Piping

Internal erosion of the foundation or embankment caused by seepage is known

as piping. Generally, erosion starts at the downstream toe and works back
toward the reservoir, forming channels or pipes under the dam. The channels or
pipes follow paths of maximum permeability and may not develop until many
years after construction.

Resistance of the embankment or foundation to piping depends on:

. plasticity of the soil
. the gradation
. the degree of compactness
Plastic clays with a plasticity index >, for both well and poorly compacted
are the materials which are most resistant to piping. Minimum piping resistance
is found in poorly compacted, through to well-graded cohesionless soils with
practically no binder. It is also found in uniform, fine, cohesionless sand, even
when well compacted. Settlement cracks in resistant materials may also
produce piping.
Piping can be avoided by lengthening the flowpaths of water within the dam
and its foundations. This decreases the hydraulic gradient of the water flow and
hence its velocity. The flowpaths can be increased by:

Cutoff walls

Impermeable cores

Impermeable blankets extending upstream from the upstream face

Seepage control
Seepage is the continuous movement of water from the upstream face of the
dam toward its downstream face. The upper surface of this stream of
percolating water is known as the phreatic surface. The phreatic surface should
be kept at or below the downstream toe.

The phreatic surface within a dam can be controlled by properly designed cores
or walls.

Internal drain systems

Purpose
A homogeneous dam with a height of more than about m to m should have
some type of downstream drain. The purpose of a drain is:
. to reduce the pore water pressures in the downstream portion of the dam
therefore increasing the stability of the downstream slope against sliding.
. to control any seepage that exits the downstream portion of the dam and
prevent erosion of the downstream slope: i.e. to prevent 'piping'.
The effectiveness of the drain in reducing pore pressures depends on its
location and extent. However, piping is controlled by ensuring that the grading
of the pervious material from which the drain is constructed meets the filter
requirements for the embankment material.
Toe drains
The design of a downstream drainage system is controlled by the height of the
dam, the cost and availability of permeable material, and the permeability of
the foundation.
For low dams, a simple toe drain can be used successfully. Toe drains have
been installed in some of the oldest homogeneous dams in an effort to prevent
softening and erosion of the downstream toe.

For reservoir depths greater than m, most engineers would place a drainage
system further inside the embankment where it will be more effective in
reducing pore pressures and controlling seepage.
Horizontal drainage blanket
Horizontal drainage blankets are often used for dams of moderate height.
Drainage blankets are frequently used over the downstream one-half or onethird of the foundation area. The Bureau of Reclamation's m Vega Dam is a
homogeneous dam which has been constructed with a horizontal downstream
drain. Where pervious material is scarce, the internal strip drains can be placed
instead since these give the same general effect.
Disadvantages of horizontal drainage blankets
An earth dam embankment tends to be more pervious in the horizontal
direction than in the vertical. Occasionally, horizontal layers tend to be much
more impervious than the average material constructed into the embankment,
so the water will flow horizontally on a relatively impervious layer and
discharge on the downstream face despite the horizontal drain.,p> Where this
has occurred the downstream slope is prone to slipping and piping. Repairs can
be made by installing pervious blankets on the downstream slopes or
constructing vertical drains to connect with the horizontal blanket. Such
vertical drains are normally composed of sand and gravel.

Chimney drains
Chimney drains are an attempt to prevent horizontal flow along relatively
impervious stratified layers, and to intercept seepage water before it reaches the
downstream slope. Chimney drains are often incorporated in high
homogeneous dams which have been constructed with inclined or vertical
chimney drains.

In some major dam projects, chimney drains have been inclined at a

considerable slope, both upstream and sometimes downstream. An upstream
inclined drain can act as a relatively thin core. In addition to controlling
seepage through the dam and increasing the stability of the downstream slope,
the chimney drain is also useful in reducing pore water pressures both during
construction and following rapid reservoir drawdown.
Dimensions and permeability of drains
The dimensions and permeability of permeable drains must be adequate to
carry away the anticipated flow with an ample margin of safety for unexpected
leaks. If the dam and the foundations are relatively impermeable, then the
expected leakage would be low. A drain should be constructed of material with
a coefficient of permeability of at least to times greater than the average
embankment material.
Thin upstream sloping core
In an earth dam with an upstream sloping core of low permeability, the
foundation is assumed to be impermeable and in a steady state. Under steady
state conditions the small amount of water that seeps through the core flows
vertically downward in a partially saturated zone and then more or less
horizontally in a thin saturated layer along the impermeable foundation. For
this type of dam the downstream shell must be several hundred times more
permeable than the core.

Partial cutoffs
An earth dam constructed without a cutoff on permeable or semi-permeable
foundations of earth or rock may lead to seepage beneath the dam creating
unacceptable uplift pressures and causing instability. If an impermeable cutoff
is installed to % of the depth of the permeable foundation, the flow net and
downstream slope gradient is only slightly modified to a lower level. A
theoretical line of seepage for several depths is given here.

