1.2 Hurtubise Et Al - Shelters For The Homeless

Chapter 1.
Shelters for the Homeless:

Learning from Research
R O C H H U R T U B I S E , P I E R R E -O L I V I E R B A B I N ,
AND CAROLYNE GRIMARD
Inspring2006,inaregionalroundtablediscussiononhomelessnessin
Quebec,wenoticedthatmanypractitionerswereworriedabouttherole
of shelters and of their importance in addressing the problem. What is
the mission of these shelters? Are they the solution or do they merely
reproduceconditionsonewouldfindinanasylum?Cantheyofferaway
out from the street? The questions are numerous. What can we learn
fromtheresearchinsocialandhumansciences?
What is a shelter? Definitions of homelessness are numerous and
subjecttodifferentinterpretations(Gaetz,2004;Roy&Hurtubise,2007,
2004).Thedefinitionofashelterisnolessproblematic.Initsinitialsense,
ashelterisaplacewhereonegoestoavoiddangeroraplacewherepeo
plewhohavenoplaceelsetogocangather.Abriefsurveyoftheterms
inuseshedslightonthediversity:shelter,hostel,emergencyshelter.In
French:refuge,maisondhbergement,auberge,hbergementdurgence.
The shelter can be defined by the number of beds (from a few to
severalhundred)orbythenatureoftheservicesoffered.Inmostcases,
theservicesofferedbytheorganismsarenotlimitedtotemporaryhous
Roch Hurtubise, Pierre-Olivier Babin, & Carolyne Grimard. Shelters for the Homeless: Learning from Research.
In: Hulchanski, J. David; Campsie, Philippa; Chau, Shirley; Hwang, Stephen; Paradis, Emily (eds.) Finding Home:
Policy Options for Addressing Homelessness in Canada (e-book), Chapter 1.2. Toronto: Cities Centre, University
of Toronto. www.homelesshub.ca/FindingHome
Cities Centre, University of Toronto, 2009
ISBN 978-0-7727-1475-6
SHELTERSFORTHEHOMELESS/2
ing and food. Moreover, some organizations offer emergency housing

services while refusing to be associated with shelters. For example, in
many cities, one may find shelters that serve both abused women and
homeless families, while in Quebec the network of shelters for women
who are victims of domestic violence are largely independent of those
for homelesspeople. It would probably be more appropriate to use the
term emergency housing measures (Hopper, 2004). However, the larger
sheltersremainthebestknownrepresentativesoftheservicesavailable
tohomelesspeople,astheyarefrequentlymentionedinthemedia,par
ticularlyincrisissituations,whentheyareoftenovercrowded.
Whousesshelters?Thereseemstobeaconsensusonthenecessity
ofdistinguishingthepopulationofthesesheltersandthepopulationof
people without a home. Not all homeless people are shelter users, and
reducing the former to the latter often renders part of the homeless
populationinvisible.
Thisreviewisinfoursections:(1)ahistoryofshelters;(2)aportrait
of shelter users; (3) intervention practices associated with the primary
missionofshelters;(4)criticismsofshelters.
Ahistoryofshelters
Traditionally associated with resources offered to beggars by religious
communities, shelters have evolved over the years. The first shelters
were created in cities where an influx of individuals seeking work in
creasedthenumberofpeoplewithouthousing.Thistemporaryhousing
developedinparalleltoothersolutionslikeshantytownsorcamps.Ini
tially established as temporary services for the homeless population,
theyeventuallybecamepermanent(Dordick,1996).
Thedevelopmentofsheltersattheendofthe19thcenturyisrelated
to developments in the economy (industrialization and urbanization)
and the ethic of work as a way to distinguish the honest working man
from the idler. Two waves of modernization ofshelters occurred in the
first half of the 20th century. The first improved the hygienic and sani
taryconditionsoftheareabyequippingthefacilitieswithbasicsanitary
equipment;thesecondredefinedthemissionofthesheltersbyservices
tohelpshelterusersreintegrateintosociety(Aranguiz,2005;Aranguiz&
Fecteau, 2000). In the postwar period, shelters were reaffirmed in their
Roch Hurtubise, Pierre-Olivier Babin, & Carolyne Grimard

