula-
tion, the system accommodates up to 10 bits of information

in each of three color records every pixel.
This feature requires some 40 megabytes of magne tic
computer storage for every frame of 35mm film. One frame
would use the entire hard-d isk capacity of many popular
personal computers. It's enough data to write some 8-10
million words in the English language. Remember, both the
scanner and recorder can handle one frame of film in approximately three seconds.
There are other flexible alternatives. For example, the
sys t~m pr~vides an ~ption for scanning, storing and processmg 8 b1ts of data m each color record of every pixel for
appLications not requiring headroom. The user can also opt
to work at one-quarter or one-half resolution, which requires only Y4 or '116 of the storage space, respectively.
The equipment has been designed in an open architectuxe mode which provides compatibility with standaxd
per_ip_heral_ interfa_ces used in the computer industry. Also,
a ~1g1tal p1cture file format whi0 simplifies the exchan ge
of m1ages between workstations and between different facilities, has been developed.
Other applications for the high-resolution electronic
inte rmediate system include restoration of vintage films
that have been marred by scratches, blotches and other
?amage. It i~ even possible to restore torn images or m.issmg parts of rmages based on the image information in adjacent frames. This should prove to be a valuable tool for
protecting and preserving films that have cultural and/ or
historic significance or that have potential val ue fo r future
redistribution.
Considerable interest has been expressed to establish
in1age databases of stock footage from live-action and computer-generated image libraries. Stock footage stored in
d1g1t~l for mat would then be easily accessible. The image
quaJ1ty v;ould be equivalent to first-generation negative
film. Th1s would assure that s tock footage inte rcuts
smoothly with live-action photography.
. O~er the long t~rm, it could eventually become practical to mtegrate a high-resolution electronic intermediate
s~stem into the print distribution chain. A digital intermed iate could be used to generate a high-quality intermediate film ~h~ch would be used as a p rinting master. This
would el1mmate several genera tions of film from there-
466
lease-prin ting process, resulting in a significant improvement in image quality.
Computer Graphics
by Michael Whitney and Allan Peach
Computer-generated imagery (CGI) has become an
.
Important ad?ition t? the ~or king world of the cinematographer. ~Glts the su~uJahon of real or imagined objects
and env1ronments usmg computer-based mathematical
models. Just as a d irector and cinematographer light and
compose shots on an actua l three-dimensiona l set the CGI
dire~tor :vorks wi th an interactive computer d isptay to set
the hghtu1g an d block th e shots on a simulated set. The
d irector can then transfer the computer created imagery to
video or film.
Computer simulation of reality can be quite effective,
but simulated objects, lighting, and environmental effects
o_nJy approximate reality. Light may pass right through a
Simula ted object w ithout casting shadows, solid objects
rna~ themselves pass magically through one another, and
environmental effects may drift from the realistic to the
comical within the same scene. The computer artist needs
to be aware of the imperfection in the software's si mu lation ?f the world. Typically, the more accmately the director Simulates _a scene, the longer it ta kes the computer to
generate the 1_mage. Because of this, the computer artist
must be cogruzant of the cost of "reality" in setting up a
shot.
CGI for motion p ictures is an inherently expensive
process because of th e time it takes to genera te and record
~ su~gle frame of film. Although high-end production work
IS still best served by supercomputers and advru1ced workstations, compute~-g~aphics software is fast becoming a
prevalent commodity m the personal computer world. This
trend, coupled with the proliferation of faster and more
ine~pensive_computers, is slowly reducu1g the cost of producmg quality computer graphics.
Basic Tools and Terms

Th e_ atomic _wtit of computer graphics is the pixel (a
contractiOn of p1cture element). Low-resolution displays,
467
,
often fow1d in personal computers, have resolutions of 640
X 480 pixels. This resoluti~m is. sufficient for n~ost ~TSC
video work. However, motion ptcture work reqwres higher
resolution displays with resolutions of 1280 pixels X 1024
lines or greater. Upcoming high-definition tel~vision s~s
tems wiJJ have displays approaching 2,000 hon zontal ptxels by 1,000 vertical lines.
.
The computer calculates the color for each ptxel and
displays it by varying the intensity of the Red,. Green and
Blue (RGB) signa l. To represent color as percetve~ ~y the
human eye, each pixel must span a range of 16 rmlhon to
68 bi Uion colors (256 to 4,096 intensity values per R, G, B
component). InternaUy the computer stores the RGB ~al
ues in memory, w ith between 8 and 12 bits repr.esenbng
each R, G and B value. Each pixel, therefore, reqwres 24 to
36 bits of storage. Even for the low resolution of NTSC
video, the computer must calculate and then store over 1
megabyte of data for each frame. A single Aca~emy-aper
ture 35mm color negative frame, at the theatncal screening resolution of 4,096 pixels x 3,072lines, requires around
56 megabytes of storage. A 65~m 5-perf motion-pi~ture
image requires a screen resolution of 6,000 X 2,500 piXels
or higher. With 12 bits per R, G and~ value, a f~ame would
require 67.5 megabytes of memory, t.e., 6,000 ptxels X 2,500
lines X 3 colors (RGB) X 1.5 bytes (1 byte = 8 bits). The computer must calculate this data then move it. from its internal memory to the display memory of the ftlm recorder.
The film recorder displays the data on a cathode-ray
tube (CRT) or writes directly to the raw camera stock with
a scanning RGB laser. This means that in order to make
computer graphics economical, you must not only have an
extremely fast computer, but you must also have high
bandwidth pathways (called channels) between storag.e
devices, the computer and the film recorder. For companson, personal computers with 2,400 baud modems transfer data at 240 bytes per second. A high-performance CRTbased film recorder, in order to record a single 35mm frame
in approximately six seconds, needs the channels to transfer 56 megabytes of data at 10,000,000 bytes (10 megabytes)
per second.
Currently, no computer can create computer graphic
frames at film resolution in real tin1e. Often a frame may
take from several seconds to many hours to compute and
record. Whole scenes often take days to weeks of computer
time. Because of these factors, computer graphics can be
expensive, but tl1e virtues of computer imagery often outweigh the costs.
2-D and 3-D Images

Two-dimensional computer graphics are a staple of
video postproduction houses. The low resolution of video
allows real-time manipulation of images by the graphtc
artist. The user interface of a two-d imensional system is
usually a graphics tablet. The artist uses an ~lectronic stylus
to draw or paint on the tablet much as a pamter would use
a brush and canvas. Because of this, tl1ese computers are
called paintbox systems. Video artists use paintbox systems
to create special effects and to manipulate the original video
source material. For example, a paintbox system can retouch tape dropouts or remove unwanted objects.
Digital frame stores are memory devices that scan and
store complete frames of video in a digital fo rmat. Several
companies make two-dimensional computer graphics systems, such as the ADO, that utilize digital frame stores to
do freeze frames, zooms, video compression and expansion, video positioning, changes of aspect ratio, programmable patterns, picture flips and tun1ble~, etc. .
Three-dimensional computer graphics are bemg used
more and more in the motion-picture field. From pioneering efforts such as Tron and The Lnst Starfighter .to more recent special-effects extravaganzas such as Ternunato1: 2 and
Lnwnmower Man, three-dimensional computer graphics can
create images that would be impossible to produce using
normal special-effects technologies.
Modeling
The creation of three-dimensional computer graphics
involves several steps. The first of these is th e modeling
process. Modeling refers to the creation of tl:e simula.ted
objects in the computer's memory, the modeling of o~t~cal
elements such as light, transparency, shadows, reflechvtty,
etc., and the sim ulation of camera placement and movement within the computer-generated world.
The computer constructs object:' from a series of p~ints
defined by the model maker. The pomts represent locations
in a Car tesian coordinate system. Often the model maker
may use several coordinate systems to facilitate t!1e construction and interaction of objects. These stored pomts (the
object database) can represent the vertices of polygons or the
469
r
con trol points of more complex constructs such as splines
or nurbs (mathematical representations of complex curves).
The computer can create a simplified version of the object,
called a wire Jmllle, by simply connecting the points with
lines. This wire-frame model is a useful representation of
the object as the compu ter can render the w ire frame
quickly. This allows the computer artist to preview the
scene in rea l time o r near real time. Eventually, however,
the computer must create surfaces on the objects to facilitate realistic lighting and shading.
The computer artist assigns a ttributes to the object's
surfaces. These can include color, shininess (non-reflective
to highly reflective), and opacity. Recent features in CGI
software allow for more realistic-looking atmospheric effects and the creation of organic objects such as trees and
shrubbery.
Objects may have picture textures projected or wrapped
on their su rfaces for a more natura l effect. These textlU'es
arc two-dimensional pictW'es that give the SW'face of the
object the appeara nce of being made from real materials
such as, for example, wood or concrete. Paramete rs for
bu111p 111appi11g are also modeled in the computer. An example of bump mapping might be the dimples on a golf
ball o r the pitted SW'face of an orange. Proced W'al SW'face
effects are formu las for crea ting surfaces and are useful
replacements fo,r scanned texture maps.
Lighting is also simulated in the modeling stage. The
computer artist must take into account many of the concerns of a traditi onal lighting director. Computer lights
come in many forms from distant lights that simula te the
s un, to point lights and spo t lights that simula te man-made
light sources. Lighting the scene involves placing the lights
in the simulated three-dimensional space, adjusting their
intensity, the angle of their cone, their direction and their
color.
The computer can also simulate camera attributes such
as depth of field, focal length, aspect ratios, etc. Once the
object models are in p lace, the modeler can position th e
ca mera anywh ere in the simula ted th ree-dime nsional
space. This is a major advan tage over two-dimensional
animation, w he~e each change in camera position requires
a new draw ing of a ll the objects in th e scene. Th e computer
modeler does not need to reconstruct the objects to create
a new shot. He can simply reposition the camera.
The next step in the modeling process is specifying the

movement of any animated objects and any movement of
the camera. The computer can be an excellent aid in this
animation process. The computer animator creates key
frames and tells the comp uter the method of interpolation.
The computer th en creates the in-betweens.
In addition, traditional animation studios are tW'ning
to computer graphics to assist in the eel animation process.
With CGI, the animator can create a computer aided camera move through a th ree-dimensional world and then
print the scene as two-dimensional perspective drawing
directly onto animation eels. Artists can then use the computer-generated lines as g uides to ink and paint the eels
or use other specialized computers to do the ink and paint
work. These processes can save hours of an anima tor's
time in figming out complex motion and perspectives and
reduce prod uction costs. Recent examples of computer-assisted animation and digital ink an d paint include Beauty
and the Beast, Femgully and Aladdin.
Rendering
Re11deringconsists of taking the digital attributes of the
model, the lighting and the camera and creating an image.
Rendering is a complex process and requires much more
computer power than the modeling stage. Before expending the time and money to render a n entire shot, the computer artist may wish to render single key frames of an
animation sequence to check that the simulated in1age is
the desired one. The artist may also render wire frame or
low-resolution approximations of the shot to get a feel of
the look of the animation before fully rendering the scene.
Because tl1e objects in the computer-generated scene
are only simulations, they act quite differently from realworld objects that must obey th e rules of ph ysics. If not
properly animated in three dimensions, compu ter objects
may interpenetra te on e another, destroying the illusion of
solid, real objects. If not properly constructed, seams may
show between supposedly seamless parts. The artist may
discover unwanted a rtifacts crea ted by the size and shape
of the pixels, the scan lines of the monitor, or errors in textW'e mapping or SW'face genera tion for the first time in the
rendering process. The modeling and rendering cycle is
often an iterative and interactive one, w ith the CGTdesigner
retW'ning to the modeling stage to correct problems that can
only be detected after rendering.
471
Final rendered images can range from simple wi reframe approxima tions of objects, to highly faceted objects,
to realistic sll/oot/1shaded objects. The style in which an artist renders an image is often a factor of aesthetics tempered
by the pragma tism of meeting a production deadline or
budget constraints.
During the rendering process, the computer may also
control a scanner to digitize film frames and to composite them with the computer-genera ted images.
Scanning
The scanner is a device that translates an image from
previously exposed film into a d igital fo rmat. Cu rren t devices use a CRT or laser to scan a film frame on a pointto-point basis o r use a charge-cou pled device (CCO) to
digitize the frame by area or line by line.
The CRT or laser is the I /lOVing spot ill um ination source
that scans the image at a constant intensity. Controlling the
beam diameter can determine the size of the pixels and thus
the resolution of the scaru1ed image. As the bea m scans the
film frame pix<:>! by pixel, light ga thered by an optical system passes through dichroic fil ters and splits into red, green
and blue components. The intensity of the light hitting R,
G & B light sensors converts to an analog elechical signal.
An analog to digi tal converter transla tes the analog signal
into a digital value for each color.
CCD scaru1ers utilize a techn ology employed in profess.ional video cameras. Instead of a scam1ing light source,
the CCD scaru1er uses an incandescent or xenon light source
similar to the optical printer. The number of pixel elements
in the CCD array determines the resolution o f the scanned
image. Grid arrays of 2,000 pixels by 2,000 lines or 4,000 pixels by 4,000 lines enable scanning an entire frame while
holding the film on fixed registration pins. Line arrays of
2,000 to 4,000 pixels require that the film be rolled past the
CCD to scan the entire film frame.
The comp uter captures the number stream produced
by the scanner and creates a pixel array database in a format compatible with the database of a simulated image.
The time required to scan a frame varies from under five
seconds to several minutes depending on the device and
the resolution.
The comp uter can composite both foregrotmd and
backgrotmd elements in what might be called digital film
printing. Although the computer can use any color to ex-
tract a ma tte, it is most practical to use a spechally pure

color sud1 as Ultimatte blue or green. However, it is not
necessary to have a blue- or green-screen exposure limited to one color record of the film as is needed in filmbased ma tting systems. The same qualification applies,
however, in that the backgrotmd screen color cannot be
in the fo reground subject.
Recording
CRT and laser-based jil111 recorders p rogressively expose each pixel onto film by electronically conholling the
position and intensity of a CRT beam or by mechanically
deflecting R, G, B laser bea ms. Recorders (and scmm ers)
that d eflect in both the X-axis aJld Y-axis use tradi tional
registered pin film movemen ts. Other laser recorders d eflect in the X-axis only and rely on rolling the film smoothly
in theY-axis to record the film frame area. Once the mechanical stability problems are resolved, an advantage of
laser-beam recorders is that they have sufficient light output to expose higher resolution lab intermediate film stocks.
Film exposure times in existing film recorders vary from
under ten seconds to several minutes per frame depending on the device and resolution.
It is important to address several issues before filming
a CGI sh ot: how the computer will hanslate the calculated
pixels into color exposure values a nd how the sp ectral
emission characteristics of the cathode ray tube (CRT) or
RGB laser bean1s will match the film sensitivity curves. The
computer can d efine color values according to a system of
hue, luminance and saturation, or accordin g to a system of
Red, Green and Blue values. In either case, three sets of
numbers describe the color of each pixel in the final image.
Color calibration, which is the relationship between the calculated color space and the actual film exposure, is
achieved through the use of a color look-up table (CLUT),
and other matrix transform color corrections.
The CLUT is a graph of film density plotted against
calculated color exposure. The technician doing color calibration derives the CLUT from carefu lly plotted curves
determined through densitometry of the exposed negative.
Using the CLUT the technician matches the emission energy of the CRT or laser, combined with high-efficiency
RGB filters, to provide exposure in the straight-line portion
of the film exposure curve. The computer accomplishes this
by transla ting color space numbers into the RGB exposure
473
values determined from the color look-up table. It is possible, through the use of the CLUT, to precisely control film
image contrast. It is often useful to use logarithmic representation for the pixel values. Logarithmic pixel values
translate easily to logarithmic fUm density during calibration of scanning and recording devices.
One problem that is typical for high-resolution CRTs
is the creation of an unwanted halo by internal glass reflections in the CRT faceplate. The halo affects the image in the
form of an tU1Watlted exposure surrounding the highlight
areas. Techniques to reduce this problem include the addition of a neuhal-density panel bonded to the surface of
the CRT, the tinting of the CRT facepla te, and the bonding of a thick clear panel to the CRT faceplate.
Image Processing
Image processing, a branch of computer g raphics, in
some ways represents the reverse of the computer graphics process we have been describing. Image processing involves the computer modifying the data from a traditionally s hot piece of film or video. A film scanner or a digital
video process first digitizes the images into a form the comp uter cm1 use. The computer can then manipulate the digital representation by changing the attributes of the pixels
that make up the image.
Image-processing techn iques can sharpen or defocus
an image, solarize or reverse an image's colors, or reposition the image. Additiona lly , one image can be transformed into anoth er through a technique called rnorphing.
For years the aerospace industry has used image processin g techniques to enhance sa tellite space footage taken
under sub-optimal viewin g conditions. Today, image processing creates fa ntastic effects for rock videos and s pecialeffects films.
Summary
Producing effects for motion pictures is at the high end
of the computer graphics world. It is here that all the toughest problems of CGI occur. Although computers are becoming more powerful, the software need ed to create realis ticlooking environ.rnents, effects and characters is still technically difficult to produce. Recording and scatming motion-picture-resolution film requires complex equipment,
while generating, moving and s toring the e normo us
amounts of data needed by the com puter can be time-con-
474
sun1ing atld expensive. Still, CGI is here to stay, and ever

evolving!
It is important that the cinema tographer unders tand
the vocabulary of computer-genera ted imagery. As the
computer artist takes a place beside the traditional special
effects artist, the aesth etic goal remains the same-- creating visual mag ic that w ill intercut wi th the ca mera imagery of the director of photography. To fully utilize computer
simulation, it w ill become necessary for all those involved
in the va rious phases of the motion-picture ind ustry to
tmders tand its g rea t creative potentia l, as well as its linlitations and cost.
Cinemagic of the Optical Printer

by Li nwood G. Dunn, ASC
Former president, Film Effects of H ollywood
The earliest optical printers were custom built by the
major s tudios and film laboratories, and were us ually designed and made in their own s hops to fit their particular
requirements. Modern s tandardized optical printing equipment, capable of crea ting the innumerable effects heretofore possible only in the major stud ios, became available
to the entire motion-picture indus try in 1943 with the introduction of the Acme-Dunn Optical Printer, designed and
built for the United States Armed Fo rces Photog raphic
Units. Later the Oxberry, Producers Service, Research Products, and o ther optical printers appeared on the ma rket.
Commercial availability of this type of equipment greatly
s timula ted and w idened the scope of the special-effects
field. Even the s mallest film producers now could make
motion pictures with specia l effects limited only by their
imagination and budgets, utilizin g the services of growing
numbers of independent special-effects laboratories which
could now operate competitively using equipment available to all.
Developments over the yea rs of more sophis ticated
equ.i pment, new d u pi ica tin g films, special-purpose lenses,
and im proved fi lm-p rocessing techn iques, as we ll as
skilled tecluucians, have increased the use of the optical
printer to a poin t where its great creative and economic
475
value is common knowledge in the motion-picture industry.ln more recen t years, the adaptation of computer technology to the optical effects printer has basically simplified the control and accuracy of some of its important functions, thus making it much easier to produce certain complex visual effects at lower cost as well as to greatly expand its creative scope. This has made it possible to program, record, and to repeat the movement of certain of its
devices with such a degree of accu racy that area-blocking
ftmctions can now produce traveling-matte composite
scenes that were heretofore highly impractical, if not impossible. One can truly say that the creative capability of
the modern visual effects optical printer is only lin1ited by
the creative talen t and technical skills of the operator. In
recent years such major film productions as Star Wars, The
Black Hole, The Empire Strikes Back, and Cocoon have all utilized the fu ll capabilities of the modern optical printer to
create a whole new world of imaginative creativity through
their extensive use of very sophistica ted motion-picture
visual effects. The following list of some of the work that
is done on the modern optical printer will illustra te its vast
scope and tremendous importance to modern filmmaking.
specific action in fights, falls, chases, etc.; hold a specific

frame for freeze effects and for title backgrow1ds; add footage for comedy effects; reverse direction of printing to
lengthen action an d for special-effects use; extend scenes
through multiple-frame printing for action analysis in instrumentation, training and educational films.
Transitional Effects
Superimposure
Employed to create a definite d1ange in time or location between sce nes. The fade, lap dissolve, wip e-off,
push -off, ri pple d issolve, out-of-foc us or diffusion dissolve, flip-over, page turn, zoom dissolve, spin-in and out,
and an unlimited variety of film matte wipe effects, are all
typical examples of the many optical transitional effects
possible.
Superimposure is the capability used to print an image fro m one or more films overlaid on one film. This is
commonly done in positioning title lettering over backgrounds. Also used for montages, visionary effects, bas
relief; adding snow, rain, fog, fire, clouds, lightning flashes,
sparks, water reflections and a myriad of other light effects.
Change of Size or Position

May be used to eliminate unwanted areas, obtain
closer angles for exha edi ting cuts, reposition action fo r
multiple-exposure fra ming, including montage, and backgrmmds for titles.
Frame Sequence Modification

Screen action may be sped up or slowed down in order to: convert old 16 frames-per-second silent films to
stand ard 24 frames-per-second sound speed; cha nge
speed of action and length of certain scenes or sections of
scenes; provide spot-frame modification to give realism to
476
Optical Zoom
Optical zoom is used to change frame area coverage
and image sized uring forward and reverse zooming action
in order to: produce a d ramatic or impact effect (according
to speed of the move); counteract or add to the speed and
motion of cam era zooms or dolly shots; re-frame by enlargement and/or add foo tage to either end of camera
zooms or dolly shots by extending the range of moves;
momenta rily eliminate unwanted areas or objects by zooming fo rward and back at specific foo tage points (such as
when a microphone or lamp is accidentally hamed in during part of a scene); add optical zoom to sta tic scene to
match ca mera zoom or dolly in a superimposure. The outof-focus zoom also is effective to depict delirium, blli1dness,
retrospect, transition, etc.
Split-Screen
Employed for multiple image, montage effects, dual
roles played by one actor, and for dangerous anima ls
shown appearing .in the same scen e w ith people, as in
Bringing Up Baby, which shows Katl1erine Hepburn working with a leopard throughout the p icture (in this film, the
split screens move w ith the action). Matte paintings often
utilize this technique when live-action areas require manipulation within an involved composite scene.
Quality Manipulation
The quality of a scene, or an area within a scene, may
be altered in order to create an entirely new scen e or spe-
477
cia! effect or to match it in with other scenes. There are innumerable ways to accomplish this, sud1 as adding or reducing diffusion, filtering, matting and dodging areas, and
altering contrast. Often library stock material must be modified to fi ll certain needs, sud1 as creatin g night scenes from
day; reproducing black & white on color film through filtering, printed masks, or appropriately coloring certain
areas through localized filtering; and the combining of certain areas of two or more scenes to obtain a new scene, such
as the water from one scene and the terrain or clouded sky
of another.
Adding Motion
Employed to create the effect of spinning or rotatin g,
as in plane and au to interiors and in certain montage effects;
rocking motion for boat action, sudden jarring or shaking
the scene for explosion and earthquake effects; d istortion
in motion through special lenses fo r drunk, delirious and
visionary effects.
General Uses of the Optical Printer

The preced ing represents some of the special categories of effects that can be produced on the optical printer.
The following are a few of th e more important general techniques employing this useful cinematic tool.
Traveling Mattes
Used to matte a foreground action into a background
film made at another tin1e. The various matte systems in
use today requi re the optical printer in order to properly
manipulate the separate films to obtain a realistic quality
ma tching balance between them wh en combined into a
composite. Use of this process has greatly increased as
modern techniques produce improved results at reduced
costs. Motion control, referred to ea rlier, has greatly widened the scope of this visual-effects category.
Blow-Ups and Reductions

The fixed set-up optical printer is used for 16mm reduction nega tives an d prints, and for certain limited release
printing from 35mm originals. This is utilized when small
volume makes this procedure more economica l than
through a converted nega tive, and when maximum quality is of grea test importance. Enlarging from 16m m to
478
35mm color or black an d white is a very in1portant fw1ction of the optical printer. Many fine thea trical films, such
as the Academy Award-winning The Sen Around Us, The
Living Desert, and Scenes From n Mnrringe, have been photographed in 16mm, and have enjoyed grea t financial success through 35mm release prints made from 35mm blowup intemega tives.
Special new lenses, film raw stocks and immersedmovement printing have enhanced the overall quality to a
point where the 16mm-35mm blow-up medium is presently enjoying very successful commercial usage. Conversions between 65mm and 35mm also are an important function of the optical printer. Productions made in almost any
film format are being release-printed in different types to
meet certain theahical distribution requirements. The Concert for Bnnglndesh was the fi rst fea ture-len gth film to be
enlarged from 16mm color inte rnegative directly to 70mm
theater prints.
Anamorphic Conversions
The standard optical printer equipped with a specially
designed "squeeze" or "w1squeeze" lens can be used to
prod uce anamorphic prints from " flat" images, or toreverse this function. The possibili ty of the "flat" or spherical film being converted for an amorphic projection without serious loss of quali ty has greatly widened this field of
theatrical exhibition. The manipulations available on the
optical printer also make it possible to scan and reposition
any scenes tha t require refrarning when converted to or
from wide-screen proportion.
Doctoring, Modifying and Salvaging

