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IC Training Modules

Computer
Numerical
Control
(CNC)
IC PROFESSIONAL TRAINING SERIES
Last updated at AUGUST 2009
Copyright reserved by INDUSTRIAL CENTRE, THE HONG KONG POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY

Computer Numerical Control (CNC)

Computer Numerical
Control (CNC)
Objectives:

To understand the working principle and applications of CNC machines.

To be able to prepare CNC part programmes for machining 2-D
workpieces.
To understand the structure and flow of a CAM system.

Content:
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3

Numerical Control Fundamentals

CNC Part Programming
Computer Aided Manufacturing

Introduction
Computer Numerical Control (CNC) is a specialized and versatile form of Soft
Automation and its applications cover many kinds, although it was initially
developed to control the motion and operation of machine tools.
Computer Numerical Control may be considered to be a means of operating a
machine through the use of discrete numerical values fed into the machine, where the
required 'input' technical information is stored on a kind of input media such as
floppy disk, hard disk, CD ROM, DVD, USB flash drive, or RAM card etc. The
machine follows a predetermined sequence of machining operations at the
predetermined speeds necessary to produce a work piece of the right shape and size
and thus according to completely predictable results. A different product can be
produced through reprogramming and a low-quantity production run of different
products is justified.

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Fig.1-1 CNC Machine Centre (Courtesy of Agie Charmilles)

The definition of CNC given by Electronic Industry Association (EIA) is as follows:

A system in which actions are controlled by the direct insertion of numerical
data at some point. The system must automatically interpret at least some
portion of this data.
In a simple word, a CNC system receives numerical data, interpret the data and then
control the action accordingly.

Chapter 1. Computer Numerical Control Fundamentals

Objectives:

To understand the working principle of CNC machines.

To understand the characteristics of the driving systems.
To understand the characteristics of the feedback
devices.
To understand the applications of CNC machines.
1.1

Control Systems

1.1.1 Open Loop Systems

Open loop systems have no access to the real time data about the performance
of the system and therefore no immediate corrective action can be taken in
case of system disturbance. This system is normally applied only to the case
where the output is almost constant and predictable. Therefore, an open
loop system is unlikely to be used to control machine tools since the cutting
force and loading of a machine tool is never a constant. The only exception is
the wire-cut machine for which some machine tool builders still prefer to use an
open loop system because there is virtually no cutting force in wire-cut
machining.

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Fig.1-2(a) Block Diagram of an Open Loop System

1.1.2 Close Loop Systems

In a close loop system, feedback devices closely monitor the output and
any disturbance will be corrected in the first instance. Therefore high system
accuracy is achievable. This system is more powerful than the open loop system
and can be applied to the case where the output is subjected to frequent
change. Nowadays, almost all CNC machines use this control system.

Fig.1-2(b) Block Diagram of a Close Loop System

1.2

Elements of a CNC System

A CNC system consists of the following 6 major elements:

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Input Device
Machine Control Unit
Machine Tool
Driving System
Feedback Devices
Display Unit

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Fig.1-3 Working Principles of CNC Machines

1.2.1 Input Devices

a. Floppy Disk Drive
Floppy disk is a small magnetic storage device for CNC data input. It has been
the most common storage media up to the 1970s, in terms of data transfer
speed, reliability, storage size, data handling and the ability to read
and write. Furthermore, the data within a floppy could be easily edited at any
point as long as you have the proper program to read it. However, this method
has proven to be quite problematic in the long run as floppies have a
tendency to degrade alarmingly fast and are sensitive to large magnetic
fields and as well as the dust and scratches that usually existed on the shop
floor.

Fig.1-4 Floppy Disk Drive on a CNC machine

b. USB Flash Drive

A USB flash drive is a removable and rewritable portable hard drive with compact
size and bigger storage size than a floppy disk. Data stored inside the flash drive
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are impervious to dust and scratches that enable flash drives to transfer data
from place to place. In recent years, all computers support USB flash drives to
read and write data that make it become more and more popular in CNC
machine control unit.

Fig.1-5 USB Flash Drive on a CNC machine

c. Serial communication
The data transfer between a computer and a CNC machine tool is often
accomplished through a serial communication port. International standards for serial
communications are established so that information can be exchanged in an orderly
way The most common interface between computers and CNC machine tools
is. referred to the EIA Standard RS-232. Most of the personal computers and

CNC machine tools have built in RS232 port and a standard RS-232 cable is
used to connect a CNC machine to a computer which enables the data
transfer in reliable way. Part programs can be downloaded into the memory of a
machine tool or uploaded to the computer for temporary storage by running
a communication program on the computer and setting up the machine control to
interact with the communication software.

Fig.1-6 Serial communication port on a CNC machine

Direct Numerical Control: is referred to a system connecting a set of numerically

controlled machines to a common memory for part program or machine program
storage with provision for on-demand distribution of data to the machines. (ISO
2806:1980) The NC part program is downloaded a block or a section at a time into

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the controller.
Once the downloaded section is executed, the section will be
discarded to leave room for other sections. This method is commonly used for
machine tools that do not have enough memory or storage buffer for large NC part
programs.

Distributed Numerical: Control is a hierarchical system for distributing

data between a production management computer and NC systems. (ISO
2806:1994) The host computer is linked with a number of CNC machines
or computers connecting to the CNC machines for downloading part
programs. The communication program in the host computer can utilize
two-way data transfer features for production data communication including:
production schedule, parts produced and machine utilization etc.

