Sensors and actuators

Sensors and actuators ...................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Transducers, Sensors and actuators. Introduction....................................................................... 1
1.2 Transducers classification.......................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Analogue and Digital Sensors.................................................................................................... 4
1.3.1 Analogue Sensors .......................................................................................................... 4
1.3.2 Digital Sensors ................................................................................................................ 5
1.3.4 Signal Conditioning ......................................................................................................... 6
1.4 Position Sensors ........................................................................................................................ 7
1.4.1 The Potentiometer. ......................................................................................................... 7
1.4.2 Inductive Position Sensors............................................................................................. 9
1.4.2.1 Linear Variable Differential Transformer................................................................ 9
1.4.2.2 Inductive Proximity Sensors. ................................................................................ 11
1.4.2.3 Rotary Encoders. ....................................................................................................... 12
1.5 Temperature Sensors ............................................................................................................... 16
1.5.1 The Thermostat ................................................................................................................ 16
1.5.2 The Thermistor .............................................................................................................. 18
Application ............................................................................................................................ 19
1.5.3 Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD). ................................................................... 20
1.5.4 The Thermocouple........................................................................................................ 21
1.6 Light Sensors .......................................................................................................................... 24
1.6.1 The Photoconductive Cell ............................................................................................ 25
1.6.1.1 The Light Dependent Resistor .................................................................................... 25
1.6.2 Photojunction Devices .................................................................................................. 27
1.6.2.1 The Photodiode...................................................................................................... 27
1.6.2.2 The Phototransistor ............................................................................................... 30
1.6.2.3 Photovoltaic Cells. ................................................................................................. 32

1.1 Transducers, Sensors and actuators. Introduction

Simple stand alone electronic circuits can be made to repeatedly flash a light or play
a musical note, but in order for an electronic circuit or system to perform any useful task or
function it needs to be able to communicate with the "real world" whether this is by reading
an input signal from an "ON/OFF" switch or by activating some form of output device to
illuminate a single light. In other words, an electronic circuit or system must be able to "do"
something and transducers are the perfect component for this.
The word "transducer" is the collective term used for both sensors which can be used to
sense a wide range of different energy forms such as movement, electrical signals, radiant
energy, thermal or magnetic energy etc, and actuators which can be used to switch
voltages or currents.
There are many different types of both analogue and digital input and output devices
available to choose from. The type of input or output transducer being used, really

depends upon the type of signal or process being "Sensed" or "Controlled" but we can
define a transducer as a device that converts one physical quantity into another.
Devices which perform an "input" function are commonly called sensors because they
"sense" a physical change in some characteristic that changes in response to some
excitation, for example heat or force and covert that into an electrical signal. Devices which
perform an "output" function are generally called actuators and are used to control some
external device, for example movement or sound.
Electrical transducers are used to convert energy of one kind into energy of another kind,
so for example, a microphone (input device) converts sound waves into electrical signals
for the amplifier to amplify (a process), and a loudspeaker (output device) converts these
electrical signals back into sound waves (Figure 1)

Figure 1. Simple Input/Output System using Sound Transducers

There are many different types of transducers available in the marketplace, and the choice
of which one to use really depends upon the quantity being measured or controlled, with
the more common types given in the table below.

1.2 Transducers classification

Quantity being

Input Device

Output Device

Measured

(Sensor)

(Actuator)

Light Dependant Resistor (LDR)

Light Level

Photodiode
Photo-transistor
Solar Cell

Temperature

Lights & Lamps

LED's & Displays
Fibre Optics

Thermocouple

Heater

Thermistor

Fan

Thermostat
Resistive temperature detectors
(RTD)
Strain Gauge
Force/Pressure Pressure Switch
Load Cells
Potentiometer
Position

Encoders
Reflective/Slotted Opto-switch
LVDT

Speed

Sound

Lifts & Jacks

Electromagnet
Vibration
Motor
Solenoid
Panel Meters

Tacho-generator

AC and DC Motors

Reflective/Slotted Opto-coupler

Stepper Motor

Doppler Effect Sensors

Brake

Carbon Microphone
Piezo-electric Crystal

Bell
Buzzer
Loudspeaker

Input type transducers or sensors, produce a voltage or signal output response which is
proportional to the change in the quantity that they are measuring (the stimulus). The type
or amount of the output signal depends upon the type of sensor being used. But generally,
all types of sensors can be classed as two kinds, either passive or active.
Active sensors require some form of external power to operate, called an excitation
signal which is used by the sensor to produce the output signal. Active sensors are selfgenerating devices because their own properties change in response to an external effect
producing for example, an output voltage of 1 to 10V DC or an output current such as 4 to
20mA DC.
A good example of an active sensor is a strain gauge which is basically a pressuresensitive resistive bridge network. It does not generate an electrical signal itself, but by
passing a current through it (excitation signal), its electrical resistance can be measured by
detecting variations in the current and/or voltage across it relating these changes to the
amount of strain or force being applied.

Unlike an active sensor, a passive sensor does not need any additional energy source
and directly generates an electric signal in response to an external stimulus. For example,
a thermocouple or photodiode. Passive sensors are direct sensors which change their
physical properties, such as resistance, capacitance or inductance etc.
As well as analogue sensors, digital sensors produce a discrete output representing a
binary number or digit such as a logic level "0" or a logic level "1".

1.3 Analogue and Digital Sensors

1.3.1 Analogue Sensors
Analogue Sensors produce a continuous output signal or voltage which is generally
proportional to the quantity being measured. Physical quantities such as temperature,
speed, pressure, displacement, strain etc are all analogue quantities as they tend to be
continuous in nature. For example (Figure 2), the temperature of a liquid can be measured
using a thermometer or thermocouple which continuously responds to temperature
changes as the liquid is heated up or cooled down.

