CyberLaw

Teachers Guide and Resources

June, 2005

Table of Contents

Overview............................................................................................................................1
Online Contracts................................................................................................................2
Privacy...............................................................................................................................8
Defamation.......................................................................................................................13
Information Security.........................................................................................................16
Cybercrime.......................................................................................................................18
Intellectual Property.........................................................................................................21

CYBERLAW MODULE
OVERVIEW OF CYBERLAW
Along with the explosive growth of the Internet come many difficult legal questions. This
law module will allow you and your students to explore and understand cyberspace, its
development, dynamics, norms, standards, and need or lack thereof for laws and
sanctions.
The following information has been compiled as a tool to guide you in setting up a
Cyberlaw module to be used in courses such as business law, e-commerce, web design,
computer applications or as a stand alone half unit course.
This guide is not all inclusive but a beginning of what is an interesting and dynamic field of
study for you and your students. Begin with a brief history of the Internet and the World
Wide Web Cyberspace: http://www.isoc.org/internet/history and then continue with an
interesting study of Cyberlaw using the topics and cases within.

ONLINE CONTRACTS
A. E-Commerce: Electronic Commerce that is conducted over the Internet.
B. Review of Standard Contract Terminology
1. Essential elements
Mutual assent
Competent parties
Legal purpose
Consideration
Proper form
C. Express and Implied Warranties
D. Unique Issues with Online Contracts
Online Payment Systems (i.e. PayPal): A secured on-line account that enables user
to transfer money from buyer to seller.
Case: Comb v. PayPal, Inc.
(United States District Court, Northern District of California) (2002)
http://pub.bna.com/eclr/021227.htm
Rule: Contract law.
Issue: PayPal, Inc. improperly held or removed funds from nonsubscriber/subscribers accounts triggering various penalty fees by the plaintiffs
banks and other damages. PayPal returned the improperly withdrawn funds to the
plaintiff, but would not reimburse bank fees that Combs bank charged him.
PayPals contracts required that the plaintiff submit the claim to arbitration. Plaintiff
claimed that the arbitration clause and other terms of the user agreement were
unconscionable. The contract was a contract of adhesion. The arbitration clause
prohibited any consolidation of consumer claims.
Conclusion: The United States District Court ruled for Comb. The user agreement
contained so many unfair terms that the court found the agreement unenforceable
against the consumer (only binding on a small part of California).
E. The Uniform Computer Information Transactions Act (UCITA): The UCITA is a set of
proposed laws that establish uniform rules that govern software contracts and
licensing, internet access, and transfers of information via computers. The UCITA
has been passed in only a few states.
For more information on the UCITA go to:
http://www.gigalaw.com/articles/2000/uhlfelder-2000-12.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Computer_Information_Transactions_Act

F. Electronic Signatures & E-sign Legislation: Electronic signatures refers to a variety

of ways in which people can give their approval to a transaction or a contract,
usually over the Internet.
G. Shrink Wrap Agreements: The terms and conditions of use that accompany
software distributed in the local computer stores. Typically, buyers can find the
terms and conditions of use printed on the outside of the software box or in an
envelope attached to the box, wrapped in "shrink-wrap plastic." The terms and
conditions usually read something like, "By opening the packaging or using the
software, you are bound by the terms and conditions of the license."
Case: PROCD, Inc. v. Matthew Zeidenberg and Silken Mountain Web Services,
Inc.
(United States Court of Appeals, Seventh Circuit) (1996)
http://laws.lp.findlaw.com/7th/961139.html
Rule: Shrink wrap agreement.
Issue: PROCD compiled information from over 3,000 telephone directories and
produced a nationwide phone directory software program, SelectPhone. Matthew
Zeidenberg bought SelectPhone, ignored the shrink-wrap license, and resold the
information for a lower price via the Internet. PROCD claims its shrink-wrap license
prevents others from reselling the information in SelectPhone. Zeidenberg
believes that because the license was inside the box and not known at the time of
the purchase, the license is void.
Conclusion: The United States Court of Appeals ruled for PROCD. The Court
stated that shrink-wrap licenses are enforceable unless their terms are
objectionable on grounds applicable to contracts in general.
Case: M.A. Mortenson Co. v. Timberline Software Corp., et. al.
(The Supreme Court of the State of Washington) (2000)
http://legal.web.aol.com/decisions/dlother/mortensonopinion.html
Rule: Shrink wrap agreement.
Issue: Mortenson purchased from Timberline, a bid analysis software program,
which turned out to be defective. Mortenson used the software to submit a bid that
was $1.95 million less than it should have been. Timberline claimed that the
shrink-wrap license limited damages to the purchase price of the software.
Conclusion: The Supreme Court of the State of Washington ruled that the shrinkwrap license was part of the contract between the parties and that the
consequential damages clause was not unconscionable.