Some of the important uses of the optical printer are
not recognized as sp ecial effects in the finished film, and
often are not apparent as such even to skilled motion-picture technicians. One of th ese applications is the field of
"doctorin g" b y modifying scenes which, for a variety of
reasons, may not be acceptable for use. This includes salvaging scenes that are completely w1usable due to some
mechanical failure or human error during photography,
and also the modification of stock fil m material tluough the
various methods noted to fit specific requiremen ts. Man y
expensive retakes have been avoided by the ingenious application of such optical-printing reclamation techniques.
479
The liquid, or immersion, film gate produces dramatic results in the removal of scratches.
Citize11 Kn11e is an excellent example of scene modifications created on the optical printer during the postproduction period. New ideas were applied to existing production scenes for which new supplementary scenes were
photographed and integrated to enhance and create various new concepts.
In It's A Mnd, Mnd, Mnd, Mnd World, an important scene
was photographed in which a truck was supposed to back
into a shack and knock it over. The breakaway shack was
rigged to collapse when wires were pulled on cue. Signals
became crossed, and the shack was pulled down well before the truck touched it. A very costly retake was indicated,
so the optical printer was ca!Jed to the rescue. The task of
correcting the error tluough a split screen seemed relatively
simple Lmtil it W<i!S discovered that the camera panned with
tl1e falling shack.lt t11en became necessary to plot and move
the split ma tching point frame-by-frame on th e optical
printer to follow the pan. Through this traveling splitscreen technique, th e progress of the shack's fa lling action
was delayed until the truck had reach ed the point of impact. Perhaps the entire cost of the optical printer was saved
by this salvaging job alone. Such clever techniques have
been used many times to bring explosions close to people
working in a scene, such as in One Minute to Zero, where a
line of so-called refugees was "blown to bi ts" by artillery
shelling. Split screens in motion, and trick cuts, with superimposed smoke and flame, did the job in a most effective
marmer.
New Systems
The optical printer is bei~1g used to develop n~w .horizons in the creation of spec1al camera moves w1tlun an
oversized apertllre. This is particularly effective in the creation of camera movement in a composite scene, such as
one involving a matte pain ting, thereby giving a greater
illusion of reality. Vista Vision and various 65mm negative
formats, including 16-perforation Imax and 8-perforation
Dynavision, as well as standard 5 perforation frames lend
iliemselves to tlus teclu1ique.
Copying onto 4 perforation 35mm makes possible
spectacular pans, zooms, dolly shots, etc. wiiliout sacrificing screen quality, and with full control over such movements, all of which is created on ilie optical printer in ilie
internegative stage and made dw.ing the postp ro-d uction

period. Use of tlUs technique makes it possible to avoid
time-consuming and complicated setups du ring production, with the added advantage of flexibili ty in later ch ange
of ideas.
Probably ilie most exciting new optical printing development has been in the field of electronics. The adaptation
of video image transfer through sophisticated high-resolution scanning systems in conjw1ction with the new developmen ts in cathode-ray tubes, lenses, film-moving mechanisms, special-purpose film raw stocks and the latest research in electronic image compositing, have opened up
exci ting new vistas in special visua l effects. The modification of filmed color motion-pictme images through computerized electrmuc transfer back to film is making it possible to create photographic e ffects on film or tape faster,
more economically, and with a scope of crea tivity heretofore not possible. The ability to easily and quickly transfer
areas or moving objects from one film to another through
their instantaneous electrmuc isolation and self-matting will
be of tremendous econon1ic benefi t in this area of fil m production, as well as in stimulating creativity in the wider use
of special effects.
Aerial Image Cinematography

by Mehrdad Azarn1i, Ph.D.
An image which is formed by a lens in the air instead
of on a film or on a grow1d glass is known as an "aerial
image." Such an image can be seen and photographed but
it crumot be touched or felt. The image wluch is observed
through a telescope, a microscope or a simple magnifying
glass is ru1 aerial image. Because of its clarity, sharpness and
its intangible presence, it has led the cameraman to the
development of ilie teclu1ique of "aerial image cinematography," which is, in fact, a meiliod of combi11ing two images: an aerial image, and another in1age w hich is recorded
on film. The aerialilnage can be modified, enlarged, reduced or distorted when combi11ed with ilie cine action
footage. Aerial image can originate from a film, artwork or
simply from an object. Selection of ilie tool and ilie tech-
nique is determined by the combination of the elements

involved. The technique of aerial image cinematography
can be divided as follows:
The Techniq u e
Film-to-Film
Fi lm-to-Artwork
Object-to-Film
Th e Required Tool
Aerial Image Optical Printer
Aeria l Image Animation
Stand
Object-to-Film A.I. Optical
Printer
Regardless of the method used, an aerial image produced by a lens is always upside-down but not flopped
over. This simple rule of thumb aid s the cameraman in
correct positioning of the object, the a rtwork or dete rmi ning the head-tail and cell-e mulsion orientation of a roll of
film when thread ing an aerial-image projector.
Film-to-Film
The most predominant aerial image technique is filmto-film, and the use of an aerial image optical prin ter is inevitable. The process is used in a variety of effects whenever two or more elements are involved, such as traveling
mattes, titles, wipes, multi-panels and split screens. The tool
emp.loyed for this purpose is either a d ual-, triple- or quadruple-head optical prin te r which combines image axes
through partially reflecting mirrors. An addition to this
equipment, as well as to the anin1a tion stands, is a multiaxis electronic motion-conhol system with a memory bank
and playback sys te m w hi c h allows for a uto matic
rephotography of certain effects and complicated, timeconsumin g moves. The d ual-headed aerial-image optical
printer is used predominantly throughout the industry, and
it has proven to be adequate for most purposes. The triplea nd quadruple-head prin ters find their greatest applications in composite photography of traveling-matte shots,
sud1 as the blue-screen process, where the operator can actually photograph the background and foreground elements simultaneously with their respective mattes. The
cam era man, in this case, has the privilege of observing the
composite image before shooting, in order to reassure himself of an accurate matte fi t. He can then zoom, enlarge or
reduce d uring the same operation.
482
In spite of the versati lity of the triple- a nd the quadruple-head printers for traveling-matte shots, most cinematographers prefer to work with a dual-head aerial-image optical printer because of the loss of light in the beamsplitter modules and the complexity of its alignment. Composi te ma tte shots are photographed on a dual-head printer
in two separate operations. After a perfect one-to-one, first,
th e foregrow1d and the female ma tte are photogra phed;
then, the backgrmmd and the ma le matte are shot in sync
on the same piece of film. In order to avoid the possibility
of any misalignment during both operations, the mattes are
intentionally threaded in the same projector head, preferably in the front module, by which the mattes are generated .
Before actual composite ph otography, the opera tor
may check clippings of the male an d female mattes bi-pack
i11 sync in tl1e main projector, looking for a very thin a nd
even white margin where the mattes fit together. He may
even go furtl1er to the extent of rwming both mattes in sync
and bi-pack, carefully looking for the consistency of th e
same contour and possible ma tte shrinkage. Since various
elements are photographed in separate modules i.n film-tofilm aerial image cinema tography, two advantages are inheren t in the system:
1. The process eliminates the possibility of Newton
rings, a phenomenon which frequently ap pears when two
pieces of film are sand wiched together in bi-pack.
2. The elements do not necessarily have to be of the
same size. Thirty-five millimeter titles, for example, can be
redu ced to fit a 16mm foo tage. By the same token, a
shrunken matte sometimes can be modified in size to fit the
action footage.
Film-to-Artwork
Th e tool for this method is basically a n a nimation
stand with an aerial-image projector installed on its sid e
below tl1e stand. A 45-d egree mirror carries the projected
image through the condenser lens above the mirror and
brings it into focus a t the same level as the animation eels.
The serial image, in this case, is perceivable only through
the camera lens. The cameraperson standing on the side can
observe ilie image by placing a tracing paper on th e peg
wut; otherwise the image is imperceptible. A new addition
to some of ilie recent electronic motion-con hol systems al-
lows for an interlock horizontal rear-projection onto the

artwork.
Many optical effects can be achieved through this
method, particula rly combining live-action footage with
artwork, w here the movement of animated artwork has to
correspond to that of the live-action frame by frame. The
projector which is equipped with registration-pin movement carries color positive or separation m asters. The camera carries color negative stock. The artwork, which has a
self-matting fw1etion, is illuminated from above front. The
top lights have no effect on the background image since
there is no reflective surface involved in the p rojected aerial
image. Nevertheless, polarizing fil ters are recommended
for the top lights to eliminate multi-reflections from the field
lenses.
By cross-wedging the artwork together with its background image, the prop er exposure and filter combination
is achieved fo r ead1 element. The color aberrations often
observed in sud1 tests are normally d ue to improper flatness of eels. It is essential, therefore, to select the proper
material for this purpose. Kodak Triacetate #21 has demons trated considerable stability with respect to this problem.
Fil m-to-artwork aerial-image cinem atography has its
own disadvantages. The camera-field lens-projector in the
aerial-image animation stand should be consid ered a single
optical system with a fixed central optical axis. The aerial
image must be cen tered on the condenser lenses and in
sharp foc us on the eel area. 1l1e ca mera lens m ust be centered and focused from th e proper d istance to cover the
field condenser lenses. Any d ev ia tion of the aforementioned elements can produce less-than-sa tisfactory results.
Aerial-Image Zoom for Oxberry

Animation Stand
Although it is no t possible to zoom the camera while
using an aerial image on an animation stand, it is possible
to zoom the aeria l image itself. The area taken by the camera lens will s till be the same 10 ~ field of the table top condenser, but the aerial image genera ted wi ll be a zoomed
version of the frame in the aerial-image p rojector.
To generate a zoom aerial image, the s tandard aerialimage projector is replaced by an aerial-image configuration very similar to that of an optical printer. A 150mm
<..
\.,.
I --.. __..,
S TATIONARY
150MM PRINTIN
NIKKORLENS
PROJ E CTOR
printing Nikkor lens is used to enlarge or reduce the fra me

by over four diameters and this image is then projected by
a system consisting of a field lens and a projection lens. 1l1e
projection lens system must stay at a fixed position to generate the aerial image, but the 150mm lens and projector can
be m oved to enlarge or reduce the genera ted image. The
zoom aerial image W1it is available with an automatic follow-focus system. In ord er to keep the Light intensity constant during a zoom, an automatic lightvalve system is also
available. This ligh tvalve opera tes off a cam that is shaped
to keep the intensity of the projected image constant over
much of the zoo m range.
485
LIVE FOOTAGE
Special Techniques
Aerial Cinematography
by Jack Cooperman, ASC
PROJECTOR
Object-to-Film
This method allows the aerial image of an actual object to be composited with live footage. The required tool
is an aerial-image optical printer in which the aerial projector is replaced by a standard a nimation plate motmted
some ten feet away hom the main projector. This distance
allows adequate reduction of an object mow1ted upsidedown on the ground glass while permitting sufficient depth
of field for sharp focus through the aerial-image lens installed behind the main projector aperture. In one pass, the
footage iJl the main projector is recorded while the object
is backlit, thus appearing as a siUlouette whose background
illumination serves as printing exposure for the film. The
footage is then removed, and the object backed by a black
card or velvet is then frontlit and photographed on the
same piece of fil m. The result appears as a matte shot with
a perfect fit.
ln order to achieve a well-balan ced exposure and contrast, both the object and the footage must be cross-wedged.
As with "Film-to-Artwork" previously described, the projector film must be color positive or separation masters. The
backgrotmd exposure can be filtered behind the main projector aperture; or lruge filters can be mounted directly in
front of the light somces or behind the animation glass.
When front-lighting the object, adequate attention must be
paid to the contrast. Flat lighting is preferable, since a real
object is photographed with a prerecorded film.
11us method can also be used for combining animated
art work with live-action footage. However, because of the
lack of requirements for depth of field in the artwork, an
aerial-in1age animation stand may prove less cttmbersome
for this particular purpose.
1
Motion pictures often require scenes photographed

from the air, principally utilizing fixed-wing planes and
helicopters.
In addition, U1ere are occasional deman ds for shots
made from gliders, balloons, and while skydiving. Many
fixed-wing aircraft have been ada pted for various camera
mountings.
When photographing air-to-air it is necessary to consider which came ra aircraft is correctly matched to the aircraft being pictured in regard to safety, speed and maneuverability. The cinematographer must also d ecide wha t is
the right kind of crunera mount for the job, budget and type
of camera ship available.
Most fixed-wing ai rcraft permit operating the crunera
from one side or anoU1er. An exception would be specially
adapted aircraft with a photographic nose section ru1d I or
open tail. In any type of fixed position, rigid mounting is
desirable to mirtinUze vibration. All screws, nuts and bolts
should be safety wired or taped.
The Astrovision system permits the use of a relay lens
wlit through either the top or bottom of a Lear jet. Zoom
lenses carmot be used with this system. The maximum lens
opening is fi6.3 I T-7.2. The Vectorvision wlit, another relay lens system, will zoom as well as roll the horizon 360
with a maximum lens opening of f/2.8IT-3.
Helicopters are highly favored for aerial photography;
they permit a large range of movability and air speeds.
Tyler Camera Systems is a major manufacturer of helicopter mounts; a listing of these and other makes are found on
page 256. The door I side mounts allow fo r free movement
of the crunera in all axes as well as control of camera and
zoom lens functions while using the mount. Tyler has two
size mounts; Middlemount for video, Arri 16mm, Arri llC,
Arri 35 ill; and the Majormount, for Arri llC, Arri 35 III,
Mitchell Mark II (with special horizontal magazine
adapter), as well as Imax, VistaVision, 65mm and other
heavier camera packages. Continental Camera also has the
M & M side mounts for most video, 16mm and 35mm cam-
r
eras. The Magnum Elite mow1 t handles camera packages
up to 100 potmds.
Various belly mounts (which fit w1der the helicopte r)
are a va ilable. A quick mount/ release nose motmt by Tyle r
Camera Systems offers remote controls and camera readouts including tilt and video-assisted viewing. Larger than
norm a l fo rmats s uch as Vis ta Vis ion, 65mm Imax,
Omrumax, etc., need to be mounted fairl y fa r forward to
clear the skids and nose from the field of view. Most nose
and bell y mow1ts require the use of a prime lens or a very
short range zoom. Zoom lenses should have remote controls for focusing as weLl as focal length adjustment. Remote
aperture contro l is a d vantageo us on a ll le nses. T he
Wesca m, Spacecam and other ball mow1t uni ts incorporating gyroscopic and remote control operation are especially
useful fo r making extremely w1dercranked shots, long lens
shots, and obtaining certain angles not available from other
mount positions.
Tyler has a new, three axis gyro-stabilized ball type
moun t (Skygro). Compa red to p revious mounts of this
style, the Tyler gyro mount has a faster pan and tilt rate and
is designed to aLlow the helicopter wilimited ftight maneuvering. The mow1t can be automatically locked into position, w hich allows the shot to go from gyro-stabilized and
level to becoming pa rt of the helicopter and going off-level
as a POV of the helicopter. The mount does not have a separate outside housing and window like previous mounts of
this type, thereby e liminating any chance of seeing reflected
light on the inside of the window.
Skydiving cinema tography is done by specially qualified skyd ivers, usu ally wearing a helmet-mounted camera
or cameras. The most common 35mm camera used for this
purpose is a m od ified an d mo torized Bell & Howell
Eyemo.
Incident light readings can sometimes be taken in
aerial situations. It may prove necessary to have the pilot
turn or tilt the aircraft for this purpose. Most exposures are
based on a consideration of spot meter readings and calcula tion of subject gray scale. Light conditions may change
during a shot.
The pilot of the aircraft has to w1derstand the shot and
how the cinematographer p!artS to photograph the scene.
He will be flying the aircraft for the positions needed . It is
not usually safe for the cinematographer to directly control
an aircraft being p hotographed; he should communicate

through the pilot of the camera ship to the other p ilot.
When working in the United States it is important to
know that there are Federal Aviation Administration regulations requiring certification of a nything that is added to
an aircraft. (Most other countries have simila r regulations.)
. . 1: 337: Field inspection of a specific mount on a speCific a1rcraft must be done before each use.
2. STC: Allows mounts on an y number of a pa rticular make and model of aircraft.
Before the flight, pilots, camera crew and a ll other concerned parties should d iscuss a ll shots for safety and efficiency. Fam~!iarity with the safety guid elines set up by the
Industry W1de Labor Management/Safety Committee is
essential.
Guidelines: Fixed-wing Aircraft,

Helicopters, and Skydiving
1.
Except where necessary for takeoff or landing, the

FAA prohibits the operation of an aircra ft below the
following altitudes:
A) Over Congested Areas
Over any congested area of a city, town or settlement, or over any open air assembly of persons, an
altitude of 1000 feet above the h ighest obstacle
within a horizontal radius of 2,000 feet of the aircraft.
B) O ver other than Congested Areas
An altitude of 500 feet above the surface, excep t
over open wa ter or sparsely popula ted areas. In
that case, the a ircraft may not be operated closer
than 500 feet to any person, vessel, vehicle, or structure.
The p ilot must obtain a proper waiver before op erating an aircraft irl the situations outlined above.
Thus, the pilotmust either have h.is/her own FAAapproved motion p icture manual or operate under
an FAA-approved company manual. A certificate
of waiver, which is us ually incorpora ted in the
manual, must be in effect.
A) Before a stunt or sequence is to be performed
a ll persons involved shall be thoroughly briefed .
There should be a dry nm on the ground at the site.
489
B) Per FAA guidelines, the persons neces~ary for

the filming will be briefed as. to any poten~al hazards and safety questions pnor to the filnung.
C) A pre-planned sh.mt will not be cha~ged in any
way without the authorization of the pilot and the
aerial coordinator, if any.
D) lf there is a question as to the safety of any aerial
filming sequence involving low, over-the-.camera
shots. a briefing will be held between the pilot and
concerned persons as to w hether the use of a
locked-off camera is necessary.
3. Only persons and crew necessary for the ~urpose
of film ing will be in the area. FAA regulations require a ll other personnel to be five hundred (5.00)
feet away from the flying aircraft. All persons wtthout written or verbal permission shall be excluded
from the area.
4. Communication between grow1d and air must be
maintained at all times d uring the operation of the
aircraft.
5. Where required by the FAA-approved man~al or
appropriate governmental agency, there wtll always be an aerial coordinato.r on the gro~d whe~
an aircraft is in the air or taxung. An aen al coordinator will be appointed by the holder of the manual
or the designated chief pilot.
6. lf safety becomes a question at any time, the aerial
coord inator or the involved pilot shall have the authority and responsibility to call an abort of the operation.
7. A) Aircraft engines shall not be started and the
a.ixcraft shall not be taxied in spectator, cast or crew
areas w1less appropriate measures are taken to
preclude crea ting a hazard to spectators, cast or
crew.
B) Cast, crew and equipment shall be pr~~ected
from d ebris thrown back by airplanes taxtmg or
taking off.
C) If an aircraft is being filmed with the engine r~
n.ing, adequate safety precautions shall be taken m
connection with activity in front of the propeller.
which incl udes designated ground personnel.
8.
9.
No smoking is permitted within one hundred (100)

feet of the aircraft or support truck.
A) Aircraft struch.txes can be damaged easily while
on the groLmd. Never p ush, hand le, sit on or in, or
lay any objects of a ny kind on an aircraft without
the pilot's permission.
B) If a foreign object falls into or against an aircraft,
report it immediately to the p ilot or aerial coordinator.
C) Never allow cast or crew to occupy an aircraft
while engines axe started or runn.i11g, unless the

pilot is in full command.
10. Ead1end of ru1 opera tional runway or landing area
should be cleared during take-off and landing and
a pprop riate safety equipment when filming the
take-off or landing.
11. Acrobatic mru1e uvers shall be conducted ina di rection which will most nearly parallel the bow1daries
of the designated crew and equipmen t areas or in
a direction away from such area.
12. The front of the studio call sheet should contain a
statement to the effect that: "An aircraft is being
used an d will be flown in close proximity to crew
and equipment. Anyone objecting will notify the
prod uction manager or 1st AD prior to any filming."
Helicopter Safety Procedures

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
CommW1.ication between grow1d and air shall be

established at all times dwing opera tion of the helicopter using one grow1d contact.
The individ ual a ttached to th e helicopter support
truck shall be designated as the person to supervise
safety arow1d the helicopter.
No smoking within 50 feet of the helicopter.
Unless you are needed- rema in a t least 50 feet away
from the helicopter.
Ex~rcise extreme caution when worki ng around
~elico~ters especially when the helicopter engine
ts runrung. Leave and approad1 the helicopter from
the fro nt-wi th caution. At all times, keep your eyes
and head forward.
491
from. the land ~ ng area. Open field lan dings may not
reqwre secunty.
The pro~ucer sha!l requ ire each parach utist or
parachutmg coordmator to hold a United States
Parachute Association professional exhibition rating, or present satisfactory evidence of the necessary exp_erience, knowledge and skill required to
attam this ra hng. USPA Exhibition Ratings are issued to members who have a Class D license who
~ave ~ccomplished 10 successive pre-decla red
Jumps mto a 10-meter (32 foot) diameter target area
lan~g ~1ot more than 5 meters from target center:
All 1an dmgs must be made standing up.
A m~mum of 350 jumps on the canopy type to be
used ts recommended.
Parachutists who h old a USPA Class D License with
an Exhibition Rating, who certify that they will use
a stee:able square main and reserve canopy, will be
permitted to exit over or into a congested area. The
selected land ing area must permit the jumper to
la~d not ~loser than 16 feet from any spectator and
wtll not mvolve passing over non-participating
persons on the surface at an altitude of Jess than 50
feet.
All jmnps shall be conducted in accordance with
Fed eral Aviation Regulations Par t 105.
The pa rach uting coord inator w ill dete rm ine
whether ~r not tJ:e visib_ility, cloud ceiling height
a~d v:looty of wmd, as 1t applies to the particular
Situa tton, IS safe or unsafe. (Landing area size,
canopy type, number of jumpers and planned stlil1t
will be taken into consideration.)
~e fo re each jump is to be performed, all person s
uwolved shall be thoroughly briefed. There should
be a d ry run on tl1e groLmd at the site.
All equipment, props, wardrobe, etc., sha!J be made
available to the coordinator prior to the stlmt/jump
fo~ safety evaluation. Final safety approval rests
with the coordinator with respect to equipment and
wardrobe used in the jump.
The coo r~ina tor shal l have the responsibility to
temporanly hold or cancel the authorized opera-
493
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
494
tions if at any time the safety of persons or property on the groLmd or in the air is in jeopardy or if
there is a contravention of the terms or conditions
of any FAA letter of authorization.
The FAA requires that each reserve parachute be
packed by an appropriately ra ted parach ute rigger.
If a parachutist has a malfunction on the job and
uses his reserve ch ute, a spare parachute or the
presence of a certified rigger can usually save many
shooting homs.
All opera tions involving fixed wing aircraft and
helicopters shall conform with the guidelines established by the Labor Man agement Safety Committee.
All pilots must be fa mi liar with the d ropping of
jumpers, including the peculiarities of the opera tion
to include flight wi th the d oor removed, FAR Part
105, rehearsals of all exits, a ll groLmd signals, signals to abort jump, pilot's responsibilities, provisions of all Letters of Authorization or waivers. The
pilot must analyze weight and balance of the aircraft w ith jumpers in exi t position.
Jumps near or into potentially hazardous land iJ1g
areas (wa ter, power lines, etc.) should be considered carefully.
Pickup boats and flota tion gear should be available
when the possibility of a water landi ng exists a nd
each boat p ilot shall participa te in the pre-jump
briefing.
On intentional water jumps there sha ll be one
pickup boat for each jumper.
Lighti ng for night shots shoLtld be reviewed wi U1
the Parachute Coordina tor. The landi ng site for a
night shot should be viewed dming daylight hours
before jumping.
All the above guidelines and procedures are intended to conform with applicable laws an d governmental regulations and in the event of any confl ict, applicable laws and governmental regulations
will p revail.
Underwater Cinematography
by Jack Cooperman, ASC.
AU good underwater cin ematographers must have
one thing in common: they must also be experienced divers.
It is not enough to put good cinematographers underwater and expect good results. They should be good enough
divers with enough experience underwater to enable them
to be unconcerned with diving techniques. They must be
at ease with the camera under all conditions, anticipatiJ1g
being swept around the ocean floor and still be able to opera te the camera efficiently.
And it is well to remember that underwater filming
can be - and often is - hazardous and difficult. Experience underwater counts for a grea t d eal.
N ot enough can be said regarding safety. Knowledge
of diving physics, awareness and common sen se are mandatory. Following are th e safety guidelines set by the
Lnd ustry-Wide Labor Management Safety Committee for
situa tions where scuba eq uipment is used in filming:
1.
2.
3.
The finaliza tion of an underwater loca tion shall

depend upon the safety and health conditions of
the location as d etermiJ1ed by supervisory film industry personnel, one of whom shall be a certified
diver in consulta tion with the director.
Any person using scuba equipment while filming
or being filmed un derwa te r shall be a certified
diver, with the exception of players who are essential for an underwater close-up. When this exception arises, for safety reasons, these players shall be
under the supervision of a currently certified instructor, and shall h ave received sufficient instructions for the job at hand. The appropriate depth for
safe filming shall be determined by the certified
instructor super vising the safety of the player or
p layers. Players who are not certified divers shall
not be required to work in d ep ths in excess of ten
feet.
AU safety divers shall be duly certified and when
scuba is used, he or she shall be equipped with an
alternate air supp ly, i.e., Octopus or bail out bottle,
etc.
495
4.
5.
6.
Any person performing a stunt where water safety

is involved shall require properly equipped safety
diver or divers.
Any person performing a stunt where the possibility of being trapped underwater exists shall have
stand-by breathing equipment immediately available.
For dives below 30 feet each ind ividua l d iver shall
be concerned with following his or her decompression procedure as necessary and safety rules shall
be available at appropriate departmen ts and on the
job site.
a. Any individual designated to log dives shall be

a certified diver and shall be knowledgeable as to
proper loggiJ1g procedwes.
b. The company wi ll d etermine the nea rest location of decompression cha mber and methods of
transportation to that chamber and notify all concerned persons.
c. FuP_ctional recall system equip ment sha ll be
made available on site.
7. It shall be the responsibility of th e company to ensure that any persons using re-breathing equipment or mixed gas systems will have been properly
trained in the use of the equipment.
8. Scuba tanks when transported to and from location
wi ll be secured in such manner as to prevent them
from rolling or allowing the valves to be struck by
other objects.
9. When not in use, scuba tanks shall be equipped
with valve covers and shall be stored in the shade.
10. Adequate medical oxygen (100% oxygen ) and resuscitation equipment sha ll be available at all times
when scuba equipment is in use. Do not use the air
in the scuba tanks as they do not contain 100% oxygen.
11. No electrical power other than DC shall be used in
the water or in a vicinity which could lead to contact with the water.
In fil ming underwa ter theatrical or television productions the cinematograph er is concerned with telling a fictionalized story ra ther than p hotographing a real experi-
496
ence such as a scien tific expedition or a documentary film.