1.2 Shelters for the Homeless: Learning from Research
www.homelesshub.ca/FindingHome
ISBN 978-0-7727-1475-6
more traditionalrole of emergency housing, with the responsibilities of

readaptationrelegatedtotherealmofpublicservices.
Deinstitutionalization policies designed to maintain people with
physicalormentalhealthproblemsinthecommunitychangedthepopu
lationusingsheltersandcommunityservices.Forexample,from1984to
1988, the number of people using shelters in New York increased from
5,000to8,000.Mostsufferedfromaddictionormentalhealthproblems.
Visions of the role of shelters differ: is it emergency housing in
tended to beused only inthe short term, orsupport and protection of
feredinthelongterm(Gounis&Susser,1990)?Towardstheendofthe
1980s,thecreationbythecityofMontrealofareferralcentreforhome
lesspeoplecausedmanyproblems:first,thechallengeofsettingupthe
centre; second, ensuring the safety of the users; third, opposition from
the residents of the neighbourhood (Charest & Lamarre, 2000). Today,
when new shelters are built or when old ones relocate, they often face
oppositionfromlocalresidents,merchants,propertyowners,andNIM
BYists(notinmybackyard).Inthesedebates,thepeoplewhohavethe
strongestvoice,whoareabletoblocktheseprojects,aregenerallyown
ersoflargeprivateproperties(Ranasinghe&Valverde,2006).
In the 1990s, critics of shelters became more harsh. Shelters were
perceivedaspartofasystemthattriestohidethehomelesspopulation.
Because the presence of homeless people in public areas is seen as an
annoyanceandamenace,twostrategiesforfixingthisproblememerged:
designingthesespacessothattheyarelessattractivetohomelesspeople
(architecture, streetscape) and controlling the behaviour of homeless
people through litigation. This effort to rid cities of people deemed as
undesirableencouragedthedevelopmentofsheltersasawayofshiel
dingthepopulationfromhomelesspeople(Johnsenetal.,2005).
APortraitofShelterUsers
TheNumbers
It is important to distinguish the homeless population from the people
usingshelters.Toooften,thenumberofnightsinsheltersisusedasan
indicatorofthehomelesspopulation.Thusincertaincities,theabsence
ofshelterswouldleadtoanunderestimationofthehomelesspopulation.

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Followingafirstgenerationofstudiesbasedontheopinionsofex
pertsandwitnesses,asecondbasedoninterviewswithshelterusershas
emerged.Amorecomplexarrayofinvestigativeprocedureshasyielded
more precise approximations (Firdion & Marpsat, 1998). Attempts are
underwaytostandardizeproceduresandfacilitatecomparisonsamong
citiesforexample,thecreationofaninformationsystemonpeopleand
familieswithoutahome(HIFIS).In2001,StatisticsCanadaestimatedthe
number of people in shelters at 14,150 on census day, but this number
mustbeinterpretedwithcaution.
Although the numbers vary, statistical studies help identify the
convergingtrendsoftheuserscharacteristics.Threetrendsareclear:the
increaseinthehomelesspopulation,thediversecharacteristicsofhome
less people, and the aggravation of problems linked to the situation. If
certaincensusesshowstabilityinthenumberofusersfrom1990to2000
(UnitedStatesCensusBureau,2001),othersshowaconsiderableincrease
(Goldberg,2005).Thehomelesspopulationwhichusessheltersdoesnot
constitute a homogenous group (Hecht & Coyle, 2001; Novac et al.,
2002).Generally,youthsarelessinclinedtousepublicservicesandshel
tersforhomelesspeople,andpreferlifeonthestreets(Brooksetal.,2004;
DeRosaetal.,1999).
Use of shelters varies among different groups. In Canada, immi
grantsandAboriginalpeopleareunderrepresentedinshelters(Distasio
etal.,2005;Fiedleretal.,2006),whereasintheUnitedStates,Blacksand
Hispanics are overrepresented (Gondolf et al., 1988). The number of
menusingshelterswhoareinvolvedinthejudicialsystemisfourtimes
greaterthaninthegeneralpopulation(Tolomiczenko&Goering,2001).
People in shelters may express more satisfaction about their envi
ronmentthanthoseonthestreetanddonotassociatetheshelterswitha
lossoffreedom(LaGoryetal.,1990).However,youthsmayseeshelters
astoorestrictive,andoftendistrustthestaffandassociatedsocialwork
ers.Thecommunitynetworktakesoverforotherservices(Levac&La
belle,2007;Poirier&Chanteau,2007).
Profilesofusersenableustodeterminedifferenttypesofhomeless
ness: chronic, cyclical, or temporary (Acorn, 1993). Certain groups (the
elderly, or those suffering from mental health problems, addictions, or
physical problems) stay for prolonged and repetitive periods. A few