H. Click Wrap Agreements: A license that appears on a computer screen when

software is first being installed, and which the purchaser must accept before the
installation will proceed.
Case: Specht v. Netscape Communications Corp.
(United States District Court, Southern District of New York) (2001)
http://www.phillipsnizer.com/library/cases/lib_case24.cfm
Rule: Click wrap agreement; software license.
Issue: Specht downloaded a free version of Netscapes Smart Download
software. Claiming the software improperly "transmits to defendants private
information about the user's file transfer activity on the Internet", Specht brought
this suit. Netscape claims the case should be submitted to arbitration as stated in
the software license. Specht was able to download the software without specifically
approving the software license.
Conclusion: The United States District Court held that downloading the software by
itself does not indicate assent of the software license.
I. Web Sites
1. Linking Websites
Case: Ticketmaster v. Microsoft
(United States District Court, Central District of California) (1997)
http://legal.web.aol.com/decisions/dlip/tickcomp.html
Rule: Linking websites; trademarks; unfair competition.
Issue: This is an action arising out of Microsofts wrongful appropriation and misuse
of Ticketmasters name and trademarks and unfair competition, with the threatened
result being the diminution and dilution in value of Ticketmasters name, goodwill
and business. Ticketmaster claims that Seattle.Sidewalk website, owned by
Microsoft illegally used a link to Ticketmaster.
Conclusion: The United States District Court ruled for Ticketmaster and its claim
that the website damaged Ticketmasters rights in its name, marks and website.
2. Using Parts of Other's Websites
Case: Washington Post Co. et al. v. Total News, Inc. et al.
(United States District Court, Southern District of New York) (1997)
http://people.hofstra.edu/faculty/peter_j_spiro/cyberlaw/totalset.html
Rule: Linking to others content.

Issue: Total News was providing links to other news organization websites and
articles. When someone clicked on a link, they viewed the link in a framed
window. The framed window had Total News links and advertisements
surrounding the page content. Washington Post Co. claimed that by framing their
content, this caused violations of plaintiffs rights under the doctrine of commercial
misappropriation.
Conclusion: This case was settled out of court. Total News agreed to stop framing
links to outside content. Total News was given permission to use clean links to
Washington Post content.

PRIVACY
A. "Right to Privacy"
B. Common Law Torts for Invasion of Privacy
The tort of "invasion of privacy" consists of four separate rights:
1. The unreasonable intrusion upon the seclusion of another.
2. The appropriation of anothers name or likeness.
3. The unreasonable publicity given to anothers private life.
4. Publicity that unreasonably places another in a false light before the public.
C. The Electronic Communications Privacy Act (ECPA) of 1986: Sets out provisions
for access, use, disclosure, interception and privacy protections of electronic
communications. The law covers various forms of wire and electronic
communications. ECPA prohibits unlawful access and certain disclosures of
communication contents. Additionally, the law prevents government entities from
requiring disclosure of electronic communications from a provider without proper
procedure.
D. The Internet Service Provider and Privacy Issues
1. Types of Transmission
a. Listserv: A means of allowing distribution of comments about particular
subjects of interest to a group of people.
b. Chat Room: An on-line forum that enables an individual to communicate in
real time with others as a group.
c. Personal E-Mails: The ECPA makes it unlawful for someone other than the
intended recipient to read or disclose the contents of a private e-mail; this
does not apply to work situations.
Exceptions:
If the sender is attempting to damage the system or harm another user
If the sender or recipient consents to the inspection or disclosure; many
ISP's require this upon signing up
If the e-mail system is owned by an employer
If the ISP is required in response to a court order or subpoena
If asked for under the USA Patriot Act
E. Online Tracking and Monitoring
1. Cookies: Small text files that a server can store on the users computer to track
the users Web viewing habits.
Case: DoubleClick Inc., v. Privacy Litigation
(United States District Court, Southern District New York) (2001)
http://news.findlaw.com/wsj/docs/cyberlaw/agsdclick82602agr.pdf
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Rule: Invasion of privacy; violation of Title II of the ECPA that prohibits

