PENETROMETER:

A penetrometer is a device to test the strength of a material such as soil. There

are many types of penetrometer. They are usually round or cone shaped. The
penetrometer is dropped on the test subject or pressed against it and the depth of the
resulting hole is measured. The measurements determine whether the soil is strong
enough to build a road on. Scientists also use a penetrometer to measure how much
moisture is in soil. Penetrometers are used on space probes such as the Cassini
Huygens probe, to measure the amount of moisture in soil on other planets.
A penetrometer is also used in longer professional cricket matches, to measure how the
pitch is holding up over the course of a multi-day match

SPT Standard penetration test

STEPS FOR USE OF PENETROMETER IN SPT
In SPT standard 50 mm outside diameter split spoon sampler, which is usually driven
into soil at the bottom of a borehole for 450 mm by means of a 63.5 Kg hammer having a
free fall of 760 mm(30 in) act as penetrometer. The number of blows required to drive
the sampler for each 150 mm of penetration is recorded. The number of blows for the
first 150 mm penetration is not used to compute the N- value because it may reflect
disturbances for the bore hole drilling method.
Despite its wide use and simple procedure the results of the SPT are greatly
affected by drilling and sampling operations; it is also called operator dependents (i.e
can value from one driller to another).
In cases where 50 blows are insufficient to advance it through a 150 mm (6 in)
interval the penetration after 50 blows is recorded. The blow count provides an indication
of the density of the ground, and it is used in many empirical geotechnical engineering
formulae.

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 DATA OBTAINED BY SPT IS USED AS

Evaluation of compaction and stratification as

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 ADVANTAGES

i.

Relatively quick and simple to perform

ii.

One procedure

iii.

Provides a representative soil sample.

iv.

Provides useful index of relative strength and compressibility of the soil.

v.

Able to penetrate dense layers, gravel, and fill

vi.

Numerous case histories of soil liquefaction during past earthquakes are

available with SPT N-values. The method based on this history can reflect
actual soil behavior during earthquakes, which cannot be simulated in the
laboratory.

vii.

The SPT is an in situ test that reflects soil density, soil fabric, stress and strain
history effects, and horizontal effective stress, all of which are known to
influence the liquefaction resistance but are difficult to obtain with undisturbed
samples.
DISADVANTAGES:

i.

The SPT does not typically provide continuous data (e.g. 5 ft. intervals),
therefore important data such as weak seams may be missed.

ii.

Limited applicability to cohesive soils, gravels, cobbles boulders.

iii.

Somewhat slower than other sample methods due to sample retrieval.

iv.

In addition to overburden pressure and relative density the SPT N-value

is also a function of soil type, particle size, and age and stress history of
the deposit

v.

Due to considerable differences in apparatus and procedure, significant

variability of measured penetration resistance can occur. The basic
problems to consider are change in effective stress at the bottom of the
borehole, dynamic energy reaching the sampler, sampler design, interval
of impact, penetration resistance count.

vi.

Samples that are obtained from the SPT are disturbed.

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CONE PENETERATION TEST

WORKING
This simple test has similarity to the SPT, except that a solid 60o cone is placed at the
end of the drill rods instead of the split spoon sampler. No sample is obtained. The test
can be carried out from ground surface or from the base of a borehole as ground
conditions permit. The number of blows required to advance each 300 mm of rod is
recorded. The test is usually carried out to practical refusal typically identified as
bounce of the hammer on the drive piece or a large number of blows (e.g 100 or more )
for a penetration of only a few millimeters. The main advantage of CPT are that it is fast,
inexpensive and it is particularly useful in delineating areas of weak soil conditions. It is
most suited to granular soils.

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 USE
Quantitative evaluation of variability in compactness
ADVANATAGES

Equipment is simple and robust

Large number of tests can be done in a day.

Results indicate variability in subsurface condition

DISADVANATAGES

Test is crude and correlations with engineering properties may be unreliable.

Test results need to be assessed in conjunction with results from other

investigation methods

No sample is obtained

PRESSUREMETER TEST

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 Significance and Use

This test method provides a stress-strain response of the soil in situ. A
pressuremeter modulus and a limit pressure is obtained for use in geotechnical
analysis and foundation design.
The results of this test method are dependent on the degree of disturbance
during drilling of the borehole and insertion of the pressuremeter probe. Since
disturbance cannot be completely eliminated, the interpretation of the test results
should include consideration of conditions during drilling. This disturbance is
particularly significant in very soft clays and very loose sands. Disturbance may
not be eliminated completely but should be minimized for the prebored
pressuremeter design rules to be applicable.
Note 5The quality of the result produced by this test method is dependent on
the competence of the personnel performing it, and the suitability of the
equipment and facilities used. Agencies that meet the criteria of Practice D3740
are generally considered capable of competent and objective testing/sampling/
inspection/etc. Users of this test method are cautioned that compliance with
Practice D3740 does not in itself assure reliable results. Reliable results depend
on many factors; Practice D3740 provides a means of evaluating some of those
factors.
TABLE 1 Typical Probe and Borehole Dimensions
Probe
Borehole Diameter
Hole Diameter
Diameter,
Designation
Nominal, mm Max., mm
mm
Ax
44
45
53
Bx
58
60
70
Nx
74
76
89
ADVANTAGES

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Test results give stress-strain relationship for ground tested not just a single
value of an engineering property.