For an effective cutoff the positioning and depth of cutoff must be essentially
'perfect'. Since this is impossible to achieve, other methods of seepage control
should be used in conjunction with cutoffs.
(C) Thomas, Henry H. The Engineering of Large Dams
(C) Wahlstrom, Ernest Dams, Dam Foundations and Reservoir Sites
(C) Craig R, F Soil Mechanics

Sample SEEPD Problem

SEEPD can be used for either confined or unconfined steady-state flow models. For unconfined
models, there are two options for determining the phreatic surface. With the first option, the mesh
is automatically truncated as the iterative solution process proceeds and when the model
converges, the upper boundary of the mesh corresponds to the phreatic surface. With the second
option, both saturated and unsaturated flow is simulated and the mesh is not modified. The
phreatic surface can be displayed by plotting the contour line at where pressure head equals
zero.
A variety of options are provided in GMS for displaying SEEPD results. Contours of total head
(equipotential lines) and flow vectors can be plotted. An option is also available for computing
flow potential values at the nodes. These values can be used to plot flow lines. Together with the
equipotential lines (lines of constant total head), the flow lines can be used to plot a flow net.
A more complete description of the SEEPD model, including a discussion of boundary
conditions and guidelines for model conceptualization is contained in the SEEPD Primer. The
SEEPD Primer should be reviewed before consulting this help file. The user is also encouraged
to complete the SEEPD tutorials in the GMS Tutorials document.

Dam Safety: Seepage Through Earth Dams

Contrary to popular opinion, wet areas downstream from dams are
not usually natural springs but seepage areas. Even if natural springs
exist, they should be treated with suspicion and carefully observed.
Flows from groundwater springs in existence prior to the reservoir
would probably increase due to the pressure caused by a pool of
water behind the dam.

All dams have some seepage as the impounded water seeks paths of
least resistance through the dam and its foundation. Seepage must,
however, be controlled in both velocity and quantity.
Seepage can emerge anywhere on the downstream face, beyond the
toe, or on the downstream abutments at elevations below normal
pool. Seepage may vary in appearance from a "soft", wet area to a
flowing "spring". It may show up first as an area where the vegetation
is lush and darker green. Cattails, reeds, mosses, and other marsh
vegetation may grow in a seepage area. Downstream groin areas
(the areas where the downstream face contacts the abutments)
should always be inspected closely for signs of seepage. Seepage
can also occur along the contact between the embankment and a
conduit spillway, drain, or other appurtenance. Slides in the
embankment or an abutment may be the result of seepage causing
soil saturation or pressures in the soil pores.
At most dams, some water will seep from the reservoir through the
foundation. Where it is not intercepted by a subsurface drain, the
seepage will emerge downstream from or at the toe of the
embankment. If the seepage forces are large enough, soil will be
eroded from the foundation and be deposited in the shape of a cone
around the outlet. If these "boils" appear, professional advice should
be sought immediately. Seepage flow which is muddy and carrying
soil particles may be evidence of "piping" and complete failure of the
dam could occur within hours. Piping can occur along a spillway and
other conduits through the embankment, and these areas should be
closely inspected. Sinkholes that develop on the embankment are
signs that piping has begun. A whirlpool in the lake surface may soon
follow and then likely a rapid and complete failure of the dam.
Emergency procedures, including downstream evacuation, must be
implemented if this condition is noted.
A continuous or sudden drop in the normal lake level may be an
indication that seepage is occurring. In this case, one or more
locations of flowing water are usually noted downstream from the
dam. This condition, in itself, may not be a serious problem, but will
require frequent and close monitoring and professional assistance.

The need for seepage control will depend on the quantity, content,
and/or location of the seepage. Controlling the quantity of seepage
that occurs after construction is difficult and quite expensive. It is not
usually attempted unless drawdown of the pool level has occurred or
the seepage is endangering the embankment or appurtenant
structures. Typical methods used to control the quantity of seepage
are grouting, installation of an upstream blanket, or installation of
relief wells. Of these methods, grouting is probably the least effective
and it is most applicable to leakage zones in bedrock, abutments, and
foundations. All of these methods must be designed and constructed
under the supervision of a professional engineer experienced with
dams.
Controlling the content of the seepage or preventing seepage flow
from removing soil particles is extremely important. Modern design
practice incorporates this control into the embankment through the
use of cutoffs, internal filters, and adequate drainage provisions.
Control at points of seepage exit can be accomplished after
construction by using weighted filters and providing proper drainage.
The filter and drainage system should be designed to prevent
migration of soil particles and still provide for passage of the seepage
flow. The bottom layer of the weighted filter should be to inches
of sand placed over the seepage area. The sand layer should be
covered with a gravel layer of similar thickness. Larger rock should be
placed next to complete the berm. This methods will permit the
seepage to drain freely, but prevent piping (removal) of soil particles.
The weight of the berm will hold the filter in place and may also
provide additional stability to the embankment and/or foundation.
The location of the seepage or wet area on the embankment or
abutment is often a primary concern. Excessive seepage pressure or
soil saturation can threaten the stability of the downstream slope of
the dam or the abutment slopes. An abutment slide may block or
damage the spillway outlet or other appurtenances. In these cases,
not only must the seepage be controlled but the area must be dried
out. This is sometimes accomplished by installing finger drains
(lateral drains for specific locations). Seepage control systems must
always be free-draining to be effective.
Monitoring