unauthorized access of stored communications.
Issue: Plaintiffs brought this action on behalf of themselves and all others who
have had information collected about them by DoubleClick as a result of viewing
products or services on the Internet, or who have had cookies placed on their
computer hard drives by DoubleClick. DoubleClick argued that because its
clients consented to the gathering of the information, it met the requirements of
the prior consent exception.
Conclusion: The United States District Court ruled that DoubleClicks clients
consented to such information gathering, therefore, DoubleClick had not
violated the ECPA.
2. Web Bugs: Web bugs are graphics on a Web page or in an e-mail message
designed to monitor who is reading the page or message. Web bugs are often
invisible because they are typically only 1-by-1 pixels in size. In many cases,
Web bugs are placed on Web pages by third parties interested in collecting data
about visitors to those pages.
Information that could be sent to a server by a Web bug:
The IP address of the computer that fetched the Web bug
The URL of the page that the Web bug is located on
The URL of the Web bug image, which contains the information to be
communicated between the Web page visited and the site collecting the
data
The time the Web bug was viewed
The type of browser that fetched the Web bug image
A previously set cookie value
3. Workplace Monitoring
a. Employers can use computer software that enables them to see what is on
the screen or stored in the employees' computer terminals and hard disks.
b. Employers can monitor Internet usage such as web-surfing and electronic
mail.
c. People involved in intensive word-processing and data entry jobs may be
subject to keystroke monitoring. Such systems tell the manager how many
keystrokes per hour each employee is performing. It also may inform
employees if they are above or below the standard number of keystrokes
expected. Keystroke monitoring has been linked with health problems,
including stress disabilities and physical problems like carpal tunnel
syndrome.
d. Employers may keep track of the amount of time an employee spends away
from the computer or idle time at the terminal.
For more information go to: www.privacyrights.org
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Case: Bonita P. Bourke et al., v. Nissan Motor Corporation in U.S.A.

(Court of Appeal of the State of California) (1993)
www.loundy.com/CASES/Bourke_v_Nissan.html
Rule: Invasion of privacy (privacy of workplace e-mail messages)
Issue: Employees were found to have used company computers to send
personal, intimate email messages. Employees knew of the company policy
against the personal use of company computers.
Conclusion: The California Court of Appeal ruled in favor of Nissan Motor
Corporation in U.S.A. The Court stated, In the absence of a reasonable
expectation of privacy, there can be no violation of the right to privacy.
Case: Alana Shoars v. Epson America, Inc.
(Court of Appeal of the State of California) (1994)
http://www.law.seattleu.edu/fachome/chonm/Cases/shoars.html
Rule: Workplace monitoring of employee e-mail on employer computers.
Issue: Plaintiff Alana Shoars sues Epson America, Inc. for wrongful
discharge and slander. Shoars complained repeatedly that her manager was
reading employee e-mail. Shoars employment was terminated by Epson.
Conclusion: The California State Court ruled in favor of Epson. Employers
had a right to monitor communications in the workplace.
Case: Michael A. Smyth v. The Pillsbury Company
(United States District Court, Eastern District of Pennsylvania) (1996)
http://www.loundy.com/CASES/Smyth_v_Pillsbury.html
Rule: The privacy of an employees e-mail, sent to his supervisor over the
employers computer system.
Issue: Smyth sent an inappropriate e-mail to his supervisor over the
company computer system. Pillsburys policy was that e-mail
communications would remain confidential and privileged. Smyth was
terminated for inappropriate and unprofessional comments.
Conclusion: The United States District Court ruled in favor of Pillsbury. The
Court said We do not find a reasonable expectation of privacy in e-mail
communications voluntarily made by an employee to his supervisor over the
company e-mail system

