CHAPTER

3
LISTENING
ACTIVITY PIECES
If You Keep Losing Sleep
by Silverchair
(page 66)
Overture: Marriage of
Figaro
by Wolfgang Amadeus
Mozart
(page 66)
Drift
by Sean Haefeli
(page 68)
Le Maux de Georgette
by The Hipstones
(page 68)

ADDITIONAL
SUGGESTED
LISTENING PIECES

Dynamics and
expressive
techniques

DYNAMICS refer to the volume of

sound. Important aspects include the relative
softness and loudness of sound, change of loudness
(contrast), and the emphasis on individual sounds (accent).
EXPRESSIVE TECHNIQUES are used to create the musical detail
that articulates a style or interpretation of a style.
Board of Studies NSW 1999, Music 1 Stage 6 Preliminary and HSC Courses, Sydney, NSW.

This chapter will help you to discuss dynamics and expressive techniques in
terms of:
s the softness and loudness of musical sound
s changes in volume
s accents on particular sounds
s ways of expressing or interpreting a musical style.
After completing this chapter, check that you understand and can apply the
following:

Ta Douleur
by Camille

a range of dynamics, including gradations

Its Oh So Quiet
by Bjrk

tempo, including gradations

articulations
stylistic indications.

Ancient Voices
of Children
by George Crumb
Hung Up
by Madonna
(featuring ABBA)

CHAPTER 3

Dynamic and expressive techniques

47

We use the term dynamics when describing the volume of sound in

music, such as its level of loudness or softness. Dynamics also describe
featured changes, such as a gradual increase or decrease in loudness,
contrasting volumes and emphasis on particular sounds. Dynamic levels and
changes are often indicated using Italian terms for example, pianissimo
(meaning very soft), fortissimo (very loud) and crescendo (gradually
becoming louder).
Expressive techniques are the details and additions that a composer or
performer applies in a piece of music to enhance its style. For example, an
expressive technique for an electric guitar is the use of distortion to convey a
rock music style.
Expressive techniques and dynamics are linked. Without attention to these
features, music can lack interest and variety. They bring the music to life.
CHANGES IN
DYNAMIC LEVELS

DYNAMIC LEVELS
(loudness, softness)

DYNAMICS

EMPHASIS
ON SOUNDS

EXPRESSIVE
TECHNIQUES
The main features of dynamics and their link to expressive techniques

DYNAMICS
Dynamics refer to the volume
of sound in music, including
its relative loudness or
softness, changes in volume,
and emphasis or accent on
particular sounds.

48

Musical Concepts

When we discuss dynamics in music, we are analysing the volume of sound,

which includes:
s how loud or soft the music is
s how the volume changes during the piece
s where the emphasis (accent) is placed on particular sounds
s the impact the volume has on the music.
Composers may use terms and markings on their music to express relative
volume levels or changes in volume levels.
The development of dynamics in Western art music through the centuries
and different musical periods is more straightforward than some other
developments in music.
s In musical styles of the Medieval period (about AD 500 to 1400) and the
Renaissance (1400 to 1600), dynamics were not a signicant feature. Volume
levels were generally even throughout a piece.

MUSIC 1 AURAL SKILLS PRELIMINARY AND HSC COURSE

s The Baroque period (about 1600 to 1750) saw the beginning of the use of
dynamics in music, but only in terms of loud and soft. This is sometimes
called terraced dynamics, meaning there are no gradations between the
two volume levels we hear, loud and soft. Terraced dynamics are a distinct
feature of Baroque music, owing mainly to the limitations of the keyboard
instruments of the time.
s The Classical period (about 1750 to 1820) and its composers, such as
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (17561791) and Franz Joseph Haydn (17321809),
used soft and loud dynamic levels and also explored gradual changes
between volume levels (becoming louder or becoming softer).
s The style of the Romantic period (1815 to 1910) was more dramatic, with
composers exploring a range of dynamics to convey powerful moods.
s In the art music of the twentieth and twenty-rst centuries, composers
and performers experimented greatly with all musical concepts, including
exploring the extremes of dynamic levels.
The changes in dynamics over these musical periods were largely due to
improvements in instrumental technology. For example, the harpsichords
construction restricted its ability to produce different dynamic levels, but the
development of the pianoforte (later abbreviated to piano) in the Classical
period allowed composers to experiment much more with dynamics.
Instruments and electronic sounds and effects today make great use of
dynamics, with any volume level possible.

SOUND BITE 3.1

Terraced dynamics
Terraced dynamics permit
loud and soft elements in
a piece of music, but no
gradations in between.
Gradations are gradual
changes from one musical
element or one dynamic level
to another for example,
gradually getting louder.