When working with a script, actors and a di rector, and
being confined to telling a story the situation does not always permit the freedom to photograph scenes of great
natural beauty unless there is a place for them in the script.
Filming may be done in a na tural ocean location und er
optimum conditio ns or in a studio tank with all th e facilities one usually associates wi th a studio opera tion. The key
to a successful w1derwater production is planning. First, the
director, and underwater cinema tographer or d irector I
cameraman and ta lent talk over the scenes above wa ter.
After blocking out the action, the p layers (or their doubles)
walk through the action topside.
Entran ces, exits and timing should be rehearsed so that
everyone completely Lmderstands the scene to be photographed.
Some times th e players are experienced enough in either skin di ving or scuba d iving to perform underwater
scenes, but in many cases doubles or stLmt people will be
used. The same holds true with di rectors. If they a re not
experienced divers they may leave the actual filming to the
underwater cinematographer.
Equipment
Any good professional-type motion pictLLre ca mera
can be adapted for Lmderwa ter cinematography. Underwater fil ms have been successfull y made in all formats includin g 65mm and 3-D. There are many housin g designs, both
tubu lar and irregular cubic, for various purposes. For stabili ty underwater they sho uld have ligh tly nega tive buoya ncy. Film capacity of 400 ft. is most commonly used in
underwater camera housing design. Such nmctions as focusing, apertLLre, an d camera speed ideally should be controlled outside the housing while operating Lmderwater.
It is im portant to have easy access to the camera so tha t
the lenses a nd / or filters can be changed or adjusted on
deck. Film and batteries will need to be changed easily and
quickly. It is a great advantage to have a camera wh ich
permits through-the-lens viewin g and offers a clear, easily
read image. A sports finder may be more convenient when
fast action is being p hotographed.
The camera ideally should be balanced in the housing
so that tl1e cinema tographer can take a d eep breath and go
up or exhale and go down with it. Cameras are quite mobile Lmderwater.
497
The c~ne?"~tographer can become a crane or dolly

bec~use of md tvtdual reqwrements and familiarity with the
eqwpment, many of the people who make a specialty of
underwater photography design and/ or own their own
equipment.
Lenses and Lens Ports

Ports are available both w ith a flat surface an d as a
corrected dome. Wi th a flat port the magnification created
by the water (air to water refractive index is 1.33) causes
the camera lenses to assume the characteristic of slightly
longer lenses and objects appear closer by Yt. The corrected
dome port permits tl1e lenses to function with their true
focal lengths. T),e dome radius is critical and its center must
b~ on th e n?dal point of the lens to function correctly, if not
dwpters wtll be necessa ry, usually a +2 will bring objects
mto prop~r focus. The dome port can be of advantage w hen
workmg m areas of low visibility or in a confined space or
with extremely wide-angle lenses.
Both glass and plastic ports are available. Glass can be
~1ore perfect optically and it is virtually scratch-proof. Plashc IS stronger, but is vuln erable to scratching (a scratch on
tl1e outside of the port will be filled by water and not be
apparent, but a scratch on the inside is a different matter).
When the housing is used above or at split level with the
water, the fron t port (preferably fla t) can be kept clear of
water drops with the use of a wetting agent. Wide-angle
or short focus lenses are usually preferred because of the
magnifica.tion due to water, and the necessity to work close
to the subJect beca~se of scattering and absorption of light
by the water. The mcreased depth of field afforded is also
a f~ctor. .For 35mm film, a commonly used lens is the 16mm
Ze.tss Dtstagon, and fo r extreme wide-angle, a 9.8mm is
~tseful, although distortion is more apparent; a dome port
JS recommended for this lens.
Other lenses up to 75mm are useful for close-ups.
Correspond ing lenses fo r 16mm photography are lOmm
and 8.9mm; the IOmm is relatively distortion free. For 35mm
anamorphic photography, the 30mm and 35mm lenses are
preferred. A fla t port is recommended fo r anamorphic
~enses. :"'-ccma~e ~derwater focusing presents no problem
tf the dtstance ts Judged by eye; if the distance is measured
by tape, the lens is focused at 75% of the measmed distance
(witl1 no diopter).
1
498
Care Of Equipment
.
At the.end of a day's work and if possible when d1angmg magazmes the camera housing should be washed off
with fresh water. This w ill help preserve the housin g and
will also minimize the chance of salt spray damaging the
ca mera mechanism and in particular the lens. When the
ca mera and housin g are removed from the water they
s~ ould be ~mmediate~y placed in the shade. This is espectally true m the tropiCs where even a minimal exposure
to the sw1 can cause heat inside the camera housing to damage the film.
All film man ufacturers now have faster, fin er grained
negative emulsions available in 16mm, 35mm and 65mm.
Negative stock is preferred for underwater work over reversal films as it has a greater exposure la titude and yields
better prints. It also transfers well to tap e and is ideal for
television production. For di rect projection of the original
htgh speed reversal color fi lms arc availab le.
The Environment
Even under the best possible conditions, filming underwa ter presents the cinematographer with numerous
photographic problems not encoun tered on land. Ahnospheric haze, with the accompanying desatmation of the
warmer color tones, loss of detail and contrast, has its underwater counterparts in turbidity and color cast. Turbidity, caused by suspended matter varying from small sand
particles to microscopic organisms such as plankton, red uces light by absorption, diffuses the image, and reflects
direct fron t light into the lens ("backsca tter"). Tmbid ity
affects the quality of underwater cinematography more
than any other factor. Visibility may be reduced from many
feet to just a few, and vice versa.
Water absorbs the longer wavelength s of light (reds
and yellows); therefore, the farther the light must travel
from source to subject to lens, the less reds and yellows will
r~~ister on.the fi lm. TI1is can be pa rtia lly overcome by artiflctal hghhng and sometimes by selective use of Kodak
color compensatin g (CC) lens fi lters. Photographic tests
with these filters is suggested. Loss of color contrast resultin g from the selective fi ltration of w1derwater light can be
reduced through careful subject color selection.
This will apply to w1derwatcr sets, props and even the
type of wardrobe worn by actors. Color interest may be
499
ad ded to objects beyond the range of red or orange transmission tluough the use of brigh t blue, green and yellow.
White must be used with care because its reflective qualities together with underwater scattering will prod uce a
haze effect. (Underwater visibility of production equipment
can also be increased by giving it a bright chrome yellow
finish.)
Natural Light
Optimum w1derwater cinematography is usually obtained to a maximum depth of 50 ft. At g reater depths
things appear more monochromatic. There are also more
diving problems and camera housings are subject to greater
stress. Natural light reaches the ocean's surface ei ther as
d irect rays from the stm or as light diffused by clouds or
other ab11ospheric conditions such as dust and water vapor. A clea r, sa ndy ocean floor is a great asset to good unde rwater camera work because underwater light is refl ected fro m the ocea n floor back into the water. When
shootin g underwater in daylight conditions with ttmgsten
(3200K) film, with out add itional lighting, it is advisable to
use a #85 camera filter. This subtracts some of the blue from
the wa ter, permitting a truer rendering of skin tone on
htm1ans in the scene. If the negative is fully exposed, some
further correction may be possible in printing from the
negative.
The intensity of daylight for w1derwater filming depends also upon the amount lost by reflections from the
water's surface.
This depends on such variables as sw1 angle, surface
roughness, and cloud cover. The Light loss due to reflection
is least when the sun is directly overhead and does not sta rt
to become a problem until the sun is below an angle of
about 30 degrees. In the latitudes of the United States, sw1
height is generally optimum between 9 a.m. and 3 p.m. in
the summer and 10 a.m. and 2 p.m. in the winter.
Artificial Lighting
Underwater lighting is often necessary or desirable
both in studio tank conditions and in the open sea. Fill and
set lighting for performers, 11ight effect filming and other
conditions that require special lighting are often a part of
tmderwater work. The use of artificial light is an excellent
method of restoring or correcting color in underwater cin-
500
ematography. The effect of w1derwater fi ltering varies from

area to area, but as a general rule red is lost a t abou t 10 fee t.
Using artificial lighting wi ll often add the necessary color
compensation needed to record an w1derwater scene more
accurately. A number of excellen t tmderwa ter lamps are
currently available on the market. Tungsten halogen units
are available in 2000 watt and 1000 watt sizes, with al uminum reflectors in a pressure resistant housing. Smaller
lamps, usually battery powered, are also available. TI1ese
W1its are generally 250 watt and are useful in shooting very
close to the subject or as a fill light. Specially constntcted
HMI wuts are also available, extra care and ground fault
interrupt protection is necessary due to AC power source.
Large underwater areas can also be illuminated by
suspending lights from an overhead grid or netti ng stationed at the proper dep th by means of floa ts and anchors.
Submerging them mi nimizes movement of the light due to
wave action.
Lighting and Exposure

Lighting w1derwater is similar to topside lighting,
except that cross ligh tin g is p referable to fro nt lighting.
Front lighting should be avoided because it lights turbidity "backscatter." The exception to this is in crystal clear
water where a fro nt light can be used wi thout difficulty.
Front light sometimes can be used fo r fill.
Ei ther a reflected or incident exposure meter is sa tisfacto ry. When taking a n exposure readi ng a t the subject,
remember that water acts as a filter so one must compensate for the distance between the camera and the subject
and adjust accordingly. A rule of thun1b is Y. to Y2 stop. An
w1derwa ter reflected light me ter which works on a gray
scale principle, such as the Sekonic Marine 164B is ideal.
Tlus type of meter requires n o calibra ti on after the shutter
speed and the ASA rating have been set.
Under daylight conditions, exposwes a re based upon
the reading of the general area in which the scene is staged.
TI1e reflected ligh t read ing is made from alongside the camera and directed toward the action. The importance of the
angle of the shot as a fac tor in calculating exposure cmmot
be overemphasized when working in ocean waters; th ere
wi ll be exposure variance fo r up, down and horizonta l
moves.
501
Night Effects
Simple tmderexposure can produce acceptable underwater day-for-night photography. Liaison with the laboratory should help in producing the desired night effect.
Underexposure tends to increase the saturation of tmderwater colors and accentuates the blue component of open
water in the backgrow1d, thereby enhancing the night effect. The illusion can be intensified if light ripples from the
water surface are allowed to play across the scene. Scattering w ill ca use them to appear as tiny light beams moving
through the water. Wh en shooting night-for-night, overhead lighting can be utilized for a moonlit effect
Studio Tanks
Much underwater production photography may be
done in stud io tanks. These tanks will vary in size an d may
either be constructed ins ide a sOLmd stage or built outdoors
on the studio back lot. They are usually about 40 or 50 fee t
in diameter with depth ranging up to 14 or 15 feet. Outside
tanks are generally bttilt above ground, sometimes wi th
provision for a painted backdrop.
Most tanks are equipped with straight or reducing
ports from which cameras can be set up to shoot into the
tank. The straight port is a flat window looking into the
tank. Reducing ports arc prima rily used i.n p hotographi.ng
miniatures or shooting into a con fined underwater se t.
They arc concave glass providing an angle simi lar to that
of a wide-angle lens, also permitting more leeway in panni ng. The glass should be crystal clear. Since tanks are loca ted within the confines of the studio there is ample provision for using all types of studio lightin g tmits. lnside the
tank smaller w1.its such as those previously mentioned may
be used.
Miniatwes are usually photographed in a tank and the
sa me rules for filming speeds apply as in topside miniatllfe
photography. In filming miniatures, to simulate deep water, it is important to reduce light ripples by stretching a
scrim over the tank or letting it float on the water. The deep
ocean has no ripples. Light that has not been diffused wi ll
cause water ripples and give away the depth of the wa ter,
thereby destroying the illusion. Incidentally, even though
tanks are equipped with shooting ports the best angles and
camera movements arc obtained by d iving into th e water
with the ca mera just as if on a natu ral sea location.
502
Safety Bulletin No.8: Guidelines

for Insert Camera Cars
1.
An Insert Camera Car shall be a vehicle that is

specifically engineered for the mow1ting of cameras and other equipment for the primary purpose of photography from a stationary or moving vehicle.
2.
A camera car shall be safety checked before and

after use on a mffijmwn of a daily basis by qualified experien ced personnel - specifically brakes,
tires, electrical system and towing equipment.
3.
All rigging of equipment shall be done in a safe

manner by qualified, experienced personnel.
4.
An Insert Cam era Car used for night filming shall

be provid ed with two portable tail lights w hich
will be affixed to the towed vehicle to provide rear
lighting in cases where said vehicle's lights are not
operative.
5.
Maximwn passenger allowances-Operation of

Insert Camera
Cars Transporting Prod uction Persoru1el: All involved personnel should be made aware that, as
mandated by the California Administrative Code:
The number of employees " ... transported on vehicles ... shall never exceed a number which may
endanger the safe han dling of the vehicle ... " Accordingly, the Industry Subcommittee to Investigate Safety Aspects of Insert Camera Cars herewith recommends the follow ing maximum be
applied when transporting personnel by Insert
Camera Ca rs (du ring rehearsal and principal
photography sequences): That number should
never exceed nine (9) including the driver. In addition, it is strongly recommended that an y person not directly needed for actual shot sequence
Not Be Allowed on The Vehicle At All.
6.
Equipment not essential to the shots in progress

sh all not be transported on the Insert Ca rs.
503
7.
CommLmications regarding Insert Cars shall be

preceded by a meeting on the si te of the event
with a U people concerned. This meeting should
include a "walk-through" or "dry-nm" with the
driver and all o f tile persons involved in the event.
An understru1ding of tl1e intended action, possible
deviations ru1d autllority to abort should be made
clear. Following tl1e above and before rolling cameras, should any subs tantive change become necessary, the d irector will again call all persons involved in the s hot to a no tiler meeting to confirm
everyone's Lmderstanding and agreement to said
changes.
8.
Rea r towing- no personnel no t being photographed shall be on towbar or exterior of towed

vehicle. This does not include towed camera platfo rms ~uch as trailers designed for said work.
9.
It shall be mandatory that a copy of these rules be
in tl1e g love box of the vehicle at all tin1es.

10. lt is recognized that there can be w1foreseen or
unique s ituations which might require on-site
judgment d iffering from these guidelines. Sud1
judgment may have to be made in the interest of
the safety of cast ru1d crew.
Arctic Cinematography
Most of the difficulties encoLmtered when using motion-picture equipment in the Arctic are caused by extreme
cold and very low relative hLmlidity. Average temperatures
may vary from45 F (7 C) to -45F (-43 C), temperatures
as low as -80 F (-62 C) have been recorded. (Such low temperatures may also be encmmtered at very high altitudes.)
The lubricating oi ls usually used in photograph ic
equipment in more temperate climates w ill congeal in an
arctic environment so that moving parts of cameras or otl1er
equipment will not operate. Leather and rubber also become brittle a t these temperatures. Wi th motion-picture
films, loss of moisture from the film emulsion when the
original pack ing material is opened may resul t in film
504
emulsion shrinkage and brittleness, and subsequent film

curl in tl1e camera gate. Such difficu lties are not minimized
by using films with a polyester base w1less these films (or
tllose w ith a triacetate base) have a gelatin coa ting on the
support to compensate for em ulsion shrinkage. It is the
effect of tile very low relative humidi ty (less tl1an 5%) and
its emulsion drying characteristics that p roduces fi lm curl.
(Small heaters are sometimes used in cameras to prevent
film brittleness when working under conditions of extreme
cold, bu t Lmder certain conditions this practice could actually increase the chance o f emulsion shrinkage by further
red ucing tile relative hwnidity in the film chamber.) The
film speed is also lowered by extreme cold and may be
abou t one lens opening slower at -50 F (-46 C) to -70 F
(-57 C) than at 60 F (16 C). Fil m becomes p rogressively
more brittle as the temperature d rops below 0 F (-18 C),
but there is no marked change at any one temperature .
Even a t s ub-zero temperatures, film emul sion that retains
its proper m oisture content in the original package (equivalent to equilibriw11 at 40 to 60% RH) is more flexible tl1an
film that has been allowed to become too dry. Film can also
be bent w itl1 tile emulsion s ide in wi tl1less d1ance of breaking tl1ru1 if bent witll the emu lsion s ide out. Whether tl1e
fil m emul sion cracks or tile film support breaks at very low
temperatures depends on (1) how soon the film is exposed
after removal from the origin al package; (2) the care taken
in handling tl1e film; and (3) on the type and condition of
the camera in which it is used.
Temperatures generally encountered in tile Arctic will
not cause po lyester base films to break.
Preparation Of Equipment
Wllile the d ifficulties of p hotography Lmder arctic cond itions can be severe, they are by no means ins urmountable. Careful advance preparation will pay rich dividends
in tl1e form of easier and more reliable equipment operation ru1d better pictorial results. The firs t s tep in preparing
for filming in the Arctic, high mow1tain regions, or in wlheated aircraft at high altitudes is to select the mos t su itable equipment with due regard fo r the work to be done
an d the results desired.
Each kind of camera has its adherents, and no one type
seem s to be outs tandingly superior to the o tl1ers. However,
considering tile working condi tions, good judgment die-
505
tates that the camera or ca meras selected should be compact, lightweight, easy to use, dependable, adaptable, and
portable. ln choosing a 16mm motion-p icture camera,
many arctic explorers prefer the ease and convenience of
magazine loading. 1hreading roll film can be very difficult
tmder conditions of extreme cold. Certain camera models
are ad vantageous for low-temperature use becau se largeradi us bends in the fil m pa th and low film accelerahons
help prevent broken film. For best protechon of the film
emulsion at extremely low temperatures, film travel rollers should have a diameter no smaller than Yz in. (13mm).
Electric power, if available from a reliable source such as a
generator or vehicular power system, is more dependable
than spring-driven or battery power. However, under field
conditions, a spring-driven motor may prove more reliable
th an an electric motor dr ive that depends on portable or
storage batteries which can fail when subjected to extremely
low temperatures.
Cam eras should be winterized for sahsfactory service
under frigid conditions. Some camera manufacturers provide a winterizing service for cameras that are to be used
at low temperatures over a long period of time. Winterizing is a highly specialized operation, best entrusted to the
manufacturer or a competent independent camera service
representative. Essen bally, the procedure calls for dismantling the camera and removing the original lubricants. The
shutter, lens diaphragm, film transport mechanism, and
other moving parts are then re-lubricated with materials
that w ill not thicken when the camera is exposed to extreme
cold. Powdered graphite is in some cases still used for this
purpose. However, so-called "broad-range" lubrican ts
(such as Teflon and silicone) are becoming increasingly
popular, not only because of their effectiveness at low temperatures, but also because they can be left in the camera
permanently. In fact, such lubricants are being used in
manufacture. Hence, a camera that has been lubricated with
a broad-range lubricant, either in manufacture or as part
of a winterizing operation, need not be de-winterized and
re-lubrica ted when it is returned to use under normal conditions. When cameras are stripped down for winterizing,
weakened or damaged parts may be discovered and should
be replaced to avoid possible failure under the extra stress
of severe arctic temperatures.
It is also sometimes necessary to machine parts to allow greater clearance between components. nus is because
aluminum and certain alloys have greater coefficients of

therma l contraction and expansion than steel. Since small
levers and knobs on cameras are difficult to operate when
th e p hotographer is wearing thick gloves, extensions can
sometimes be added to levers, and smaiJ knobs can be replaced with larger ones.
It ma y be he lpfu l to run even recen tly w interized
motion-picture cameras for a period of three or four hours
to break them in thoroughly. A piece of film three or fou r
feet long can be spliced end to end (to form a continuous
loop), threaded into the ca mera, and aiJowed to rtm during the breaking in. ln cameras intended for use with film
magazines, the loop should be formed in a d ummy magazine. After the breaking-in period, the camera should be
checked for speed and general behavior. It should be noted
that, although magazine-type motion-picture cameras can
be winterized, the magazines themselves are not winterized
and may jam under conditions of extreme cold. If film
magazines are used, each day's working reserve carried
into the field should be kept as warm as possible under the
cinematographer's parka. Another possibility is to carry the
film supp ly in an insulated thermal bag, along with one or
two small hand warmers.
Before your location shoot, a test nm should be made
in a refrigerator or freezer capable of reacl1ing temperatures
as low as -30 F (-34 C) or -40 F (-40 C). Even "winterized " cameras can fail in use beca use some detail was overlooked in preparation, so this final test run is quite important. The film and camera should be cooled for at least 24
hours prior to the test. This long period of pre-cooling is
often overlooked, and the test becomes invalid.
Motion-picture cameras should be given as much protection from icy winds as possible during use. When battery-driven motors are used on cameras, the motors and
batteries should be kept as warm as possible. A flil t blilck
fini sh on the cameras has some advantage in the Arctic
because it absorbs heat w hen the sun is shining. Covers
made from black felt material or fur and fitted with eyelets or other suitable fastene rs protect the camera from
frigid winds and help to retain its i.Jutial warmth for a time.
Snaps and slide fasteners are not recommended for use u1
sub-zero temperatures. Small magazine-type motion-picture cameras can be hung inside the coa t to obtain some
wa rmth from the body; yo u may even need to wrap a
chemical heating p ad a rou nd the camera. Insp ect the
507
camera's lens each time it is removed from the clothing to

take a picture. The amow1t of "body static" generated under cold, dry conditions can cause the lens to attract lint
from the clothing.
Tripods should also be conditioned properly for use
in the Arctic. When lubrication is required, there are oils
ava ilable for use at temperatures down to -70 F. Tripod
heads for motion-picture equipment should be winterized
if they include gyros, motors, or other revolvi ng parts. As
noted previously extreme cold causes leather and rubber
to become brittle. A wax leather dressing of good quality
should be rubbed into leather carrying cases and leathercovered cameras to prevent the absorption of m oisture.
Rubber should be eliminated wherever possible.
Silk or lightweight cotton gloves under heavy woolen
mittens are recommended. Gloves or mittens made from
unborn lambsk in a re excellent for a rctic wea ther. Silk
gloves will keep the hands wa rmer and will afford considerable protection when the outside mittens are removed for
loading the camera, adjusting the lens, etc.
Equipment and Filming Technique

In the Arctic or on mountain climbing expeditions, as
the altitude and the subsequent cold increase, breathing
becomes difficult, and it involves a great effort to work
normally. Reactions are slow. Therefore, everything pertaining to the use of the camera should be made as simple
as possible. Exposure estimates may be poor when the faculties are dulled, so exposure and other data should be
printed on a card and fastened to the camera or its cover in
plain view.
Certain general cold-wea ther recommendations are in
order for any carera, still or motion-picture. Breathing on
a lens or any other part of the camera to remove snow or
other ma terial will ca use condensation that freezes instantly
and is very diffitu lt to remove.
An important factor to keep in mind is the ever-present
da nger of hostbite, a particular tlueat when hands or face
come in direct contact with the metal of the camera body.
Cameras that are used at eye level and must be brought
close to tl1e face for proper viewing and focusing should
have tl1eir exposed metal areas covered with heavy electrical tape, plastic foam, or some other insulating material.
Under no circumstances should tile photographer touch the
508
camera or other metal equipment with ungloved hands,

beca use the skin will freeze to the cold metal almost instantly. A painful loss of skin almost always results.
A thoroughly chilled camera cannot be used in a warm
room until its temperature equals th e surrow1ding warmer
tempera ture. Conversely, a warm camera caru1ot be taken
out into a blizzard because the blowing and drifting snow
will melt upon striking the warm camera, and soon the
instrument will be covered w ith ice. Loading film, even
during a driving snowstorm, can be accomplished with the
use of a large, dark plastic bag, big enough to fit over the
head and shoulders.
A deep lens hood is very desirable for fi lming in the
snow. It will help keep the lens dry even during a fairly
severe storm.
Film
Grea t care must be used in handling fil m in sub-zero
weather. The edges of cold, brittle film are extremely sharp,
and unless cau tion is exercised, they can cu t the fingers
severely.
It is important tha t film be loaded and exposed
promptly after removal from the original packing, not left
in the can1era fo r long periods of time. If motion-picture
film is allowed to stand in the camera for a day or so, the
film may dry out and break where the loop was formed
when tile camera is again started. The film is adequa tely
protected against moisture loss as long as tl1e original packaging is intact. When loadi ng the camera, make sure the
fibn and the camera a re at the same temperature- if possible, load the camera indoors.
Static markings are caused by an electros tatic discharge, and they appear on the developed fi lm emulsion
as marks resemblin g ligh tn ing, tree branches, or fuzzy
spots. When static difficul ties occur they can usually be
traced to the use of film which h as a very low moisture
content.
Static markings are 110t likely to ocwr if the film is loaded
and exposed within a short time after tile original package is
opened. In general, field photography tmder arctic conditions involves subjects of extremely low brightness scale
and very high levels of illumination. For this reason, highspeed emulsions a re not generally used outdoors. The best
choice of film is a medium-speed material such as Eastman
509
Plus-X egative Film 5231 / 7231, Eashnan Color Nega ti ve

Film 5248/7248, Eastma n Ektach rome Film (Daylight)
5239/7239, Agfa Color Nega tive Film XTlOO, Fujicolor
Negative Film F 125 8530/ 8630, Fujicolor Reversal Film
RT125 (16rnm only-8427), or Fuji Negative Film FG 71112/
RP 72161. Exposures should be held to a minimum and
overexposure should be avoided.
When pictures are to be made w1der low-level lighting conditions, such as at twilight, or indoors under existing a rtifi cial illumi nation, a hi gh-speed film, such as
Eastman 4-X Negative Film 5224/ 7224, Eashnan Color EXR
Hig h-Speed Neg ati ve Film 5296/ 7296, Eastman
Ektachrome High-Speed Film (Daylight) (16rnm only7251), Eastman Ektachrome High-Speed Film (Tw1gsten)
(16mm on ly-7250), Agfa Color Nega tive Film XT320 ,
Fujicolor F 500 Color Negative Film 8570/ 8670, or Fujicolor
Reversal Film RT 500 (16m rn only-8428) should be used.
Storage
If a cold camera is taken indoors where it is warm and
humid, condensation may fo rm on the lens, film, and ca mera parts. lf the ca mera is then taken back outdoors before
the condensed moisture evaporates, it will freeze and interfe re with operation; the condensate can also cause metal
parts to rust. One way to solve this problem is to leave the
camera, when not in use, in a room at about 32F (0C).
T. R. Stobart, who fi lmed the first conquest of Mt.
Everest, prefers to seal the camera in an airtight polyethylene or rubber bag and then take the camera into the warmth
of indoors. Any condensa tion takes place outside the bag,
not inside, and the camera remai ns both dry and warm.
This method has the ad vantage of keeping the can1era from
becoming "saturated in cold" for long period s of time.
There is no problem in taking warm equip ment back out
into the cold, p rovided the snow isn' t blowing.
When a camera is left in its case outdoors, the case
should be made reasonably airtight. In the Arctic, blown
snow becomes as fine as dust or silt and can enter the smallest slit or crevice. If a llowed to enter the camera arow1d the
shu tter or other moving parts, the snow will affect the operation of the equipment. The speed and timing of motors
should be checked frequently. Batteries should be checked
every day and recharged at a base every night, if possible.
510
Tropical Cinematography
Heat and humidity are two basic sources of potential
difficulty when using or storing photographic goods in wet
tropical climates. Heat alone is not the worst factor, though
it may necessitate special equipment care and processing
teclmiques and may shorten the life of incorrectly stored
light-sensitive materials. High humidity is by far the greater
problem because it can cause serious trouble at temperatures only slightly above normal, and these troubles are
greatly increased by high temperatures.
Associated with these conditions are several biological factors - the warmth and dampness levels encountered
in the tropics are conducive to the profuse grow til of fungus and bacteria and encourage tile activities of insects.
Many photographic and other related products are "food"
for these organisms- gelatin in films, filters, lea tiler, adhesives, and so on. Even if fungus, bacteria, or insects cannot attack materials directly, they can develop an environment tllat can. Fungus can also either directly or indirectly
induce corrosion in metals, attack textiles and lea ther,
change the color of dyes, a ttack glass, and cause a great
variety of oilier forms of deterioration. The probability of
damage is greater with frequent handling and transportation, especially under the difficulties met in hunting and scientific expeditions and in military operations. Exposure to
harm is greater wh en equipment is used out of doors, on
the ground, or in makeshift facilities.
Atmospheric condition, with respect to moisture content, is usually described in terms of "relative humidity."
This is the ratio, expressed as a percentage, be tween the
quantity of water vapor actually present in the air and the
rnaxinlwn quantity which the air could hold at that ternperature. Thus, if a given sample of air contains only half
as much water as it would at saturation, its relative hwnidity is 50 percent.
When the temperature rises, a given space can accommodate more water vapor and hence, the relative humidity decreases, and vice versa. When air (or an object) is
cooled sufficiently, a satura tion point (100 percent relative
humidity) is reached , and below this temperature drops of
water or "dew" are deposited . In any locality, tl1e temperature is much lower a t high altitudes, so that dew is likely
to form on objects following their arrival by air transport,
511
especially when high relative hwnidi ty is present at ground

leveL In trop ical climates, this "dew point" is often only a
few degrees below the actual temperature during the day
and is reached w hen the temperature drops a t night.
The amOLmt of moisture absorbed by films and by nonmetallic parts of equipment is determined by the relative
humidity of the atmosphere. Therefore, the moisture absorption of photographic or other equipment can be reduced by lowering the relative humidity, either by removing some of the moisture with a desiccating agent or by
raising the temperature of the atmosphere where the eqwpment is stored.
Extremes of re lati ve humidi ty are a serious threat to
a ll photographic ma terials, even at moderate temperatures.
At high tempe1atures, the effects of high humidity are
grea tly accele ra ted, particularl y if the relati v~ humi~ty
remain s above 60 pe rcent. Exhemely low rela tive humtdity, on the other hand, is not quite so serious, but if it fal.ls
below 15 percent for a considerable ti me, as is common m
desert regions, an electric humidifier should be installed
and set to main tain a relati ve humidity of 40 to 50 percent
in the storage area.
Storage of Photographic Materials

Sensitized photographic materials are perishable products when stored under extreme conditions of high temperatures an d high relati ve humidity. Proper storage is
therefore important at all times. Fortw1ately, adequate protection of sensitized materials can be accomplished a t relatively low cost and without exheme methods. Lightweight
portable refrigera tors or other cooling w1its are available
from expedition ou tfitters an d other simila r equipment
supp liers. Desicca nts are ava ilable in bulk or kit form for
reducing the moisture content of the ahno.sphere w.h:r~
film is to be stored. Further, portable electnc dehumtdi fJcrs are also avai lable to reduce the relative humidity in
larger quarters, such as work rooms, to aid in the comfort
of the occupants. And finally, the film packaging reduces
the possibility of damage when the material is stored under recommended conditions. Usually, there will be Little
or no adverse effect to the film if it is stored and handled
as described be low.
Black & white films can be stored at normal room temperatures in an air-conditioned room. Color films should
512
always be stored in a refrigerator at 55 F (13C) or lower.