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4. Law Enforcement Access

Carnivore Program: Computer system that the Federal Bureau of Investigation
has installed onto ISPs servers, in order to read and analyze packets of data
sent to or received by suspects in criminal investigations.
5. Secure Transactions
a. Encryption: Process of converting readable data into unreadable characters
to prevent unauthorized access.
b. Online banking: Use of the Internet to pay bills, to transfer money
electronically from checking, debit or credit card accounts to a payees
account; also used to download monthly account transactions.
6. SPAM & Spoofing
a. Spam: Unsolicited and unwanted commercial e-mail messages.
b. Spoofing: The disguising of an e-mail to make it appear as if it were sent
from a different address than it was.
Case: State of Washington v. Heckel
(Supreme Court of the State of Washington) (2001)
http://www.keytlaw.com/Cases/heckel.htm
Rule: Washington State law that prohibits sending spam that misrepresents
or disguises the messages point of origin or transmission path
Issue: Heckel challenged this state law claiming it was discriminatory against
out of state businesses and therefore imposed a burden on interstate
commerce.
Conclusion: The Supreme Court of Washington ruled against Heckel. The
Court ruled the antispam law was not discriminatory because it applied
equally to intrastate as well as interstate businesses.
Case: FTC v. GM Funding, Inc. v. Global Mortgage Inc., et al
(United States District Court, Central District of California) (2003)
http://www.ftc.gov/os/caselist/dojsweep/030505gmfundstip.pdf
Rule: Spoofing, disguising an e-mail to make it appear it was mailed from a
different address than it actually was mailed from.
Issue: The defendants sent spam in the name of well-known financial
institutions (these institutions had not granted permission to use their
names) that offered mortgages and other financial services.
Conclusion: The United States District Court issued an injunction preventing
these practices in the future.

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Case: Cyber Promotions, Inc. v. AOL, Inc.

(United States District Court, Eastern District of Pennsylvania) (1996)
Http://legal.web.aol.com/decisions/dljunk/cyberordera.html
Rule: The unfettered right of one private company to send unsolicited e-mail
advertisements to subscribers of another company.
Issue: Cyber Promotions sent unsolicited e-mail advertisements to AOL
subscribers. AOL sent letters asking Cyber Promotions to stop this practice.
AOL attempted to block and send back e-mail that was sent by Cyber
Promotions.
Conclusion: The United States District Court denied Cyber Promotions
request for an injunction against AOL. The Court stated that Cyber
Promotions has no right, under the First Amendment, to send unsolicited email to AOLs members.
Case: CompuServe, Inc. v. Cyber Promotions, Inc.
(United States District Court, Southern District of Ohio) (1997)
http://www.loundy.com/CASES/CompuServe_v_Cyber_Promo.html
Rule: The right to send unsolicited bulk e-mail using the First Amendment
right to free speech.
Issue: Cyber Promotions sent unsolicited e-mail advertisements to
CompuServe subscribers. CompuServe sent letters asking Cyber
Promotions to stop this practice. CompuServe attempted to block e-mail that
was sent by Cyber Promotions.
Conclusion: The United States District Court ruled in favor of CompuServe.
The Court stated, The United States Supreme Court has recognized that
the constitutional guarantee of free speech is a guarantee only against
abridgement by the government. In the present action, CompuServe is a
private company.

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DEFAMATION
A. Defamation: Oral or written false statements that wrongfully harm a persons
reputation.
B. Libel v. Slander
1. Libel is malicious defamation, expressed either in writing or published form.
Libel can include signs, pictures or effigies that would expose a person to public
ridicule.
2. Slander is oral defamation.
C. Liability of ISP's for Defamation
Case: Cubby, Inc. v. CompuServe Inc.
(United States District Court, Southern District of New York) (1991)
http://www.loundy.com/CASES/Cubby_v_Compuserve.html
Rule: Internet content liability
Issue: The plaintiffs claim that CompuServe should be held liable for defamatory
statements that were made in Rumorville. This publication was available in an
electronic library service provided by the defendant.
Conclusion: The United States District Court ruled in favor of CompuServe. The
Court stated that the defendant had no control or knowledge of the contents of the
publication; it was merely a distributor and could not be held liable as a publisher.
Case: Stratton Oakmont, Inc. v. Prodigy
(State of New York Supreme Court) (1995)
http://www.eff.org/legal/cases/Stratton_Oakmont_Porush_v_Prodigy/strattonoakmont_porush_v_prodigy_et-al.decision
Rule: Internet content liability
Issue: Allegedly, defamatory statements about Stratton Oakmont, Inc. were
published on Prodigys Money Talk financial bulletin board. Prodigy did employ an
agent and software screening programs to monitor the bulletin board.
Conclusion: The New York State Supreme Court ruled in favor of Stratton Oakmont,
Inc. The Court ruled that Prodigy was a publisher of the statement rather than a
distributor.
D. The Communications Decency Act of 1996: Eliminates the potential liability of
service providers and users for defamation whether they qualify as distributors or
publishers of internet material.
http://www.casp.net/47usc230.html

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Case: Zeran v. America Online Inc.