Dynamic levels
Dynamic levels are the volume levels in a piece of music. There are varying
degrees of softness and loudness, and many Italian terms are commonly used
in music to express these. The following tables show the common uses of
piano, meaning soft in volume, and forte, meaning loud in volume.
Some terms for softness in music
Italian term

Musical symbol

Meaning

piano

soft

pianissimo

pp

very soft

pianississimo

ppp

very very soft (softer than pp )

pianissississimo

pppp

very very very soft (softer than ppp )

mezzo piano

mp

moderately soft

HSC TIP Use this

musical terminology in
the examination if you
can, although it is not
compulsory. Describing
a piece as loud and soft
can show the examiner
that you understand the
idea of different volume
levels in the piece.

Some terms for loudness in music

Italian term

Musical symbol

Meaning

forte

loud

fortissimo

ff

very loud

fortississimo

fff

very very loud (louder than ff )

fortissississimo

ffff

very very very loud (louder than fff )

mezzo forte

mf

moderately loud

CHAPTER 3

Dynamics and expressive techniques

49

Changes in dynamic levels

HSC TIP You can use

the terms for dynamic
levels for smaller sections
as well as for the overall
piece of music.

Composers of the Classical period began exploring gradual changes in

dynamics. Instead of simply using forte and piano as levels, they introduced
subtler gradations, as in becoming gradually louder or softer. The Italian term
crescendo means gradually getting louder. There are two terms for gradually
getting softer decrescendo and diminuendo and either may be used
in a piece of music. In a music score, these terms could be indicated by an
abbreviation (a shortened term) or by a symbol that musicians recognise, as
shown in the table below.

Emphasis or accents on sounds

Accents are stresses placed
on particular notes to shape a
musical phrase.

Where dynamic levels (loud, moderate or soft) are used for sections of the
music, accents are dynamic levels for specic notes and sounds. Accents
are stresses placed on particular notes to shape the musical phrase. Some
common accents are O and sforzando (sfz), meaning with sudden emphasis.

Common terms for changes in dynamic levels and emphasis on sounds

Italian term
SOUND BITE 3.2
Crescendo

SOUND BITE 3.3

Sforzando-piano

Abbreviation/symbol

Meaning

crescendo

cresc.

gradually getting louder

decrescendo

decres.

gradually getting softer

diminuendo

dim.

gradually getting softer

subito

sub.

suddenly

subito piano

sub.p.

suddenly softer

subito forte

sub.f.

suddenly louder

sforzando

sfz

with sudden emphasis

sforzando-piano

sfp

with sudden emphasis then

suddenly decreasing in loudness

terraced dynamics

Decrescendo/diminuendo
subito piano

Specific dynamic changes

Crescendo
subito forte

p
mp

CHANGES IN
DYNAMIC LEVELS

pp

mf

Subito

ppp

DYNAMIC LEVELS
(loudness, softness)

EMPHASIS
ON SOUNDS

pppp

Accents

ff
sforzando

DYNAMICS

fff
ffff

The main features of dynamics in music

50

Musical Concepts

MUSIC 1 AURAL SKILLS PRELIMINARY AND HSC COURSE

sfp

Although accents are also an expressive technique, called an articulation

(see page 54), the dynamics are affected when an accent is placed on a note or
notes, making it loud, very loud, immediately loud or loud then immediately
soft. Accents may also differ between instruments and between musical styles.
They may even be used to make a note longer or shorter than the other notes,
in addition to, or even instead of, making it louder.

CONCEPT CHECK DYNAMICS

1. Copy the blank mind map below. Using your understanding of dynamics as
discussed in this section, label the branches of the mind map with the relevant
terms you have learnt.

DYNAMICS
2. (a) Listen to the sound bite and, using another copy of the blank mind map,
add labels according to the aspects of dynamics that you hear.
(b) Copy the graph below and plot the dynamic levels in the piece of music.

SOUND BITE 3.4

Concept check
Dynamic levels 1

fff
ff
f
mf
mp
p
pp
ppp
Time
3. Name as many instruments as you can that can play fp or sfp.
4. Listen to the sound bite and identify the overall dynamic level.

CHAPTER 3

SOUND BITE 3.5

Concept check
Dynamic levels 2

Dynamics and expressive techniques

51

EXPRESSIVE TECHNIQUES
Expressive techniques refer
to the way a performer plays
a piece of music, and can
include the tempo, style,
articulation, ornamentation,
instrumental techniques and
electronic manipulation.

HSC TIP Your aim in

the Music 1 Aural Skills
exam is to demonstrate
an understanding of the
effects the expressive
techniques have on the
piece of music, rather
than specically naming
the terms.

Expressive techniques refer to the way a performer plays a piece of music.

The composer indicates specic details and techniques to guide the musicians
performance. These directions help portray the style of the music.
Expressive techniques are coupled with dynamics; without these features to
give a variety of shades to a piece of music, it would sound quite unexciting
and plain.
A wide range of expressive techniques have been developed over time. They
mainly relate to tempo, style, articulation, ornamentation, instrumental and
vocal techniques, and electronic manipulation. Many of these features overlap
in meaning.
Music scores can contain many specic terms that identify expressive
techniques. In the Aural Skills exam, you will rely on your ear to identify
techniques as scores are not provided.
Selected terms are outlined below, along with sound bites, to help you to
become familiar with expressive techniques and to use some of these terms in
exam responses.