To avoid moisture condensation on the chilled surfaces of
the material, take film cans out of the ca rtons and allow
35mm rolls to warm up from 3 h ours fo r a 20F to 5 hours
fo r a 75F tempera tu re rise above storage temperature.
16mm rolls take abou t Y:l those times.
When the origi nal packaging seal has been broken,
films should be exposed and processed as soon as possible.
Since the air in a refrigerator is moist, partially used packages should be returned to the refrigerato r in a sealed container containing a desiccan t to absorb the moisture wi th in
the container.
In general, do not keep more fil m th an necessary in
stock, particularly w hen good storage condi tions are not
available. Photographic ma teria ls can a lso be affected by
the chemical acti vity of fumes and gases. Consequently,
fil ms should not be stored in newly pain ted rooms or cabine ts. All films should be processed as soon as possible a fter exposure. If you are unable to do this fo r some reason,
enclose the films in an airtight jar or can together wi th a
desiccant an d p lace them in a refrigerator. Exp osed films
can be kept for several days in this way.
Preparation and Protection of

Equipment
To save time and avoid damage, cameras and other
equipment should be made read y well in advance of depa rture. It is well worthwhi le to have the equipment thoroughly overh auled and cleaned , preferably by the origina l
manufacturer, who should be ad vised as to the type of climate in which it will be used. Cases, packing ma teria l, and
moisture-absorbing material (desiccant) should be obtained
for the equipment and supplies. Protection during tra nsporta tion and storage is readily obta ined by the u se of hermetically sea led ca ns, metal-foil bags, or othe r water/vapor proof containers, and a sui table desicca ting agent. If the
containers have been properly sealed a nd contain an adequate quantity of desiccant, they will protect the contents
practically indefinitely. There is, however, one reserva tion
and caution: if precision instrwnents that require lubrication with certain types of ligh t oils are subjected to high
temperatures willie in such packing, the oils may evapora te, leaving a gummy residue on the instrument bearings.
This situation may p revent proper equip ment func tioning
513
until the equipment can be cleaned andre-lubricated properly.

The protection of equipment that is in active use requires a somewhat different approach. The relative humidity can be lowered in an equipment storage cabine t that is
not used for film storage by burning electric light bulbs or
operating an electric resistan ce heating unit continuously
in the lower p a rt of the cabinet. The number of lamps
should be adjusted to keep the temperature about 10 above
the average prevailing temperature. Air spaces and small
holes should be provided at the top and bottom of the cabinet and through the shelves to allow a slow chan ge of air
to carry off moisture introduced by the cameras and equipment. The positions of the holes should be staggered on the
different shelves in order to prod uce a more thorough
change of air. Since hi gh relative humidity favors the
growth of ftmgus on lenses, filters, and other surfaces, storage in sucl1 a cabinet will help red uce the fungus growth
and may prevent it entirely.
Electric dehumidifiers are now appearing in stores in
many of the larger cities in tropical regions. With these
units, whole rooms and their contents can be dehumidified,
provided they can be closed to outside air penetration. In
dehumidified rooms, the humidity will not increase rapidly during short power failures, as it would in heated closets or cabinets. In a small, tightly sealed room, an average
unit in operation for 12 hours out of 24 can keep the relative humidity below 60%. This should be checked about
once a month with an RH meter or sling psychrometer.
When it is not practical to use a hot cabinet or electric dehumidifier, equipment should be stored in an airtight case
containing plenty of desiccant. Two cans of silica gel the size
of shoe-polish cans will do a very good job of drying equipment in a sealed ten-gallon paint can (one with a gasket and
a "pOLmd shut" Ud).
A half-pound bag of silica gel works well in a gasketed
55-gallon "open top" drum that can be sealed with a cover.
However, where shipment and handling are involved or
where the containers are to be opened briefly a few times,
double or even triple the quantity of gel will provide areserve of protection. Properly dehydrated containers will
momenta rily feel cool to an inserted hand due to rapid
evaporation of the normal skin moisture. The sensation is
brief, but can be easily detected if one is looking for it. Its
514
abs~nce means the sil ica gel needs replacement or regeneration.

If none of these methods are practical, and the equipment must of necessity be left in an atmosphere of high
relative hun1idity, the equipment should be opened and
exposed to the sun at frequent intervals in order to drive
? ut moisture. Tl~e exposures, however, should be kept short
m order to avOid overheating. Ca meras loaded with film
should not be exposed to th e sw1 any more than necessary.
Cameras should always be protected from excessive
heat because many of the lenses used on cameras are composed of several elements of glass cemented together. Because some cements melt at 140F (60C) and begin to soften
at 120 F (49C), it is obvious that the lens elements might
become separated or air bubbles might form if the lens were
heated to such tempera tures. Cameras sh ould not be
han~ led roughly or subjected to sudden jarring when used
at h1gh temperatures because any sl ig ht shock might
change the position of the lens components.
Maintenance of Equipment
. One of the ~est protective measures that can be supplied m the tropics IS to thoroughly clean every piece of
photo!Sraphic equipment at frequen t interva ls and expose
~ t to air and sun whenever practical. This is particularly
important fo r retarding the corrosion of metal su rfaces and
the growth of ftmgus or mold on lens surfaces a nd on
leather coverings. Lens cleaning fluids and papers now on
the market are recommended for cleaning lenses. During
the tropical dry season, or in any desert areas, any dust
should be removed from the lens surfaces with a sable or
ca mel hair brush before the lens tissue is used, to avoid
scratcl1es. Lens cleaning tissues containing silicones should
not be used for coa ted lenses. They leave an oily film that
~hang~s the c~lor characteristics of the coating and red uces
1ts anti-reflection properties. This film is almost im possible
to remove .. Leather coverings and cases ca n best be kept
clean by wtpmg them often and thoroughly with a clean,
dry cloth. Frequent cleani ng and polishing will minimize
corrosion on exposed metal parts.
Black & White Film

The exposure of black & white film in trop ical areas is
stron gly infl uenced by the illum ination in the subject
shadow areas. The moisture and dust content of the atrno-
515
sphere are important because shadows are illuminated only

by light scattered by particles suspended in the air, except
where supplementary Lighting or reflectors are used. Thus,
where the atmosphere is very dry and dear, objects that do
not receive the direct light of the sun appear, both to the
eye and to the camera lens, to be in deeper-than -normal
shadow. [n regions like the southwestern United States or
central Mexico, for example, the brighh1ess range of average outdoor subjects is much greater than it is in less clear
climates. In photographing people, this effect and the high
position of the stm combine to put the eyes in deep shadow
and even sometimes give the effect of backlighting. Therefore, it is best to avoid taking pictures, particularly closeups of people, when the sun is overhead; if you must take
close-ups of people, use reflectors or booster lights to soften
the shadows.
Exposme metersshould always be used with a reasonable amow1 t of judgment and experience, and this is especia lly hue in locations with such unusual atmospheric and
lightin g conditions. In the jungle areas of South and Central America, the local farmers often clear and burn large
quantities of trees and brush during the d ry season. The
smoke, composed of solid particles, hangs in the lower atmosphere and is not easily penetrated even with filters.
Also, at the height of the wet season in many localities, the
wa ter haze becomes almost as impenetrable as a heavy
cloud. Distance photography is best done a few weeks after the close of the wet season and before burning begins,
or a few weeks after the first rains of the wet season have
settled the smoke particles and before the onset of the wet
season haze.
If extensive photographic work in the trop ics is
planned, the development of a few test exposures may prevent major failures. It is usually sufficient to determine a
basic exposure which can then be modified to suit other
films or conditions. Allowance should also be made for
different types of subjects. Beach scenes, for example, generally require about one stop less exposure than an average subject.
conditions and scene characteristics in the tropics which

justify special considerations.
1. During the rainy season, a light haze is generally
present in the atmosphere. When this haze is present, the
disk of the sun is clearly discernible and fairly distinct shadows are cast. Under these conditions, the exposure should
be increased by about one-half stop over that required for
bright stmlight.
2. Frequently the bri gh tness of beach and marine
scenes is appreciably greater than thatencOLmtered i11 temperate zones. With such scenes the camera exposme should
be decreased one full stop from that required for average
subjects. It should be remembered tha t the term "average
- subject" as used in exposme tables app lies to a subject or
scene in which light, medium and dark areas are roughly
equal in proportion. It should not be taken to mean "usual"
for a p a rticular loca tion or area. For in sta nce, the usual
desert scene is a "Light subject" ra ther than "average subject," and should be exposed as such.
3. When the sw1 is high overhead, heavy shadows are
cast across vertical surfaces, very mud1like those occmring
in side-Lighted subjects. Therefore, the exposme should be
increased one-half-stop more than normal, just as is recommended for side-lighted scenes. For close-ups having important shadow areas, a full-s top increase in exposu re is
needed.
4. Many objects in the tropics, not only painted buildings and light colored fabrics, but even the leaves of many
plants and trees, have a high reflectance for d irect lighting.
Consequently, with front top or back lighting they should
be considered average subjects.
5. Very often the colors of nearby objects will be affected by th e green light reflected from nearby bright green
foliage. Similarly, in courtyards or narrow streets, the side
that is in the shade gets much of its illumination from the
opposite sunlit wall, wh ich may be strongly colored. There
is little that can be done to correct fo r this si tuation, but it
should be recognized as a possible cause of poor results in
color pictures.
Color Film
In general, the exposure of color films should follow
the same basic recommendations given for temperate zone
exposure, with due regard to lighting and scene classification. There are, however, some differences in the Ughting
516
517
Day-for-Night Cinematography
The speed of modern color films makes it possible to
shoot night-for-night scenes. However, there a rc night
scenes tha t arc imprac tical to illuminate artificially and
actually film at night. Shooting such scenes day-for-night
eliminates the add itional problems and expe nse of night
shooting and can deliver excellent pictorial results.
Techniques for filming day-for-night scenes in color or
black & white va ry greatly beca use of the many factors involved. Cinematographers naturally differ in thei r interpretation of w hat constitutes a night effect. The overa ll effect
must be one of darkness. Processing labora tories differ in
their negative preferences, although most prefer sufficient
densi ty on the original negative si nce it is always possible
to "print down" fo r a darker effect, but impossible to obtain a rich, full-bodied print from a thin, shadow less original negative (if black shadows arc desired, the scene must
print at center scale or highe r).
Choice of filters and d egree of underexposu re w ill
vary according to sky conditions, color and contrast of subject and backgroLmd, the strength, quality an d di rection of
sunlight, and the pa rticular effect desired . Very generally
speaking, the most convincing day-for-night shots, in either
color or black & whi te, are made in strong sunlight, Lmder
blue skies and with low-ang le back-cross lighting.
Direct backl ighting results in a "rim-light" e ffect
which, although p leasing in a long shot, lacks the necessary
three-dimensional, half-illuminated facial effects required
in medium and t lose shots. Front lighting will fla tten and
destroy a ll shadows. Side and fron t-cross lighti ng is permissible but not as effective as back-cross illumination.
Since production does not always permit shootin g when
conditions arc exactly right, and since day-for-night shots
must sometimes be made all day long, often the choice of
sun angle must be compromised. Under these conditions,
avoid front lighti ng as much as possible and stay with any
sun angle that results in partia l illuminati on, preferably
with shadows towa rd the camera.
Skies give the most trouble, since they will invariably
read too high and are diffi cult to balance aga inst foregroLmd action. Graduated ne utral density filte rs, w hich
cover the sky area only, a nd Pola Screens, which will
darken the sky with the sun at certain angles, are both useful for either color or black & wh ite films because they do
518
not affect color values and can be used in combination with

other effect filters.
Neutral-density fil ters will tone down a "hot" sky,
even if it is bald white. A p artial or graduated neutral-density filter covering only the sky w ill therefore be very useful for bringing th e sky into exposure ba lance with the foreground. Care must be taken, however, that action d oes not
cross the demarcation line between the filter material an d
the clear glass area. Pola Screens are most useful when the
sun is directly overhead at right angles to the camera.
A Pola Screen should not be employed if the camera
must be panned through a wide arc, since the polarization
will vary and the sky tone will change in density as the
cam era revolves. Typical underexposure is 1\-1 to 2\-1 stops,
rarely more. Brilliant sunlight will require greater underexposure, g ra y days less. The unde rexposure ca n be
handled in several ways. One is by ignori.ng the fi lter exposLLre increase required, if it is close to the ammmt of underexposure desired. For instance, the filter being employed may require two stops increase in exposure for a
normal effect. The increase is ignored and the diaphragm
set for the exposure without the filter, thus delivering the
necessary underexposure for the night effect. Or, a neutral
density of the d esired strength is employed and its exposure increase ignored.
Proceed as follows: insert the effect filter, or combination of filters for the d esired effect, and allow for their exposure increase as in normal filming. Add the desired neutral (a .30 for one stop, .50 for a stop and one-half or a .60
for two stops). Ignoring the neutral filter's exposure increase will automa tically underexpose the negative by the
necessary amount. This is a quick and effective method in
fast production shooting where night e ffects a re suddenly
requiled and little or no time is available for compu ta tions.
. .. If_the sk~ is not sufficiently blue to filter properly, a nd
tf 1t IS Lmposstble to use a graduated neutral-density filter,
try to avoid the sky as much as possible by shooting against
buildings or foliage, or choose a high angle and shoot
downward.
.
Th~ contrast between the players and the backgrow1d
tS very Important since a definite separation is d esirable.
Dark clothing, for instance, will merge witl1 a dark background and the player will be lost. It is better to leave a dark
backgrow1d and players in lighter, although not necessarily white, clothing than to have a light background and
519
players in dark clothing. The latter combinatio n w ill result

in a silhouette, rather than a night e ffect. This is the reason
that back-cross lighting is preferable, so tha t th e b~c.k
ground is not illuminated and the players have a defuute
separation th.rough edge lighting, which also 1mparts shimmering highlights.
Black & White Film

The ill usion of night in black & whi te cinematography
is obtained by combining conhast filtering with undere~
posure. Since the sky is light by day ru:'d dark by rught, 1t
is the principal area of the scene reqwnng correctwn. A11y
of the yellow-orange o r red filters may be used. A very
popular combina tion is the light red Wratten 23A plL~s the
green 56. Th is combination does everything the red filters
accomplish- plus it darkens flesh tones, which ar~ r~n
dered too light by the red fi lters alone. When combmu~g
filters, remember that red filters add conhast but green filters flatten; if a greater flatte ning effect is desired, add a
heavier green filter. Si nce flesh tones are not importa nt ~n
long shots, they are sometimes filmed with heavier red ~tl
ters, and only the medium and close shots are made w1th
the combination red-green filters. Care must be taken, however, that clothing and background colors do not photograph differently when filters are switched in t~e sa.me.sequence. If in doubt, shoot tests before production f.tlmmg
begins. Remember that only a blue sky can be hlter~d
down. No amount of color filtering will darken a bald wl11te
sky. Use grad uated neutral densities, or avoid th.e sk_Y w~
der these adverse conditions. The 23A-56 combmahon 1s
usually employed with a filter factor of 6, rather than ~he
20 normall y requi red (5 for the 23A and 4 for the 56, wl11ch
mu ltipl ied equals 20). The factor of 6 automatically underexposes this filter combina tion approxima tely 1'h sto~s and
achieves the desired effect witho ut further computa tion. If
a red fi lter is used a lone, bear in mind that it w ill lighten
faces, a nd usc a darke r makeup (approximately two
shades) on close shots.
Reversal Color Film

Typical blue night effects can be obt.ained w ith re~er
sal color films balanced for exposure w1th tungsten Ltght
by removing the Wratten 85 filter and under :xposing 1\/:!
stops. If the bluish effect is too great, an ultravwlet-absorb-
ing filter can be used to fil ter out the excess ultraviolet. Flesh
tones in closeups can be adj usted by using gold reflectors
or 3200K fill lights to light actors faces. Ca re must be taken
that ~he a~tors a~e not over-lit or tha t such lights appear as
amb1ent light w1th the SLm acting as a moonlight key.
Negative Color Film

. A cin~matographer shooting day-for-night with negati ve color f1lm should check with the processing laboratory
before the production begins. Laboratories have a far
greater range of color correction ava ilable than the cinematographer has at his disposal dwi11g the original photography. They may add or subtract any color, or combination
of colors, provided the original negative has sufficient exposure. Once the 85 filter is removed, however, it is often
impossible to restore norma l color balance to the film.
If the 85 filter is removed, it shou ld be replaced w ith
an ultravio!et filter, which will prevent overexposwe of the
blue sens1hve layer and keep the negative within prin ting
range. Wa rmer effects may be obtained by substituting a
light yellow filter fo r the 85. A Pol a Screen may also be used
to darken a bl~e s~y ~nd provide the required w1derexpos ure (by 1gnormg 1ts filter factor). It will have no effect on a
b~ld sky, but it will act as a neutral-density filter and proVIde the needed w1derexposure. Remember that approximately. ~-stop exposure is gained by removing the 85 filter. Th1s must be mduded in exposure calcu lations.
Infrared Cinematography
.
B~cau~ecinematography by infra red light has had li mIted p1Cto nal use, this wi ll be a brief review. For more information, refer to Kodak publications num ber N-17
"Kodak Infrared Films" an d M-28 "Applied Infrared Photography." Infrared for photographic purposes is defined
as that part of the spectrum, approximately 700 to 900 nanometers, which is beyond the visible red, but not as far as
would be sensed by humans as hea t.
All infrared films are sensi tive to heat and should be
~ept rehigerated before ex~osure and dwing any holding
time befor.e processmg. While n o longer listed as a regular
catalogue 1tem, Eastman Kodak still manufachlres a B & w
521
infrared sensitive film, Kodak High-Speed Infrared Film

2481, and a m odi fied color sensi tive film, Kod a k
Ektachrome Infrared Film 2236. Both of these films are on
Estar base. Before deciding to use either film in a production the manufacturer should be contacted regarding its
availabili ty, minimum order quantities and delay in delivery.
Black & White Films

For pictorial purposes, the greatest use of infrared sensi tive film for motion-picture ph otography has been for
"day-for-night" effects. Foliage and grass reflect infrared
and record as white on B & W film. Painted materials which
visually match in color but do not have a high infrared reflectance will appear da rk. Skies a re rendered almost black,
clouds and snow are w hite, shadows are dark, but often
show considerable detail. Faces require special makeup and
clothing can only be judged by testing.
A suggested EI fo r testing prior to p roduction is daylight EI 50, tungsten EI 125 with a Wratten 25, 29, 70, or 89
fil ter, or daylight EI 25, tungsten EI 64 with 87 or 88A (visually opaque) fil ter. lnfrared light comes to a focus farther
from the lens than d oes visual light. An average correction
fo r most len ses is 0.25 % of the focal length of the lens
.0125rnm (.005 inches) for a 50mm lens.
Color
No human can see infrared; color film can only record
and interpret it. Kodak Ektachrome Infrared Film 2236 was
originally devised for camouflage detection. Its three image layers are sensitized to green, red , and infrared instead
of blue, green and red. Later applications were found in
med icine, ecology, plant p athology, hydrology, geology
and archeology. Its only pictorial use has been to produce
weir d color effects.
In use, all blue light is filtered out with a Wratten 12
filter; visible green records as blue, visible red as green, and
infrared as red. The blue, being filtered out, is black on the
reversal color film. Because visible yellow light is used as
well as infrared, focus is normal, and the use of a Light meter
is normal fo r this part of the spectrum. What happ ens to
the infra red reflected light is not measurable by conventional methods, so testing is advisable. A suggested EI for
test~ng p rior to production is daylight EllOOwith a Wratten

12 filter.
Ultraviolet Photography
.
There a re two di_sti nctly differe nt techniques fo r takmg photographs usmg u ltrav iolet rad iation, and since
they a re often confused with each other, both will be descnbed.
In the first tech n iq ue, ca lled reflected-u ltrav io let
P!1 otogral?h~, the photograph is made by invisible ultrav_JOI_et rad1atton reflected from an object. This method is
sun~ l ar t~ conventional photography in which yOLI p hotograph ltght refle~ted fro m the subject. To take p ictmes
by re flec ted ultrav10let, most conventional fi lms can be
used, but th e camera lens must be covered with a filter,
sud~ as the Wratten 18A, that tra nsmits the invisible ulan d allows
no visible light to reach the f"1m.
l Th"1s
traviOlet
t
.
IS rue u 1trav10let pl:ot~gr~p_hy; it is used principally to
show details oth erw1se li1VIS1ble m scientific and technica l photograp~y. Reflected-ultra violet photography has
almost no applica tiOn fo r motion picture purposes; if yo u
have qu~stJO_ns ~bou t reflected ul traviolet photography
mfo rma tton IS g1ven in the book "Ul traviolet and f luorescence Photography," available from Eastman Kodak
Co.
Th_e second technique is known as fluorescence, or
black~h~ht, phot~gr~phy. In motion-pictu re photography, 1t IS used prmCJpall y for its visua l effects. Certain
O?Jects, w_h~n subje_cted to invisible ul traviolet light, wi ll
g1ve off vtstble rad 1at10n ca lled fluorescence, wh ich can
be p ~1otogra~~ed w ith conventional film . Some objects
flu o~esce par ticul a rly well a~1 d are described as being
flu?1escen t: They can be ob tamed in various forms such
as mks, pa_m_ts, crayons, papers, cloth, and some rocks.
Some P!astJc 1tems, bright-colored a rticles of clothing and
co~mehcs are als? typical objects that may fluoresc:. For
Objects that d on t fluoresce, fluo rescen t paints (oil or
wa_ter base), chalks or crayons can be added. These matena ls a r~ sold by a rt supply stores, craft shops, department stores, and_hardware stores. Many of these items
ca n also be obtamed from Wildfire, Inc., 10853 Ven ice
523
Blvd., Los Angeles, Ca lifornia, 90034, which manufactures them specially for the motion-picture industry.
Fluorescence may range from violet to red, depending on the material and the film used. ln add ition to the
fluorescence, the object reflects ultraviolet light, which is
stronger photographically. Most film has considerable
sensitivity to ultrav iolet, which would overexpose and
wash out the image from the weaker visible fluorescence.
Therefore, to photograph only the fl uorescence, you must
use a fi lter over the camera lens (such as the Wratten 2B,
2E or 3, or equivalent) to absorb the ultraviolet.
The wavelengths of ultraviolet light range from
about 10 to 400 nanometers. Of the generally useful range
of u ltraviolet radiation, the most common is the longwavelength 320 to 400nm range. Less common is the short
to medium-wavelength range of 200 to 320nm.ln fluOLescence photography you can use long-, medium-, or shortwave radiation to excite the visible fluo rescence depending on the material. Some ma terials will fl uoresce in one
type of ultravio le t rad ia tion and not in another.
Certain preca utions are necessary when you use ultraviolet radia tion. Warning: You must use a source of
short- or medium-wave ultraviolet with caution beca use
its rays cause sunburn and severe, painful injuries to eyes
not protected by ulhaviolet-absorbing goggles. Read the
manufacturer's instructions before usi ng ultra violet
lamps.
Eye protection is generally not necessary when you
use long-wave ultraviolet because this radiation is considered harmless. However, it's best not to look directly
at the rad iation source for any length of time, beca use the
fl uid s in your eyes w ill fluoresce a nd cause some discomfort. Wearing glass eyeglasses will minimize the discomfo rt from long-wave sources.
There arc many sources of ultraviolet radiation, but
not all of the m arc sui table for fluorescence photography.
The best ultraviolet sources for the fluorescence tedmique
are mercury-vapor lamps or ultraviolet fluorescent tubes.
If an object fluoresces under a continuous u ltra viole t
source, you ca n see the fluorescence while you' re photo.
.
graphing it.
Since the brighh1ess of the fl uorescence 1s relatively
low, the ultraviolet source must be positioned as close as
practical to the subject. The objective is to produce the
maximum fl uorescence while providing even illumination over the area to be photographed.
Fluorescen t tubes designed especially to emi t longwave ultraviolet are often called black-light tubes because
they look black or dark blue before they're lighted. The
glass of the tubes contains fil ter material which is opaque
to most visible light but freely transmits long wavelength
ultraviolet. These tubes, identified by the letters BLB, are
sold by electrical supply stores, hardware stores and department stores. They are available in lengths up to 4 feet
and can be used in standard fl uorescent fixtures to illuminate large areas. Aluminum-foil reflectors are available
to reflect and control the light.
Mercury-vapor lamps are particularly suitable for
illuminating small areas with high ultraviolet brightness.
When these lamps are designed for ul traviolet work they
usually include special fil ters which transmit ultraviolet
and absorb most of the visible light. Mercury vapor ultraviolet lamps are available in two types, long-wave and
short-wave. Some lamps include both wavelengths in the
same unit so that they can be used either separately or
together. If you use a light source that does not have a
built-in ultraviolet filter, you must put such a fi lter over
the light source. The filter for the radiation source is called
the exciter filter.
You can use a Kodak Wratten Ultraviolet Filter, No.
18A, or Corning Glass No. 5840 (Fil ter No. CS7-60) or No.
9863 (Filter No. CS7-54) for th is purpose. The Kodak Filter, No. 18A, is available in 2-and 3-inch g lass squares
from photo dealers. The dealer may have to order the filter for you. The Corning Glass is ava ilable in larger sizes
from Corning Glass Works, Optical Photo Products Department, Corning, New York 14830. The filter you use
must be large enough to completely cover the front of the
la mp. The scen e is ph otograph ed on a dark set with only
the ultraviolet source ill uminating the subject. In order for
the film to record on ly the fluorescence, use a Kodak
Wratte n gela tin fi lter, No. 2A or 2B, or an equ iva len t filter, over the camera lens to absorb the ultraviolet. When
used for this purpose, the fi lters a re called barrier fil ters.
Since th e fluorescence image is visible no focusing corrections are necessary. Focus the camera the same as for a
conventional subject.
525
Determining Exposure
Many exposure meters are not sensitive enough to
dete:t:nine exposure fo r the fluorescence. An extremely
sens_ttve exp?sure meter should indicate proper exposure
of ~bjects whteh fluoresce brightly nnder intense ultraviolet tf you make the meter readi ng wi th a No. 2A or 28 fi lter over the meter ceiL lf you r expos ure meter is not sensitive enough to respond to the relative brighh1ess of fluoresce_nce, the most p ractica l method of determining exposu re IS to make exposure tests using the sa me type of film,
fil ters, a nd setup you p la n to use for your fl uorescence
photography.
Films
While either black & white or color ca mera films can
be used fo r fluorescence photography, color film pro~uces the most dra matic res ults. The daylight balanced
ftlms will accen~uate tJ:e reds and yellows while the tungsten-balanced films w ill accentuate the blues. Since fluorescence produces a relatively low light level for photography, a high-speed film such as Agfa XT320, Eastman
EXR SOOT (529~), Eastman HS Day (5297), Fujicolo r F 250
D (8560) or FuJlcolor F 500 (8570) is recommended.
Special Considerations
Some lenses and filters w ill also fluoresce unde r ultraviolet ra diation. H old the lens or filter close to the ultraviolet lamp to look for fluo rescence. Fluorescence of the
l~ns or fi lter will cause a genera l veiling or fog in your
ptctures. Tn severe cases, the fog completely obscures the
tmage. If a lens or filter fluoresces, you can still use it for
fluorescence photography if you put the recomm ended
ultraviole t-absorbing filter over the camera lens o r the
filter that fl uo resces. It also helps to position the ultraviolet lamp or use a ma tte box to preven t the u ltraviolet radi ation from striking the lens o r fil ter.
526
Shooting 16mm Color Negative

for Blowup to 35mm
by Irwin W. Young
Chairman of the Board, Du Art Film Laboratories lnc.
Note: Shooting 16111111 for blowup to 35mm req11ires preparation and planning. Cameras, lenses and magazines sl10uld be
thoro11ghly checked and tested. Wilen shooting 161/tlltfor blowup
to 35mm, preparation is 1110re critical than if shooting 16mm for
16mm prints.
The difference in picture quali ty between 35mm films
shot in 16mm negative and tllose shot in 35mm nega tive is
due primarily to differences in graininess. The 16mm frame,
blown up to 35mm, is enlarged approximately 3 to 4 times
its origi nal size, greatly exaggerating grain size. To mainta in the finest grain str ucture in 16mm color n ega ti ve,
proper exposure and normal processing is mandatory to
insure maximum latitude and detail witll minimum grain
in tile shadow area of tile blowup. When in doubt, if light
is available, it is ad visable to lean to overexpos ure. In fact,
contrary to what occurs in black & w hite negative, where
density is created by a buildup of grain , color nega ti ve has
less g rain in areas of higher density. An overexposed color
negative of up to one stop would tend to produce a blowup
witll the least amonnt of grain.
Flashing and toning should be avoided. These procedures increase grain, especially in tile areas of no exposure.
An nnderexposed nega tive shows more grain tllan a properly exposed negative. This grain is most apparent in weak
shadow areas. Force processing increases graininess to tile
extent of the forcing. 16mm color negative has considerable
latitude and it is recommended tllat scenes tllat are nnderexposed up to one stop be processed normally. This underexposure has a lesser effect on tile grain size in tile negative tllan force processing. There are a n umber of psychological factors which affect tile viewer's awareness of grain.
When the picture is not sharp, the eye, struggling to focus
tile in1age, tends to focus on the grain, making it much more
apparent.
Defini tion is also a fnnction of contrast. Low-contrast
pictures tend to be less sharp and, tllerefore, appear more
grainy. High contrast limits tl1e detail in tile highlights an d
shadows. If possible, it is advisable to have a black refer-
527
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ence and a white reference in a scene. These reference poin ts
can be quite small. The eye, looking at a picture, searches
fo r these reference poi nts and, if there are none, tends to
focus on the grain.
Special effects which requi re the blowup negative to
be more than one generation away from the 16mm original should be avoided. The bui ld-up in grain and loss in
picture qua lity due to this additional generation is generally undesirable.
Composing 16mm for blowup to