Figure 2 Thermocouple used to produce an Analogue Signal

Analogue sensors tend to produce output signals that are changing smoothly and
continuously over time. These signals tend to be very small in value from a few mico-volts
(uV) to serveral milli-volts (mV), so some form of amplification is required. Then circuits
which measure analogue signals usually have a slow response and/or low accuracy. Also
analogue signals can be easily converted into digital type signals for use in microcontroller
systems by the use of analogue-to-digital converters, or ADC's.

1.3.2 Digital Sensors

As its name implies, digital sensors produce a discrete output signal or voltage that is a
digital representation of the quantity being measured. Digital sensors produce a binary
output signal in the form of a logic "1" or a logic "0", ("ON" or "OFF"). This means then that
a digital signal only produces discrete (non-continuous) values which may be outputted as
a single "bit", (serial transmission) or by combining the bits to produce a single "byte"
output (parallel transmission).

Figure 3 Light Sensor used to produce an digital signal

In the example from Figure 3, the speed of the rotating shaft is measured by using a digital
LED/Opto-detector sensor. The disc which is fixed to a rotating shaft (for example, from a
motor or robot wheels), has a number of transparent slots within its design. As the disc
rotates with the speed of the shaft, each slot passes by the sensor inturn producing an
output pulse representing a logic "1" or logic "0" level.
These pulses are sent to a register of counter and finally to an output display to show the
speed or revolutions of the shaft. By increasing the number of slots or "windows" within the
disc more output pulses can be produced for each revolution of the shaft. The advantage
of this is that a greater resolution and accuracy is acheived as fractions of a revolution can
be detected. Then this type of sensor arrangement could also be used for positional
control with one of the discs slots representing a reference position.

Compared to analogue signals, digital signals or quantities have very high accuracies and
can be both measured and "sampled" at a very high clock speed. The accuracy of the
digital signal is proportional to the number of bits used to represent the measured quantity.
For example, using a processor of 8 bits, will produce an accuracy of 0.195% (1 part in
512). While using a processor of 16 bits gives an accuracy of 0.0015%, (1 part in 65,536)
or 130 times more accurate. This accuracy can be maintained as digital quantities are
manipulated and processed very rapidly, millions of times faster than analogue signals.
In most cases, sensors and more specifically analogue sensors generally require an
external power supply and some form of additional amplification or filtering of the signal in
order to produce a suitable electrical signal which is capable of being measured or used.
One very good way of achieving both amplification and filtering within a single circuit is to
use operational amplifiers.
1.3.4 Signal Conditioning
The operational amplifiers can be used to provide amplification of signals when
connected in either inverting or non-inverting configurations. The very small analogue
signal voltages produced by a sensor such as a few milli-volts or even pico-volts can be
amplified many times over by a simple op-amp circuit to produce a much larger voltage
signal of say 5v or 5mA that can then be used as an input signal to a microprocessor or
analogue-to-digital based system. Therefore, an amplification of a sensors output signal
has to be made with a voltage gain up to 10,000 and a current gain up to 1,000,000 with
the amplification of the signal being linear with the output signal being an exact
reproduction of the input, just changed in amplitude.
When using analogue sensors, generally some form of amplification (gain), impedance
matching, isolation between the input and output or perhaps filtering (frequency selection)
may be required before the signal can be used and this is conveniently performed by
operational amplifiers.
Also, when measuring very small physical changes the output signal of a sensor can
become "contaminated" with unwanted signals or voltages that prevent the actual signal
required from being measured correctly. These unwanted signals are called "noise". This
noise or interference can be either greatly reduced or even eliminated by using signal
conditioning or filtering techniques. By using either a Low Pass, or a High Pass or even
Band Pass filter the "bandwidth" of the noise can be reduced to leave just the output

signal required. For example, many types of inputs from switches, keyboards or manual
controls are not capable of changing state rapidly and so low-pass filter can be used.
When the interference is at a particular frequency, for example mains frequency, narrow
band reject or Notch filters can be used to produce frequency selective filters.

1.4 Position Sensors

These types of sensors provide a "position" feedback.
One method of determining a position, is to use either "distance", which could be the
distance between two points such as the distance travelled or moved away from some
fixed point, or by "rotation" (angular movement). For example, the rotation of a robots
wheel to determine its distance travelled along the ground. Either way, position sensors
can detect the movement of an object in a straight line using linear sensors or by its
angular movement using rotational sensors.
1.4.1 The Potentiometer.
The most commonly used of all the "position sensors", is the potentiometer because it is
an inexpensive and easy to use position sensor. It has a wiper contact linked to a
mechanical shaft that can be either angular (rotational) or linear (slider type) in its
movement, and which causes the resistance value between the wiper/slider and the two
end connections to change giving an electrical signal output that has a proportional
relationship between the actual wiper position on the resistive track and its resistance
value. In other words, resistance is proportional to position.
Potentiometers come in a wide range of designs and sizes such as the commonly
available round rotational type or the longer and flat linear slider types. When used as a
positional sensor the moveable object is connected directly to the shaft or slider of the
potentiometer and a DC reference voltage is applied across the two outer fixed
connections forming the resistive element. The output voltage signal is taken from the
wiper terminal of the sliding contact as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4 Potentiometer Principle

If you apply a voltage of say 10V across the resistive element of the potentiometer the
maximum output voltage would be equal to the supply voltage at 10 volts, with the
minimum output voltage equal to 0 volts. Then the potentiometer wiper will vary the output
signal from 0 to 10 volts, with 5 volts indicating that the wiper or slider is at its half-way or
centre position. The output signal (Vout) from the potentiometer is taken from the centre
wiper connection as it moves along the resistive track, and is proportional to the angular
position of the shaft.(Figure 5)