TEMPO
INDICATIONS

EXPRESSIVE
TECHNIQUES

ELECTRONIC
MANIPULATION

INSTRUMENTAL AND
VOCAL TECHNIQUES

STYLISTIC
INDICATIONS

ORNAMENTATION

ARTICULATION
Some categories of expressive techniques

Tempo
Tempo is the speed at which a
piece of music is performed.

HSC TIP Tempo is also

featured in chapter 1,
Duration, demonstrating
that many aspects of
the concepts of music
overlap.

As we saw when we discussed the concept of duration in chapter 1, tempo is

speed and the tempo indication on a score tells the performer how fast to play
the piece. Tempo may also affect the expressive quality of the music.
Although composers indicate on a written score the speed at which to play
their music, it is not necessary to study these specic terms for this course.
What is required is to gain an understanding of the effects the tempo and
tempo changes have on a piece of music.
Some composers using traditional notation add terms on scores to indicate
tempo and changes in tempo. These terms may be in Italian, French, German
or English, but are most commonly Italian. However, you can use English
terms such as slow, steady, moderate, fast or very fast to describe the tempo.

Changes in tempo
As well as being able to recognise and describe the overall tempo of a piece of
music, it is important to identify:
s changes in tempo

52

Musical Concepts

MUSIC 1 AURAL SKILLS PRELIMINARY AND HSC COURSE

s whether a change is sudden or gradual

s how the change affects the music.
Terms to describe changes in tempo include:
s gradually getting faster
s gradually getting slower
s immediately slowing down
s immediately getting faster
s return to the original speed.

Changes
in tempo

EXPRESSIVE
TECHNIQUES

TEMPO
INDICATIONS

gradually getting
faster

SOUND BITE 3.7

Tempo returning to
original speed

ELECTRONIC
MANIPULATION

INSTRUMENTAL AND
VOCAL TECHNIQUES

STYLISTIC
INDICATIONS

ORNAMENTATION

gradually getting
slower

ARTICULATION

immediately
slowing down

Constant tempo
immediately
faster
very fast
return to original
speed

fast
moderate
slow
steady

Indications of tempo as an expressive technique

Stylistic indications
As well as signalling the tempo for a piece of music, composers can use terms
to indicate the style in which a piece is to be performed. Stylistic indications
for the performer affect the style of music, giving the musical genre its
particular qualities. It is one aspect of the many expressive elements that help
shape the genre of the piece of music.
Terms for specic stylistic indications can be in Italian, German, French or
English. Two Italian words that may be used to describe a section of a piece of
music are legato, meaning smoothly, and rubato, meaning with freedom or
in the performers own time, with expression.
Italian term

Meaning

legato

smooth

SOUND BITE 3.8

Legato

rubato

with freedom

SOUND BITE 3.9

Rubato

CHAPTER 3

Dynamics and expressive techniques

53

HSC TIP Words used

to describe styles in
this chapter are just
suggestions. If you think
of alternative terms to
describe a style, use
them.

SOUND BITE 3.10

Energetic
SOUND BITE 3.11
Tranquil

Phrases may also be used in a score or a song as a stylistic indication, such

as slowly, with expression or moderately bright. Some phrases may relate
to the musical genre that the piece belongs to, perhaps indicating a drum
beat that would suit the song. For example, an indication at the start of a
piece could be medium funk or moderate jazzy beat. The composer of the
score or song is indicating to the performer the style in which the piece is to
be performed. Although they are signicant aspects of a score or song, and
indicate to the performer the style intended by the composer, these terms are
not crucial to this music course.
Words or expressions that can be used to describe the overall style of a piece
of music or of a specic section include:
s smooth
s excited
s lightly
s passionate
s majestic
s sweetly
s marked, accented
s sad
s with freedom
s energetic
s tranquil, calm.
s expressively
s graceful

Articulation
Articulation is the way in
which specific parts or notes
in a piece of music are played.
Some articulations are specific
to particular instruments.

We have seen that a stylistic indication shows a performer how to express the
general style of a piece. The term articulation also signies the expressive
details added to the music, but it is more specic. Articulation refers to
specic parts or even precise notes in a piece that is, how the notes are
played.
The table below outlines some of the more common articulations you may
hear in a piece of music.
Some general articulations in music
Term

Meaning

accent

notes attacked strongly with emphasis

forte-piano (fp)

attack loudly, then immediately soft

sforzando (sfz)

with sudden emphasis

sforzando-piano (sfp)

with sudden emphasis, then immediately at a soft volume

slur

notes are joined (must be two different notes)

staccato

notes short and detached

tenuto

notes held for their entire value

The above articulations can also be related to specic instruments, as is

discussed later in the section on instrumental techniques (page 57).
It is important to note that the same articulation on different instruments
sounds different owing to the different sound qualities of the instrument. For
example, a slur on a violin sounds very different from a slur on a trumpet.
Some articulations may not be possible on some instruments. For example,
pizzicato (where strings are plucked) cannot be reproduced on the clarinet.