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situations seem to be particularly problematic: users who have ex

haustedtheirpersonalandfamilyresourcesandwhoarealsorejectedby
thepublicsystemoftenexpressaggressivebehaviourtowardsaidwork
ersandotherusers.
Racialoriginseemstobestronglyassociatedwiththelengthofthe
stayintheshelters;CaucasianpeoplestaylessthanhalfaslongasBlack
people (Culhane & Kuhn, 1998). However, in winter, stays are usually
longerbecauseofharsherweather.Simard(2005)estimatedtheaverage
stayinalargesheltertobe355days.Mostbeds(60percent)areusedby
individualsstayingmorethanthreemonths,and30percentareusedby
thosewhostaymorethanayear.
Users of shelters are not necessarily unemployed; some may have
precarious or lowwage jobs.Researchhasestablished profiles of usage
according to peoples needs: transition towards stable housing, rest,
emergency,usageinadditiontodaycentreuse(Grella,1994).
In 2006, the tent crisis in Paris raised the question of homeless
people refusing to use shelters. The initiative of a humanitarian group
consistingindistributingtentsduringthewinterseasontoimprovethe
livingconditionsofhomelesspeopleprovokedasocialcrisis.Homeless
people spoke out publicly about life in shelters and explained that the
life inside the tent presented a better alternative (de Fleurieu & Cam
baud, 2006).Elsewhere, homeless people also refuse to use the housing
resourcesavailablebecausetheyaredeemedconstrainingandthreaten
ing(Hopper,2003).
EpidemiologicalProfile
The health status of people using shelters presents a serious challenge
(Carrireetal.,2003,Hurtubiseetal,2008).Theuseofshelterscaneven
causehealthproblemsthroughsleepdeprivation,personalhygienediffi
culties, or limited space for storing personal goods (Power et al., 1999).
Users are often hesitant to use normal health services, treatment and
preventionpractices,andsufferhealthproblemsasaresult(Frankishet
al.,2005;Harris,1994).Themortalityratevariesfromtwotimestoeight
times higher than that of the general population (Barrow et al., 1999;
Hwang,2000).

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Despite a decrease in schizophrenia cases (Geddes et al., 1994),

some studies suggest that between 40 and 60 percent of the homeless
populationsuffersomeformofmentalhealthproblem,suchasanxiety,
depression, or suicidal tendencies (Fournier & Mercier, 1996; Poirier et
al., 2000). Drug and alcohol problems are common. Shelters may con
tributetothespreadofinfectiousdiseasessuchastuberculosisorpara
sites such as lice (Marks et al., 2000). The question of health calls for a
betterunderstandingofthestrategiesusedbypeoplewhoarehomeless
(Waddetal.,2006).
Homelesspeoplehavedifficultyaccessingresourcestotakecareof
themselves(Boydelletal.,2000;Laberge,2000).Often,theyalsoendup
addingtotheirhealthproblembywaitingtoolongbeforeseekinghelp
(Desai & Rosenheck, 2005). They often use the emergency services of
hospitals (Kushel et al., 2001; Marks et al., 2000; Stein et al., 2000; Thi
baudeau,2000).Despitetheirobviousneeds,homelesspeoplearepoorly
served when it comes to health services, either prevention or interven
tion(Royetal.,2006;Webb,1998).
UsersandAppropriations
FirdionandMarpsat(1998)pointoutthatthedifferencesbetweenshort
andlongtermshelterusersarenotclearlydefined.Amoredynamicap
proachthatfocusesonuserscharacteristicsishelpful.Fourgroupscan
bedistinguished:(1)thosewhomakemaximumuseofresourcesduring
medium and longterm reintegration into society; (2) those who find
their own solutions to problems, without the use of resources for the
homeless;(3)thosewhomakeadhocuseofemergencyshelterresources;
(4) those in precarious housing situations (cars, trailers, squatting). A
personwhohasusedupallhisorherpersonal,family,andcommunity
resources,mayturntoashelterasalastresort(Poole&Zugazaga,2003).
Afocusonunderstandingthedifferentsolutionsusedbythehomelessto
compensatefor a lack of housingallows us to better study the survival
methods of those involved (Elias & Inui, 1993). According to Hopper
(2003), understanding the history of the people in homeless situations
enablesustoproposemorecompleteinterventionmodels.
Lifeinsheltersisfarfromideal,andlivingconditionsareoftende
scribedassimilartothoseintraditionalasylums(Simard,2000).Theatti