Figure 5 Example of a simple Positional Sensing Circuit

While resistive potentiometer position sensors have many advantages: low cost, low tech,
easy to use etc, as a position sensor they also have many disadvantages: wear due to
moving parts, low accuracy, low repeatability, and limited frequency response.
But there is one main disadvantage of using the potentiometer as a positional sensor. The
range of movement of its wiper or slider (and hence the output signal obtained) is limited to
the physical size of the potentiometer being used. For example a single turn rotational
potentiometer generally only has a fixed electrical rotation between about 240 to 330o
however, multi-turn pots of up to 360o of electrical rotation are also available. Most types of
potentiometers use carbon film for their resistive track, but these types are electrically
noisy (the crackle on a radio volume control), and also have a short mechanical life.

Wire-wound pots also known as rheostats, in the form of either a straight wire or wound
coil resistive wire can also be used, but wire wound pots suffer from resolution problems
as their wiper jumps from one wire segment to the next producing a logarithmic (LOG)
output resulting in errors in the output signal. These too suffer from electrical noise.
For high precision low noise applications conductive plastic resistance element type
polymer film or cermet type potentiometers are now available. These pots have a smooth
low friction electrically linear (LIN) resistive track giving them a low noise, long life and
excellent resolution and are available as both multi-turn and single turn devices. Typical
applications for this type of high accuracy position sensor is in computer game joysticks,
steering wheels, industrial and robot applications.
1.4.2 Inductive Position Sensors.
1.4.2.1 Linear Variable Differential Transformer
One type of positional sensor that does not suffer from mechanical wear problems is the
"Linear Variable Differential Transformer" or LVDT for short. This is an inductive type
position sensor which works on the same principle as the AC transformer that is used to
measure movement. It is a very accurate device for measuring linear displacement and
whose output is proportional to the position of its moveable core.
LVDT (Figure 6) basically consists of three coils wound on a hollow tube former, one
forming the primary coil and the other two coils forming identical secondaries connected
electrically together in series but 180o out of phase either side of the primary coil. A
moveable soft iron ferromagnetic core (sometimes called an "armature") which is
connected to the object being measured, slides or moves up and down inside the tube. A
small AC reference voltage called the "excitation signal" (2 - 20V rms, 2 - 20kHz) is applied
to the primary winding which inturn induces an EMF signal into the two adjacent secondary
windings (transformer principles).
If the soft iron magnetic core armature is exactly in the centre of the tube and the windings,
"null position", the two induced emf's in the two secondary windings cancel each other out
as they are 180o out of phase, so the resultant output voltage is zero. As the core is
displaced slightly to one side or the other from this null or zero position, the induced
voltage in one of the secondaries will be become greater than that of the other secondary
and an output will be produced.

The polarity of the output signal depends upon the direction and displacement of the
moving core. The greater the movement of the soft iron core from its central null position
the greater will be the resulting output signal. The result is a differential voltage output
which varies linearly with the cores position. Therefore, the output signal has both an
amplitude that is a linear function of the cores displacement and a polarity that indicates
direction of movement.
The phase of the output signal can be compared to the primary coil excitation phase
enabling suitable electronic circuits such as the AD592 LVDT Sensor Amplifier to know
which half of the coil the magnetic core is in and thereby know the direction of travel.

Figure 6 The Linear Variable Differential Transformer

When the armature is moved from one end to the other through the centre position the
output voltages changes from maximum to zero and back to maximum again but in the
process changes its phase angle by 180 deg's. This enables the LVDT to produce an
output AC signal whose magnitude represents the amount of movement from the centre
position and whose phase angle represents the direction of movement of the core.
A typical application of a linear variable differential transformer (LDVT) sensor would be as
a pressure transducer, were the pressure being measured pushes against a diaphragm to
produce a force. The force is then converted into a readable voltage signal by the sensor.

Advantages of the linear variable differential transformer, or LVDT compared to a resistive

potentiometer are that its linearity, that is its voltage output to displacement is excellent,
very good accuracy, good resolution, high sensitivity as well as frictionless operation. They
are also sealed for use in hostile environments.
1.4.2.2 Inductive Proximity Sensors.
Another type of inductive sensor in common use is the inductive proximity sensor also
called an Eddy current sensor. While they do not actually measure displacement or
angular rotation they are mainly used to detect the presence of an object in front of them
or within a close proximity, hence the name proximity sensors.
Proximity sensors (Figure 7), are non-contact devices that use a magnetic field for
detection with the simplest magnetic sensor being the reed switch. In an inductive sensor,
a coil is wound around an iron core within an electromagnetic field to form an inductive
loop.
When a ferromagnetic material is placed within the eddy current field generated around
the inductive sensor, such as a ferromagnetic metal plate or metal screw, the inductance
of the coil changes significantly. The proximity sensors detection circuit detects this
change producing an output voltage. Therefore, inductive proximity sensors operate under
the electrical principle of Faraday's Law of inductance.