54

Musical Concepts

MUSIC 1 AURAL SKILLS PRELIMINARY AND HSC COURSE

An accent is an example of articulation in music.

SOUND BITE 3.12
Sforzando

An example of sforzando
SOUND BITE 3.13
Slur
A slur is a common musical articulation.
SOUND BITE 3.14
Staccato
An example of staccato

Ornamentation
When we discussed the concept of pitch in chapter 2, we looked at
ornamentation in relation to melodic features in music. Ornamentation is
the decoration of the notes of a melody or harmony with added features that
contribute to the expressive qualities of the piece of music.
Ornamentation is another feature that can contribute to the style of a piece
of music. As noted in chapter 2, an ornament such as a vase or gurine usually
serves to decorate or embellish (e.g. a room or a piece of furniture). In music,
ornamentation refers to the colour added by the composer to decorate a
melody or harmony and make it more interesting. These specic features
affect the style of the piece of music.
The table below lists some common markings of ornamentation.
Some common indications of ornamentation

a slide from one note to

another

trills

rapid alternation between two

notes

acciaccatura

a crushed note: a note

played at the same time as,
and crushed into, the following
note, where the value does
not change

appoggiatura

a leaning note: a note that

leans into the following note,
changing the note value

Marking

ss.

gli

tr.

/
(

glissando

Meaning

/
(

Ornament

Musical genre most

common

Ornamentation is the
decoration of the notes in
a melody or harmony with
special features to add interest
and expressive qualities.

The table shows musical

genres in which the
ornaments are most common.
The ornaments may appear in
other styles, as composers are
free to compose at will.

Western art music

Western art music, particularly

Baroque and Classical music
Western art music,
particularly Baroque and
Classical music; also jazz
(usually in the form of a
grace note)
Western art music,
particularly Baroque and
Classical music

CHAPTER 3

Dynamics and expressive techniques

55

Ornament

Art music refers mainly to

Western music periods such
as the Baroque and Classical
periods. Twentieth-century
art music refers to styles that
include minimalism and
serialism. Here the term art
music is distinguished from
popular and jazz music also
composed at this time.

Meaning

mordent

upper mordent: we hear a

note, then the one above it,
then the rst note
lower mordent: we hear a
note, then the one below it,
then the rst note

turn

notes turn around a note: we

hear a note, then one higher,
then one lower than the rst
note, and then the rst note

Musical Concepts

K
2

Western art music,

particularly Baroque and
Classical music

Western art music,

particularly Baroque and
Classical music

Instrumental and vocal techniques

Use of instrumental and vocal techniques is one of the most effective ways
of expressing or interpreting a musical style. Composers have explored many
methods of producing different sounds on an instrument or by a voice, and
the techniques created are usually unique to the instrument or voice. Western
art music before 1900 saw the initial development of many instruments, and it
was some time before composers began to experiment with these instruments
different sounds. Twentieth- and twenty-rst-century art music saw much
experimentation with instruments and voices, such as hitting the back of a
violin or placing objects inside a piano to alter the sound.

An example of a music score

showing graphic notation,
from TV Kln, by John Cage
(19121999). The composer
explained the notation as four
systems (of two, three or four
lines each) of equal length. The
system labelled I is for interior
piano construction; O is for
exterior piano construction;
A represents auxiliary noise;
and K is for the keyboard. The
notes are positioned to indicate
their relative pitch, duration and
amplitude.

56

Musical genre most

common

Marking

MUSIC 1 AURAL SKILLS PRELIMINARY AND HSC COURSE

Composers also saw the voice as limitless. Everyday voice qualities were
brought closer to the musical singing voice when composers began creating
pieces in which the vocalist would speak, scream, whisper or even laugh, and
these techniques were written into the score.

Instrumental techniques
Some expressive techniques are general and some are specic to the capacities
of a particular instrument. Examples are summarised in the tables below, in
which the instruments are very loosely categorised into the four families of
the orchestra.

HSC TIP Listen to

the sound bites to
familiarise yourself
with the sounds so you
can recognise them
in an exam. It is the
purpose of, or reason
for, these techniques
that is important, not
necessarily the ability to
label them.