35mm
The aspect ra tio of a pictme frame is the relationshi p
between its wid th and height. The ra tio of the standa rd
16mm and 35mm fra me is 1.33:1. Reducing the height of
the pictu re whi le main ta ining the width will increase its
aspect ratio. This is done in 35mm projection by using a
mask to crop equally the top an d bottom of th e picture
fra me. 35mm prints are projected a t a 1.85:1 aspect ratio in
the Uni ted States and at 1.66:1 in Europe. On TV, the pictm e is viewed at a 1.33:1 aspect ratio.
This d iagra m shows the area of a 16nun camera frame
that th e viewer will eventually see when screened at an
aspect ratio of 1.33, 1.66, and 1.85.
.u .
[i\J
r?""" ~,j
1.33:1
1.66:1
1.85:1
When shooti ng a 16mm film for 35nun blowup, the

ca mera person shoul d compose the subject being photographed for wide-screen projection.
A properly composed 16nun negative can be blown
up to the standard 35mm apertu re size (style A, PH22 1951992 ANST). This nega tive produces a 35mm print in a
1.33:1 aspect ratio. This print can be used for TV and projected theatrically in the United States and ELLrope with the
appropriate mask. The aspect ratio of the projection mask
and the framin g position of the 35nun projector deterrnines
what part of the hame wiJJ be screened. 1l1e stand ard Academy leader is used by the projectionist to cen ter the pictme
528
in the apertme of the projector. If equal cropping of the top

and the bottom of the pictme eliminates important picture
information, vertical scamling can be used in making the
35nu11 blowup nega tive. Scanning enables you to chose the
part of the pictme you wan t projected wide screen. Here
you have the choice of losing pictme info rma tion onJy at
the top or bottom or in a varied combination of the two.
Blow up negatives that are scanned fo r a 1.85:1 or 1.66:1
aspect ratio requ ire a frame line which fixes the desired
aspect ratio. 111is frame line guides the projectionist in fra ming the picture properly. Pri nts hom these negatives compared to a standa rd print look as follows:
m.
.-~-. .
'
133:1
~ ~
1.66 :1
185:1
35mm prints made from a 1.85:1 or a 1.66:1 negative

cannot be used for televis ion unJess the image is enJarged
in the telecine ch ain w hen hansferring to videotape before
broadcast. Cropping wouJd have to be done on the left and
right side of the pictme to achieve a 1.33:1 aspect ratio. More
cropping on the left and right side is required on a 1.85:1
aspect ra tio print. Prints from a scarmed 1.66:1 negative a re
acceptable in theatrical screening fo r both domestic and
foreign use. Prints from a scanned 1.85:1 blowup negative
when screened foreign at 1.66:1 aspect ratio show a black
borde r a t the top and bottom of the projec ted linage.
We recommend tha t a ll sca nn ing is done at a 1.66:1
aspect ra tio and tha t the blowup nega ti ve be made with a
fra me line prod ucing 35mm prints in w hich the p icture
info rmation is fram ed in a 1.66:1 asp ect ratio. Since there is
not much difference in picture size between a 1.66:1 and
1.85:1 aspect ratio, this type of blowup negative enables you
to make satisfactory prints for both domestic and foreign
release.
Super16mm
The Super 16mm format was designed to provide the
greatest possible picture area on a 16mm original for enlargement onto 35mm for wide screen theatrical presentations. It achieves a w ide-screen format on single-perforated
529
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16m m camera film by extend ing the picture area of the
Wlperforated area of the camera original. The Super 16mm
aperture produces an original image with an aspect ratio
of 1.66:1. The blowup from this image can be cropped
shghtly in projection to yield the 1.85:1 aspect ratio. The
increase in the useful picture area of a Super 16mm frame
results in a substantial increase in the image quality obtainable in a 35mm wide-screen blowup.
To optimize image qua li ty when shooting Super
16mm color negative for blowup to 35mm, follow the same
recommended exposure practices as when shooting regular 16mm color negative for blowup to 35mm.
Super 16mm is a complete system requiring appropriately modified laboratory, editing and screening facilities
as well as a modified camera. Principal camera modifications are: enlarging the aperture, remarking the viewfinder
and re-centering the lens mounts. It may be necessary to
modtfy the pressure plate and other parts of the film transport mechanism in both the camera an d magazine to prevent scra tching in the extended area of the frame. Lenses
sh_ould be carefully d1osen to be sure that they provide a
wtde enough coverage to accommodate the wider frame.
Many wide-angle 16mm lenses cause vignetting in the
Super 16mm frame. Cameras are available which have been
specifically designed for adaptability to Super 16mm and
some conventional 16mm cameras can also be modified for
Super 16mm.
Super 16mm cameras and magazines should be thor?u~hly test.ed before use in production. Editing and proJection eqw pment must be modified to display the entire
Super 16mm frame. Super 16mm film sent to the laboratory should be clearly identified so it can be ha ndled properly. When a pictu re shot in Super 16mm has a television
or 16mm release, the Super 16mmimage must be converted
to an !mage wi th a 1.33:1 aspect ratio by sacrificing part of
the wtdth of the frame. This is achieved by re-cen tering the
frame via an optical prin ter so that an equal amount is
cropped on each side of the frame.
Composing Super 16mm for blowup

to 35mm
This diagram shows the area of a Super 16mm camera frame that the viewer will eventually see when screened
at an aspect ratio of 1.33:1, 1.66:1, 1.85:1.
530
1.33: 1
1.66 :1
1.85:1
TI1e aspect ra tio of the picture frame of a Super 16mm

nega tive is 1.66:1.
When shootin g Super 16mm for blowup to 35mm, the
camera person shoul d compose the scene for wide-screen
projection. A properly composed Super 16mm negative
should produce a 35mm negative having an aspect ratio of
1.66:1. Projecting a print made from this nega ti ve a t 1.85:1
will crop equally the top and bottom of the picture frame.
If imp ortan t image information is eliminated, vertical scanning can be used in making the 35mm negative. Blowup
negatives tha t are scatmed for a 1.85:1 aspect ra tio requi re
a frame line which fixes the desi red aspect ratio. Vertical
scanning in Super 16mm should be avoided because foreign prints are screened at a 1.66:1 aspect ratio.
This aspect ra tio enables you to show all the information recorded on the Super 16m m negative. Television and
standard 16mm prints show the picture information in a
1.33:1 aspect ratio. The Super 16mm image, in order to be
converted to this aspect ratio, must sacrifice part of the
wid th of the frame.
Titles
To be sure tha t you r titles a re suitable fo r differen t
aspect ratio requirements, compose the titles so they will
not be cut off horizonta lly when projected at a 1.85:1 or be
cut off vertically when viewed a t 1.33:1 fo r television. If an
action backgroLmd is used for ma in and end ti tles, the action scene should be blown up to a 35mm master positive.
The ti tles with clear letters on opaque black background
should be shot in 35mm hi-con. Using the master posi tive
and the 35mm hi-con ti ties ad upe negative of the main and
end titles is manufactured. Where titles do not have action
backgroWlds, it is often advisable to photograph the title
scene comp letely in 35mm to maintain maximum quality.
,
Splicing for a blowup requires extra care.
with the 16mm immersion wet ga te that will be used to

make the blowup. If jumps occur in this print at the splice,
recheck all adjustments in your splicer and re-test.
Zero-Cut Editing
SCRAPE PICTURE ONLY- NEVER SCRAPE EMULSION FROM

BLACK LEADER.
For a blowup, the 16mm original can be spliced in the

?tandard 16m_m A & B format. Besides normal care in splicmg for clean.l mess and asswance that the splice will hold,
the conformer must be sme when making a 16mm splice
fo~ blowup that the cemented overlap of the splice maintau~s the proper p itch (x) between the perforation of the
splice wh1d1 IS the first frame of p icture negative and the
perforation of the first frame of black leader.
.
If this pitch or distance between these two perforations
IS no! the sa me stand~rd as the pitch between an y two perforahons where a splice does not occm , there will beavertical jw:'p in the picture at the screen change. The reason
for this LS that the registration pins on all16mm full-in1mersion optical wet gates are either one or two perforations
away from the frame being exposed. Thus, the frame being printed is in a position established by a perforation on
the opposite side of the splice.
ff the splice is off-pitch, as described above, the first
frame or _the fi rst ~o frames after the splice are improperly positioned, w1 th the adjustment coming on the follo wmg frame when the pin is registered after the splice. This
prob le~11 will not show up when you make a 16mm contact p nn t from your A & B original because, on the 16mm
con tinuous printer, the sprocket teeth register the film and
the r~w _stock at the area ofexposme. To help minimi ze the
poss1bthty of JUmping splices, physically check your splicer
before you conform the negative. Be sure that the distance
between_ t_he pin that po~itions the black leader and the pin
that positions the negative is correct.
Splice some negative outtakes in A & B roll form and
from this negative make a test print using the optical printer
532
To completely avoid the possibility of jumping splices,

the negative can be cut into A & B zero-cut format. The zerocut method, with a minimum of four frames for an overlap, will eliminate the splice-jump problem, but 16mm contact prints made from zero-cut negatives will have a oneframe dissolve a t the scene changes. Quite often this dissolve is noticeable when viewing the print.
Since Super 16mm contact prints with sound cannot
be made directly from a Super 16mm negative, there is no
purpose in cutting your Super 16mm original negative in
the conventional A & B roll format. To avoid the possibility of jumping splices it is advisable to cut the Super 16mm
negative in A & B zero-cut format.
Laboratory Procedures
The work print and the 16mm A & B original should
be delivered to the laboratory in rolls up to 800 feet in
length. The workprint rolls should represent the 35mm reellength format, where up to 2000 feet of 35mm goes on each
reel. This conforms to standard theater projection practice.
The laboratory prepares a contact 16mm answer print,
which is screened by the filmmaker and the timer for corrections. NOTE: Super 16mm contact prints with sound
cannot be made from a Super 16mm negative.
Using the corrected color timing and, if required, the
filmmakers' scanning data, the 16mm or Super 16mm cut
negative is optically enlarged to a 35mm master positive
from which a dupe negative is made. Before the blowup,
an additional printing operation is necessary, to create a
clear picture frame in the 35mm negative. This is done so
that the prints made from the negative have a black frame
line to help the projectionist center the picture on the screen.
If the blowup negative has been scanned, the frame line size
is ? etermined by the picture aspect ratio used in scanning.
If It has not been scrum ed, the filmmaker can decide upon
the frrune size. TI1e processed negative is then synd1ronized
with the 35mm sound track fo r the manufacture of 35mm
release prints.
533
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Stereoscopic Motion Picture
Technology
by Christopher Ja mes Condon, 3-D Consultant
President, Stereo Vision Internationa l, Inc.
North Hollywood, Californ ia
Three-dimensional (stereoscopic) films, when expertly
photographed and projected, can result in motion pictures
with amazing roLmdness and depth. Recent "state-of-theart" examples shown at theme parks have proven that these
film s can be the most realistic visual medium - sometimes
even exceeding the capabilities of our "two-eyed" perception. This exci ting effect can now be achieved in local cinemas if the process is bette r Lmderstood by producers a nd
exhibitors. First they must be will ing to put fo rth cooperative effort, in tegrity, reasonable resowces and plannin g.
The basic technology of fil ming and projecting stereoscopically has been widely known for man y years, an d has
been grea tly simplified du ring the past two decades. There
are two main systems for 3-D cinema tography. The lightweight, mobi le siugle-cnmem (dual image) system is suitable
for theahica1 fea twe films. The heavier, more complex dunlcnmem method is more useful for large-screen theme park
or venue films. The various three-dimensional ca mera systems currently available arc:
1.) HINES-LAB offers a very sophisticated dual camera rig for rental. This system requires that one of the cameras be pointed downward toward a horizontal beam splitter. This camera must be opera ted in reverse. The other
camera points forward . This rig accepts most interlocked
35mm,65mm (five and eight-perf), and video cameras, an d
allows the widest-angle lenses of any 3-0 system. State-ofthe-art convergence and 3-0 videotap options are available.
The Disney 65mm dual ca mera 3-D system is simila r, as is
the huge IMAX 15-perf 3-D system.
2.) STEREOSPACE 2000. Ad ua165mm camera system.
Uses a vertical bea m splitter. Thi s system fea tures MOS as
well as studio self-blimped versions and has interch angeable lenses of SOmm, 70mm, 85mm, lOOmm, and lSOmm
focal lengths. Projection is by interlocked 70mm projectors.
3.) STEREOVJSION has a number of 3-0 ca mera systems. StereoVision Wide Screen is a distortionless high
definition single-ship 35mm 3-D system. By far the world's
534
most widely used, it is a true dual optical channel, patented

camera lens, not a relay system. It stacks both the left and
right images precisely onto each frame. Can be blown up
to 70mm. Focal lengths are 15mm extreme wide angle,
20mm, 24mm, 32mm,50nun, 62mm, and 90mm. The symmetrical image spacing of .374" allows easy optical effects
printin g. Available in BNCR style camera ~ounts such as
hard front Arriflex 35, BL4, Ultra-Cam, M1tchell BNCR,
MovieCa m and others. Special models are also ava ilable for
Panaflex, Arriflex IIC, PL and BL. StereoVision also has a
35mm Academy (1.33:1) format 3-D system ~o mpati?le
with video format. StereoVision 70 shoots two sde-by-stde
images onto each sta ndard 65mm frame, and is ful ly con:patible wi th Russia's Stereo-Kino. No bea m splttter s
needed, increasing depth-of-field sharpness. All of the
above systems require only one projecto~ using a patented
special d istortionless polarized d ual optical channel len~.
Also available is a StereoVision d ua1 camera 35mm ng
and a single-camera StereoVision Ten perf 65. The latter is
a 10-perf above/below single 65mm 3-D camera systen:,
supplied with 55mm, 80mm, and 135mm 3-0 lenses. Th1s
camera shoots two 5-perf 70mm stereo images, above/below, rendering the same size images as heavier more.complex dual 70mm rigs. It uses a speciallO-perf 70proJector
and a 10KW Xenon lamp. StereoVision also supplies a large
variety of 3-0 projection optics for 35mm and 70mm projection, w hid1 it rents d irectly to theaters.
4.) DIMENSION 3 was designed by stereographer Dan
Symmes. It has a focal length of 35mm and has s.irnilar cha:acteristics to StereoVision Wide Screen 35. Thts system ts
in the prototype stage and is availa?le in BNCR ~ount.
Other mounts are available on speetal order. (.374 symmetrical image spacing.)
5.) MARKS OEPIX is a 35mm single-camera syste m
(two stacked images). Focal len gths a re 18mm, 32~m,
50mm, and 85mm. It uses a Lmique method of separatmg
the images by polarization. This results in a two-stop loss
of light, however. (Spacing is .387".)
6.) ARRIVISION is a 35mm relay 3-D system that converts to various focal lengths. It is attached to the camera
base by means of a special support bracket and uses removable optical components an d cams to obtam 18mm,32mm,
50mm, and 85mm focal lengths. Arrivision is designed to
be used with specially modified Arriflex cameras only.
(Two stacked images, .366" spacing.)
535
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7.) OPTlMAX U1 attaches to the35mm camera with a
support bracket. It has relay focal lengths of 16mm, 24mm,
35mm, 50mm, and 85mm. (Two stacked images, .387" spacing.)
8.) IWERKS 3-D is an 8-perf 70nun system using the
DUAL camera beam splitter method for photography. Focal lengths arc 50mm, 60mm, 80mm, lOOmm, and 150mm.
Iwerks offers 870 3-D projectors that are state-of-the-art, 30
fra mes per second.
9.) !MAX 3-D is a very large format (15-perf 70) huge
dual-carl)era rig. A range of focal lengths is ava ilable. The
l MAX compan y has also developed a dome 3-D process,
which uses liquid crystal viewing glasses. Interlocked dual
Imax projectors are currently used for extremely large 3-D
screen images. A single projector, dual-image projector has
been developed.
10.) STEREO-KJNO 70 is a system that was developed
by N. I. K. F. l. in Moscow. It is a single-camera, side-byside image system with a wide range of focal lengths. The
cameras ran ge from s mall "h and held " to studio selfblimped. Special 70mm 10KW projectors are used, compatible with Stereo-Kino projection optics, designed fo r minimum distortion. (26.4mm spacing.)
11.) STEREOSCOPE is a single-strip 35mm 3-D system
designed by stereographer Jolm Rupkalvis. It is intended
primarily for special-effects photography, using longer that
normal focal lengths. (.374" synunetrical spacing.)
A number of special optical effects companies also
have built dual-camera 3-D rigs. These are intended mainly
for 3-D matte photography, miniatu res and motion-control
work.
All of the above systems (except for IMAX Dome 3D) are intended for use with the current "state-of-the-art"
polarized projection method, requiring a sil ver screen and
neutral polariz ing glasses. Nearly a ll of the major theme
parks and other special venues use this method. Approximately 2,000 theatrical venues in the USA and Canada also
have silver screens, waiting for a new wave of better 3-D
movies. Furth er information is ava ilable from the indi vidual companies.
Very special photographic technique is essential for
effective 3-D cinematography. Some 3-D consultan ts may
prefer comp uters, formulas and convergence tables. Books
such as Li pton's "Foundations of the Stereoscopic Cinema"
536
can be of help. However, for truly effective resul ts, without costly 3-D errors, producers are advised to engage only
an experienced 3-D consultant iJ1 the pre-production stage,
as well as during the shoot m1d postproductron.
Optical ''Flat" Projection
..
Single-strip 35mm 3-D films can easi_ly be conver:ted

for s ta nd a rd fl at projec t ion by makmg a n op tr cal
internega tive for non-3-D p ri nts. For convertin g 35mm
wide screen, the usual method is to optically reprint one
of the two stereo images anamorphically, as was done with
the Techniscope process, or crop slightly for 1.85 or 1.66 flat
format. For single-ca mera 70 side-by-sid e, simply con~ert
one side to 70mm blow up or 35mm 1.85 to 1.66 reduction.
For dual-camera systems, no change in the print is necessary. Either left- or right-eye reels can be shown independen tly as "flat" films.
3-D Projection
Precise theatrical projection is a very important factor
in the success of a 3-D film. Proper installation and alignment of the special 3-D projection optics requires expertise.
Pre-screening of the 3-D print is absolutely r:ecessary. Ir;nproperly aligned 3-D images can cause a_udrei~ce ~ye drscomfort. Imbalanced or tmderpowered rllu rmnatlon can
ruin the dimensional effects and can spoil the enjoyment
of even the best 3-D photography.
The StereoKino Group of Moscow has achieved great
success in single-camera 70mm stereo-cinematography and
70nun stereo-cinema p rojection and has established 60 special 3-D theaters in the fo rmer USSR Stereo-Kino was recently awarded , for the first time in this field, ~ Technical
Achievement Award by the Academy of Mohon Prcture
Arts and Sciences. At least two A merican co-prod uctions
are planned.
_
_
_
The future success of thea tncal stereoscopiC motion
pictures depends upon a high degree of professional excellence. lt will also require interna tional standards and cooperation between innovative writers, art d irectors, creative
directors, proven stereographers, trained 3-D camera personnel, dedicated distributors, the finest exhibition engineers, and skilled projectionists.
537
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3-D Cinematography
by Daniel L. Symmes
Spatial Technologies Incorporated
3-D fibns create an illusion- a synthesis of how humans see. Basically, all true 3-D (with the exception of hol~graphy) takes two (or more) images of a given scene. The
~tewpo~nts (lenses) are generally separated hori zontally
(mteraxtal) by around 2.5 inches, relating to the distance
betw~en ou: eyes (interocular). The two images are then
selectively vtewed: the left i_mage is seen only by the left eye
and the n ght by only the nght eye. The visual selection is
generally accomptished with polarizing projection filters
and appropnate polarizing viewing glasses. The two images are _s~en by the brain as a representation of the dep th
~f the ongmal scene. If the screen image were life-size, the
film would be viewed as a stage play and simulated 3-D
would be no problem; it would also not have the dramatic
impact of close-ups, moving viewpoints, and intercutting
scene~ photographed _by len~es of different focal lengths.
Smce the screen rmage 1s larger than tife-size and is
viewed by persons at various distances and angles relative
to tl~e screen, ~t i_s necessary to control the synthesis of the
3-D rmage. This ts accomplished by adjustments of convergence, interaxial distance, focal length, and camera distance
from the subject. Proper adjustments present an image t11a t
a viewer's brain accepts as "real" or produces a drama tic
effect intended by the filmmaker.
While the basic principles of 3-D may be easy to grasp,
the actual teclmiques of 3-D cinematography are quite complex. Mathematical manipulation provides perhaps 75% of
the needed information; the balance comes from experience, ~ests, and instinct. Obviously, tltis process requires
expenenced supervision. Trus, and the fact tha t 3-D is a
special effect, illustrate the need for a 3-D consultant.
It is tl1e consultant's job to know from experience what
does and does not work. Eye fatigue is the most common
problem associated with 3-D, and while it can be caused
by poor_projection techniques, it is generally initiated in
production. It 1s not the consultant's job to tell the director
of photography how to do rus job or to tell the director how
to shoot Ius film. As witl1 special-effects systems, there are
rules and techniques tha t can help a production avoid
538
costly and damaging problems. The consultant will help the

director and cameraman aclueve on the screen what they
have in their minds.
Preparing to shoot in 3-D should be approached as
thoroughly as conventional filming; lenses must be checked
for resolution, distortion and T-stop accuracy. Any deficiency in these a reas shou ld not be accepted just because
you are working wifu specialized equipment. There are no
excuses for poor optical performance. In addition, you
should test exposure and color balance between the two
images; focus and convergence limits and accwacy; and for
odd optical phenomena. These areas relate specifically to
3-0 optical systems and apply to single- and double-camera 3-D. Optical problems can include fla re, ghost images
and other visible d istortions tl1at would also be unacceptable in normal (2-0) photography. If you intend to ltSe polarizing filters on the filming system for reflection control,
sky effects, and so on, it would be wise to test for exposure
imbalance between tl1e two images and other anomalies.
Systems using mirrors, and even prisms, sometimes yield
odd results due to polarization (see "Filters" section).
The primary concern in 3-D filming is preventi ng eyestrain in audience members. This involves fa r more than
merely looking at reference charts or making an "informed"
guess. The real questions come down to where to converge,
how close tl1e subject may come to the camera, and how
far back tl1e background can be. As a very general rule it is
best to converge on or near the main subject.
Unfortunately, some scenes shot this way will cause
eyestrain. The only effective method of determining convergence is with a combination of mathematical and experiential skills. Strict mafuematics fall short because numbers
need to be interpreted. However, a 3-0 consultant with out
sound mathematics is only guessing. Tlus aspect catmot be
overemphasized and is the shortcomin g of many curren t
3-0 productions.
Many fi.lms made since the la te 1970s, including the
most recent, show excessive parallax (too much "depth").
Without glasses, images a re double to an extreme. Wi th
glasses, mat1y spectators feel the excessive depfu in the way
fueir eyes have to exercise. This is often described as eyestrain.
Yet, ifonewatches3-0 films of the 1950s (HouseofWnx,
Hondo, Plinntom ofthe Rue Morgue, Miss Sndie Thompson, etc.)
without glasses, there is at1 impression of being able to see
539
r
the image with a minimum of "doubling". In other words,
the picture looks fairly clear. Wi th 3-D glasses, the depth
effects are exhemely satisfying. Obviously, pnrnllnx m11st be
controlled for confortable viewing by the entire audience, not
just a few with super eye muscles.
The perception of 3-D is an individual and therefore
subjective experience; no two people see 3-D quite the same
way. What may be great to one viewer may seem poor to
another. Directors and producers must be made aware of
this so they may avoid making d ecisions based on potentially biased perceptions.
A final factor that is often overlooked is the proper
projection of both dailies and release prints. The cameraman should be aware of projection problems that may reflect on his work. Improper projection can result in expensive, needless reshooting. Working with 3-D projection
equipment suppliers and a consultant, you should have the
pictu re brightness up as high as possible. Balance the illunlination of the two images. Make sme both images are the
exact sa me size and focus. Make sure the proper metallic
screen (high gain or silver) is installed and that it is clean.
See that the 3-D projection optics and projectors are aligned
properly so the two in1ages register properly on the screen.
Lastly, be sure to use good-quality 3-D glasses.
With proper handling and expert consultation, 3-D can
be an entertaining experience.
Synchronizing Methods for

Picture and Sound Systems
by John Mosely, CAS
Early Systems
As far back as 1897, Edison had the idea of combining
sow1d and picture. He accomplished synchronization by
mechanical means, making the first use of a "Double System," i.e. a system in which picture and sound track are
recorded sepa ra te ly. Many demonstrations were given
p rior to World War I. Eugene La ust in troduced the fi rst
"Single System" during the same time period with picture
and soundtrack recorded on the same film.
540
These devices were regarded as curiosities by theserious motion -picture makers, who crea ted t heir
"photoplays" as siJent dramas, tellin g their stories pw1ctuated with title card s when needed. The siJent films were
customarily projected in the theater to the accompaniment
of pianos or theater organs. lt was not until the famo us
collaborative experiments between the Bell Te lephone
Laboratories and the then-fledglin g Warner Brothers Pictures that the sound motion p icture became a serious challenge in the theatrical market. The Warner Brothers threw
down the gauntlet on August 6, 1926. However, the date
that is considered to be the formal introduction of sound
to thea trical feature films is October 26, 1927, when the
Warners la w1ehed The jnzz Singer.
During the early days, two sound recording and reprod ucing systems were used side by side: the d isc recorder, which was a syncl1ronous version of the phonograph recorder, and the film recorder. Initially the disc
record gave better sound quality and was in commercial
use in theaters all over the world until the early 1930s. By
that time, the sow1d-on-film systems had improved sufficiently to displace the disc as a tl1eater reproducing system.
Bein g able to cut the sow1dtrack in the same way as the
picture was a major editorial advantage and film recording quickly became the preferred mediun1. However, since
it was impossible to hear a film recording immediately after it was made, the disc recorder survived for this purpose
until tl1e introd uction of magnetic recording in the early
1950s.
Synchronous Motors and Selsyns