Figure 7 Inductive Proximity Sensors

An inductive proximity sensor has four main components:

1. The oscillator which produces the electromagnetic field,

2. the coil which generates the magnetic field,
3. the detection circuit which detects any change in the field when an object enters it
and
4. the output circuit which produces the output signal, either with normally closed
(NC) or normally open (NO) contacts.
Inductive proximity sensors allow for the detection of metallic objects in front of the sensor
head without any physical contact of the object itself being detected. This makes them
ideal for use in dirty or wet environments. The "sensing" range of proximity sensors is very
small, typically 0.1mm to 12mm.
As well as industrial applications, inductive proximity sensors are also used to control the
changing of traffic lights at junctions and cross roads. Rectangular inductive loops of wire
are buried into the tarmac road surface and when a car or other road vehicle passes over
the loop, the metallic body of the vehicle changes the loops inductance and activates the
sensor thereby alerting the traffic lights controller that there is a vehicle waiting.
One main disadvantage of these types of sensors is that they are "Omni-directional", that
is they will sense a metallic object either above, below or to the side of it. Also, they do not
detect non-metallic objects although capacitive proximity sensors and ultrasonic
proximity sensors are available. Other commonly available magnetic position sensor
include: reed switches, hall effect sensors and variable reluctance sensors.
1.4.2.3 Rotary Encoders.
Rotary encoders resemble potentiometers mentioned earlier but are non-contact optical
devices used for converting the angular position of a rotating shaft into an analogue or
digital data code. In other words, they convert mechanical movement into an electrical
signal (preferably digital).
All optical encoders work on the same basic principle. Light from an LED or infra-red light
source is passed through a rotating high-resolution encoded disk that contains the
required code patterns, either binary, grey code or BCD. Photo detectors scan the disk as
it rotates and an electronic circuit processes the information into a digital form as a stream
of binary output pulses that are fed to counters or controllers which determine the actual
angular position of the shaft.

There are two basic types of rotary optical encoders: incremental encoders and
absolute position encoders.
Incremental encoders, also known as quadrature encoders or relative rotary encoder, are
the simplest of the two position sensors. Their output is a series of square wave pulses
generated by a photocell arrangement as the coded disk (Figure 8) , with evenly spaced
transparent and dark lines called segments on its surface, moves or rotates past the light
source. The encoder produces a stream of square wave pulses which, when counted,
indicates the angular position of the rotating shaft.

Figure 8 Encoder Disk

Incremental encoders have two separate outputs called "quadrature outputs". These two
outputs are displaced at 90o out of phase from each other with the direction of rotation of
the shaft being determined from the output sequence.
The number of transparent and dark segments or slots on the disk determines the
resolution of the device and increasing the number of lines in the pattern increases the
resolution per degree of rotation. Typical encoded discs have a resolution of up to 256
pulses or 8-bits per rotation.
The simplest incremental encoder (Figure 9) is called a tachometer. It has one single
square wave output and is often used in unidirectional applications where basic position or
speed information only is required. The "Quadrature" or "Sine wave" encoder is the more
common and has two output square waves commonly called channel A and channel B.
This device uses two photo detectors, slightly offset from each other by 90o thereby
producing two separate sine and cosine output signals.

Figure 9 Simple Incremental Encoder

By using the Arc Tangent mathematical function the angle of the shaft in radians can be
calculated. Generally, the optical disk used in rotary position encoders is circular, then the
resolution of the output will be given as: = 360/n, where n equals the number of segments
on coded disk. Then for example, the number of segments required to give an incremental
encoder a resolution of 1o will be: 1o = 360/n, therefore, n = 360 windows, etc. Also the
direction of rotation is determined by noting which channel produces an output first, either
channel A or channel B giving two directions of rotation, A leads B or B leads A. This
arrangement is shown in Figure 10

Figure 10 Incremental Encoder Output

One main disadvantage of incremental encoders when used as a position sensor, is that
they require external counters to determine the absolute angle of the shaft within a given
rotation. If the power is momentarily shut off, or if the encoder misses a pulse due to noise

or a dirty disc, the resulting angular information will produce an error. One way of
overcoming this disadvantage is to use absolute position encoders.
Absolute Position Encoders are more complex than quadrature encoders. They provide
a unique output code for every single position of rotation indicating both position and
direction. Their coded disk consists of multiple concentric "tracks" of light and dark
segments (Figure 11). Each track is independent with its own photo detector to
simultaneously read a unique coded position value for each angle of movement. The
number of tracks on the disk corresponds to the binary "bit"-resolution of the encoder so a
12-bit absolute encoder would have 12 tracks and the same coded value only appears
once per revolution.

Figure 11. Four-bit Binary Coded Disc

One main advantage of an absolute encoder is its non-volatile memory which retains the
exact position of the encoder without the need to return to a "home" position if the power
fails. Most rotary encoders are defined as "single-turn" devices, but absolute multi-turn
devices are available, which obtain feedback over several revolutions by adding extra
code disks.
Typical application of absolute position encoders are in computer hard drives and CD/DVD
drives were the absolute position of the drives read/write heads are monitored or in
printers/plotters to accurately position the printing heads over the paper.

1.5 Temperature Sensors

The most commonly used type of all the sensors are those which detect
temperature or heat. These types of temperature sensor vary from simple ON/OFF
thermostatic devices which control a domestic hot water system to highly sensitive
semiconductor types that can control complex process control plants.
We remember from our school science classes that the movement of molecules and
atoms produces heat (kinetic energy) and the greater the movement, the more heat that is
generated. Temperature sensors measure the amount of heat energy or even coldness
that is generated by an object or system, allowing us to "sense" or detect any physical
change to that temperature producing either an analogue or digital output.
There are many different types of Temperature Sensor available and all have different
characteristics depending upon their actual application. Temperature sensors consist of
two basic physical types:

Contact Temperature Sensor Types - These types of temperature sensor are

required to be in physical contact with the object being sensed and use conduction to
monitor changes in temperature. They can be used to detect solids, liquids or gases over a
wide range of temperatures.