General instrumental techniques

Technique

Meaning

accent

notes are attacked strongly with emphasis

glissando

a slide from one note to another

harmonics

sound vibrations (usually related to string instruments) whose frequencies

create tones that are multiples of the fundamental tone

legato

played smoothly

slur

two different notes are joined

staccato

notes are short and detached

tenuto

held for the full value of the note

tremolo

a rapid repetition of the same note (most relevant to string instruments,

although also possible on other instruments, such as the marimba)

vibrato

vibrating or shaking on a note; a change in pitch or tonal intensity

Some instrumental techniques for orchestral strings violin, viola, cello

and double bass
Term

Meaning

arco

with the bow

col legno

with the wood; that is, playing with the wood part of the back of the bow

con sordino

with the mute; that is, playing with a device attached manually to the
bridge of the violin to dampen the sound. Also can create a sweet quality

double stopping

playing two notes at the same time

harmonic

based on the harmonic series, a light touch halfway along a string

length produces the 2nd harmonic, which is one octave higher than the
fundamental tone

pizzicato

the strings are plucked; an arco sign cancels out this pizzicato sound

spiccato

light staccato achieved by the bow bouncing off the strings

sul ponticello

on the bridge; high-pitched sounds produced by the violinist playing with

the bow close to the bridge of the instrument. These sounds are highpitched yet mainly indenite because the strings vibration is so high.

SOUND BITE 3.15

Double stopping

CHAPTER 3

SOUND BITE 3.16

Pizzicato

Dynamics and expressive techniques

57

Term

SOUND BITE 3.17

Tremolo

Meaning

sul tasto

on the ngerboard; playing with the bow over the ngerboard. The notes
here sound indeterminate, or indenite, like sul pont, although not as high
in pitch.

tremolo

produced by moving the bow back and forth rapidly on the string

vibrato

a shaking of the note. On a string instrument (except for the harp due to
this instruments structural limitations), vibrato is produced by a shaking
movement of the left hand, creating a change in pitch or tonal intensity.

Some instrumental techniques for guitar and guitar-like instruments

Term

Meaning

SOUND BITE 3.18

Bends

bends

three ngers are used to bend the pitch; that is, moving from one pitch to
another

SOUND BITE 3.19

Distortion

distortion

changing the sound so that it is distorted, an effect usually created using an

effects pedal through an amplier

double stopping

playing two notes at the same time

effects pedal

a pedal attached to the guitar by an audio lead, allowing the performer to

distort the sound. On an effects pedal, there may be several sounds and
effects to choose from, depending on the musical effect desired.

hammer on

hammering, or heavily placing your nger on an already ringing string to

create a new and higher note

harmonic

based on the harmonic series, a light touch halfway along a string produces
the 2nd harmonic, which is one octave higher than the fundamental tone

slap

usually related to the bass guitar, when the musician hits the strings with
such emphasis as to produce a note

popping

the opposite of slapping; popping is created by pulling the string and

releasing so that it drops and pops; almost like a forceful pluck

strumming

a playing technique whereby the right playing hand is scraped across

the strings of the instrument to produce a sound; usually used for playing
chords

nger picking

the opposite of strumming; the musician picks the individual strings of the
guitar, choosing the desired note(s). The equivalent for the violin is pizzicato
or plucking.

vibrato

a shaking of the note. On the guitar or guitar-like instrument vibrato is

produced by the shaking movement of the left hand to produce a change in
pitch or tonal intensity.

SOUND BITE 3.20

Slap
HSC TIP A general
understanding of the
techniques and their
purpose is sufcient; it is
not essential to recall and
use every specic term.

SOUND BITE 3.21

Vibrato

Expressive techniques on string instruments can be created through sensitivity of touch and using
different parts of the instrument for effects.

58

Musical Concepts

MUSIC 1 AURAL SKILLS PRELIMINARY AND HSC COURSE

Some instrumental techniques for percussion

Term

Meaning

double stroke

rapid succession of double strokes alternating the left and right hands,
involving no particular rhythm

SOUND BITE 3.22

Double stroke

drum roll

rolling effect created by rapid left then right strokes on a drum. A drum roll is
usually, although not always, heard on the snare drum.

SOUND BITE 3.23

Drum roll

grace notes

a short note that is crushed or squashed a little before the main note. This
rhythmic feature can also be called a crushed note and is easily achieved
using drum sticks.

rim shot

playing the rim of the drum at the same time as the head

rolls

fast alternation of left and right hand, producing a roll sound

single stroke

a rapid succession of alternate strokes with both left and right hands

with brushes

sticks ending in bristles, or brushes, that create a softer sound than hard
drum sticks; used frequently in jazz music

with mallets

sticks with padded tips specically designed for the percussion instrument;
for example, timpani mallets have a soft quality

with hard sticks

drum sticks producing a hard, almost sharp sound

SOUND BITE 3.24

Rim shot

SOUND BITE 3.25

Brushes

Some instrumental techniques for woodwind

Term

Meaning

slurred

a smooth movement from one note to another, the opposite of

tonguing

tonguing

each note played separately, as each is tongued using an f sound

utter-tonguing

use of the tongue to articulate a note on a wind instrument. More

specically, utter-tonguing is a rapid movement, creating a utter,
usually on an r sound.

pitch bending

making a note temporarily sharp or at

singing/speaking into
the instrument

singing or speaking into a wind instrument instead of blowing. This

technique was developed in twentieth-century art music.

key-clicking

a percussive hammering of the keys of a wind instrument to produce

a clicking sound

multiphonics

producing two or more notes simultaneously on a wind instrument.