Regular monitoring is essential to detect seepage and prevent failure.

Without knowledge of the dam's history, the owner or the inspector
has no idea whether the seepage condition is in a steady or changing
state. It is important to keep written records of points of seepage exit,
quantity and content of flow, size of wet area, and type of vegetation
for later comparison. Photographs provide invaluable records of
seepage. The inspector should always look for increases in flow and
evidence of flow carrying soil particles. The control methods
described previously are often designed to facilitate observation of
flows. At some locations, v-notch weirs can be used to measure flow
rates.
Regular surveillance and maintenance of internal embankment and
foundation drainage outlets is also required. Normal maintenance
consists of removing any soil or other material that obstructs flow.
Internal repair is complicated and often impractical and should not be
attempted without professional advice. The rate and content of flow
emerging from these outlets should be monitored regularly.

Detection
Seepage can emerge anywhere on the downstream face, beyond the toe, or on the
downstream abutments at elevations below normal pool. Seepage may vary in
appearance from a "soft" wet area to a flowing "spring." It may show up first as an
area where the vegetation is lush and darker green. Cattails, reeds, mosses, and
other marsh vegetation often become established in a seepage area. Another
indication of seepage is the presence of rust-colored iron bacteria. Due to their
nature, the bacteria are found more often where water is discharging from the
ground than in surface water. Seepage can make inspection and maintenance
difficult. It can also saturate and weaken portions of the embankment and
foundation, making the embankment susceptible to earth slides.
If the seepage forces are large enough, soil will be eroded from the foundation and
be deposited in the shape of a cone around the outlet. If these "boils" appear,
professional advice should be sought immediately. Seepage flow which is muddy
and carrying sediment (soil particles) is evidence of "piping," and is a serious
condition that if left untreated can cause failure of the dam. Piping can most often
occur along a spillway or other conduit through the embankment, and these areas

should be closely inspected. Sinkholes may develop on the surface of the

embankment as internal erosion takes place. A whirlpool in the lake surface may
follow and then likely a rapid and complete failure of the dam. Emergency
procedures, including downstream evacuation, should be implemented immediately
if any of these conditions are noted.
Seepage can also develop behind or beneath concrete structures such as chute
spillways or headwalls. If the concrete structure does not have a means such as
weep holes or relief drains to relieve the water pressure, the concrete structure may
heave, rotate, or crack. The effects of the freezing and thawing can amplify these
problems. It should be noted that the water pressure behind or beneath structures
may also be due to infiltration of surface water or spillway discharge, but should still
be addressed.
A continuous or sudden drop in the normal lake level is another indication that
seepage is occurring. In this case, one or more locations of flowing water are usually
noted downstream from the dam. This condition, in itself, may not be a serious dam
safety problem, but will require frequent and close monitoring and professional
assistance.

Control
The need for seepage control will depend on the quantity, content, and location of
the seepage. Reducing the quantity of seepage that occurs after construction is
difficult and expensive. It is not usually attempted unless the seepage has lowered
the pool level or is endangering the dam or appurtenant structures. Typical methods
used to control the quantity of seepage are grouting or installation of an upstream
blanket. Of these methods, grouting is probably the least effective and is most
applicable to leakage zones in bedrock, abutments, and foundations. These
methods must be designed and constructed under the supervision of a professional
engineer experienced with dams.
Controlling the content of the seepage or preventing seepage flow from removing
soil particles is extremely important. Modern design practice incorporates this control
into the dam design through the use of cutoffs, internal filters, and adequate
drainage provisions. Control at points of seepage exit can be accomplished after
construction by installation of toe drains, relief wells, or inverted filters.

Weep holes and relief drains can be installed to relieve water pressure or drain
seepage from behind or beneath concrete structures. These systems must be
designed to prevent migration of soil particles but still allow the seepage to drain
freely. The owner must retain a professional engineer to design toe drains, relief
wells, inverted filters, weep holes, or relief holes, and regular monitoring of these
features is critical.