(United States Court of Appeals, Fourth Circuit) (1997)
http://laws.lp.findlaw.com/4th/971523p.html
Rule: Internet content liability
Issue: Zeran brought this suit against America Online (AOL), arguing that AOL
unreasonably delayed removing defamatory messages posted by an unidentified
third party. AOL refused to post retractions, and failed to screen for similar postings,
thereafter.
Conclusion: The United States 4th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled in favor of AOL.
The Court affirmed the judgment of the district court. The district court had ruled
that the Communications Decency Act bars Zerans claims.
Case: Dendrite International, Inc. v. John Doe No. 3
Superior Court of New Jersey, Appellate Division) (2001)
http://www2.bc.edu/~herbeck/cyberlaw.dendrite.html
Rule: Internet content liability
Issue: A request for a subpoena to identify an anonymous user who had allegedly
posted defamatory statements on Yahoo! about Dentrites financial status and
accounting practices.
Conclusion: The Superior Court of New Jersey, Appellate Division, affirmed the
lower courts decision. The Court agreed that Dendrite failed to establish a
sufficient link between John Doe No. 3s statements and Dendrites allegations of
harm.
Case: Sidney Blumenthal, et al. v. Matt Drudge and America Online, Inc.
(United States District Court, for the District of Columbia) (1998)
http://legal.web.aol.com/decisions/dldefam/blumenmo.html
Rule: Internet content liability
Issue: Matt Drudge contracted with AOL to make The Drudge Report available to
AOL subscribers via e-mail. One such report had allegedly defamatory statements
about Sidney Blumenthal.
Conclusion: The Federal District Court, ruled in favor of AOL. The Court used the
Communications Decency Act of 1996 in the ruling and stated, Congress decided
not to treat providers of interactive computer services like other information
providersit (Congress) opted not to hold interactive computer services liable for
their failure to edit offensive material disseminated through their medium.

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Case: Lunney v. Prodigy Services Company Opinion

(Court of Appeals of New York) (1999)
http://legal.web.aol.com/decisions/dldefam/lunneyappeal.html
Rule: Internet content liability
Issue: An unknown imposter opened several membership accounts with Prodigy
under the name Alex or Alexander Lunney. Several vulgar e-mails were sent in
Lunneys name, one of which threatened a local scoutmaster. Lunneys father sued
Prodigy, on his sons behalf, for defamation and negligence.
Conclusion: The Court of Appeals of New York, ruled in favor of Prodigy. The Court
stated Prodigy could not be compelled to guarantee the content of subscribers
messages.
E. Proving Defamation:
The statement must be a false statement of fact, not opinion
There must be publication
There must be fault or negligence
There must be damages - actual or presumed

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INFORMATION SECURITY
The ability to control access to computers, networks, hardware, software and data.
A. Two Categories of Security
1. Firewalls: A program or hardware device that secures the computer system
from unauthorized access.
2. Commercial Security Systems
a. Password Protection
b. Biometrics (authenticate users by characteristics i.e. face, iris, retina, voice,
fingerprints)
c. Cryptography: Securing data by coding or scrambling data into a different
format.
Case: United States v. Shakour
(United States District Court, Eastern District of California) (2003)
http://www.cybercrime.gov/shakourSent.htm
Rule: Accessing computer network without authorization and credit card
fraud.
Issue: Shakour was accused of committing a series of unauthorized
computer intrusions. At one of these sites he obtained credit card
information, which he then used to make unauthorized credit card purchases
totaling $7,167.
Conclusion: Shakour pled guilty to committing fraud and related activity. The
United States District Court judge sentenced him to prison for one year and
one day, further ordered him to pay restitution of $88,000, and restricted his
computer use during his three year term of supervised release.
Case: United States v. Leung
(United States District Court, Southern District of New York) (2002)
http://www.cybercrime.gov/leungSent.htm
Rule: Accessing computer network without authorization.
Issue: Washington Leung, a former employee of Marsh Inc., allegedly
illegally accessed Marshs computer system and deleted hundreds of
computer records.
Conclusion: Leung pled guilty, in The United States District Court, to one
count of accessing a protected computer without authorization. Leung was
sentenced to 18 months in prison and ordered to pay $91,814.68 in
restitution to Marsh Inc.