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tudesofworkersandtheorganizationalstructureofsheltersmaycreate
acontextfavourabletoviolentbehaviouramongusers(Liebow,1993).
Dordick(1996)proposesadescriptionofthesocialworldinshel
ters.Forexample,sexualpractices,seldommentionedinscientificlitera
ture,areanimportantpreoccupation,eveninareasthatofferlittleorno
privacy.Couplesmayforminshelters.Ritualsofengagementhavebeen
observed among these couples, which imply support and comfort in
sheltersaswellasoutsidethem.
BeyondEmergencySheltering,InterventionPractices
Research on programs for homeless people that involve shelters can be
dividedupintofourcategories:(1)functionsandapproaches;(2)shelter
ingandhousingasasteppingstonetosocialreintegration;(3)shelters
asaplaceforintervention;and(4)programevaluations.
FunctionsandApproaches
Studies of how shelters are organized use two perspectives: (1) the de
siredapproachofprofessionalworkersandvolunteers,and(2)therules
andguidelinesthatregulatelifeinshelters.
Shelterstaffmaydevelopanunderstandingofthelifeconditionsof
the homeless and of the state of mind and characteristics displayed by
shelterusers.Flexibility,understanding,theabilitytolistenandtoadapt
toapersonsneedsareallqualitiesthatarevaluedinpractitionerswho
havetoconstantlyadapttoverydiversifiedneeds.
Most shelters set rules and regulations that outline acceptable and
unacceptablebehaviourforbothshelterusersandpractitioners(Nealeet
al., 1997; Roy et al., 2000). For example, permission to enter the shelter
may depend on the persons mental state (intoxication, aggressiveness,
undertheinfluenceofdrugs),personalcharacteristics(gender,age,cul
turalbackground),orhistorywiththeshelter(limitednumberofvisits).
Once inside the shelter, there are rules governing personal hygiene
(showering, changing clothes), curfew and wakeup times, respecting
others(noise,aggressivebehaviour,violence),andparticipationingroup
chores (food preparation, dishwashing, chores). Repeated failure to re

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specttheruleswillresultinapenaltysuchastemporaryorpermanent
exclusion,extrachores,orreducedaccesstoservices.
Studiesofinterventionpracticessometimestaketheformoftypolo
gies of shelter operations (MosherAshley & Henrikson, 1997; Pelge,
2004).Sheltersgatherinformationfromusersandcantargetproblemsto
refer residents to appropriate resources or services. Some shelters pro
motejobreadinessthroughinhousetrainingcentres,socialenterprises,
orbyemploymentgroups.Othersfocusonhealthneedsandorientusers
towards services that correspond best to their needs. The challenge of
accessibility is a central point; there are numerous examples of cases
where needs were clearly defined, but accessibility was limited by cul
tural, organizational, or administrative barriers (Roy et al., 2006). Ser
vices are not available in all shelters and the complex problems of the
homelessarenotalwaystakenintoconsiderationinthoseoffered(Berg
& Hopwood, 1991). For example, many of the homeless suffering from
mental health problems use shelters as a substitute to permanent and
moreappropriatehousing(Hopperetal.,1997).
ShelteringandHousingasaSteppingStoneforSocialInsertion
Housing is a right, a social norm, a behaviour stabilizer, and a status
symbol (Dorvil & Morin, 2001; FullerThomson et al., 2000; Laberge &
Roy,2001).Ahomeisasocialanchorpointforindividuals.Thismeans
distinguishingbetweenshelterandhousing:thefirstimpliesatemporary
wayoflifethatoffershelpthatmayincludesomeformofrehabilitation,
the second is a stable way of life that in no way implies any social or
therapeutic needs (Dorvil et al., 2002). Numerous projects in shelters
havetriedtofacilitatehousingforthehomeless.
A stay in a shelter constitutes an ideal occasion to work on a per
sons ability to manage their own home. Shelters allow users a tempo
rary experience in a stable and safe environment (Peled et al., 2005).
From this point of view, the role of shelters is to favour the transition
towardsstablehousing,amovethatimpliesnotonlyfindingaplaceto
live but also building a solid foundation and a social network in the
community (Friedman, 1994). Followup after leaving the shelter is an
essentialconditiontothesuccessofreintegration,andisalengthyproc
ess. By all accounts, residential stability is very fragile during the first