Non-contact Temperature Sensor Types - These types of temperature sensor use

convection and radiation to monitor changes in temperature. They can be used to detect
liquids and gases that emit radiant energy as heat rises and cold settles to the bottom in
convection currents or detect the radiant energy being transmitted from an object in the
form of infra-red radiation (the sun).
The two basic types of contact or even non-contact temperature sensors can also be subdivided into the following three groups of sensors, Electro-mechanical, Resistive and
Electronic.

1.5.1 The Thermostat

The thermostat is a contact type electro-mechanical temperature sensor or switch, that
basically consists of two different metals such as nickel, copper, tungsten or aluminium
etc, that are bonded together to form a bi-metallic strip. The different linear expansion
rates of the two dissimilar metals produces a mechanical bending movement when the

strip is subjected to heat. The bi-metallic strip is used as a switch in the thermostat and are
used extensively to control hot water heating elements in boilers, furnaces, hot water
storage tanks as well as in vehicle radiator cooling systems.

Figure 12. The bi-metallic thermostat

The thermostat consists of two thermally different metals stuck together back to back.
When it is cold the contacts are closed and current passes through the thermostat. When it
gets hot, one metal expands more than the other and the bonded bi-metallic strip bends up
(or down) opening the contacts preventing the current from flowing.
There are two main types of bi-metallic strips based mainly upon their movement when
subjected to temperature changes. There are the "snap-action" types that produce an
instantaneous "ON/OFF" or "OFF/ON" type action on the electrical contacts at a set
temperature point, and the slower "creep-action" types that gradually change their position
as the temperature changes.
Snap-action type thermostats are commonly used in our homes for controlling the
temperature set point of ovens, irons, immersion hot water tanks and they can also be
found on walls to control the domestic heating system.
Creeper types generally consist of a bi-metallic coil or spiral that slowly unwinds or coils-up
as the temperature changes. Generally, creeper type bi-metallic strips are more sensitive
to temperature changes than the standard snap ON/OFF types as the strip is longer and
thinner making them ideal for use in temperature gauges and dials etc.
Although very cheap and are available over a wide operating range, one main
disadvantage of the standard snap-action type thermostats when used as a temperature
sensor, is that they have a large hysteresis range from when the electrical contacts open
until when they close again. For example, it may be set to 20oC but may not open until

22oC or close again until 18oC. So the range of temperature swing can be quite high.
Commercially available bi-metallic thermostats for home use do have temperature
adjustment screws that allow for a more precise desired temperature set-point and
hysteresis level to be pre-set.
1.5.2 The Thermistor
The thermistor (Figure 13) is another type of temperature sensor, whose name is a
combination of the wordsTHERM-ally sensitive res-ISTOR. A thermistor is a type of
resistor which changes its physical resistance with changes in temperature.

Figure 13 Thermistor

Thermistors are generally made from ceramic materials such as oxides of nickel,
manganese or cobalt coated in glass which makes them easily damaged. Their main
advantage over snap-action types is their speed of response to any changes in
temperature, accuracy and repeatability.
Most types of thermistor's have a Negative Temperature Coefficient of resistance or
(NTC), that is their resistance value goes DOWN with an increase in the temperature but
some with a Positive Temperature Coefficient, (PTC), their resistance value goes UP with
an increase in temperature are also available.
Thermistors are constructed from a ceramic type semiconductor material using metal
oxide technology such as manganese, cobalt and nickel, etc. The semiconductor material
is generally formed into small pressed discs or balls which are hermetically sealed to give
a relatively fast response to any changes in temperature.
Thermistors are rated by their resistive value at room temperature (usually at 25oC), their
time constant (the time to react to the temperature change) and their power rating with

respect to the current flowing through them. Like resistors, thermistors are available with
resistance values at room temperature from 10's of M down to just a few Ohms, but for
sensing purposes those types with values in the kilo-ohms are generally used.
Thermistors are passive resistive devices which means we need to pass a current through
it to produce a measurable voltage output. Then thermistors are generally connected in
series with a suitable biasing resistor to form a potential divider network and the choice of
resistor gives a voltage output at some pre-determined temperature point or value for
example:

Application
The following thermistor has a resistance value of 10K at 25oC and a resistance value of
100 at 100oC. Calculate the voltage drop across the thermistor and hence its output
voltage (Vout) for both temperatures when connected in series with a 1k resistor across
a 12v power supply.

At 25oC

At 100oC

By changing the fixed resistor value of R2 (in our example 1k) to a potentiometer or
preset, a voltage output can be obtained at a predetermined temperature set point for

example, 5V output at 60oC and by varying the potentiometer a particular output voltage
level can be obtained over a wider temperature range.
It needs to be noted however, that thermistor's are non-linear devices and their standard
resistance values at room temperature is different between different thermistor's, which is
due mainly to the semiconductor materials they are made from. The thermistor, have an
exponential change with temperature and therefore have a Beta temperature constant ( )
which can be used to calculate its resistance for any given temperature point.
However, when used with a series resistor such as in a voltage divider network or
Whetstone Bridge type arrangement, the current obtained in response to a voltage applied
to the divider/bridge network is linear with temperature. Then, the output voltage across
the resistor becomes linear with temperature.
1.5.3 Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD).
Another type of electrical resistance temperature sensor is the Resistance Temperature
Detector or RTD (Figure 14). RTD's are precision temperature sensors made from highpurity conducting metals such as platinum, copper or nickel wound into a coil and whose
electrical resistance changes as a function of temperature, similar to that of the thermistor.
Also available are thin-film RTD's. These devices have a thin film of platinum paste is
deposited onto a white ceramic substrate.