This sound is produced by forcefully blowing into the instrument, or
blowing and vocalising at the same time.

SOUND BITE 3.26

Flutter-tonguing

SOUND BITE 3.27

Singing/speaking into
instrument

SOUND BITE 3.28

Multiphonics

Some instrumental techniques for brass

Term

Meaning

mute

a device placed in the bell that dampens or alters the sound of the
instrument. Mutes include straight mute, wah wah (or harmon) mute
and cup mute.

utter-tonguing

use of the tongue to articulate a note on a brass instrument; more

specically, a rapid movement, creating a utter, usually on an r
sound

pitch bending

shifting a note temporarily to sharp or at

singing/speaking into
the instrument

singing or speaking into a brass instrument instead of blowing;

developed in twentieth century art music

multiphonics

producing two or more notes simultaneously by forcefully blowing into

the instrument, or blowing and vocalising at the same time

vibrato

a shaking of the note, changing its pitch or tonal intensity

SOUND BITE 3.29

Mute

SOUND BITE 3.30

Pitch bending

CHAPTER 3

SOUND BITE 3.31

Vibrato

Dynamics and expressive techniques

59

Various expressive techniques can be used on brass and wind instruments by adjusting the lips
and tongue, increasing the force of air, or by using a mute, as shown with this trumpet.

Vocal techniques
Some vocal techniques are
characteristic of a cultures
style; for example, yodelling.
HSC TIP In the exam,
it is likely you will hear a
piece that has a singing
voice. Read through the
summaries in the table
as well as listening to the
sound bites to familiarise
yourself with some vocal
techniques.

Composers often include voices in their compositions, either in singing or for

a particular effect. Vocal techniques can affect the style of a piece. As well as
singing voices, a composer might include speaking or whispering in a piece of
music.
When a composer uses a solo voice in a piece, it is usually to carry the
melody, and the vocal effects and techniques are obvious to the listener. But
there are many different styles of singing. For example:
s In an aria from an opera you will hear a classical voice performing.
s Popular music uses different types of voice based mainly on the sternum or
chest voice.
s The singing voice differs among world cultures. Traditional Maori calls, for
example, have a somewhat nasal pitch and use microtones.
The following table lists some vocal techniques and the musical genre in
which each effect is most commonly heard, although they could also be heard
in other musical genres.
Vocal techniques
Vocal technique

60

Musical Concepts

Meaning

Musical genres most relevant

to the technique

bend

distorting the correct pitch by

sliding around it

s jazz

effects derived from

the speaking voice,
including speaking,
screaming,
whispering,
panting, breathing,
yelling, laughing,
growling

All vocal sounds within the

capabilities of the human voice,
apart from singing, fall into this
category. These are only some
of the vocal effects that could be
heard in a piece of music.

s twentieth- and twenty-rstcentury art music

s speaking may occur in some
pieces of popular music
s other vocal effects in popular
music (e.g. panting in A Day in
the Life by The Beatles)

falsetto

the upper register of a males

vocal range or high voice

s art music
s popular music (e.g. Michael
Jackson, The Bee Gees, Justin
Timberlake)

MUSIC 1 AURAL SKILLS PRELIMINARY AND HSC COURSE

Vocal technique

Musical genres most relevant

to the technique

Meaning

rap

speaking in rhythm, in time with a

backing beat

s rap
s hip-hop

scat

improvised nonsense syllables

that are sung

s jazz

Sprechstimme

speech with melodic contours

s twentieth-century art music

syllabic/melismatic
(lick)

several notes in one syllable.

Melisima and lick have the same
meaning but are appropriate to
different styles of music: melisma
is common to the Medieval period;
lick, as in a guitar lick, is used in
much popular music (e.g. Beyonce
and Alicia Keys use this feature
often)

s Medieval

a quiver of the voice, for

expression, usually at the end of
phrases or long notes in popular
singing; a characteristic feature of
classical singing

s most musical genres

vibrato

SOUND BITE 3.32

Scat

SOUND BITE 3.33

Syllabic/melismatic (lick)

s art music

s popular music
SOUND BITE 3.34
Vibrato

Electronic manipulation
Electronic manipulation means creating an electronic effect on an instrument
to enhance the musical style. It is one of the expressive techniques that create
the style of the piece of music; for example, a distorted guitar sound signies
the rock style.
A synthesiser is considered an electronic instrument because of its
electronic manipulation of real instrumental sounds. A MIDI (Musical
Instrument Digital Interface) is an electronic song, using computer sounds.
It is a means of interconnecting electronic instruments (such as synthesisers)
and computers to create electronic music. A piece of music may also include
sound effects. Some popular pieces of music use an effect that evokes an old
recording studio in a newly recorded context.
Examples of expressive techniques created through electronic manipulation
Term

Meaning

distortion

changing the sound so that it is distorted. This effect is usually created using
an effects pedal, or an amplier.

attack

the rst part of a sound or sounds

decay

the dying away of a sound or sounds

delay

the repeat of a sound or sounds

effects pedal

a pedal attached to a guitar by an audio lead, used for distorting the sound.
An effects pedal may offer several sounds and effects, depending on the
musical effect desired.

panning

effect by which sound moves from one speaker to the other

vocoder

an audio effect on the voice that almost distorts the sound. Initially designed
to synthesise speech, it was used by artists such as Stevie Wonder and can
be heard on the 1998 Cher song Believe.