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yearandonlyinthesecondyeardomostpeoplesettledown(Dunlap&
Fogel,1998).
Duringthe1990s,advocatesforthehomelessfocusedontherightto
housing as an alternative to solutions that relied essentially on a quick
responsetoacrisisandpovertysituation.Therighttohousingtookpre
cedenceoverthesimplerighttoshelterintheplatformsofmanyhuman
rights groups (Bresson, 1997; Hopper, 1998). Subsequently, the Council
ofEuropeinitsfinaldeclarationtotheCongressofLocalandRegional
Authorities (1994, p. 183) noted: The right of all human beings to de
cent,affordablehousingofacertainstanding,adaptedtoessentialneeds
isafundamentalrightrecognizedby,amongothers,theUniversalDec
larationofHumanRightsandwhereimplementationisanobligationfor
all of society without exception or discrimination (translated from the
French).
Research on housing rights includes comparative analyses of the
costsoftheservicesusedbythehomeless(shelters,publicservices)and
thecostsassociatedwithlongtermstabilityinadwelling.Forexample,
investmentsinsubsidizedhousingforthehomelesswoulddecreasethe
costs of other services for the homeless. The savings generated would
largely cover the financing of subsidized housing. Moreover, improve
ments in the quality of life of homeless people suffering from mental
health problems can translate into a reduction in shelter use, hospital
visits,andthenumberofpeopleincarcerated(Culhaneetal.,2002).The
impactsofthistypeofinitiativearenumerous:betterqualityoflife,in
creased selfesteem, development of selfaffirmation skills and rights
advocacy, developing a network, rights of citizens and social participa
tion(Metrauxetal.,2003;Novac&Brown,2004;Royetal.,2003).
SheltersasPlacesforIntervention
Evenifitisdifficulttodeterminejusthowefficienttheyare,itisobvious
that the interventions taking place in shelters oftensucceedin reaching
out to a population considered marginal and fearful of public services
(Levinson,2004).Researchtendstofocusontheresourcesandtheinter
ventionmodelsthattargetspecificsubgroups:women,youths,theeld
erly,andindividualswithmentalhealthproblems.Thereislessresearch
focusedontheinterventionswithadultmales.

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Mentalhealthtopsthelistofproblems.Sheltersofferbasicsupport,
but it is difficult to do so for those suffering from mental health prob
lems.Grella(1994)suggeststhatsheltersshouldofferoptionsrelatedto
helpingthehomelesspopulationsufferingfrommentalhealthproblems.
Afollowupaftertheinitialintervention(Hall,1991)andlongtermser
vicesareusefulwhendealingwithhomelesspeoplesufferingfrommen
tal health problems. Applebaum (1992), Dattalo (1991), and Hall (1991)
suggest removing barriers to services, coordinating services, emphasiz
ing patient participation, modifying rules on the protection of informa
tion, lobbying for social and psychiatric services, raising shelter work
erssawarenessofmentalissues,andimprovingtraining.
Morementalhealthservicesareofferedinsidesheltersthanphysi
cal health services (MosherAshley & Henrikson, 1997). This fact raises
questionsabouttheresponsibilitiesofcommunityorganizationsrelative
topublicservices.Someexpertsfearthedevelopmentofaparallelhealth
system for homeless people. The intervention practices developed in
shelters must be analysed within the context of the transformation of
healthandsocialservices(Racine,1993).
What are the best places and the most strategic moments to inter
veneandavoidarelapse?Thepostshelterperiodisconsideredparticu
larly crucial and followup to ensure the continuity of the process of
emerging from homelessness is essential. Interventions through a net
work of community services can prevent the reoccurrence of homeless
ness(Susseretal.,1997).
Numerous programs have focused on reducing homelessness
through a more intensive approach. Min, Wong, and Rothbard (2004)
looked at the Access to Community Care and Effective Services and
Support(ACCESS)programintheUnitedStatesfrom1993to1998.The
program adopted a treatment model in the community combined with
individual management of each persons case. The objective of the pro
gram was to help homeless people suffering from mental health prob
lemsemergefrompoverty.Theresultssuggestthatmanagingeachper
sons case individually can reduce the risk of chronic homelessness in
peoplesufferingfrommentalhealthproblems.
Health practices usually consist of guiding the person towards
availableresources.Somenurseshavedevelopedapracticethatinvolves