Figure 14 RTD

Resistive temperature detectors have positive temperature coefficients (PTC) but unlike
the thermistor their output is extremely linear producing very accurate measurements of
temperature. However, they have poor sensitivity, that is a change in temperature only
produces a very small output change for example, 1/ oC. The more common types of
RTD's are made from platinum and are called Platinum Resistance Thermometer or
PRT's with the most commonly available of them all the Pt100 sensor, which has a
standard resistance value of 100 at 0oC. The downside is that Platinum is expensive and
one of the main disadvantages of this type of device is its cost.

Like the thermistor, RTD's are passive resistive devices and by passing a constant current
through the temperature sensor it is possible to obtain an output voltage that increases
linearly with temperature. A typical RTD has a base resistance of about 100 at 0oC,
increasing to about 140 at 100oC with an operating temperature range of between -200
to +600oC.
Because the RTD is a resistive device, we need to pass a current through them and
monitor the resulting voltage. However, any variation in resistance due to self heat of the
resistive wires as the current flows through it, I2R , (Ohms Law) causes an error in the
readings. To avoid this, the RTD is usually connected into a Whetstone Bridge network
which has additional connecting wires for lead-compensation and/or connection to a
constant current source.
1.5.4 The Thermocouple
The thermocouple (Figure 15) is by far the most commonly used type of all the
temperature sensing devices due to its simplicity, ease of use and their speed of response
to changes in temperature, due mainly to their small size. Thermocouples also have the
widest temperature range of all the temperature sensors from below -200oC to well over
2000oC.
Thermocouples are thermoelectric sensors that basically consists of two junctions of
dissimilar metals, such as copper and constantan that are welded or crimped together.
One junction is kept at a constant temperature called the reference (Cold) junction, while
the other the measuring (Hot) junction. When the two junctions are at different
temperatures, a voltage is developed across the junction which is used to measure the
temperature sensor as shown below.

Figure 15 Thermocouple Construction

The operating principal of a thermocouple is very simple and basic. When fused together
the junction of the two dissimilar metals such as copper and constantan produces a
"thermo-electric" effect which gives a constant potential difference of only a few millivolts
(mV) between them. The voltage difference between the two junctions is called the
"Seebeck effect" as a temperature gradient is generated along the conducting wires
producing an emf. Then the output voltage from a thermocouple is a function of the
temperature changes.
If both the junctions are at the same temperature the potential difference across the two
junctions is zero in other words, no voltage output as V1 = V2. However, when the junctions
are connected within a circuit and are both at different temperatures a voltage output will
be detected relative to the difference in temperature between the two junctions, V1 - V2.
This difference in voltage will increase with temperature until the junctions peak voltage
level is reached and this is determined by the characteristics of the two dissimilar metals
used.
Thermocouples can be made from a variety of different materials enabling extreme
temperatures of between -200oC to over +2000oC to be measured. With such a large
choice of materials and temperature range, internationally recognised standards have
been developed complete with thermocouple colour codes to allow the user to choose the
correct thermocouple sensor for a particular application. The British colour code for
standard thermocouples is given below.

Thermocouple Sensor Colour Codes

Extension and Compensating Leads
Code
Type
E

Conductors (+/-)
Nickel Chromium /
Constantan

Iron / Constantan

Nickel Chromium /
Nickel Aluminium

Nicrosil / Nisil

Copper / Constantan

Sensitivity

British
BS 1843:1952

-200 to 900oC

0 to 750oC

-200 to 1250oC

0 to 1250oC

-200 to 350oC

Copper / Copper Nickel

U

Compensating for

0 to 1450oC

"S" and "R"

Table 2 Thermocouple Colour Codes

The three most common thermocouple materials used above for general temperature
measurement are Iron-Constantan (Type J), Copper-Constantan (Type T), and NickelChromium (Type K). The output voltage from a thermocouple is very small, only a few
millivolts (mV) for a 10oC change in temperature difference and because of this small
voltage output some form of amplification is generally required (Figure 16).

Figure 16 Thermocouple Amplification

The type of amplifier, either discrete or in the form of an operational amplifier needs to be
carefully selected, because good drift stability is required to prevent recalibration of the
thermocouple at frequent intervals. This makes the chopper and instrumentation type of
amplifier preferable for most temperature sensing applications.
Other types of temperature sensor include: Semiconductor Junction Sensors, Infra-red
and Thermal Radiation Sensors, Medical type Thermometers, Indicators and Colour
Changing Inks or Dyes.

1.6 Light Sensors

A light Sensor generates an output signal indicating the intensity of light by measuring the
radiant energy that exists in a very narrow range of frequencies basically called "light", and
which ranges in frequency from "Infrared" to "Visible" up to "Ultraviolet" light spectrum. The
light sensor is a passive devices that convert this "light energy" whether visible or in the
infrared parts of the spectrum into an electrical signal output. Light sensors are more
commonly known as "Photoelectric Devices" or "Photo Sensors" because the convert light
energy (photons) into electricity (electrons).
Photoelectric devices can be grouped into two main categories, those which generate
electricity when illuminated, such as Photo-voltaics or Photo-emissives etc, and those
which change their electrical properties in some way such as Photo-resistors or Photoconductors. This leads to the following classification of devices.

Photo-emissive Cells - These are photodevices which release free electrons from
a light sensitive material such as caesium when struck by a photon of sufficient energy.
The amount of energy the photons have depends on the frequency of the light and the
higher the frequency, the more energy the photons have converting light energy into
electrical energy.

Photo-conductive Cells - These photodevices vary their electrical resistance when

subjected to light. Photoconductivity results from light hitting a semiconductor material
which controls the current flow through it. Thus, more light increase the current for a given
applied voltage. The most common photoconductive material is Cadmium Sulphide used
in LDR photocells.