SOUND BITE 3.35

Distortion

SOUND BITE 3.36

Decay

CHAPTER 3

SOUND BITE 3.37

Delay

SOUND BITE 3.38

Panning

Dynamics and expressive techniques

61

A synthesiser is an example
of an electronic instrument.

STYLE
In music, the style is usually
determined by the particular
stylistic indications the
composer gives to the
performer. The musical genre,
on the other hand, refers to
the overarching category of
music. For example, a piece
may be in the style of ragtime
or bebop, but the musical
genre is jazz.

Musical style or genre is what differentiates pieces of music. If music stores

had existed in the Classical period, they would have stocked only a few
musical genres: opera, oratorio, concerti and symphonies. Today the number
of musical styles we can listen to is vast and changing all the time.
Style is made up of all of the concepts of music. Elements of expressive
techniques tempo, stylistic indications, articulation, ornamentation, and
instrumental and vocal techniques can have a huge effect on shaping the
musical style. You can ask yourself why a song sounds like jazz, or in the jazz
style. All of the musical concepts may play a part, but the main clues are in the
specic expressive techniques used, such as scat singing or vocal bends.
All the musical characteristics of a piece of music add up to create the
specic musical genre that you hear. Most sounds are appropriate to a style.
For example, if we hear a popular music introduction played by a standard
rock band, we are unlikely to hear a tuba or harp playing the main melody or
a classical singer performing the main melodic line, as these sounds are not
characteristic of the rock style.
The table below lists some musical styles.
Musical styles
Western art music

s Medieval
s Renaissance
s Baroque
s Classical
s Romantic

s twentieth-century art music

impressionism
minimalism
serialism
aleatoric

World music

s Indian raga
s Indonesian gamelan
s Jewish klezmer

s Bulgarian folk
s Afro-Cuban
s Celtic folk

Jazz

s ragtime
s Dixieland
s big band

s bebop
s cool jazz
s free jazz

Rock

s hard rock
s soft rock
s punk
s heavy metal
s alternative

s thrash
s progressive rock
s grunge
s garage

Other popular music styles are blues, country, electronic, folk, funk, gospel,
hip-hop, house, jazz-rock fusion, musical theatre, opera, popular, rap, reggae,
religious, rock n roll, rockabilly and soul.

62

Musical Concepts

MUSIC 1 AURAL SKILLS PRELIMINARY AND HSC COURSE

Musical styles and genres can be divided into general categories (e.g. jazz
or rock) and also musical periods (e.g. Medieval or Baroque). These were
periods in time when other, sometimes parallel artistic movements were also
occurring in art, architecture and literature. Musical styles and genres can also
be classed as within or outside the Western tradition.

The Music 1 syllabus states:

Expressive techniques
refers to the musical detail
that articulates a style or
interpretation of a style.

CONCEPT CHECK EXPRESSIVE TECHNIQUES AND STYLE

1. Copy the blank mind map below. Using your understanding of tempo
indications as discussed in this chapter (page 53), label the branches of the
mind map with the relevant terms you have learnt.
TEMPO
INDICATIONS

2. Apply what you have learnt in this section to a short piece of music as follows:
(a) Listen to the sound bite and, using another copy of the blank mind map,
add labels according to the aspects of tempo that you hear.
(b) Listen again to the sound bite and state whether the overall tempo is slow,
steady, moderate, fast or very fast.
(c) Does the sound bite include any changes in tempo? If so, describe them.

SOUND BITE 3.39

Concept check Tempo

3. Listen to the sound bite. Label the style of the piece using descriptive words
(either from page 54 or your own), rather than the musical genre.

SOUND BITE 3.40

Concept check Style

4. Name the articulation and ornamentation in the sound bite.

SOUND BITE 3.41

Concept check
Articulation and
ornamentation

5. Listen to the sound bite and, in a table like the one below, list the instrumental
and vocal techniques used.
Instrumental technique/s

Vocal technique/s

SOUND BITE 3.42

Concept check
Instrumental and vocal
techniques

6. Listen again to the sound bites in questions 2 to 5 and label:

(a) the style of each piece
(b) the expressive techniques that created the style.

CHAPTER 3

Dynamics and expressive techniques

63

CHAPTER REVIEW
AND LISTENING ACTIVITIES

HSC TIP Mind maps are

a useful revision tool for
the HSC Music 1 Aural
Skills exam.

Mind maps are a way of visualising information. This mind map shows the
features for the concepts of dynamics and expressive techniques that can be
applied to any listening piece.