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regularvisitstosheltersandfollowupwithshelterusers.Strategiesfo
cus on the resolution of problems, empowerment, work with network
personnel, and sharing resources (Denoncourt & Bouchard, 2006; Di
Marco,2000;Thibeaudeau,2000).Somestudieshaveevaluatedtheeffec
tiveness of health services for homeless people. For example, a shelter
based convalescence facility can help workers supply health service
needs better adapted to individual conditions, ensure a more complete
treatment of medical and mental health problems, favour continuity of
treatment, reduce drug dependency, and help individuals with social
reintegration(Podymowetal.,2006).
Many interventions target subpopulations, particularly women,
youth,andtheelderly.Workwithhomelesswomenmaycallforanew
approach inspired by the feminist movement that focuses on offering
safelivingconditions,valuingtheautonomyofwomen,andestablishing
atrustingrelationship(Goldberg,1999;Gondolf,1998;Svigny&Racine,
2002). Most youth crisis centres follow similar goals: respond to basic
needs(food,clothing,showers,aplacetosleep,entertainment)andwork
to end marginality by helping youths develop everyday skills, find a
place to live, manage a budget, use available resources, find employ
ment,and,incertaincases,reconcilewiththeirfamilies.Approachesthat
combine education and behaviour change through a coping and stress
managementstrategyfacilitatetheresolutionofthecrisis(Dalton&Pa
kenham,2002;Teare&Peterson,1994).
Afewstudiesaboutservicesforelderlyhomelesspeopleindicatea
significantincreaseinthispopulation.Physicalhealthproblemsaresig
nificantandthebarrierstoservicesarenumerous(AbdulHamid,1997).
Inthesecases,homelessnessisoftenassociatedwithalossofautonomy
andadecreaseinsupportnetwork;turningtoasheltermayincreasethe
effect of these losses in elderly people whose cognitive abilities are de
clining(Elias&Inui,1993).
Researchershavealsodocumentedoriginalinitiativestheaddition
ofjudicialservicesinshelters(Binder,2001),theintroductionofoccupa
tionaltherapyprograms(Herzberg&Finlayson,2001)ortheuseofeth
nographic approaches in clinical work (Grisgby, 1992). These studies
tendtobedescriptiveanddonotidentifythemosteffectivepractices.

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ProgramEvaluations
Theliteratureincludesevaluationsoftheimpactandtheefficiencyofthe
servicesaswellastheroleofsheltersinthefightagainsthomelessness.
Numerousstudiesexaminethecontributionofastayinashelterto
allowing individuals to escape homelessness andfind permanenthous
ing.Therearemanycontradictoryviews.Shorttermimprovementsmay
be followed by deterioration (the change is often temporary); in other
situations, the transformations seem more permanent, especially when
thereiseffectivefollowup(Glissonetal.,2001;Peledetal.,2005;Pollio
etal.,2006).
In certain situations, specific services in shelters are evaluated, for
example,adecreaseinbehaviouralproblemsinchildrenofwomenpar
ticipatinginaconflictmanagementprogramincentresforabusedwom
en(McDonaldetal.,2006).
Theroleofsheltersinendinghomelessnesscanbelookedatintwo
ways: (1) shelters as partners in intersectorial alliances networks in the
fightagainsthomelessness;(2)sheltersaspartofthecontinuumofcare.
Shelteradministratorsusediversestrategiestomaintainservices,suchas
tighteningaccessibilityrules,orbridgingwithotherresources(Goodfel
low, 1999). With such a diverse clientele expressing complex problems,
collaborationswithexternalresourcesandthediversificationofpractices
becomesanecessity.
Developing partnerships involves relationship building, clarifying
expectations, identifying needs, sharing expertise, and evaluating the
collaboration(Snyder&Weyer,2002).Shelterscanbethefirststepintoa
system of services, a place from which it is possible to evaluate a per
sons needs and begin implementing interventions. Coordination by a
casemanagercanensurefollowupandthecontinuationoftheinterven
tions(Feins&Fosburg,1999).Effectivenessdependslargelyontheinte
gration of many resources around the needs of the individual: preven
tion, outreach, emergency shelter, transitional housing, supportive
housing,andaffordablehousing(Burt,2004;Carter,2005).Thecontinu
ityofservicesseemspromisinginhomelessness,butthisapproachpre
sentsethicalchallengesthatshouldbescrutinizedinfutureresearch.

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CriticalAnalysisofShelters
A body of research questions the role and the place of shelters as solu
tionstohomelessness.Thesestudieslookatthehomelessproblemfrom
adifferentangleandrevealsomelessthanpositiveaspects.
ATotalInstitution?
Some authors favour Goffmans approach for analyzing homelessness
(Pichon,2002).Fromthispointofview,sheltersareviewedastotalinsti
tutions, consuming all the time of their users and depriving them of
freedom. The rules established to control the physical and social envi
ronmentofsheltersshapetheusersandreinforcetheirmarginalidentity.
Thecultureoftotalinstitutionstendstoalienateanddepersonalizeusers,
whoselivesaredefinedbytheirbelongingtotheshelter.Forusers,this
translatesintoalossofautonomyandthefeelingofdominationanden
closure. This perspective allows us to understand conflicting roles and
allegiancesthatareoftenviewedasirreconcilable(Stark,1994).
Therulesofsomesheltersshowhowencompassingshelterlifecan
become. Underground practices mayadd a blackmarket economy of
sorts, such as food reselling networks, protective services, control of
privileges, and odd jobs. Three other factors affect life in shelters: (1) a
majorityoftimeisspentonorganizinglivinginshelters,whichleaves
littletimeforotherthings;(2)personalnetworksandfriendshipsmaybe
fragileandshortterm;(3)obligationstowardsotherpeoplemustbere
spected,andleavingthesheltermaybeseenasabandoningtheseobliga
tions(Dordick,1996).
For Marcus (2003), this analysis neglects the role of collectivity in
thelivesofhomelesspeople.Theideathatsheltersisolateusersobscures
thefactthatforhomelesspeople,sheltersareoneresourceamongmany,
andtheirstrategyforsurvivalandescapefromhomelessnessdrawson
public,community,family,andpersonalresources.Shelterusersarenot
completely defined by a subculture; they share values, beliefs, and
normswiththegeneralpopulation.