Photo-voltaic Cells - These photodevices generate an emf in proportion to the

radiant light energy received and is similar in effect to photoconductivity. Light energy falls
on to two semiconductor materials sandwiched together creating a voltage of

approximately 0.5V. The most common photovoltaic material is Selenium used in solar
cells.

Photo-junction Devices - These photodevices are mainly true semiconductor

devices such as the photodiode or phototransistor which use light to control the flow of
electrons and holes across their PN-junction. Photojunction devices are specifically
designed for detector application and light penetration with their spectral response tuned to
the wavelength of incident light.

1.6.1 The Photoconductive Cell

A photoconductive light sensor does not produce electricity but simply changes its
physical properties when subjected to light energy. The most common type of
photoconductive device is the photoresistor which changes its electrical resistance in
response to changes in the light intensity. Photoresistors are semiconductor devices that
use light energy to control the flow of electrons, and hence the current flowing through
them. The commonly used Photoconductive Cell is called the Light Dependent Resistor
or LDR.

1.6.1.1 The Light Dependent Resistor

As its name implies, the Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) (Figure 17) is made from a
piece of exposed semiconductor material such as cadmium sulphide that changes its
electrical resistance from several thousand Ohms in the dark to only a few hundred Ohms
when light falls upon it by creating hole-electron pairs in the material.

Figure 17 Typical LDR

The net effect is an improvement in its conductivity with a decrease in resistance for an
increase in illumination. Also, photoresistive cells have a long response time requiring
many seconds to respond to a change in the light intensity.
Materials used as the semiconductor substrate include, lead sulphide (PbS), lead selenide
(PbSe), indium antimonide (InSb) which detect light in the infra-red range with the most
commonly used of all photoresistive light sensors being Cadmium Sulphide (Cds).
Cadmium sulphide is used in the manufacture of photoconductive cells because its
spectral response curve closely matches that of the human eye and can even be
controlled using a simple torch as a light source. Typically then, it has a peak sensitivity
wavelength (p) of about 560nm to 600nm in the visible spectral range.

Figure 18 The Light Dependent Resistor Cell

The most commonly used photoresistive light sensor is the ORP12 Cadmium Sulphide
photoconductive cell. This light dependent resistor has a spectral response of about
610nm in the yellow to orange region of light. The resistance of the cell when unilluminated
(dark resistance) is very high at about 10M's which falls to about 100's when fully
illuminated (lit resistance).
To increase the dark resistance and therefore reduce the dark current, the resistive path
forms a zigzag pattern across the ceramic substrate. The CdS photocell is a very low cost
device often used in auto dimming, darkness or twilight detection for turning the street
lights "ON" and "OFF", and for photographic exposure meter type applications.

Connecting a light dependant resistor in series with a standard resistor like this across a
single DC supply voltage has one major advantage, a different voltage will appear at their
junction for different levels of light.

Figure 19 LDR in a votage divider circuit

The amount of voltage drop across series resistor, R2 is determined by the resistive value
of the light dependant resistor, RLDR. This ability to generate different voltages produces a
very handy circuit called a "Potential Divider" (Figure 19) or Voltage Divider Network.
As we know, the current through a series circuit is common and as the LDR changes its
resistive value due to the light intensity, the voltage present at VOUT will be determined by
the voltage divider formula. An LDRs resistance, RLDR can vary from about 100's in the
sun light, to over 10M's in absolute darkness with this variation of resistance being
converted into a voltage variation at VOUT as shown.
1.6.2 Photojunction Devices
Photojunction devices are basically PN-junction light sensors or detectors made from
silicon semiconductor PN-junctions which are sensitive to light and which can detect both
visible light and infrared light levels. Photo-junction devices are specifically made for
sensing light and this class of photoelectric light sensors include the Photodiode and the
Phototransistor.
1.6.2.1 The Photodiode.

Figure 20. Photo-diode

The construction of the photodiode light sensor is similar to that of a conventional PNjunction diode except that the diodes outer casing is either transparent or has a clear lens
to focus the light onto the PN junction for increased sensitivity. The junction will respond to
light particularly longer wavelengths such as red and infrared rather than visible light.
This characteristic can be a problem for diodes with transparent or glass bead bodies such
as the 1N4148 signal diode. LED's can also be used as photodiodes as they can both emit
and detect light from their junction. All PN-junctions are light sensitive and can be used in
a photo-conductive unbiased voltage mode with the PN-junction of the photodiode always
"Reverse Biased" so that only the diodes leakage or dark current can flow.
The current-voltage characteristic (I/V Curves) of a photodiode with no light on its junction
(dark mode) is very similar to a normal signal or rectifying diode (Figure 21). When the
photodiode is forward biased, there is an exponential increase in the current, the same as
for a normal diode. When a reverse bias is applied, a small reverse saturation current
appears which causes an increase of the depletion region, which is the sensitive part of
the junction. Photodiodes can also be connected in a current mode using a fixed bias
voltage across the junction. The current mode is very linear over a wide range.

Figure 21. Photo-diode Construction and Characteristics

When used as a light sensor, a photodiodes dark current (0 lux) is about 10uA for
geranium and 1uA for silicon type diodes. When light falls upon the junction more
hole/electron pairs are formed and the leakage current increases. This leakage current
increases as the illumination of the junction increases. Thus, the photodiodes current is
directly proportional to light intensity falling onto the PN-junction. One main advantage of
photodiodes when used as light sensors is their fast response to changes in the light
levels, but one disadvantage of this type of photodevice is the relatively small current flow
even when fully lit.
The circuit from Figure 22 shows a photo-current-to-voltage convertor circuit using an
operational amplifier as the amplifying device. The output voltage (Vout) is given as Vout =
Ip Rf and which is proportional to the light intensity characteristics of the photodiode.
This type of circuit also utilizes the characteristics of an operational amplifier with two input
terminals at about zero voltage to operate the photodiode without bias. This zero-bias opamp configuration gives a high impedance loading to the photodiode resulting in less
influence by dark current and a wider linear range of the photocurrent relative to the
radiant light intensity. Capacitor Cf is used to prevent oscillation or gain peaking and to set
the output bandwidth (1/2RC).