In both cases, the above systems were driven by synchronous motors. These normally took the form of a 220volt 3-phase AC motors designed to rw1 at 50 or 60 Hz,
depending upon the geographic area of tl1e world where
they were intended to operate. (60Hz for North America
an d parts of Asia and 50Hz fo r the rest of the world.) The
stator windin gs of these motors p roduce a rotating magnetic field in the armature area of each motor. The speed
of rotation is the same for all motors and the armatures are
shaped so that each and every armature turns in tmison
with tl1e rotating magnetic field. This makes all motors turn
in syn chronism. After these motors come up to speed, tl1ey
function as though they were mechanically interconnected.
541
r
The selsyn electrical interlock system adds refinement.
In contrast to the synchronous motor, if one armature is
held stationary, all armatures that are connected on the
same circuit or "bus" will remain stationary and the electrical fields of all armatmes will rota te in unison. This is
achieved by giving the armatures windings and poles similar to the stator windings. Six wires are brought out and all
arma tu res are connected in pa rallel, making them operate
as though they were mechanicall y interconnected. An additional synchronous motor is mecha nically linked to a
selsyn mOLmted on the same bed. This combination is called
a "distributor." In operation, all of the fields are electrically
excited, after which the armature of the distributor motor
is made to rotate. Thus, all of the selsyn motors are electrically interlocked from a standing start mark, then come up
to speed together and drive together under the rota tional
power of the distributor motor. In addition to being used
as a ca mera and recorder d rive during photography, the
sclsyn system has been used for practically all scoring, rerecording, ADR, Foley and double system projection. Since
the rotation of a selsyn system is strictly a direct fw1ction
of the d rive motor, it w ill be appreciated that these systems
can be made to operate over a wide speed range and bidirectionally. Virtually all d ubbing (re-recording) systems
have ta ken advantage of this p henomenon.
A thi rd multi-duty motor system was used fo r a time
in which the motors contained multiple windings, enabling
them to be used as synchronous, selsyn and DC systems.
When operated as a synchronous motor, the armatures are
connected so as to form fixed poles which rotate in the
magnetic field of the stator in a marmer similar to the armature of a synchronous motor. When operated as a selsyn interlock motor, the armature w in d ings are connected
so as to conform to the selsyn system. When powered by
DC, these motors operate as a compound DC motor and
as a 3-phase 220-volt AC generator. By in terconnecting
these motors appropriately, a selsyn drive system results.
In practice, when operating from DC, the speed of th e drive
motor is established by a rheostat in tl1e supply lines. The
correct speed is verified by a visual tachometer, usually a
reed meter. Due to the bulk, weight and power requirement
of all these systems, they have been largely replaced in tl1e
field, slowly over the last 20 yea rs, by crystal motors in
ca meras and by stepping motors and servo systems in
postprod uction equipment.
542
Regardless of which system is used , the start of each

take is marked by a clapper board or slate. The slate has the
picture information written on it, usually in chalk. The top
contains a hinged piece of wood. The clapper operator
wa its for camera and sound recorder to be rw111ing at full
speed , then announces the take followed by the word
"Mark." At iliat point, the upper section is brought swiftl y
down so ilia t it makes a loud crack. The editor looks for the
fram e wh ere the slate closes and places a china marker cross
on it. The sp rocketed magnetic film, which is a d irect transfer of the Yt" tape, is placed in a sound reader. The editor
listens for the announcement to make certain that it is ilie
correct take and then finds tl1e start of ilie sound where tl1e
top hits the board. This poin t is also marked with a china
marker and the two films rw1 togeilier with sound and
picture synchronized.
Early Sync-Pulse Systems

The advantages of Yt" tape as a recording medium for
motion pictures and television were recognized as early as
1948, both by Colonel Rich ard Ranger a nd She rm an
Fairchild. In boili ilie Ran ger and Fairchild systems, a synchronizing pulse is taken from the camera's synchronous
motor power source and recorder on ilie tape as an index
of camera frame speed versus sound timing.
The synchronizing recording of the Ranger system is
in the center of the studio track and is recorded with a special magnetic head oriented approximately 90 degrees with
respect to ilie audio recording. This orientation prod uces
a synchronizing signal that is self-canceling, or in push-pull
with respect to the audio signal, and therefore does not
cause an y interference. On playback, the synchronizing
signal is amplified to control the frequency of an oscilla tor.
When no signal is present, the oscillator is locked to the line
frequency, which is also used as a referen ce. Any variation
in frequency from the reference is used to correct the sp eed,
thereby maintaining proper synchronization.
The Fairchild "Pic-Sync" system uses a 14Khz carrier
signal that is mixed together with the audio signal. In reproduction ilie two signals are separated, with the audio
going through a low-pass filter. The carrier signa l goe,;
through a high-pass filter and is demodulated to obtain the
syn c signal. This signal is amplified and fed to a small syn chronous motor coupled to the reproducing tape drive cap-
543
r
stan and either adds or subtracts power to the power drivin<> the tape to maintain synchronism. A starting device
using special beep tones, spaced one second apart, is used
to start the tape in sync with the picture.
The Swiss compan y Perfectone introduced a system
in 1959 whereby a synchronizing signal was recorded in
push-pull on the edges of the tape, allowing room for a 200
mil sound track down the middle of the tape that is completely isolated from the sync signal. The playback device
is the same as the Ranger system.
It was partic ul a rl y common for manufacturers of
documentary cameras to include a pulsing device driven
by the camera. An interconnecting cable feeds the soLmd
recorder with a 50 or 60Hz pulse, which would be reproduced by the Ranger system. There were a number of other
devices on the market for a time which were proprietary
to individual manufacturers, but their use was relatively
insignificant.
Current Synchronization Systems

and Time Code
Virtually all motion-picture sow1d cameras today are
d riven by crystal motors that maintain precise speed accuracy. Field sound recorders rely on 50 or 60 Hz synchronizing tracks or SMPTE/EBU time code. Time code displays 8 digits denoting hours, minutes, seconds and frames.
There are 8 additional digits available by selection (known
as "User Bits") that can be al located for speciaJ purposes
alth ough they bear no direct rela tionship to a pa rticuJar
frame. For example, production date, number, etc. can be
entered as user bits. Time code can be selected to run at 24,
25 and 30 frames and there is a speciaJ frame rate of 29.97
(called the "drop frame") for use with NTSC color television systems.
Lightweight battery-operated sy nchronous tape recorders manufactures by two Swiss companies, Nagra and
Stella vox, are in general use throughout the motion picture
industry worldw ide. With the growing use of video systems for editing and for electronic cinematography, the
SMPTE/EBU time codes are ga ining popuJarity. The great
advantage of time code is that every frame of picture and
track is individualJy marked, thereby simplifying synchronization. Some motion-picture ca meras record time code
on one edge of the film continuously, whereas all profes-
544
sional video recorders contain a dedicated time code track.

A compromise system is also in use, whereby an intelligent
slate is used. The take information is wri tten on the slate
conventionally, but running time code is d isplayed in the
middle of the slate. The same time code will be feeding the
SOLmd recorder. By physical examination of the picture and
by using an electron ic reader on the track, the required
frame can be easily identified. Time code is usually placed
in the center of the \4" tape between two audio tracks. The
time-code track is scaru1ed by a time-code reader which
displays the time and frame information. It is n ot possible
to use mono tape recorders with time code, since time code
interfe res with the audio signaL However, the re is a compromise arrangement that is economically advantageous,
which wi ll be discussed in a later paragraph.
Digital Audio Tape (DAT) Recorder

lt must be appreciated that analog tape recorders have
evolved and improved over the last fifty years. By contrast,
digital recorders, which represent a revolution in technology owi ng their genesis to binary compu ters which relate
all signals to zeroes and ones, burst upon the market du ring the last decade. They a re theoretically perfect for recording soLmd. Unfortunately, practice has not followed theory,
and although they all have many desirable features, they
do not necessarily sound as good as their analog counterparts. However, during the last two years, great improvements have been made i11 how some of these systems actually sow1d. A direct compa rison to live sound, called an
"A/B" test, is very revealing. Some of the best sow1ding
digital recorders happen to be the OAT systems. OAT recorders were originally designed for the consumer market
and were tried out in Japan. From a technica l standpoint,
they can best be described as a tiny video-type recorder
using rotating head s. They quickly demonshated their ability to make two d1rumel stereo record ings having extreme! y
high quality, in fact even better than compact discs. Furthermore, the inherent design of the drive mechanism guarantees absolutely constant speed, wi thout any variation or
"wow and flu tter," two va riables that have plagued analog recording since their inception. This aspect of the OAT
recorder makes it particularly suitable for synchronous recording. Like the crystal-controlled camera motor, it can be
relied upon totally to maintain constru1t speed and does not
545
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need any add itional external reference, as d o other systems
ou tlined in previous paragraphs.
A number of professionals obtained machines from
Japan and were greatly impressed by their initial perfo rmance and obvious potential. Their w ide d ynamic range
(exceed ing 90 dB) and virtu a lly flat frequency response
across the full audio s pectrum, with very low distortion,
made them idea l candidates to replace conventional twotrack analog reorders w ith and without synchronization
systems. As an additional advantage, these machines no
longer need noise-reduction equipment, which adds s ignificantly to the cost, weight and alignment complexity of
analog equipment. A two-h our OAT cassette fi ts into the
palm of the hand and weighs only two OLmces, includ ing
its box. Conversely, two ho u rs of professional analog tape
weighs some eig ht pounds and is now technically inferior.
There are already machines on the market from a variety of manufacturers tl1at are classified in the professional
category, i.e. they contain balanced inputs and outputs, as
we ll as dig ital interface conn ections tl1at conform to the
AES/EBU Standards. They have alread y filled a small place
in the field, displacing their bulkier analog macl1ines for
recording dialogue and effects for film an d television and
even music. During the currency of this edition o f the
manual, it is high ly probable that OAT recorders will become the recording device of choice for both film and television sound.
Most of these professional m achines do not contain
playback heads, which in digital parlan ce are called "read
after w rite" or "confidence" heads, so it is impossible to
monitor the signal coming off the tape w hile recording.
Although there is a school of thought that would regard this
shortcoming as cause to d ism.iss the product, it must be
pointed out that this digital form at has proved itself alread y
to be extremely reliable. O ne m ust recall that in the old days
before tape, the sa me s itua tion existed for fifty yea rs and
very good record ings were mad e.
This group of professional OATs has considerable economic advantage over the existing con ven tional analog
record ers by almost a factor of fi ve. Therefore, if individuals are worried about the lack of a confidence head (read
a fter w rite o r s imu ltaneous playback), th ey can always
employ a second machine. The AES/EBU Standards permit interlocking machines and a number of features for
logging and identi fica tion. These are n ot available on ana-
log machines, but are s tand a rd fa re w ith professio nal

OATs. Their small size also enables them to be used as selfcontained individual recorders in place o f radio microphone systems that cause so much b.o uble to the production recordis t.
Th ere are a number of second-generation professional
battery-powered machines w h ich came onto th e m arket
during 1992 that do contain confid ence head s th at also contain an additiona l SMPTE/ EBU ti me-cod e track. Th ese
machines will be in the same price range as the curren t fullfeature analog mach ines and m ay be rega rded as direct
replacements, assuming that their sound quality .is sa tis factory. ~s c_an not be_ taken fo r g ranted. The advantage of
recordmg t1111e cod e IS tha t the soundtrack will be continuously associated wi th its corresponding frame of picture
and may be edited at random, w ithout resorting to the current practice o f synchron izing each track w ith its picture
from a s tart mark. As electro nic edi ting becom es mo re
popular w ith filin, this additional fea ture may become ind ispensable.
Synchronizing
with Non-Time Code DATs
From the previous section, it w ill be apparent that even
the s imples t OAT recorder can be relied upon to run at
constant speed without an add itiona l synchronizing device
or special track. Therefore, a standard clapper can be used
for synchronization. All OAT machines have an addi tional
ad van tage in that they conta in two high-quality audio
tracks that are actually technically superior to the bes t current analog recorders. nus fea ture will allev iate the use of
a second machine when it is required to record effects or a
second dialogue track concurren tly.
All film manufacture rs have agreed to mark their
nega tive films w itl1 a machine-readable bar cod e. D uring
th~ currency of tll.is ed ition, the use of intell igent readers
w ill undoubtedly grow an d it may be des irable to use time
cod e for the soundtrack. Should the record is t requir e time
code, there are the followin g three possibilities:
1. Use a machine that con ta ins th e add itional track.
2. Record tim e code on o n e of the a udi o tracks.
(Crosstalk between tracks exceeds 80 d B and therefore w ill
not cause a problem to the aud io.)
547
3. Make an interface box that will place time code on

one track for a few seconds while simultaneously driving
a time-codeslateso that the same numbers are recorded on
the film as the tape for post-synchronization. Incidentally,
if this option is d1osen, it would be sensible to place a voice
slate on the other track so that one has both human and
machine-readable data at the same point on the track. This
box should be placed at the input of the DAT recorder. The
same device can be used on an analog recorder, too.
Sound-Recording Hints
Before embarking upon any recording, it is mandatory
to check out thoroughly all of the equipment that will be
used. People often have difficulties in the field which could
have been avoided if every p iece of equipment, including
the cables, had been completely checked before leaving for
work. If one is Lmcertain about the use or performance of
the equipment, ask for a technician to be available to explain everything and to verify that all of the individual
components are operating correctly.
It is important to understand the problems that are
commonplace in recorded sound and to understand how
to avoid them. Recorded sound in the motion picture/television context inevitably is quite different to natural sound,
since constraints are placed upon the recording process by
the fLu1ctioning of the overall equipment and the environment. The principle consideration in recording sow1d for
motion pictLLres is that the d ialogue shall be clear and clean,
i.e. free from defec ts and intelligible at all times. For example, a quiet whisper that is clearly audible in a field in
the country is not likely to be heard above the sound of
crwKhing popcorn or a thea ter's air-conditioning system.
It is therefore necessary to bring up the lowest sow1ds so
that they are easily understandable. Conversely, very lo~td
sounds will overload the recording system and cause dtstortion, which is w1pleasant to hear and may damage the
equipment. If the movie patrons cannot understand the
sound, they will not enjoy the picture. Although the dubbing or rerecording process will rectify many defects, the
end product, like a good meal, can only be as good as the
basic ingredients. Therefore, it is well worthwhile to take
a lot of trouble to obtain good original sound.
The unit of reference for sow1d is the decibel or "dB"
and is a logaritlunic rela tionship between two voltages or
powers. In simple terms, a change of 6 dB will double or

halve the sound level for practical purposes. The threshold
of hearing is given as 20 dB, while the threshold of pain is
given as 120 dB. Therefore, it can be said that the dynamic
range of hearing for a normal human being is around 100
dB. The frequency range of normal hwnan hearing is from
20 Hertz (Hz) to 20 kilohertz (kHz). This represents approximately 10 octaves musically. Speech is generally in the
range of 200Hz-3kHz. It is common for people to experience a loss in their ability to hear high frequencies as they
get older.
One of the most irritating sow1d s often heard is excessive sibilance, that is, the exaggerated sound of the letter
"S." It occLLrs in nature, and some people are more prone
to have sibilant speech than others. A good test of actor and
equipment is to get the actor to say "Sister Susie gathers sea
shells by the sea shore." If you can record that sen tence
clearly and with ou t sibilance, you do n ot have a problem.
Microphone selection, placement and movement usually
solve the problem.
The letter "P" can also present problems, which are
mani fested by a popping sound. Here again, the problem
is usually resolved by microphone placement and movement. Some microphones are particularly sensitive to this
phenomenon, since the "P" sound often is accompanied by
a steep wavefront which distorts the sen sitive element inside the microph one. To circumvent this problem, some
microphones are supplied with "Pop Shields." If you have
one, use it.
Distorted or wmatLLral SOLU1d is usually but not always
ca used by defective equipment. Listen to the natura l sound
before assuming that yoLLr equipment is defective. Tf everything appears to be in order and the distortion persists,
check your batteries. Low battery voltage w ill cause the
equipment to malfunction. Therefore, it is important to
make certain that yow batteries are fresh and prod ucing
their full output at all times.
Before starting to work, make certain that the recorded
sound quality is satisfactory. The best judge of this all-important characteristic is the hwnan ear. lf something doesn't
sound right, the chances are that some piece of equipment
is not fLmctioning correctly. Normally, one will work backwards from the tape output towards the microphone(s).
Listen carefully to what you are recording near the SOLmd
source, then listen tluough your headphones. If the soLmd
549
is not the sa me a t this juncture, change the microphone. If

the trouble persists, change the microphone power supply,
preamplifier, mixer and headphones in that order. Obviously, the soLmd must be clean before it enters the recorder.
If there is a crackling soLmd, shake the cables to discover if
they are ca using problems. Inspect the connectors to make
certain tha t they are clean and dry. TI1e pins should be shiny
and certainly not d iscolored or oxidized . If a cable appears
to be stiff or brittle, it may well have poor insula tion and is
likely to add noise to the signa l, so change it. Lastl y, set a
comfortable listening level on your headphones. The level
should be high enough so that you hear the softest sounds
clearly, but not so loud that the loudest sounds are uncomfor table. Once this level has been fOtmd, do not change it,
as this becomes the reference by which you will be making subjective judgments all the time. AJ!ow yourself sufficient time to experiment be fore the shoot commences, so
that you a rc entirely comfortable with your equipment operationally. During the shoot, you should concentrate on
the sound subjecti vely and not have to worry abou t technicalities.
All equipment must be fu lly tested a nd properly
aligned before commencing operations. Depend ing upon
the type of eq uipment chosen, it may be necessary to perform periodic alignment proced w-es in the field. Should this
be the case, make certain that the required test equipment
and/or personnel are available. On the whole, the newer
digital equipment req uires less maintena nce in the field.
Remember that if a bad recording is turned back to the stud io, the front office, prod ucer, or d irector wi ll bla me the
sound person, not the equipment. lf you have any reservations, take spare eq uipment with you, as well as plenty
of tape and extra batteries of all sizes.
Microphone Placement
For the best sound pickup d m ing dialogue recording,
the microphone should be about one or two feet in front of
and above the actor. This distance will vary according to
the ca mera angle. The tighter the shot, the closer the microphone should be. However, even for a distant shot, do not
go too far back. Roughly speaking, the efficiency of pickup
of most microphones decreases with the square of the d istance. A li ttle practice will soon tead1 you the best position
to place the microphone. In general terms, one is best off
to use a condenser microphone wi th a cardioid (heart-
550
shaped) pattern p ickup. It is aJso advisable to use a foam

windscreen over it to ensw-e that movement of the boom
or fishpole does not pick up wind noise. It is preferable to
use a shock mow1t between the microphone and the boom
so as to isolate mechan ical so un ds when the boom is
moved.
When operating outside, it may well be necessary to
add a windscreen and sock. These components should be
in the kit. When working in noisy environments, it will be
necessa ry to use hyper-cardioid or even shotgun microphones. Remember, the tighter the p attern of pickup, the
more precise the boom person has to be before the subject
sounds "off mic." "Off mic" is a term that is used when a
sow1d is no longer natural. It is easily recognized and can
usually be corrected by a minor movement of tl1e microphone towards the sow1d source. The boom person shouJd
wear headphones connected to the microphone so that any
problem w ill be apparent in1mediately.
The actua l angle of p ickup will vary with different
microphones. As a starting point, place the sensitive face
at 45 degrees in front of and above the actor.lf there is sibilance or the actor starts to overload the system by sh outing (i.e., the sound becomes brittle or d istorted), roll th e
sensitive face away from the actor, so that the voice hi ts th e
sensitive face at 90 degrees on its cross-axis, keeping the face
at 45 degrees. If the overload persists and the sound is normal but loud to tl1e ear, the overload may be removed by
insertiJlg an attenuator or "pad" between the capsuJe and
its pre-amplifier. (This accessory will reduce the input voltage to the microphone's pre-amplifier. Some sensitive capsules have the ability to put out very high levels when
placed close to the sound source. Certain microphones contain built-in attenuators that are operated by a switch on
the microphone.) Do not use a larger pad than is necessary
to clear up your overload problem, since any addi tional
gain or level that is n eeded to restore the sound to the required listening point will add hiss or noise to the system.
Again, the solution and correct movement will be learned
by trial and error. Do not change microphone types witl1in
a scene, or the sow1d quality will change and ilie resuJting
recording may be unacceptable. If there is a rum bling
sow1d, use the low-freque ncy roll-off or high-pass fi lter that
is ava i.lable on most professional miaophones and mixers.
Do not point ilie microphone towards the floor, lest you
551
r
pick up e1 dditional noise e1nd excessive low frequencies.
This sound is known as "boominess." It is prefere1b le to
record flat, i.e. without eq ualize1tion, since alteration of the
sotmd spectrum, if necesse1ry, is better done dlll'ing the
postproduction mixing opere1tion. However, should you
find it necesse1ry to use equl1 lizC1tion, limiting or compression, do not che1nge it wi thin a scene. Remember once e1gain
the1t if the sound is not clee1r in yolll' headphones, it will not
be clea r la ter. Time spent lee1 rning how to get a good
pickup, particularly tmder adverse conditions, will produce
dividends during postproduction and to your reputation.
When one is recordin g more than one actor speaking
in the sa me sequence, it may be necessary to find e1 compromise position fo r the microphone in order to e1void one
actor sounding off-mic. It will be appreciated quickly that
the ski ll of the boom or fish pole operator can make or break
a recording. Under certain circwnstances the actor may
move into a part of the set that is acoustice1lly bad. Tell the
director about it before you shoot and get a bad track. The
director may decide to allow you to correct the deficiency
or re-shoot the sound later in a die1logue replacement facility. Remember that poor sow1d quality often resul ts from
the microphone being too far away from the speaker, badly
angled or being in a bad acoustic environment. Avoid placing it di rectly over or behind the head of the actor.
In exterior shooting, one is more likely to have problems of picking up extraneous sow1ds from cars, planes,
people and the elements. Under these cirnm1stances, try a
more tig htly patterned microphone, or different angles
below or to the side of the camera field of view. Do not forget that the prefere1ble microphone position is sligh tl y
above e1nd in front of the speaker. Body and radio microphones are often used in ou tside e1nd wide an gle shots. It
is helpful in avoiding the sound of clothes rustling, to put
a loose knot in the microphone cable about an inch below
its head and to place it tmder a collar or on the hont of a
bra. Always try to avoid the chest cavity since this will inevi tably sound boomy. Avoid using more than one microphone in the same pickup area in order to avoid interference between them, which results in a strange swishing or
"phasing" sound tl1a tcannot be removed la ter. When, and
not until, the sotmd is clean and as artistically or subjectively required in the mixer's headphones, tlll'n to the recorder.
552
Use of Tape Recorders

Analog recorders are fitted with mechanical VU or
~eak. meters, whereas DA Ts usua lly use electronic peak
readmg fluorescent bar meters. The basic d ifference between the VU and peak meter is that the VU me ter reads
the a.verage level in a given tin1e period, whereas the peak
r~ading ~eter ~egisters the highest part of tl1e signa l at all
tunes. DiscussiOn of the various merits falls outside this
manual. In general terms one should expect a VU meter to
read rather slowly. The level shou ld be adjusted on d ialog ue so as to p ea k at arou nd -1 and not a bove 0 VU,
whereas a peak meter, which will respond rapidly, should
ne~er I?eak above zero. When using a DAT recorder, exam.me 1t carefully to find out if the sa mpling frequency is
sw.1 ~chable. Always ch oose the highest sampling frequency
available, at least 48 kHz, ma king certa in that any record
pre-emphasis circuitry is switd1ed off.
Before starting to record sotmd, record a tone on t11e
tape. Most mixers contain an oscillator fo r this purpose as
d~ most professional recorders. Customarily, -6 d B is u;ed
w1th VU mete:s and -8 dB on peak analog recorders. For
DATs: -18 dB IS the customary setting level for reference
and. aun to l?ea~ a t -2. Never hit zero. In all cases, one is
desll'ous of find:"lg a reference level that will result employ
~he _full dynam1c range of the recorder withou t overload~g 1ts electronics or the tape. Whereas most analog recordmg s~stems tend t~ go in~o overload rather gently, digital
machmes reach the1r max1mum permissible level and then
bre~k up co~pletely. Therefore, it is very important to exp~rm:ent. w1th your recorder until you a re full y familiar
With Its lmutahons and then work w ithin them to obtain
~he best possible, clean, intelligible sound recording. AdJUSt the mput level so that your average recordin g is reasonably ~1gh .o n the scale, maki.ng certain that the peaks
n~ver qwte h1t the overload pomt. Once e1gain, trie1 l an d
error JS ~he best teacher. Bewa re of overloading either the
electronics. or the tape. This is the most frequent ca use of
bad recor?mgs made in the field. Experience alone will give
you the nght pomt be tween a noisy recording tha t is recorded a t too lo~ a level and adistorted recording that is
recorded a~ too !ugh a level. Under extreme circwnstances,
the dynamiC range of the incoming signals may be too great
to control manuall~. S~ould ~s be the case, it may be necessary to employ a limiter, which determines the maximwn
level that may be passed through the system, or a compres-
553
sor, w hid 1 raises the low-level signa ls and lowers the highlevel signals. It is vital to make certain that these devices
do not give an unna tural SOW1d, and they should be regarded, like the equalizer, as tools of last resort in the field.
Avoid making large and rapid changes of levels, as these
w ill so und unn a t u ral a nd be difficul t to rect ify in
postproduction .
Make certain that a ll ta pes are properly identified and
that they are packed with log sheets that contain full detai ls of the recordin g. It is preferable to leave ana log recordings on the takeup reel, or "tails out," for two reasons. The
first is to make certain tha t the tape is tightly woW1d, so that
it d oes not become physically deformed during storage.
Under extreme conditio ns, the base of the tape can become
so deformed that it w ill no t lie on the reproducing head
properly. Should this occur, the sound will vary in level and
q ua lity and may be un usable. The second is to minimize
"prin t-th rough," a phenomenon to which ana log tape is
prone. This means that sound recorded, usually at a high
level, is hea rd one and even two turns of the tape before
and after the actual SOW1d in the form of repetitions. This
effect is a fW1ction of the tape formulation and var ies from
type to type. Print-thro ugh tends to be d iminished in a
tightly wound tape. You will q uickly discover tha t most
machines do not rewind tape at a speed to be high enough
to be satisfactory for storage. By leaving the tape tails out
this problem is elinunated .
Conversely, given U1e nature of the DAT system, it is
ad visable to rewind DATs fully. In both cases, in spect the
tapes to make certain that the w ind is even so tha t the tape
does not become physically distorted . Place DATs in their
safe, non-recordable mode by sliding the safety tab towards
the center of the cassette.
Finally, remember tha t when all of your equipmen t is
fw1ctiOI"Iing correctly, your ears should be the fina l judge
of the q uality and acceptability of your work.
554
Filming Television Screens