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Shelterization:ConfinementinaMarginalArea
Marginalaffinity,theproximitybetweenshelterusersandprofessionals,
denotes sharing of a common surrounding and the development of a
senseofbelongingtoamarginalenvironment.Thisproximityisappar
entintheparticipationofhomelesspeopleindailychores,thefluidityof
the roles of interveners, and the absence of standards. In fact, services
intendedtoaidinrecoveringfromhomelessnessactuallyfavourthere
productionandmaintainingofshelterlife.Personalfailuresencountered
byusersduringtheireffortstofindstablehousingsometimesreinforce
theirsenseofbelongingtoshelters,theplacethatacceptsthemforwho
theyareanddoesntjudgethem(Gounis&Susser,1990).
TheideaofshelterizationhasbeendiscussedbyNovac,Brown,and
Bourbonnais(1996)andKozol(1988).Acertainsocialpathologyengulfs
people in lethargic situations, so that they become incapable of taking
responsibility for their lives, neglect personal hygiene, and lose interest
inescapingtheirsituation.Forusers,thissituationisdefinedbyalossof
autonomy,alackofselfrespect,andalossofresponsibilities.Confining
rules,thedifficultyofbeingabletocareforoneself,andpersonalprob
lemscancreatealargerdependencyontheservicesandanenclosurein
homelessness(Elias&Inui,1993).
Shelterization also emphasizes the social processes of enclosure in
homelessness, similar to the concentration of poor populations in ghet
tos. The abuse of shelters is not just a personal problem. Users become
psychologicallyandeconomicallytiedtosocialassistanceprograms,and
adapt by developing survival mechanisms that keep them homeless.
Shelterization creates a subculture based on a common language and
theassimilationofsharedideasandvalues.Furthermore,toleratingde
linquentbehavioursmayleadtoaredefinitionofwhatisnormalbehav
iour.Regardlessofthedangersandthedepersonalization,usersarere
luctanttoleavetheshelters(Grunberg&Eagle,1990).
SocialRegulationsandtheRoleofPolicies
Shelters are not neutral sites, they represent the borders of marginality
where street rules apply (ZeneidiHenry, 2002). Many authors question
theroleofthestateinperpetuatinghomelessness.Thereductionofser

ISBN 978-0-7727-1475-6
vices has resulted in a housing crisis that forces certain people to use
emergencyshelters(Layton,2000).Atthesametime,themedicalization
of problems or assertions that certain situations represent individual
failuresmasktherealcausesofpeoplesdifficulties(Damon,2002;Mar
cus,2003).
Studies focus on two areas: housing policies and urban planning
andsecuritypolicies.Someauthorsbelievethatpoliciesfocusingonac
cesstohousingshouldbereinforcedandcouldhelpsolvehomelessness
(Roman&Berg,2006).Hereweseethedebatebetweentargetingthecli
enteleasanecessaryconditionfortheimplementationofefficientsolu
tions,andtheadaptationofexistinggeneralservicesbyfavouringacces
sibilityandsupportforpeople(Dattalo,1991;Fontaine,2000).
The shelter plays an intermediary role between homeless people
andthecommunity;itbecomes,forsome,atypeofaffordablehousing.
The sheltersystem can be seenasan official willingness to neutralize a
problem. In fact, the location of a shelter, its structure and operational
modalities influence the type of reintegration that homeless people can
expectinacommunity.Offeringmanyserviceswithinasheltercontrib
utes to peoples isolation, because there is no incentive for them to use
outside services or to familiarize themselves with the location of re
sourcesandservices(Hartnett&Harding,2005).
Therearetwotypesofshelter.Someofferlittlecomfortandfewfi
nancial resources, and refer users to other services. Others offer more
comfort and better resources, providing a personal approach to people
whohavethepotentialtomakethetransitiontopermanenthousing.The
emergencyshelternetworkisthereforehierarchal.Theshelteredpopula
tionisnotanarbitrarilyformedgroup;itistheresultofaselectionproc
ess. Homeless people who can convince officials that they have the po
tentialtobenefitfromservicesoftengainaccesstobetterqualitycentres
(Soulie, 1997). The hierarchy represents a social control process that,
throughprioritizationandtargetingcertainclientele,allowsservicepro
viderstodistinguishgoodhomelesspeoplefrombadhomelesspeo
ple; the good group may qualify for intensive interventions, because
theirproblemsareoftenlessintractable(Hurtubise,2000).