Figure 22 Photo-diode Amplifier Circuit

Photodiodes are very versatile light sensors that can turn its current flow both "ON" and
"OFF" in nanoseconds and are commonly used in cameras, light meters, CD and DVDROM drives, TV remote controls, scanners, fax machines and copiers etc, and when
integrated into operational amplifier circuits as infrared spectrum detectors for fibre optic
communications, burglar alarm motion detection circuits and numerous imaging, laser
scanning and positioning systems etc.
1.6.2.2 The Phototransistor
An alternative photo-junction device to the photodiode is the phototransistor which is
basically a photodiode with amplification (Figure 23) . The Phototransistor light sensor has
its collector-base PN-junction reverse biased exposing it to the radiant light source.

Figure 23 Photo-transistor

Phototransistors operate the same as the photodiode except that they can provide current
gain and are much more sensitive than the photodiode with currents are 50 to 100 times
greater than that of the standard photodiode and any normal transistor can be easily
converted into a phototransistor light sensor by connecting a photodiode between the
collector and base.

Phototransistors consist mainly of a bipolar NPN transistor with its large base region
electrically unconnected, although some phototransistors allow a base connection to
control the sensitivity, and which uses photons of light to generate a base current which
inturn causes a collector to emitter current to flow. Most phototransistors are NPN types
whose outer casing is either transparent or has a clear lens to focus the light onto the base
junction for increased sensitivity.
In the NPN transistor the collector is biased positively with respect to the emitter so that
the base/collector junction is reverse biased. therefore, with no light on the junction normal
leakage or dark current flows which is very small. When light falls on the base (Figure 24)
more electron/hole pairs are formed in this region and the current produced by this action
is amplified by the transistor.

Figure 24. Photo-transistor Construction and Characteristics

Usually the sensitivity of a phototransistor is a function of the DC current gain of the

transistor. Therefore, the overall sensitivity is a function of collector current and can be
controlled by connecting a resistance between the base and the emitter but for very high
sensitivity optocoupler type applications, Darlington phototransistors are generally used
(Figure 24).

Figure 24. Photo-darlington

Photodarlington transistors use a second bipolar NPN transistor to provide additional

amplification or when higher sensitivity of a photodetector is required due to low light levels
or selective sensitivity, but its response is slower than that of an ordinary NPN
phototransistor.
Photo darlington devices consist of a normal phototransistor whose emitter output is
coupled to the base of a larger bipolar NPN transistor. Because a darlington transistor
configuration gives a current gain equal to a product of the current gains of two individual
transistors, a photodarlington device produces a very sensitive detector.
Typical applications of phototransistors light sensors are in opto-isolators, slotted opto
switches, light beam sensors, fibre optics and TV type remote controls, etc. Infrared filters
are sometimes required when detecting visible light.
Another type of photojunction semiconductor light sensor worth a mention is the Photothyristor. This is a light activated thyristor or Silicon Controlled Rectifier, SCR that can
be used as a light activated switch in AC applications. However their sensitivity is usually
very low compared to equivalent photodiodes or phototransistors. To increase their
sensitivity to light photo-thyristors are made thinner around the gate junction. The
downside to this process is that it limits the amount of anode current that they can switch.
Then for higher current AC applications they are used as pilot devices in opto-couplers to
switch larger more conventional thyristors.
1.6.2.3 Photovoltaic Cells.
The most common type of photovoltaic light sensor is the solar cell (Figure 25). Solar
cells convert light energy directly into DC electrical energy in the form of a voltage or
current to a resistive load such as a light, battery or motor. Then photovoltaic cells are
similar to a battery because they supply DC power. Unlike the other photo devices above

which use light intensity even from a torch to operate, photvoltaic cells work best using the
suns radiant energy.
Solar cells are used in many different types of applications to offer an alternative power
source from conventional batteries, such as in calculators, satellites and now in homes
offering a form of renewable power.

Figure 25 Photovoltaic Cell

Photovoltaic cells are made from single crystal silicon PN junctions, the same as
photodiodes with a very large light sensitive region but are used without the reverse bias.
They have the same characteristics as a very large photodiode when in the dark (Figure
26). When illuminated the light energy causes electrons to flow through the PN junction
and an individual solar cell can generate an open circuit voltage of about 0.58V (580mV).
Solar cells have a "Positive" and a "Negative" side just like a battery.
Individual solar cells can be connected together in series to form solar panels which
increases the output voltage or connected together in parallel to increase the available
current. Commercially available solar panels are rated in Watts, which is the product of the
output voltage and current (Volts times Amps) when fully lit.

Figure 26 Characteristics of a typical Photovoltaic Solar Cell.

The amount of available current from a solar cell depends upon the light intensity, the size
of the cell and its efficiency which is generally very low at around 15 to 20%. To increase

the overall efficiency of the cell commercially available solar cells use polycrystalline
silicon or amorphous silicon, which have no crystalline structure, and can generate
currents of between 20 to 40mA per cm2.
Other materials used in the construction of photovoltaic cells include Gallium Arsenide,
Copper Indium Diselenide and Cadmium Telluride. These different materials each have a
different spectrum band response, and so can be "tuned" to produce an output voltage at
different wavelengths of light.