Decrescendo/diminuendo

terraced dynamics

subito piano

Specific dynamic changes

Crescendo
subito forte

p
mp

CHANGES IN
DYNAMIC LEVELS

pp

mf

Subito

ppp

EMPHASIS
ON SOUNDS

pppp

DYNAMIC LEVELS
(loudness, softness)

Accents

ff
sfp

sforzando

DYNAMICS

fff
ffff

Changes
in tempo

TEMPO
INDICATIONS

gradually getting
faster

EXPRESSIVE
TECHNIQUES

STYLISTIC
INDICATIONS

ELECTRONIC
MANIPULATION

INSTRUMENTAL AND
VOCAL TECHNIQUES

Specific

ORNAMENTATION

gradually getting
slower
immediately
slowing down

ARTICULATION

Constant tempo

brass
strings

percussion

fast
return to original
speed

moderate
slow

64

woodwind

very fast

immediately
faster

Musical Concepts

steady

MUSIC 1 AURAL SKILLS PRELIMINARY AND HSC COURSE

General

LISTENING ACTIVITIES
1. (a) Copy and label the blank mind map below from your understanding of
what you have learnt in this chapter. Place the relevant words you have
learnt on the branches provided.

DYNAMICS

EXPRESSIVE
TECHNIQUES

CHAPTER 3

Dynamics and expressive techniques

65

CD TRACK 7

(b) Your teacher will play an excerpt. Using the mind map you labelled in
(a), circle what you hear. When you have nished labelling your mind
map, collate what you have heard and on a separate piece of paper,
based on the same listening:
(i) discuss the use of dynamics in the excerpt
(ii) discuss the use of expressive techniques in the excerpt.
2. Apply the knowledge learnt in this chapter by nding a piece of music and
analysing all aspects of its dynamics and expressive techniques.
3. Class presentation. Locate a piece of music that uses dynamics and
expressive techniques in interesting ways. Evaluate the overall effect of
expressive techniques in your chosen piece of music. Do they help portray
the style of the music? Play the piece to the class, then deliver a ve-minute
speech on your ndings.

CD TRACK 8

66

Musical Concepts

4. Listen to the excerpt your teacher will play while analysing the score (piano
reduction). Complete the following exercises in relation to the excerpt and
score.

MUSIC 1 AURAL SKILLS PRELIMINARY AND HSC COURSE

(a) Highlight the dynamics by referring to relevant bars in the score.

(b) Highlight all the expressive techniques used in the piece by referring to
the bars of the score.
(c) This piece is called an overture.
(i) Find a denition of an overture.
(ii) With your knowledge of what an overture is, describe the effect of
Mozarts use of dynamics and expressive techniques. Does it suit
this section of an opera? Explain.

CHAPTER 3

Dynamics and expressive techniques

67

CD TRACK 9

HSC TIP Be prepared

in the exam for possible
separate references
to dynamics and
expressive techniques.
A question may not
necessarily refer to both
terms.

5. Listen to the excerpt your teacher will play and answer the following
questions in extended point form.
Dynamics
(a) Comment on the overall dynamic levels in the music. Identify the range
of dynamics used (you may use Italian or English words to describe the
volume levels).
(b) Comment on the dynamic levels at the start of the excerpt, before the
voice enters.
(c) Are there changes in dynamic levels in the excerpt? If so, name them
and describe where they occur, using the instrumental entries to help
you.
Expressive techniques
(d) Name the tempo of the musical excerpt.
(e) Are there any changes to this tempo, or any other tempo changes? If so,
describe them using either Italian or English words.
(f ) If a written score is available to you, what overall description of
the excerpt would the composer use as a stylistic indication for the
performer?
(g) Comment on any use in the excerpt of articulation to portray expressive
qualities.
(h Describe the use of ornamentation in the excerpt to portray expressive
qualities.
(i) Are any instrumental or vocal techniques applied in the excerpt? If so,
be specic as to which techniques the composer has chosen.
(j) Are any electronic modications to the sound used to manipulate it for
effect? If so, what specically has been used?

HSC-STYLE QUESTION
CD TRACK 10

An excerpt (1 minute 56 seconds) from Le Maux de Georgette by

The Hipstones will be played SIX times for you to answer this question.
Time:

First playing
Second playing
Third playing
Fourth playing
Fifth playing
Sixth playing

short pause
30-second pause
1-minute pause
1-minute pause
2-minute pause
2-minute pause

Discuss the use of dynamics and expressive techniques in this excerpt.

PAST EXAM QUESTIONS

s Describe the solo singers use of pitch and expressive techniques in this
performance. (2002)
s How are dynamics and expressive techniques explored in this excerpt?
(2006)
s Comment on the use of pitch, dynamics and expressive techniques in
this excerpt. (2008)
Board of Studies NSW HSC Music 1 Aural Skills Examinations

68

Musical Concepts

MUSIC 1 AURAL SKILLS PRELIMINARY AND HSC COURSE