Boundary conditions are controlled and well defined. Testing out at both small
and large strains

SBP can be inserted in suitable soils with minimal disturbance and avoiding
stress relief effects

Useful for determination of in-situ horizontal stress

Use of loading and unloading cycles can mitigate borehole and other
disturbances effects and enhance interpretation

Correlations

available

for

important

engineering

properties

and design

applications
DISADVANTAGES

No sample is obtained and test results should be supported by other strength

data

Sophisticated, relatively expensive instrument that requires experienced, skilled

specialist personnel

Testing is time consuming and on a less continuous basis that CPT and other
tests

Borehole required for Menard type and some soils. Effects of disturbances and
stress relief need to be considered and taken into account

DILATOMETER TEST

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 WORKING
The flat plate dilatometer was developed in Italy in the late 1970s (Marchettin 1980,
Marchetti and Crapps 1981). It is generally used to measure soil properties such as in
situ horizontal stress, stress history (OCR), deformation moduli and undrained shear
strength of clays. The Marchetti instrument consists of a 94 mm wide and 14 mm thick
flat strainless steel plate. One face of the blade has a 60 mm diameter flexible steel
diaphragm, which is used to measure soil contact pressure and the pressure required to
move the diapghram
USE
Empirical correlation for soil type, K0 over consolidation ratio (OCR), undrained shear
strength and modulus
ADVANTAGES

Robust, simple standardized test that is easy to carry out using same equipment as
other tests

Testing is on a near continous basis

Rersults are generally repeatable

Avoid disturbances effects of boreholes

Corelations available for important engineering properties and design applications.

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Good test for intrerpretation of in situ horizontal stress and deformation at small
strain

DISADVANTAGES

Not suited for soils with large particles or that are too dense or hard to permit
peneteration without use of boreholes.

No sample is obtained

Different methods of interpretation available which do not give same results

Testing more time consuming and less continous basis that CPT

Limited strain imposed suring test. Results not well-suited for large strain
behavior

Cone Penetrometer Technology (CPT)

Working
Cone penetrometer technology (CPT) is a method of providing real-time data for use in
characterizing the subsurface, as opposed to older methods of analyzing subsurface
conditions in the laboratory. It consists of a steel cone that is hydraulically pushed into
the ground at up to 40,000 pounds of pressure. Sensors on the tip of the cone collect
data. Standard cone penetrometers collect information to classify soil type by using
sensors that measure cone-tip pressure and friction. CPT is often used in conjunction
with Hydropunch tests, which use the CPT holes to extract groundwater for laboratory
analysis. An innovation of the CPT (i.e., the wireline CPT) allows multiple CPT tools to
be interchanged during a single penetration, without withdrawing the CPT rod string from
the ground.
Initially developed to collect information about soil characteristics, as sensor technology
was developed CPT also became a platform for collecting information about a variety
of contaminants. Recent advances in sensor technology have expanded cone
penetrometer capabilities to detect the presence of petroleum hydrocarbons. Sensors

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are being tested or demonstrated for the detection of other organics,compounds,

metals, radioactivity, explosives, and soil moisture.
Generally, the advantage of using CPT is that sampling costs less and is faster than
shipping samples to a laboratory. CPT locations can be altered as results are analyzed,
thus providing the operator with increased flexibility. It should be noted, however, that
when certain sensors are used, results may have to be validated by laboratory analysis.

USE
CPT results provide a cost-effective means to determine not only the composition of
soils strata, but remarkaby, the presence of foreign contaminants being searched for. It
is far more cost effective because the test on site (or in-situ) provides results instantly,
rather than the older technology of collecting soil samples, sending sample to a lab for
investigation, and awaiting results that that process of course entails. A CPT Push
Platform is used, in accordance with the depands of the terrain being tested, that pushes
each CPT test down, samples and reports the results in real time, and continues to
move on in a grid-like pattern over a large area.
Petroleum hydrocarbons are detectable using CPT - Cone enetrometer Technology. As
one sample a large area of terrain, the presence, amont, and makeup of petroleum
hydrocarbons are mappable, and the changes of these contaminants over time are thus
monitorable.

Disadvantage

CPT cannot be used at some sites due to high soil density.

Most sensors are now used as screening tools that provide initial site
characterization data. The data is confirmed by collecting samples that are
analyzed in the laboratory. This is due to limitations in sensor technology, and it
will likely diminish in importance as the technology improves.

CPT sensors, such as lasers, that require a lens may be hampered by fouling of
the lens due to a reaction to dust.

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Decontamination may be necessary if the CPT comes into contact with

contaminated material.

Advantage

CPT is a characterization tool used to identify the geologic, hydrologic and chemical
features of a site. It can be applied to all sites. It is not contaminant specific. CPT is
generally applied to depths up to 150 feet, but it has been used as deep as 300 feet.

CPT is useful on sites that contain unconsolidated sediments (e.g., soil and clay that
are not cemented together). On the other hand, sites with large boulders, rock or
cemented layers are difficult to penetrate.

Cone Penetrometer
A Cone Penetrometer is a technology (CPT for short) of sensors that are used to
penetrate the strata of soils at a controlled rate,to determine the precise makeup of the
contents of that earth, or water, etc. Cone Penetration results provide real-time
information about the depth of bedrock, density and makeup of sub-soil and so on. A
Cone Penetrometer typically resembles a solid steel rod about 1 foot in length, with a
precise cone-shaped end. This cone is specificly designed for penetrating the strata of
sub-soil layers encountered as it is pressed further into the earth.
Various sensors can be used in this technology. And the pressure of penetration can be
in excess of 40,000 lbs./sq. inch when in operation.

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