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Case: United States v. Torricelli

(United States District Court, Southern District of New York) (2001)
http://www.cybercrime.gov/torricellisent.htm
Rule: Accessing computer network without authorization.
Issue: Torricelli was accused of breaking into two computers owned by the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).
Conclusion: Torricelli pled guilty, in The United States District Court, to five
felony counts related to his illegal activity. Torricelli was sentenced to 4
months in prison, 4 months of home confinement and ordered to pay $4,400
in restitution to NASA.
For more cases and information go to: www.cybercrime.gov

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CYBERCRIME
A. Types of Crimes
1. Fraud
a. Retail Sales (misleading customers, counterfeit goods)
b. Financial transactions
c. Payment cards (Identity theft)
For more information go to the FTC Site on Identity Theft:
http://www.consumer.gov/idtheft/
Identity Theft and Assumption Deterrence Act of 1999: This act empowered
the Federal Trade Commission with the jurisdiction to process identity theft
complaints and to assist victims of identity theft by directing them to the
appropriate law enforcement agency.
2. Threats to Others
Case: United States v. Baker and Gonda
(United States District Court, Eastern District of Michigan) (1995)
http://ic.net/~sberaha/baker.html
Rule: Transmitting threats to injure or kidnap another, in private e-mail
messages.
Issue: Private e-mail messages were exchanged, via the Internet, between
Baker and Gonda. The messages contained portions of a story published on an
electronic bulletin board available on the Internet. The story named one of
Bakers classmates and described the torture, rape and murder of this woman.
Conclusion: The United States District Court ruled in favor of the defendants
Baker and Gonda. The Court ruled that the messages in the e-mails did not
meet the standard of true threat.
3.

: One who uses programming skills to gain illegal access to a computer

network or file. http://www.usdoj.gov/criminal/cybercrime/usamay2001_2.htm

4. Cracking: Intentional, malicious

5. Malware: Any harmful software or hardware that includes virus writing,

transmission of worms, denial of service attacks, Web spoofing and Web site
defacements.
6. Virus Writing: A malicious program that can spread from one computer to
others. They can be self-replicating and attach themselves to a program or
computer system.

18

7. Worm: A computer program that can replicate itself. It can add or delete
programs from a computer without the computer owners consent.
8. Web Spoofing: Setting up sites to look like other sites. Internet users are
funneled to the spoofed site, allowing the attackers to monitor and collect
account numbers and passwords.
9. Software Piracy: The act of duplicating and distributing copyright-protected
materials without authorization from the copyright owner.
Case: United States v. Sablan
(United States Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit) (1996)
http://www.loundy.com/CASES/US_v_Sablan.html
Rule: Computer fraud.
Issue: After being fired by the Bank of Hawaii, Sablan entered the closed bank,
went to her former work site, used an old password to log into the banks
computer system. The prosecutor claimed that she changed several files and
deleted others. Sablan appealed her conviction.
Conclusion: The United States Court of Appeals upheld her conviction on
computer fraud.
Case: Steve Jackson Games, Inc. v. United States Secret Service
(United States Court of Appeals, Fifth Circuit) (1994)
http://www.sjgames.com/SS/appeal-opinion.html
Rule: Privacy Protection Act.
Issue: Members of the United States Secret Service executed a valid search
warrant and seized a computer which operated an electronic bulletin board
system (BBS). The BBS stored private e-mails for its members. The district
court held that the Secret Service violated the Privacy Protection Act. The
Secret Service appealed.
Conclusion: The United States Court of Appeals affirmed the district courts
ruling.
Case: United States v. Morris
(United States Court of Appeals, Second Circuit) (1991)
http://www.kentlaw.edu/certificate/crime/United%20States%20v_%20Morris.htm
Rule: Computer worm and the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act

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Issue: Morris released into the Internet a worm that multiplied and spread,
causing site crashes at various educational and military web sites. Morris was
convicted, by a jury, in a District Court. He was sentenced to three years of
probation, 400 hours of community service, a fine of $10,050, and the costs of
his supervision. He appealed.
Conclusion: The United States Court of Appeals affirmed the ruling of the
District Court.

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INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
A Copyrights: Exclusive right granted to an author to exclusively publish and sell their
work. For more information go to: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright
1.
2.
3.
4.

Length of Copyright
Registering a Copyright
Fair Use
The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 makes it a crime to traffic in
devices that are primarily designed for the purpose of circumventing
technological protection measures (anti-piracy devices).
For more information go to: http://www.copyright.gov/legislation/dmca.pdf
5. Copyright Infringement on the Internet (File sharing)
Case: A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc.
(United States Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit) (2001)
http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?
court=9th&navby=case&no=0016401&exact=1
Rule: Copyright Infringement; File Sharing.
Issue: The plaintiffs alleged that Napster, through the use of their peer to peer
file sharing software and web site, allowed their users to copy and transfer
copyrighted musical recordings without express permission of the rights owner.
The District Court issued a preliminary injunction against Napster from
facilitating others in copying copyrighted material. The Court ruled that the
music file sharing system Napster committed repeated infringements of
copyright law. Napster appealed.
Conclusion: The United States Court of Appeals upheld most of the District
Courts findings. They entered a temporary stay of the preliminary injunction
pending resolution of the appeal.
Case: RIAA v. Diamond Multimedia Systems, Inc.
(United States Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit) (1999)
http://www.gigalaw.com/library/riaa-diamond-1999-06-15.html
Rule: Audio Home Recording Act of 1992
Issue: The Rio portable music player is a digital recording device that allows a
user to download MP3 audio files from a computer, and to listen to them
elsewhere. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) contends the
Rio player violates provisions of the Audio Home Recording Act.