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ResearchChallenges
Sheltersvarywidely.Theirhistoryandtheirdevelopmentrevealthevar
iouswaysthatindividualshaveprotestedtofightagainsthomelessness.
For human and social science research, shelters are important partners.
Shelter workers are key sources of information for the evolution of the
face of homelessness and help researchers reflect on and analyse their
approach.
Someresearchsuggeststhatsheltersarethebestwaytohandlethe
homeless problem. However, most studies indicate that any solution to
homelessness must include many participants and involve numerous
sectors: community organizations, city governments, health and social
services institutions, law enforcement agencies, and private and com
munity practitioners. Research should continue to describe the various
experiences of shelters and document their transformation. Studies are
alsoneededtoanalyseprogramsandpracticesandidentifythemostef
fective interventions. Furthermore, critical analysis must continue to
questionideasthataretakenforgranted.Sincethehomelessproblemis
socomplex,solutionsmustbeadaptedtothediversityofthecontextsto
whichtheyareapplied.
RochHurtubiseandPierreOlivierBabinarewiththeDpartementdeser
vice social at the Universit de Sherbrooke. Carolyne Grimard is at the
Dpartement de sociologie at the Universit de Qubec Montral (UQM).
They are associated with CRI Collectif de recherche sur litinrance, la
pauvretetlexclusionsociale(www.cri.uqam).
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1.2 Hurtubise Et Al - Shelters For The Homeless

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Chapter 1.

Shelters for the Homeless:

ing and food. Moreover, some organizations offer emergency housing

Roch Hurtubise, Pierre-Olivier Babin, & Carolyne Grimard

more traditionalrole of emergency housing, with the responsibilities of

Roch Hurtubise, Pierre-Olivier Babin, & Carolyne Grimard

Roch Hurtubise, Pierre-Olivier Babin, & Carolyne Grimard

situations seem to be particularly problematic: users who have ex

Roch Hurtubise, Pierre-Olivier Babin, & Carolyne Grimard

Despite a decrease in schizophrenia cases (Geddes et al., 1994),

Roch Hurtubise, Pierre-Olivier Babin, & Carolyne Grimard

Roch Hurtubise, Pierre-Olivier Babin, & Carolyne Grimard

Roch Hurtubise, Pierre-Olivier Babin, & Carolyne Grimard

Roch Hurtubise, Pierre-Olivier Babin, & Carolyne Grimard

Roch Hurtubise, Pierre-Olivier Babin, & Carolyne Grimard

Roch Hurtubise, Pierre-Olivier Babin, & Carolyne Grimard

Roch Hurtubise, Pierre-Olivier Babin, & Carolyne Grimard

Roch Hurtubise, Pierre-Olivier Babin, & Carolyne Grimard

Roch Hurtubise, Pierre-Olivier Babin, & Carolyne Grimard

Roch Hurtubise, Pierre-Olivier Babin, & Carolyne Grimard

Roch Hurtubise, Pierre-Olivier Babin, & Carolyne Grimard

Roch Hurtubise, Pierre-Olivier Babin, & Carolyne Grimard

Roch Hurtubise, Pierre-Olivier Babin, & Carolyne Grimard

Roch Hurtubise, Pierre-Olivier Babin, & Carolyne Grimard

Roch Hurtubise, Pierre-Olivier Babin, & Carolyne Grimard

vulnrabilit. Visages de la fragilisation du social, Chtel V. & Roy, S.

Roch Hurtubise, Pierre-Olivier Babin, & Carolyne Grimard

Roch Hurtubise, Pierre-Olivier Babin, & Carolyne Grimard

Roch Hurtubise, Pierre-Olivier Babin, & Carolyne Grimard

Snyder, M. D., & Weyer, M. E. (2002). Educational innovations: Facilitating a

Roch Hurtubise, Pierre-Olivier Babin, & Carolyne Grimard

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