by Bill Hogan
Sprocket Digital
. W~1en filr~ing_ television screens ~r c?mputer d isplays
theic ~1c two pimciple obstacles to aduevmgconsistent and
clear _1mages on the fi lmed result. These two prob lems a re
the d 1 ffe~ence in fra me rates between the television image
and the f~l~11 ca n_1era and the incorrect color temperatwe of
the_ te~eVISJOn d 1splay. The following explanation and descn p b_on of standards for television sets and computer displays IS mean t to p~ov~de an understand ing a nd methodology to allow the filmmg of these displays with the highest qua li ty possible.
Frame Rates
NorU1 ~~nerica and many other cow1 tries of the world
usc a teleV ISIOn delivery system that has 30 television
fr_ames per second, each comprised of 525 lines. Motion
p1cturc film fo r theatrical or television display is usually
pho tograp hed a t 24 frames per second.
. Th_is difference i.J~ frame rates is the p redom inant difficulty ~1 photographmg television sets as pa rt of a scene.
The artifact tha t ts most visible is the appearance of horizontal bars on the photographed TV image. This is caused
by double exposure of some pa rts of the television screen.
To ~mderstand wha t causes tlus double exposu re and u1e
hon zon tal bars it is necessary to tmderstand sevPral other
facts a~out U1e television signal.
W1th 30 fram e television there are 525 lin es scanned
each 30tl~ of a second ._But to avoid flicker in the d isplay a
me thod IS used that IS somew hat a nalogous to the two
blad ed shutter 1~1 the film projector. Tlus 30th of a second
telev iSIOn frame IS further divided i.J1to two television fields.
Each ?f these television fields lasts for a 60th of a second.
The d 1splayed television image is "refreshed" or sca nned
~ow at 60 ~es per second and the result is no flicker. This
IS ~ccomplrshed by starting the scamung beam (a si ngle
P? l_nt of Lig ht or energy) in the up per left corner of U1e tele~ ISIOn screen and movu1g it left to right a single line a t a
tm_1c. Y'0en this beam of light reaches the right side of the
scteen, 1t JWnps back to the left side of the screen during a
555
r
period when it has been "blanked" or turned off. This is
called the horizontal blanking period. This occurs every
television line or 525 times per television frame.
In order to provide the refresh rate of 60 times per second, this beam skips every other line of the 525 lines that
comprise a television frame of a 30th of a second. In other
words, the scanning beam scans line 1, skips over the position that would be occupied by line 2 and scans line 3. This
continues to the bottom of the TV image w1til all of the oddnumbered TV Jines have been scruu1ed.
At this point a 60th of a second has passed. The scanning beam is now at the lower right corner of the screen.
The beam is "blanked" and is moved to the upper left corner again- ready to start scruming again. This time period
of the beam movi ng from the lower right corner to the
upper left corner is called the vertical blrulking period or
vertical interval. This happens 60 times per second - twice
per television frame. This scam1i ng beam now starts its
scanning process over one line at a time, but during this
60th of a second the beam is positioned to scan Lines 2, 4, et
cetera - all the even-numbered lines are now scruu1ed.
Now let us look at how the film camera views this television image. The camera that is chosen for this exa mple
has a 180-degree shutter. If we nm this camera at 30 frames
per second with a shutter opening of 180 degrees, the camera is exposing the film every 60th of a second. From the
television scam1i..ng explru1ation above it can be observed
that the film camera is ''blind" to one of the television fields
and is only photographing half of the 525 lines that occur
in a television frame. The resulting TV screen image on the
film will be good (with no "shutter bars") because the film
ca mera and the television scanning are occu rrin g at the
same frame rate. When the film camera and the television
system are operating at different frame rates the result is
double exposure to portions of the television screen image.
Best resu lts are obtained wh en the shu tter openin g
coincides wiU1 the begimung of the scam1ing of one of the
two television fields. In other words, the shutter is open for
only one complete television field- not part of one field
and part of the next field. In order for tlus precise phasing
(shutter open vs. closed) to occur, external specialized
equipment is used in conjwKtion with the film came ra and
the video equipment.
There are four combinations of film rates and television rates that are possible. These are outlined below:
.I
I
1. 30 Frame Video and 30 Frame Film: This combination features standard NfSC 30 frame video (US Standard)
and the film camera also operating at 30 frames. This approach is appropriate if the film is going to be used for a
30 frame per second telecine tran sfer, but if used for 24
frame projection there will be a 20% "overcrank," and if
there is sound the pitch will be altered. Any US television
monitor can be used. Shutter phasing and synchronization
are required and the camera shutter angle is optimum at
180 degrees.
~- 25 F_rame Video and 25 Fram e Film: This requires
the video signal to be the European P AL-625 line system
and also the VTR and monitor to be capable of operation
on th.is standard. If the film shot is projected a t 24 frames
there is only a 4% "overcrank," and the sound pitch change
is usually considered unde tectable except to musicians.
Shutter phasing and synchronization are required and 180
degrees is the preferred shutter angle. This is the system
that is chosen for most TV monitor filming in Europe and
much of the rest of the world that operates on 50 Hertz
power.
3. 30 Frame Video and 24 Frame Film: This features
standard 30 frame NfSC video and a camera specially designed to have a fixed 144 degree shutter or a camera whose
shutter can be precisely set to 144 degrees. This specific
shutter angle all_ows the film cam era to only photograph
one set of scan lines per film frame but is extremely difficult to adjust. Anything mechanical that causes the camera to vary in speed or cause drag on the shutter will result in inconsistent results. Also camera pruu1i..ng and zooming will cause portions of the TV image to be double-exposed or not exposed at all, resulting in small black or white
bars to be present in the TV image. Aga in, shutter phasing
and synchronization are required and a very precise 144
degree shutter angle must be maintained .
4. 24 Frame Video and 24 Frame Film: This video I film
combination requires a specialized video format, but the
film camera is run at a standard speed and the resulting film.
is standard in all ways. The choice of shutter an gle should
be 180 degrees and there is a one-to-one relationship between TV frames and the preferred film rate of 24 frames.
Shutter phasing to the TV signal should be used. Most TV
sets and monitors can be adjusted to operate at this 24 frrune
rate, but caution should be used with an unknown model.
Live video cameras and computers have been modified to
r
run at this 24 frames, offering a wide choice of source material.
24 Frame vid eo was firs t used for feature production
in about 1960. Since that time s teady progress has been
made in sophis tication and choice of the tools for thls oneto-one relationsrup with 24 frame film. Because 24 frame
video is a m odification of s tandard NTSC television eqwpment, the TV image has the sam e scanning frequencies as
?25line television. This results in the 24 frame image havmg a total of 655 televis ion scan lines per 24th of a second.
Thus, the precise vertical scan rate or frame rate of the television s ignal is actually 24.01 frames per second.
The synchronization between the film camera and the
video system can be adueved in two ways. Tius is the shutter phasing that was referred to above. The first method is
to obtain a shutter sign al from the film camera and have
the video system follow the film camera. This allows the
film camera to operate on its internal crys tal and to "pull
down" the video system to exactly 24 frames. With this
method no connection is made to the sound recorder. The
disadvantage of thls method is that the video source is limited to videocassette p layback. In recent years thls method
i~ almost never used. O ne major drawback is that only on e
film camera can be rollmg simultaneously.
The second mode of operation is the preferred method
and offers the greatest flexibility of operation. In thls mode
the film camera is driven by a signal from video/ film camera synchronjzation equipmen t. A signal is still received
back from the film camera, used to phase the camera shutter opening to ~e TV signal scanning. A m ajor advan tage
of thls method IS that any number of film cameras can be
opera ting in sync and the choice of 24 frame s ignal sources
is un.linlited. As the film and television eqwpment are operating at a slightly higher frequency (24.01 frames per second), a 60.02 hertz frequency should be sent to the SOW1d
recorder to keep the sow1d in syn c on lon g takes. Without
tlus signal the sow1d w ill fall belund the picture about one
frame every 45 seconds.
Botl1 the above modes of operation can accommodate
process or rear screen projection with the appropriate connections.
No attempt w ill be m ade h ere to describe the eqwpment available to synchronize the film and video eqwpment. This eqwpment is constantly changing and is avail-
558
able from many camera manufacturers and specialists in

the field of video p layback for film sh ooting.
Color Temperature
Color temperature of the filmed televis ion image is the
other m ost important aspect that need s to be understood
and corrected for.
The correctly adjusted professional broadcast monitor
will be adjusted to a color temperature of 6500 d egrees
Kelvin. But the normal range of TV sets and monitors can
vary widely in their color temperature. To be used successfully, these TV screens mus t be set up for the correct color
temperature of 6500 d egrees. Test equipment is available
to facilitate this adjustment. If filming is done wiili thls
adjus ted monitor with a tungsten -b alanced film designed
for 3200 degrees Kelvin, ilie resulting TV screen image will
appear to be very blue or high in color temperature. Monitors not adjusted to the correct color temperature will result in very unpredictable results.
There are five ways to compensate for thls color temp erature difference.
The first method is to readjust the TV screen to a lower
color temperature - as close to 3200 degrees as possible.
Most TV monitors are Limited in adjustment range. This
method is usually uns uccessful and today is almost never
attempted.
The second method m akes use of the fact that thls
higher color temperature of the television image is near the
color temperature that is expected when sh ooting with
daylight-balanced color negative that is n ow widely available. With thls m ethod the television image is left W1altered
and the director of photograph y lights the rest of the scene
with daylight-balanced lighting. The television image and
the scene now match closely in color temperature and allow the use of daylight b alanced film.
The third method is very s imilar to the second, but
after lighting with dayligh t-balanced lighting the cinematograph er uses a tungs te n-balanced n ega tive with a
Wratten #85 filter on the camera. TIUs m ethod is sometimes
used on commercials, but suffers from the loss of exposure
caused by ilie filter.
The fourili method also uses tungsten-balanced film
and lighting, but a change in the color temperature of the
TV screen is made by placing Wratten #85 filter material
559
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on the TV picture tube. This is usually unsatisfactory because of loss of TV brightness and the visibility of reflections on the filter material.
The fifth method is the preferred choice. It involves
precoi?pen~ating_ the color temperature of the playback
matenal. W1th this procedure the color TV screen is adjuste? to the p~eferred color temperature of 6500 degrees
Kelvm. If there iS more than one TV screen in the scene, they
are all carefully adjusted to this same color tempera ture.
The next step is the preparation of the video playback material. Precompensation of the color temperature of the
playback material is accomplished by using a viewing filter that has been arrived at empirically with much trial and
error. This viewing filter raises the apparent color temperature of the color monitor, which causes the telecine colorist or video camera operator to add a specificate amount
of "color compensation" to the video that will be displayed
on the TV screen.
W}_len this color-compensated video is seen on a prop~rly adjusted 65~?-degree TV screen it will appear very
reddish-orange. But to the tungsten-balanced negative
the picture will be the correct color.
When the TV screen is to appear as a black & white
set, another problem occurs. A black & white screen will
appear to be of even higher color temperature - from 9000
to 11,000 degrees. There is no practical method to compensate for this very high color temperature. The most common method and the preferred solution is to place a color
screen in what would appear to be a black & white cabi~~t. The playback material is made to appear black & white
~~it ~ngmates as a color image and then color compensation IS added to the black & white image. This color-compensated footage will now appear to the color negative as
a perfect black & w hite image.
General Notes
Playback material can come from any source. The best
quality is generally obtained from film original that is transferred specifically for the scene involved and is color-compensated for video playback. Live camera original footage
at 30 fp~ can be standards-converted and color-compensated With equal success. A jerky motion artifact will be
noticed on 24 frame film material that was transferred to
30 frame video and then was standards-converted back to
560
24 frame video for video playback. This is an undesirable

source of material.
Always test n ew or unfamiliar equipment. This in cludes new or untested TV screens and computers. This is
a rapidly changing area and success is guaranteed only
with the proper choice of equipment and with companies
familiar with the latest advances.
Television Film Cinematography

by Edward P. Ancona, Jr.
Since the publication of the article on this topic in previous editions of th e American Cinematograp her Manual,
there h ave been significant advances in receiver quality and
in the sophistication of the telecine equipment which transfers the film image to televis ion. However, it is important
to remember that the typical home viewer is seeing and
hearing films less than the optimLLm con ditions under
which the creative production team saw them.
Production staffs see their films in profession al motion-picture review rooms and the resulting television
transfers on professional monitors with carefully adjusted,
stable color and brightness settings. Most home viewers,
however, watch the show on receivers which may be only
casually adjusted and in a room with the lights on. Such
viewing conditions act primarily to limit the picture contrast r ange which can be effectively reproduced in the
home. Therefore, the director and cinematographer sh ould
be aware tha t the available range of photographic effects
is limited, and film photography for television must be
ad apted to exploit those styles and teclmiques which are
most effective for the h ome viewer.
This is not meant to imply that the television system
is incapable of h igh-quality transmission and reproduction.
With a high-quality telecine transfer, good signal reception,
and optimLLm receiver adjustment and viewing conditions,
the reproduced image can be a close duplicate of the film
in luminance range and color. Indeed the sophisticated
contrast and color controls on the modern telecine can often achieve color and density "timing" cl1anges in dimensions unavailable in the film laboratory. It is not uncommon
r
on major television film productions for the director and
cinematographer to a ttend the telecine transfer operation
to guide the video operator, similar to the color timing
operation in the film laboratory.
effect of a night scene without the necessity of p rinting

down.
Contrast
In previous years when black & whi te films were the

dominant medium for te levision, it was standard p ractice
to make "television gamma" release prints which were
developed to a lower contrast than for normal theatrical
release. Although these prints, on direct projection, looked
somewhat flat with transparent shadow elements, their
television reproduction appeared more like that of the theatrical prints in a theater. The reduced density range of the
television gamma prints enabled the telecine to "see" into
the shadows more easily, thus reducing the requirement for
lower lighting ratios on the stage. Until recently, color prints
could not be processed for a lower gamma without seriously upsetting their color tracking, and the only way to
reduce the density range of the print was to reduce the luminance range of the original scene by lower lighting ratios and careful control of set and wardrobe reflectances.
Modern telecines are equipped to reprod uce negative
films by inversion of polarity and a change of reproduction
contrast. The negative film is obviously of considerably
lower contrast than a color p rint and the resulting reproduction therefore is much more open, w ith shad ow detail
well reproduced, and often w ith brillian t color quality.
The term "film look" really refers to the appearance
of a print as seen in direct projection. There is much to be
said for the subjective appearance of this image witl1 its
smoothly graduated highlight and shad ow contrast. It is
not intended to be an accurate duplicate of the original
subject contrast and color values, but in the hands of a skillful cinematographer it is an extremely effective storytelling
vehicle. As stated in the opening paragraphs, the aim of
telecine operation is to produce a television image which
is a close duplicate of the film print as seen in direct projection . The appearance of negative or in terpositive films
on a telecine, while seductively appealing with their open
lowlights and high color saturation, can be distinctly different from the "print look." It is possible to modify the
telecine characteristic so that n egative transfers will come
close to duplicating the look of a print, and it is emphasized
that the cinematographer sh ould be aware of these differences and see samples of negative transfers if his or her
picture is to involve that process.
Telecine reproduction of a film will often result in a

television image wherein contrast appears higher than in
the image seen in direct projection. This is due partly to
inherent limitations of the electronic devices which convert
the projected image to a television signal, partly to the optics of the telecine system and partly to the subjective effect of the smaller, brighter television image. The chief effect of this increase .in contrast is a loss of shadow detail.
Darker areas in tl1e picture may appear plugged up, subtleties of mood lighting are lost, and story points or critical
facial detail in dark scenes may be obscured. Again it is
important to note that not all of the loss is in the telecine
reproduction of the film- only a small p roportion of home
receivers will be carefully adjusted and viewed in a darkened room to accurate ly d isplay the full range of the transmitted signal.
This increase in contrast requires that the cinematographer use more fill light than would be used for theatrical presenta tion only, and particularly that the approach to
the more extreme moods or effects be limited. The use of
underexposure, forced processing flashing and low filllight levels to produce a realistic or "available light" look
may be quite effective in direct theatrical projection but
plugged up and ineffective in the typical home viewing
situation. This is not meant to imply that television photography should be "flat." A wide range of moods and effects
can be successfully reproduced on the typical home receiver, but tl1e darker elements or a reas of the scenes must
be more fully lit and exposed if tl1ey are to be displayed
effectively.
Higher ligh ting ratios can be employed for effect, and
night scenes are best approached by adjustment of the lighting ra tio rather tha n by shoo ting "day-for-night" or
tmderlighting scenes and printing down. The ideal night
effect photography for television would result in prints
which have the sam e density range as fully lit scenes. The
use of little or no fill light on the key position, sketchy background illtm1i.nation, lighted windows, etc., all create the
562
Special Print Films for Television
563
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There is now available a color positive film which has
been manufactured to a lower contrast and which does not
require special processing for "television gamma." The
lower maximum densities of this film benefit telecine reproduction of the image as compared to the reproduction
from normal projection contrast print film. The contrast is
not so different, however, that it cannot be satisfactorily
analyzed for color "timing" in the film laboratory. Care
must be taken during review-room laboratory timing of
these low-contrast prints not to "print down" in an effort
to achieve the shadow d ensities of normal-contrast print
stock. When correctly timed for optimum telecine reproduction, the low-contrast stock on direct projection will
have rather transparent shadow regions and will not have
the solid blacks of the normal-contrast print stock. The
telecine reproduction, however, will restore the shadows
to their correct appearance but with considerably improved
shadow detail over that obtainable from the normal-contrast stock.
Automatic Telecine Operation

The telecine operation at major broadcaster's installations or in most video postproduction houses serving the
broadcast and cable television industries is characterized
by an effort to reproduce the film as fai thfully as possible
within the physical limitations of the telecine device. Despite the misgivings of some cinematographers, the video
operator does not make arbitrary changes in the character
of the image; with a well-photographed and timed print,
the operator will make an essentially "hands-off" transfer.
However, some broadcasters may, for reasons of crew and
time economy, resort to an automatic telecine operation
wherein the brightest element of every scene is automatically set to 100% video level, and the darkest to 0%. This
unquestionably can distort the continuity of the original
print timing.
Although it is dismaying to have to prescribe for such
a situation, if the cinematographer knows that a film is
likely to have its major release to such syndication, he or
she can incorporate a "reference white" and "reference
black" in every scene, w hich will force the automatic
telecine into a preferred state of adjustment. A reference
white would be a near-white object in wardrobe or the stage
illuminated by the key light. Almost any scene will have
564
shadowed or unilluminated black areas and these will become the reference black for the scene. With such white and
black objects in the scene, the automa tic video telecine will
arrive at an adjustment w hich will p lace face tones an d
other luminance values correctly.
Perhaps the concerns of this section are less pertinent
now, since, practically without exception, all major television produc tions will be transferred on h igh-quality
telecines with skillful operators, and most syndicated material will be similarly transferred and delivered on videotape.
I)
Television Film Apertures

In almost any receiver, the accumulated effects of mask
shap e and off-center scanning or excessive height or width
of scanning would result in the display of excessive picture
information that was transmitted. While this area loss is
different in each receiver, the average loss, or to p ut it another way, the area displayed by the average receiver, has
been noted with the establishment by SMPTE of a "safe
action area" and a "safe title area" (see "Cinematographic
Systems"). Masks of the shape and relative size of these
SMPTE-recommended safe areas should be used in the
camera viewfinder as a guide to the composition and framing of scenes being filmed fo r television.
Since these areas represent only selected average conditions, it must be noted that some receivers will display
everything to one edge or another of the transmitted area.
Therefore, foreign objects such as microphones, stage lights
or camera sunshades, or negative defects sud1 as scratches
or fog should not appear inside the transmitted area, and
release prints sh ould be free of physical defects such as
scratches, wet gate printer marks or soundtrack applicator
splashes in this area.
Daily prints of shows which are being shot for television and which are being reviewed by the cinematographer
or others specifically for action fran1ing m ay be inspected
with a projector aperture of the dimensions of the safe action area. (This would apply also to review of theatrical
wide-frame features being scanned for television, when the
review is for evalua tion of the editorial and positioning
aspects of the scanning.) Ordinarily, however, television
daily prints should be reviewed with a projector aperture
of the d imensions of the transmitted area, since the film
565
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camera action framing is usually carefully monitored during shooting with the camera viewfinder safe action area
mask. The production staff should also be aware of possible negative defects or extraneous objects outside the safe
action area but still within the transmitted area. New titles
photographed for television should lie preferably within
the safe action area, although this should be most applicable
to commercial copy where full visibility on all receivers is
desired. On theatrical features released to television, title
copy within the safe action area would ordinarily be acceptable.
There is an artistic compromise to be faced in the reproduction of CinemaScope or other wide-frame images on
standard television. The choice is between "scanning" the
wide-frame image to produce a standard 3 x 4 aspect ratio
image or using the "letterbox" forma t where the wideframe image is sh own in its correct aspect ratio in the center of the receiver, but with w ide black areas above and
below the frame. While the letterbox format d oes reproduce
the original framing a nd composition, it is far from the
grandiose large-screen presentation which is part of the
original conception; therefore, the tradition has been to
"scan" the wide-frame images for television presenta tion.
For the most part, this is done skillfully, with care taken for
good framing of the recomposed images, and also w ith
careful regard for the editorial considerations introduced
with the need occasionally to cut or pan from one side of
the wide fra me to the other.
Shooting Videotape
for Transfer to Film
by Gavin Schutz, Image Transform, Inc.
The process of transferring videotape to film involves
a number of complex steps, not the least of which is the
method of con verting 30-frame video into a signal that
can be recorded into 24-frame film. Some of the fields of
the video signal must be discarded. Digital signal processing techniques are employed to treat the video signals to
make them look better on film.
566
The cinematographer will need to know several

things about the nature of video signals an~ how t~ey
correspond with film attributes. The followmg section
will deal with some of these parameters, and also address
how the finished videotape will look when it is transferred to film. The general rule for shooting videotape that
w ill be transferred to film is no different from general
practice: make the video as good as possible. This will
involve giving a ttention to some factors that are not normally a problem when shooting film. These a re all covered below.
The most common question that is asked about tape
to film is "How much resolution is lost in the process"?
This is a difficult question to answer because it depends
upon what you call resolution, and what your frame of
reference is. In contrast to film origination, in video there
are two types of resolution, static and dynamic.
Resolution
Sta tic Resolution is the amount of d etail present in a
scene that contains no motion. In the television world, the
static resolution is measured in terms of bandwidth of the
vid eo signal, or the amount of TV lines that are used to
build the signal. For example, NTSC is a 525-li~e 4.5 MHz
system, while PAL is a 625-line 5.5 MHz Signal. Th1s
means that PAL has more static resolution than NTSC.
Film resolution is measured in line pairs per mm, and
is an attempt to quantify the maximum number of black
to white transitions in a millimeter of film frame. This
parameter contains many va riables, such as the optical
transfer function of the film and other difficult-to-quan tify assumptions about the film. Fortunately, the line pairs
per millimeter can be con verted into. megahertz of ban~
width to allow for comparisons to v1deo. For example, 1t
is gen erally recognized that the equivalent "bandwidth"
of 35mm mo tion-picture film is in the general area of
35MHz. This is a bout six times the resolution of most
broad cast v ideo systems.
This means tha t a camera original n egative captures
about six times the de tail of a professional video camera.
Fig ures 1 a nd 2 show the differences in resolution between film and video. Figure 3 is a comparison between
the forma ts.
567
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resolution the video systems. is why moving images appear
smotl1er in video rather than the stepped film images. (Fig.
Video Resolution
Units
Values
Static
Dynamic
MHz
TV Lines
Field Rate
Frame Rate
NTSC4.5MHz
I'ALS.S M Hz
NTSC 30 FI'S
I'AL 25 FPS
3)
Video Film Resolution
Film
Video
Static
35M Hz
NTSC 4.5 M Hz
I'AL 5.5 MHz
D ynamic
24 FPS
NTSC30 FPS
PAL 25 FPS
Fig ure 1
Film Resolution
Units
Fig ure 3.
Static
Dynamic
Line pairs
per nun
Frame Rate
Values About 35 M Hz
24FPS
Figure 2
In the ~mage Tra:'sform System, there is no sign ificant

loss of static resol ution. This means that all static detail
p resent in the original video master is transferred to the
film. The use. of pa tented ~ideband digital decoding and
~omp01~ent s.tgnal p rocessmg ensu re that all d etail present
m the v~deo IS preserved in the Transform process. H owever, 1t IS Important to realize that the end res ult will not
have the sa me s taticresolu tion as original film, simply because the amoLmt of mformahon recorded on the videotape
IS less than would have been recorded on the 35mm film.
F?rtun~tely, there are some things that can be done to the
vtdeo s1gna l that w ill help its appearance when taken to
film. These a rc addressed below.
Dynarnic resolu tion is d efined as the amOLmt of temporal u1.formatio~ contained in a scene having movement.
Dyna m1c resolutiOn depends upon the update rate of the
tmage~. Both fil m a~1~ video images are sampled in time,
and tl11s leads to a fuu te loss of dynamic resolution (compared to real life) in both cases. Dyn amic resolution is dir~ctly proportional to the frame sample rate. In the case of
ftlm, tl1e sample ra te is 24 frames per second. In NTSC, it is
30 and in PAL, 25 frames per second. Film has dynamic
568
Interlace Artifacts
This difference in d ynam ic resolution is compow1ded by the interlace s tructu re of the video s ignal.
The frame rate of 24 for film versus the 30 frame update
rate of N TSC is bad enoug h, however in most cases pictures originating on v ideo are updated at the fie ld rate.
This results in having effectively 60 pictures per second
(at hall the static resolution) instead of the normal 30. The
challenge here is to take the 60 pictures per second and
reduce them to 24 pictmes per second without rendering
the motion artifacts unacceptable.
The information contained in a video frame is made
up of two discrete interlaced fie lds. Care must be taken
to preserve the integrity of each of these fields, as they are
both used to produce the final film frame. By a process
known as adaptive interp olation, video fields are averaged w ith other fields from o the r frames to produce the
new frame. This averaging process is possible (and necessary) because of the fa ct that ther e are more video
frames than there a re required to be fi lm fram es. In the
Transform p rocess some o f the fields are discarded, and
the interpolation process is used to sm oo th the motion
arow1d the discaTded fie lds. Obvious ly, the more inform ation there is to work with, the better the dynamic resolution (sm oother motion). Because of this, care must be
taken not to pan the cam era excessively fas t, because this
w ill result in a d ifferen t pictme for every field. When this
frame is transferred to film, there will be two images on
the film fram e. Clearer, s harper images w ill be obtained
569
from slower pan rates. This applies to both vertical and

horizontal p an s.
Digital Effects
Advanced_digital effects generators and paint syste~s. currently m u~e tend to operate on the video signal
as If It were not an mterlaced system. These devices produc_e a new _im~ge every field instead of every frame.
W:Ule resulting m much smoother motion of video tape,
this method can result in a film image that is fragmented
and sometimes blurred.
Because of the throwaway field sequen ce (see Fig. 5),
an apparently smooth video effect generated in field
mode rendering can appear disjointed and unnatural
when transferred to film. The amount of degradation
depends upon the type of video effect. Very slow horizontal or vertical movement is usually acceptable. As the
rate of movement is increased, the artifacts become more
objectionable.
The best way to avoid these temporal related artifacts
is to refrain_from using the more ambitious digital effects
that _are avail_able. Any effect that is characterized by rapid
vertical, honzontal or temporal motion will cause these
discontinuities. They will be very noticeable in the film
and should be avoided, if at all possible. Some of the more
recent digital effects devices offer two modes of rendering m?tion - f~eld and frame mode. When gen erating
matenal that wilt be transferred to film, use the frame
rendering mode.
_Note that vertically crawling title sequences (such as
credits) represent about the absolute worst case, and illustra te ~11 of the prob!ems noted above. When editing in
the cred1ts, fade them m and out rather than having them
crawl vertically.
Graphics Rendering
Graphic and CGI (Computer Generated Images) effects should be rendered in frame mode (i.e. make sure
tl1a t both fields of a video frame are the same) rather than
field mode because this allows better interpolation.
In the case of CGI w here tl1e effects are rendered a
~eld at_a time, there is a way to ensure against any motio_n artifact~. Because tl1ese images are usually rendered
a field at a time and are recorded by videotape machines
570
in animation mode, it is sometimes possible to artificially

"build in" a 3:2 sequence. In this method an image that
h as been rendered by computer is recorded fo r three
fields of video. The next image rendered is then recorded
for two video fields. the resulting animated image is the
functional equivalent of a 24 frame film transfer, and (as
discussed below) can be taken to film without motion
artifacts of any kind.
Because the rendering of complicated graphics (such
as an imated sequences) or integrating vid eo with sequences that contain original film material is a complex
process, it often pays to consult with the facility that wi ll
be doing the tape-to-film transfer before integrati ng or
generating the CGI sequences. In some cases, techniques
can be employed on some of the la test graphics platforms
(such as the Quante! Harry) that w ill produce a "perfect"
film transfer (i.e. a perfect correlation between the video
and film images).
The use of variable-speed video or time-compressed
video material should be avoided as it introduces easily
noticed motion discontinuities in video which are made
worse in the tape-to-film process.
Film to Tape to Film