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Conclusion: The United States Court of Appeals affirmed the District Court
decision. The Court stated that the Rio is not a digital audio recording device
subject to the restrictions of the Audio Home Recording Act.
Case: RIAA v. Verizon Internet Services, Inc.
(United States Court of Appeals, District of Columbia Circuit) (2003)
http://www.eff.org/legal/cases/RIAA_v_Verizon/opinion-20031219.pdf
Rule: Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998
Issue: The RIAA demanded that Verizon reveal the identity of a Verizon Internet
subscriber who allegedly used peer to peer software to share music online.
Verizon refused, claiming the provision did not cover alleged copyright infringing
material that resides on an individuals own computer. The D.C. District Court
ordered Verizon to disclose the subscribers identity. Verizon appealed.
Conclusion: The United States Court of Appeals ruled in favor of Verizon and
vacated the order of the District Court.
6. Using Portions of Other's Websites
a. Fair Use Doctrine: is a statutory limitation on the exclusive rights of a
copyright owner. The Copyright Act describes four nonexclusive factors to
be considered.
Purpose and character of the use
Nature of the copyrighted work
Amount and substantiality of portion used
Impact of the use upon the potential market for or value of the
copyrighted work
Case: Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corp.
(United States District Court, Central District of California) (1999)
http://pub.bna.com/ptcj/99-560.htm
Rule: Digital Millennium Copyright Act
Issue: An Internet search engine website copied Kellys photos off the
Internet. The photos were converted to small-scale thumbnail images.
Clicking on the thumbnail would open a page that took the user to a fullsize copy of the photo.
Conclusion: The United States District Court ruled that the conversion of
Internet photos to thumbnails is fair use. However, copying full-size images
onto a website is not fair use.
Court Cases on Fair Use: http://www.copyright.iupui.edu/FUsummaries.htm

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B. Trademarks: Distinctive symbol, mark, or slogan used by a business to identify and

distinguish its goods from products sold by others.
For more information on United States Patent and Trade Mark Office go to:
http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/tac/tmfaq.htm
1. Service Mark: Words, phrases, logos, or other graphic symbols that promote
services and are also granted legal protection.
2. Use of Trademarks
3. Metatags: Embedded codes containing keywords that enable Internet search
engines to build an index of websites to viewed by the user.
Case: Brookfield Communications v. West Coast Entertainment Corp.
(United States Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit) (1999)
http://lw.bna.com/lw/19990504/9856918.htm
Rule: Trademark; metatags; unfair competition laws.
Issue: Around December of 1993 Brookfield began marketing its computer
software MovieBuff. In 1996 Brookfield attempted to register the domain name
moviebuff.com but was informed that the name had already been registered
by West Coast Entertainment Corp. In September of 1998, Brookfield received
a federal registration of MovieBuff as a mark to designate both goods and
services. In October 1998, Brookfield learned the West Coast intended to
launch a web site at moviebuff.com. On November 10, Brookfield delivered to
West Coast a cease and desist letter alleging that West Coast web site would
violate Brookfields trademark rights.
Conclusion: The United States Court of Appeals ruled in favor of Brookfield. The
Court stated that the registration of a domain name for a web site does not
trump long established principles of trademark law. Using anothers trademark
in ones metatags is much like posting a sign with anothers trademark in front
on ones store.
4. Cybersquatting: The practice of registering famous brand names or trademarks
as Internet domain names, in the hope of later selling them to the appropriate
owner at a profit.
More information about Cybersquatting go to:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybersquatting
Case: Panavision International v. Toeppen
(United States Circuit Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit) (1998)
http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?
court=9th&navby=docket&no=9755467

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Rule: Federal Trademark Dilution Act.

Issue: Mr. Toeppen registered "panavision.com" and then offered to sell the
name back to Panavision International for $13,000. Panavision accuses Dennis
Toeppen of being a cyber pirate who steals valuable trademarks and
establishes domain names on the Internet using these trademarks to sell the
domain names to the rightful trademark owners. The District Court found for
Panavision, Toeppen appealed.
Conclusion: The United States Circuit Court affirmed the decision of the District
Court. The Court stated Toeppen did considerably more than simply register
Panavisions trademarks as his domain names on the Internet. He registered
those names as part of a scheme to obtain money from Panavision. Toeppen
was ordered to transfer the domain name to Panavision.
For information on registering domain names go to: http://register.com
5. The Trademark Cyberpiracy Prevention Act of 1999: Protects registered
trademark holders from online cyber piracy. Also known as the
Anticybersquatting Consumer Protection Act.
6. The Uniform Domain Name Resolution Policy and the Internet Corporation for
Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN): Nonprofit public benefit
nongovernmental organization selected in 1998 by the U.S. government to
manage the domain name system.
For more information on ICANN go to:
http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/I/ICANN.html or www.ICANN.com
Case: World Wrestling Federation Entertainment, Inc. v. Michael Bosman
(ICANN) (2000)
http://arbiter.wipo.int/domains/decisions/html/1999/d1999-0001.html
Rule: Cybersquatting
Issue: On October 7, 1999, Michael Bosman, a US citizen, registered the
domain name "worldwrestlingfederation.com" with Melbourne IT, an Australian
based registry appointed by ICANN. Three days later, Mr. Bosman notified
World Wrestling Federation Entertainment, Inc. of the registration and stated
that his purpose was to sell the registration to the Federation at a profit. On
December 2, 1999, the Federation, having refused to pay the sum of $1,000,
submitted a complaint to the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
Arbitration & Mediation Centre requesting that the domain name be transferred
to them.

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Conclusion: The WIPO Arbitration and Mediation Center, acting as an ICANN

dispute resolution service provider, has held in the first case to come before it
that a "cybersquatter" who had registered the domain name
worldwestlingfederation.com" must transfer the registration to World Wrestling
Federation Entertainment, Inc.
Case: Washington Speakers Bureau, Inc. v. Leading Authorities, Inc.
(United States District Court, Eastern District of Virginia) (1999)
http://www.phillipsnizer.com/library/cases/lib_case118.cfm
Rule: Trademark infringement and dilution of an unregistered trademark.
Issue: Washington Speakers Bureau, Inc. claims that a competitor, Leading
Authorities, Inc., registered a series of domain names
(www.washingtonspeakers.com). Washington Speakers Bureau, Inc. claims
the use of these domain names by Leading Authorities, Inc. infringes upon their
prominent name.
Conclusion: The United States District Court ruled Washington Speakers
Bureau is a descriptive trademark that is to be protected. Leading Authorities
registered the domain names in a bad faith attempt to siphon business from
their competitors. The Court ordered Leading Authorities to relinquish all rights
to the domain names at issue.
Case: Hasbro Inc. v. Clue Computing
(United States Court of Appeals, First Circuit) (1999)
http://www.law.emory.edu/1circuit/nov2000/00-1297.01a.html
Rule: Trademark infringement and dilution of a registered trademark.
Issue: Clue Computing, Inc., a computer consulting company, registered the
domain name www.clue.com. Hasbro, Inc. claims that the registration infringes
on their registered trademark, the murder mystery game, Clue.
Conclusion: The United States District Court ruled that Hasbro failed to
demonstrate, as a matter of law, that there is likelihood that consumers will
confuse Clue Computings computer consulting Web site with Hasbros game,
Clue. The United States Court of Appeals affirmed the District Courts decision.
8. Cybergriping: Registering a website to criticize a particular business, products
or public figures. (www.(company/product)sucks.com)
Note to teachers: Use the following information at your discretion.
Case: Bally Total Fitness Holding Corporation v. Andrew S. Faber
(United States District Court, C.D. California) (1998)

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http://www.phillipsnizer.com/library/cases/lib_case27.cfm
Rule: Trademark infringement; trademark dilution; unfair competition.
Issue: Bally is a registered trademark of Bally Total Fitness. Andrew Faber
designed a web site www.ballysucks.com. The web site is dedicated to
complaints about Ballys health club business. Ballys claims ball sucks
infringes and dilutes their Bally trademark.
Conclusion: The United States District Court ruled that the health club had valid
protectable mark in Bally, but, the designers use mark did not infringe or dilute
mark. It did not create likelihood of confusion in minds of consumers.

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