Another aspect that needs to be considered is the
problem associated with editing material that originated
on film with material tl1at has been originated on videotape (i.e. film to tape to film). In many cases material that
has been shot on videotape will be intercut
It can be seen that an extra field is inserted into the
video to make up for the difference in frame rates between
24-frame film and 30-frame video. In figure 4 this is the
field labeled "3".
The tape-to-film system must detect which field was
inserted in the telecine process and use it as the throwaway field. If this is successful, the resulting film transfer wilt be perfect - there is no way to tell the diffe rence
between it and original film. In mos t cases, the sequence
is repetitive and wilt not change for the duration of the
transfer. Moreover, there are only two ways the sequence
can be mapped out: 2/3/2/3. or 3/2/3/2. This is illustrated in figure 5. The problem arises when rna terial from
different sources is edited togetl1er on videotape. It is then
possible that, once tl1e p ieces are assembled together, the
field sequence is disrupted, giving a sequence such as 3/
571
In order to produce the best possible transfer, it is

d esirable that the tape-to-film house used for the tran sfer is able to d ynamically d etermine the sequence and
adapt the throwaway field sequence accordingly. This is
done at Image Transform by computer-controlled signal
processing. It is offered as part of the scene-to-scene color
correction process.
Frame Rate Conve rsion

- - - - - - - 24 Frames per S econd-- - - - - Film Frame 1
Film Frame2
3
Field 1
Field 2
Video Frame 2
Video Frame 1
Video Signal Processing
Video Frame 3
Scen e-to-scene color correction, d ynamic enhancement, smear correction and phase correction are some
methods u sed in the tape-to-film process to overcome
limita tions of the video environment. These techniques
are employed to help ma ke the videotape look as much
like film as possible. For example, the gamma and clipping levels are changed to emulate the transfer fw1etion
of film. Where possible, the use of electronic processing
to the transfer process should be kept to a minimum. This
will help avoid an overprocessed look in the product.
Always bear in mind that a motion-picture screen is
much larger than a television monitor and care must be
taken in the video production to allow for the best possible end result. Small defects in the video can be quite
objectionable when projected on a large screen.
30 Frames per Second - - - - - - Film to Tape Field Sequence

Fig ure 4
Frame Rate Convers ion

30 Frames per Second
Video Frame 1
Fie:d 1
Video Frame 2
3
Field 2
Video Frame 3
Field 1
Field 1
Field 2
Fie:d 2
Field 3 is dropped
Film Frame 1
Lighting and Cameras
Film Frame 2
24 Frames per Second
- - -1
Tape to Film Field Sequence

Fig ure 5.
2/2/3,2/3/3/2, etc. The result is that a disrupted Frame

3 sequence will produce very noticeable discontinuities
in all scenes that contain an y motion because the wrong
field will be discard ed during the tap e-to-film tran sfer.
Unfortuna tely, there is no way of knowing tha t thesequence has been disturbed until the video is actua lly bemg transferred, simply beca use it is not possible to predict where the videotape edits w ill occur and wha t the
sequence is at that point. Other examples of this occur
when foreg round/background matting is done and one
of the elements is out of sequence w ith the other.
572
...
In most cases, it is sufficient to shoot using es ta blished practices for video production. It is valid to say that
the quality of a film print will be indirectly proportional
to the quality of the video source material. When shooting the video, use the full d ynamic range available and
avoid crushing the blacks or clipping white areas of the
scene. Ensure that the camera clip levels for each color are
set the same.
Scene-to-scene color correction is usually performed
as part of the tape-to-film process to ensure that the res ulting film is colorime trically correct. This includes
scene-to-scene manipula tion of RGB gain, gamma and
ped estal, as well as h ue a nd saturation control. In the
process of transforming tape-to-film, color matrixing and
tran sfer characteristics of the video are changed to help
make video look more like film.
In order to achieve best results, the video should be
shot with adequate and even lighting, using the best avail-
573
able cameras. The choice of camera will depend upon the

nature of the subject material. The choice of CCD or conventional (tube-based) video cameras will depend on the
available light as well as the amOtmt of control that the
director of photography has over the scene. Inadequately
lit scenes may suffer from decreased resolution and excessive noise. In generat CCD cameras are better suited
to low light levels. Proper care should be directed to minimize noise and other artifacts introduced as a result of
using the cameras outside of their normal range. The
video medium does not have the same dynamic range as
film.
Recent developments in the field of CCD technology
have made these cameras very popular. They do not suffer from registration, overload, lag or comet-tailing like
their tube cow1terparts. In the case of tube cameras, make
sure the registration is set correctly as this is one of the
few problems that cannot be corrected during the transform-to-film process.
Most modern video cameras come with a knob called
"enhancement.'' "aperture" or "coring." These adjustments are to increase the apparent resolution of the picture, and make the images sh arper. They also make them
noisier, and when overused, they will put a dark black
edge arotmd subjects in the pictures. These artifacts will
look very unnatural when transferred to film. When adjusting these controls, make sure that they are not subject
to overuse. Most good video cameras will require a minimum amount of this type of correction. In-camera enhancement and coring should be kept to a minimum. A
good guide when setting up camera enhancement is focusing to an optical multi burst chart, and setting the enhancement to provide a flat frequency response at 400 TV
lines on the waveform monitor. Avoid using an image in
the viewfinder or monitor to set enhancement levels because overcompensation can occur as a result of poor
monitor resolution.
Videotape Formats
There are many different video formats available for
recording video. These include the Y2" consumer and %"
industrial formats, up to the 1" composite and D-1 component professional formats. The former (V2," 3/.i") are generally not suitable for transfer to film because they lack
the necessary bandwidth and do not have the required
574
signal-to-noise ratios needed for a good transfer to film.

Some industrial films, h owever, are shot on %" videotape
and transferred successfully to 16mm film for in-house
distribution. The results can be acceptable wh en projected
on small screens. Materials supplied on one of these formats usually need some form of noise reduction and enhancement prior to being transferred.
Scene-to-scene color correction requires 1" C format,
D-1, D-2 or D-3 videotape. Material supplied on other
formats will need to be dubbed to one of these formats if
scene-to-scene color correction is required. The use of
high-energy, low-noise, low-dropout professional grade
videotape is recommended, and the number of generations should be kept to a minimum.
There is no doubt that the best available formats for
tape-to-film transfers are 1" C format, or one of the digital formats that have been sh ot with studio-quality cameras. If 35mm theatrical release is desired, the use of one
of these formats is mandatory.
The use of component systems, such as the Sony
Betacam SP and the Panasonic M II format, as well as
other systems where the video signal is recorded as a series of luminance and ch rominance (i.e. not composite
video), can be su ccessful to full1" production. When considering the use of industrial an d consumer formats, consult with the transfer facility prior to beginning production.
Images produced by the Betacam SP system often
approach that of 1" quality without some of the 1" limitations (such as cost an d ease of use in the field). Higher
chrominance resolution and the lack of cross-color effects
are big advantages. These advantages, however are only
maintained if the signals stay in component form all the
way through origination, postproduction and editing.
They are lost if the signal is encoded at any stage.
One method of producing extremely good pictures
is to shoot video using a component system, then master
to the digital D-1 tape format. Great success h as been
achieved by shooting using a Betacam SP camera/recorder, then editing component using SP playback machines and the D-1 as a master record machine. There are
several postproduction facilities that specialize in component editing systems. Make sure that the signal is always
kept component- never encoded to NTSC. Many docu-
575
mentaries and full-length feature presentations have been

shot in this way.
The use of downstream noise reduction during editing should be avoided as this is an integral part of the
film transform process. Doubling up on noise reduction
will produce images that appear blurred and LLJ1J1a tural,
as we ll as decreasing the available resolution and leav.
ing objectionable artifacts.
All of the active picture area is preserved m the tapeto-film transfer process. There is a slight loss of p icture
area in the prin ting process; however, the negative will
contain all the information originally in the video picture.
References
Books and Pamphlets
Abbott, L.B., ASC: "Specia l Effects with Wi re, Ta pe and
Rubber Bands," ASC Press, 1984.
ACYL Handbook, Association of Cinema and Video Laboratories.
ANSI Standards, American National Standards Institute.
Cox, Arthur, "Optics ...The Technique of Definition," Focal
Press, London, 1961.
Dunn, Linwood G., ASC, and Turner, George E., "ASC
Treasury of Visual Effects," ASC Press,1983.
Eastman Kodak Publication B-3: Filters.
Eastman Kodak Publication H-23: The Book of Film Care.
Eastman Kodak Publication: Ulhaviolet and Fluorescence
Photography.
Eastman Kodak Publication N-17: Infrared Films.
Evans, R.M., W.T. Hanson Jr., and W.L. Brewer, "Principles
of Color Photography," John Wiley & Sons lnc., New
York, 1953.
Fielding, Raymond,"The Technique of Special Effects Ci nematography," Focal Press, London, 1972.
Happe, Bernard, "Your Film and the Lab," Focal Press,
London, 1974.
Harrison, H .K., "The Mystery of Filters-II," Harrison &
Harrison, 1981.
H ypia, Jorma, "The Co mple te Tiffen Filter Ma n ua l,"
AmPhoto, New York.
Kingslake, Rudolf, "Lenses in Photograph y," Garden Ci ty
Books, 1951.
Kisner, W.l. (editor), "Control Techniques in Film Processing," SMPTE, New York, 1960.
Mees, C.E.K., "The Theory of the Photographic Process,"
Macmillan, New York, 1942, 1945, 1954, 1966, 1977.
Mertens, Law rence, "In Wa ter Photography: Theory and
Practice," Wiley lnterscience, John Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1970.
Ryan, R.T., "A History of Motion Picture Color Technology," Focal Press, London, 1977.
Ryan, R.T.(Ed itor), "Principles of Color Sensitometry,"
SMPTE, New York, 1974.
Ryan, R.T., "Underwater Photograph ic Applications Introd uction," SMPTE Journal, December 1973, Volume 82, Number 12.
Spottiswood, Raymond , "Theory of Stereoscopic Transmission," VC Press, 1953.
Thomas Jr., Woodlief, "SPSE Handbook of Photographic
Science and Engineeri ng," John Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1973.
Ti.ffen Manufacturing Corpora tion Publication T179: Tiffen
Photar Fil ter Glass.
Wi lson, Anton, "Cinema Workshop ," ASC Press, 1983,
1991.
Journals
American Cinematographer, ASC Hold ing Corp.
BKSTS Journa l, "Image Technology," British Ki nematograph, Sound and Television Society.
SMPTE Journa l, Society Of Motion Picture and Television
Engineers.
578
Index
A
Aerial cinematog raphy 489
Aerial image cinematography 481
Aerial mounts 255
Anamorphic
lenses 13
Aperture 261
Aperhre, Academy 13
Aperture, full 13
Arctic cinematography 504
equipment and filming
technique 508
film 509
preparation of equipment 505
storage 510
ASA: Exposure Indexes 120
Aspect Ratios 15
1.85 Aspect Ratio 15
2.35 Aspect Ratio 18
Super 35 Forma ts 20
B
Backgrow1d plates 394
Barndoors 390
Ba tter ies and cables 261
Black & white film 120
Black & white negative and
reversal films 283
Blowup: 16mm to 35mm 527
composing 16mm for blow up
to35mm 528
composing Super 16mm for
blowup to 35mm 530
laboratory procedures 533
Super 16mm 529
titles 531
zero-cut editing 533
Blue screen process
black & white self-matting
process 445
blue floor shooting 436
blue screen materials 437
electronic and digital
compositing 444
front projection blue 456
front-lit backing materials 452
laboratory procedures for
compositing 441
light level for the Stewart Tmatte 437
lighting a front-illuminated
backing 438
lighting to eliminate
shadow 439
lighting to hold Shadow 438
lighting to match background 439
other lighting considerations 440
reverse blue screen 453
reverse front projection 457
screen types and lig hting 434
transm ission blue screen 453
using the UltiM atte Video
Previewer 440
c
Camera assistant 269
Camera body 260
Camera stabilizing systems 253
Cinema Products Stead icam
(Universal Model !LJ) 253
Panavision Panaglide 254
Camera supports 246
doll ies 250
Camera sup ports
cranes 246
Cameras, 16rnm 86
Aaton XTRplus 86
Arriflex 16BL 95
Arriflex 165/ B; 165/B-GS;
16M/B 97
Arriflex 165R-2 88
Arriflex 165R-3 93
Arriflex Su per 16 91
Bell & Howell 16mm Filmo
70 101
Bolex 16mm (All Models) 99
Cinema Products CP-16 & CP16A 102
Cinema Products CP-16R & CP16R/ A 104
16mm 105
Eclair ACL 16mm 107
Eclair CM-3 16/35mm 108
Eclair NPR 16mm 109
Minicam 16mm (GSAP) 102
Mitchell 16mm Professional, HS
&HSC l1J
Mitchell 16mm Reflex, SSR-16
Single System, DSR-16 113
Panavision Panaflex 16mm
Camera System 114
Cameras, 35mm 45
r
Aaton 35-11 46
Aaton 35mm Handholdable 45
Arriflex 35-2C 57
Arriflex 35-3 High Speed
MOS 52
Arriflex 35-3C 56
Arrifl ex 356L-4s 54
Arriflex 535 47
Arriflex 5356 50
Cinema Products FX35 59
Lightweight Studio
Camera 61
Eclair CM-3 16/35mm 108
Feathercam CM35 62
IMAGE 300 35mm 63
Mitchell 35mm Standard &
High Speed Cameras 67
Mitchell NC, NCR, 6NC, 6NCR
(35mm 64
35mm 66
Moviecam Super 35mm 69
Panaflex Panastar HighSpeed 75
Panavision Gil Golden
Panaflex 74
Panavision Panaflex-X 75
35m m 70
Panavision Super R-200
35mm 76
Photo-Sonics 35mm 46 / 4C 79
Photo-Sonics 35mm-4ER 79
Ultracam 35mm 80
Cameras, 65mm 31
Arriflex 765 31
Cinema Products CP-65 33
Fries Model 865 65mm/8perf 34
Mitchell 65mm Reflex TODDAO 36
Mitchell FC, BFC (65mm) 64
MSM Model 8870 65mm /8perf 37
Panavis ion 65mm AC
(Auxiliary Camera) SPC
(Speed C 39
Hand-holdable 43
Panavision Systcm-65
65mm 39
Cameras, VistaVision 81
MSM Model 8812 35mm/8-perf
VistaVision 81
580
Wilcam W-11 Vista Vision

Sound Speed 85
Wilcam W-7 Vista Vision H;gh
Speed 82
Wikam W-9 Vista Vis ion
Lightweight 83
Catadioptric or Reflective
Systems 152
Chapman-Electra I Stage
Crane 250
Chapman-Nike/ Eiectra fl Stage
Crane 250
Chapman-Sidewinder Dolly 250
Cha pman-Super Apollo Mobile
Crane 249
Chapman-Titan ll Mobile
Crane 248
Chapman-Zeus Stage Crane 249
CJD Lamps 350
Cinema Products Steadicam
(Universal Model Ill) 253
Cinematographic Systems 1
16mm Systems 9
35mm Systems 3
special purpose systems 10
Cinematography, special
techniques
aerial 487
arctic 504
blowup: 16mm to 35mm 527
infrared 521
day-for-night 518
stereoscopic technology 534
television film 561
3-D cinematography 538
tropical 511
ultraviolet photography 523
underwater 495
Color difference traveling matte
system 431
Color film 119
Color Rendering Index 320
Color reversal films 282
Color temperature 316
Commercial/Industrial light
sources 354
AC arc lam p flicker problem 376
AC discharge lighting 355
domestic incandescent
lighting 354
existing fluorescent lighting on
location 355
filter selection 365
Common topline 22
Compos ite photography 415, 430, 445

color diffe rence traveling matte
system 431
electronic scanned film for
composites 451
film s tock 446
front projection blue 456
front-lit backing materials 452
laboratory procedures for
compositing 441
rear-screen projection 415
reverse blue screen 453
trans mission blue screen 453
Ultimatte "screen correction" 450
video and electronic scanning 450
Computer graphics 467
2-D and 3-D images 469
basic tools and terms 467
digital frame stores 469
graphics tablet 469
image processing 474
modeling 469
paintbox systems 469
recording 473
rendering 471
scanning 472
Continental came ra aerial mount
255
Correlated color temperature 318
Cranes 246
Chapman-Electra I Stage
crane 250
Chapman-Nike/ Electra U Stage
crane 250
Chapman-Super Apollo Mobile
crane 249
Chapman-Tita n n Mobile
crane 248
Chapman-Zeus Stage
crane 249
Louma Crane by Sam cine 246
MC 88 Crane 247
Nettman Cam-Remote by
Ma tthews 247
The Crane by Matthews 246
Camera Drive System 242
time code 243
CSI lamps 348
D
Daily preparation for shooting 266
Day-for-night cin ematography 518
black & white film 520
negative color fi lm 521
reversal color film 520
DC Carbon Arc Sources 340
color temperature 340
operating characteristics 340
fi lters 340
DC!- DC metal halide arc
discharge lamps 347
Dedolight 383
Depth offield 161
Depth of field for close-up
photography 167
Depth of focus 162
Diffusers 392
Digital Aud io Tape (DAT)
recorder 545
Digital effects cinematography 460
Digital frame stores 469
Diopter lenses 166
Dollies 250
Chapman-Sidewinder
dolly 250
Elemack C ricket dolly 251
Fisher Crab dolly 251
FGV Panther 252
Dynalens 173
E
EBU (European Broadcasting
Union) 243
Edge numbers 121
Electronic intermediate
system 462
Elemack Cricket dolly 251
Emulsion testing 294
ca libration 294
Enclosed AC arcs 341
Exposure 270
Exposure mete rs 233
Cinemeter II 238
incident light meters 233
Minolta Luminance 239
refl ected light meters 236
Spectra Cines pot 1o spot
meter 240
Spectra Professional IV 240
Exposure meters
testing 238
Exposure reporting 281

Extension of prime lens 166
Extreme close-up 165
depth of field for dose-up
photography 167
lens formulas 168
F
FGV Panther 252
Film 11 9
ASA: exposure indexes 120
black & white 120
colo r 119
color negative 11 9, 120
color reversal camera
films 119
color reversal film 121
ed ge numbers 121
Film handling and storage 125
processed film storage 126
"Film look" 563
Film Perforations 123
16mm films 123
35rnm Films 124
65mm Films 124
70mm Films 124
pitch 123
Film tests 266
Filters 263
combination filters 331
conversion-type filters 330
filters for control of natural
daylight 330
fil ters for incandescent
lamps 338
neutral-dens ity filters 330
Flicker problems 376
Fluorescent lighting for mo tion
pictures 359
Forced development of color
fil ms 283
Fresnel lens spotlights 381
Front projection process 399
brightness and color matching 412
halo effect 409
minimum foregrow1d-object
distances 411
reverse front projection 457
Scotchlite screen 402
tesselating the screen 404
Z-Axis displacement for
closeups 412
G
Gel frames 391
Cobos 392
Graphics tablet 469
Grip accessories 392
Gyrosphere aerial mount 255
H
1-tigh-pressure DC short arc
xenon light sources 352
1-ligh-resolution electronic
intermediate system 462
HM! Iamps 342
Hypcrfocal dis tance 160
Illumin ation data 324

Image processing 474
Image Transform system 568
Incandescent light sources 331
boosted-voltage operation 337
filters for incandescent
lamps 338
incandescent lamp operation 334
standard incandescent 332
tnngsten-halogen lamps 333
Incident light meters 233
special effects 235
specific s ituations 235
K
Kenworthy Snorkel camera
system 172
L
Labora tory 280
black & white negative and
reversal film s 283
color reversal films 282
exposure reporting 281
nashing 284
forced development of color
films 283
printer points 280
release-printing procedures 282
special processing 282
Lamps 262
Lens angle and field of view 163
Le ns aperture 165
Lens extenders (multipliers) 151
Lens focus calibration 264
Lens formulas 160

depth of field 161
depth of focus 162
hyperfocal distance 160
lens a ngle and field of
view 163
lens aperture 165
lens displacement 165
Le ns housin g 263
Le nses 142, 262
anamorphic lenses 142
auxil iary lenses 142
care and maintenance 143
condensation 145
diopter lenses 166
modulation transfer function
(MTF) 143
normal lenses 142
removing lens retainer
rings 144
selection of 142
special purpose lenses 170
split-field diopter lenses 168
telephoto lenses 148
testing 143
zoom lenses 142, 153
Light control accessories 390
barndoors 390
diffusers 392
gel frames 391
gobos 392
gri p accessories for light
control 392
refl ectors 392
scrim 391
Lighting
characteristics of lig ht
sources 313
CID lam ps 350
color ba lancing for photography 363
colo r rendering index 320
color temperature 316
commercial/industrial light
sources 354
correlated color temperature 318
CSI la mps 348
DC Carbon Arc sources 340
DCI - DC Metal Halide arc
discharge lamps 347
enclosed AC arcs 341
nuorescent lighting for motion
pictures 359
high-pressure DC short arc
xenon light sources 352
HMI lamps 342

illumination data 324
incandescent light sources 331
Iuminaires 380
mercury vapor and color
improved mercury
lamps 357
metal halide additive
lamps 360
MIRED system 3'19
photogra phic light
sources 328
physical characteristics of light
sources 314
sodium lamps 361
spectral energy distributio n
(SED) 324
stroboscopic lighting 353
Louma Crane by Samcin e 246
Luminaires 380
cyclorama luminai res 388
dedolight 383
fresnel lens spotlights 381
lig ht-control accessories 390
open renector variable beam
spotlights 385
sealed-beam types (PAR
lamps) 390
soft lights 388
tungsten-halogen floodlights 387
M
Magazine 264
Matte Box 264
MC 88 Crane 247
Meters see Exposure meters
Microphone placement 550
Miniature photography 420
model s ize 421
shooting speeds 422
MIRED Ssystem 319
Modeling 469
Modulation Transfer Function
(MTF) 143
Chart 145
Motion-control cinematography 424
N
Natural Daylight 328
Filters for control of 330
Nettman Cam-Remote by
Matthews 247
r
0
Reference black See Telecine

operation
Optical printer 475
p
Paintbox systems 469
Panavision Panaglidc 254
Photographic light sources 328
natural daylight 328
Photographic testing and
evaluation 288
equipment 288
laboratoryI process/ printer
scale/ em uls ion batch 291
visual effects: lighting, filters,
image rnodifica t 292
Pitch 123
Plate photography
backgro und plates 39-1
Preparation of Equipmen t 258
aperture 261
batteries and cables 261
camern assistant 269
camera bod y 260
da ily prepa ration for
shooting 266
equipment checkout 259
fil m tests 266
fil ters 263
inventory 258
invoice check 259
lam ps 262
lens focus calibration 26-1
lens housing 263
lenses 262
magazine 26-1
matte box 26-1
optional items 268
scratch test 265
spreader 259
steadiness test 266
tools 267
tripod head 260
tripods 259
variable shutter 262
video assist: video cml'ICrn,
moni tor
and record 26-1

viewfinder 262
zoom lens 263
zoom motor 263
Printer points 280
584
s
"Safe action area" 565. See also
Cinematographic systems
"Safe title area" Sec Cinematographic systems
Scotch lite screen 402
Scratch test 265
Scrim 391
Soft lights 388
Sound record ing 5-18
microphone placement 550
use of tape recorders 553
Sotmd systems, synchronizing
See Synchronizing methods
Spacecam aerial mount 256
Special cinematographic systems
videotape-to-film 566
Special processing 282
Special purpose lenses 170
Continental Ca mera systems 171
Dynalens 173
Kenworth y Sno rkel Camera
systems 172
Panavision 45m m T2.8 SlantFocus lens 171
Swing Shift lens 170
Special visual effects 394
background plates 394
com pute r graphics 467
digital effects cinema tography 460
electronic intennediate
R
Rear-screen projL>ction
Recording -173
Reference white See Telecine

opera tion
Reflected Light Meters 236
spot meters 237
Reflectors 392
" Relative humidity". See Tropical
cinematography
Re lease-Printing Procedures 282
Rendering 471
Resolution 567
dyna mic resolution 568
Image Transform system 568
-115
system 462
front-projection process 399
miniature photography 420
motion-control 424
o ptical printer 475
rear-screen projection 415
traveling matte composite
photography 430
Spectral Energy Distribution

(SED) 324
Split-fie ld d.iopters 168
Spot meters 237
Spreade r 259
Steadiness test 266
Stereoscopic motion picture
technology 534
3-D projection 537
optical "flat" projection 537
s tereoscopic/ 3-D camera
systems 534
Strobosco pic lighting 353
Synchronizing methods 540
Digital Aud io Tape (DAT)
recorder 545
Synchronizing with non-time
code DATs 547
current systems and time
code 544
early sync-pulse systems 543
synchronous motors and
selsyns 541
T
T-Siops 270
Tape recorders 553
Telecine See Television fil m
cinema tography
and contrast 562
automatic telecine o pe ration 564
Telephoto lenses 148
catadio ptric or reflective
systems 152
filters 149
lens extenders (multipliers) 151
Telephoto lenses
techniques 149
Television film cinematography 561
contrast 562
"film loo k" 563
television fUm apertures 565
"television ga mma" 563
The Crane by Matthews 246
3-D cinematography 538
3-D motion picture
teclmology. See stereoscopic
motion picture technology
35mm blowups to 70mm
prints 26
Time Code 243

current synchronization
systems and time
code 544
Tools 267
Traveling matte com posite
photography 430
Tripod head 260
Tripods 259
Tropical cinema tography 511
black & white film 515
color film 516
maintenance of equipment 515
preparation and protection of
equipment 513
storage of photographic
materials 512
Tyler camera aria! mo unt 256
u
Ultraviolet photography 523
determining exposure 526
fiJm s 526
s pecial considerations 526
Underwater cinema tography 497
v
Variable s hu tter 262
Video assist: video camera,
monitor
and record 264
Videotape-to-fil m 566
digital effects 570
film to tape to film 571
graphics rendering 570
interlace artifacts 569
lighting and cameras 573
resolution 567
video signal processing 573
videota pe forma ts 574
Viewfinder 262
w
Wescam aerial mo unt 257
z
Zoom lenses 153, 263
cine zoom lenses on video
cameras 159
do's and don't's 156
maintenance of 159
mechanics of 154
zoom motor 263
585

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AMERICAN

DR. ROD RYAN

American Cinematographer Manual

Copyright 1993 by The ASC Press

Dr. Rod Ryan retired as Regional Engineering Director of Eastman Kodak

Special Purpose Systems

Pros and Cons of 1.85, 2.35

16 mm/35 mm dailies, color or black and white

Most film/video formats including R-DAT

Cinema Products CP-65

Mitchell Reflex TODD-AO

Panavision Panaflex System-65

Cinema Products FX35

Cinema Products XR35

IMAGE 300 35mm

Mitchell NC, NCR, BNC,

Mitchell S35R (Mark II)

Mitchell Standard and High Speed

Mitchell Professional HS, HSC

Moviecam Super 35mm

Mitchell16mm Reflex, SSR-16, DSR-16

Panavision Platinum Panaflex

Panavision Panaflex 16mm

Panavision Gil Golden Panaflex

Panaflex Panas tar High-Speed

Panavision Super R-200

Black & White

Color Reversal Film

Film Handling and Storage

Understanding an MTF Chart

Modern Telephoto Lenses

Special Purpose Lenses

Arriflex 16S/B, 16S/ B-GS, 16M/B

Special Effect Filters

Cinema Products CP-16R, CP-16R/ A

Filters for Black & White

Cinema Products GSMO

Filters for Color

Eclair CM-3 (16/35mm)

Minicam 16mm (GSAP)

Travelling-Matte Composite Photography

The Future for Travelling-Matte

Digital Effects Cinematography

Camera Stabilizing Systems

Cinemagic of the Optical Printer

Aerial Image Cinematography

PUTTING THE IMAGE ON FILM

Charts: 413, 419, 423, 443

The Cinematographer and the Laboratory

Photographic Testing and Evaluation

Charts: 272-279, 300-312

Safety Guidelines for Insert Camera Cars

Light Sources and Lighting Filters

Characteristics of Light Sources

Light Source Filters

Commercial/Industrial Light Sources

Fluorescent Lighting for Motion Pictures

Shooting 16mm Color Negative

Stereoscopic Motion Picture Technology