Fig.1-7 Serial communication in a Distributed Numerical Control system

d. Ethernet communication
Due to the advancement of the computer technology and the drastic reduction of
the cost of the computer, it is becoming more practical and economic to transfer
part programmers between computers and CNC machines via an Ethernet
communication cable. This media provides a more efficient and reliable means in
part programmer transmission and storage. Most companies now built a Local Area
Network (LAN) as their infrastructure. More and more CNC machine tools provide
an option of the Ethernet Card for direct communication within the LAN.

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Fig.1-8 Ethernet port on a CNC machine

Fig.1-9 Ethernet network in a Distributed Numerical Control system

e. Conversational Programming
Part programmes can be input to the controller via the keyboard. Built-in
intelligent software inside the controller enables the operator to enter the required
data step by step. This is a very efficient way for preparing programmes for
relatively simple work pieces involving up to 2 axis machining.

Fig.1-10 Conversational Programming in a CNC controller

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1.2.2 Machine Control Unit (MCU)

The machine control unit is the heart of the CNC system. There are two sub-units in the
machine control unit: the Data Processing Unit (DPU) and the Control Loop Unit (CLU).

a. Data Processing Unit

On receiving a part programme, the DPU firstly interprets and encodes the part
programme into internal machine codes. The interpolator of the DPU then
calculate the intermediate positions of the motion in terms of BLU (basic length unit)
which is the smallest unit length that can be handled by the controller. The calculated
data are passed to CLU for further action.

b. Control Loop Unit

The data from the DPU are converted into electrical signals in the CLU to control the
driving system to perform the required motions. Other functions such as machine
spindle ON/OFF, coolant ON/OFF, tool clamp ON/OFF are also controlled by this unit
according to the internal machine codes.

1.2.3 Machine Tool

This can be any type of machine tool or equipment. In order to obtain high
accuracy and repeatability, the design and make of the machine slide and the
driving leadscrew of a CNC machine is of vital importance. The slides are usually
machined to high accuracy and coated with anti-friction material such as PTFE and
Turcite in order to reduce the stick and slip phenomenon. Large diameter
recirculating ball screws are employed to eliminate the backlash and lost motion. Other
design features such as rigid and heavy machine structure; short machine table
overhang, quick change tooling system, etc also contribute to the high accuracy
and high repeatability of CNC machines.

Fig.1-11(a) Ball Screw in a CNC machine

Fig.1-11(b) Ball screw structure

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1.2.4 Driving System

The driving system is an important component of a CNC machine as the accuracy and
repeatability depend very much on the characteristics and performance of the driving
system. The requirement is that the driving system has to response accurately
according to the programmed instructions. This system usually uses electric motors
although hydraulic motors are sometimes used for large machine tools. The motor is
coupled either directly or through a gear box to the machine lead screw to moves
the machine slide or the spindle. Three types of electrical motors are commonly
used.

a. DC Servo Motor
This is the most common type of feed motors used in CNC machines. The principle
of operation is based on the rotation of an armature winding in a permanently
energized magnetic field. The armature winding is connected to a commutator,
which is a cylinder of insulated copper segments mounted on the shaft. DC current
is passed to the commutator through carbon brushes, which are connected to the
machine terminals. The change of the motor speed is by varying the armature
voltage and the control of motor torque is achieved by controlling the motor's
armature current. In order to achieve the necessary dynamic behaviour it is
operated in a closed loop system equipped with sensors to obtain the velocity and
position feedback signals.

Fig.1-12 DC Servo Motor (Courtesy of Flexible Automation)

b. AC Servo Motor
In an AC servomotor, the rotor is a permanent magnet while the stator is
equipped with 3-phase windings. The speed of the rotor is equal to the rotational
frequency of the magnetic field of the stator, which is regulated by the frequency
converter.
AC motors are gradually replacing DC servomotors. The main reason is that there
is no commutator or brushes in AC servomotor so that maintenance is virtually not
required. Furthermore, AC servos have a smaller power-to-weight ratio and faster
response.

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Fig.1-13 AC Servo Motor (Courtesy of Flexible Automation)

c. Stepping Motor
A stepping motor is a device that converts the electrical pulses into discrete
mechanical rotational motions of the motor shaft. This is the simplest device that can
be applied to CNC machines since it can convert digital data into actual mechanical
displacement. It is not necessary to have any analog-to-digital converter nor
feedback device for the control system. They are ideally suited to open loop systems.
However, stepping motors are not commonly used in machine tools due to the
following drawbacks: slow speed, low torque, low resolution and easy to slip in case
of overload. Examples of stepping motor application are the magnetic head of
floppy-disc drive and hard disc drive of computer, daisy-wheel type printer, X-Y tape
control, and CNC EDM Wire-cut machine.

Fig.1-14 Stepping Motor (Courtesy Real-Time Microcomputer)

d. Linear Motor
A linear electric motor is an AC rotary motor laid out flat. The same principle used
to produce torque in rotary motors is used to produce force in linear motors.
Through the electromagnetic interaction between a coil assembly and a
permanent magnet assembly, the electrical energy is converted to linear
mechanical energy to generate a linear motion. As the motion of the motor is
linear instead of rotational, therefore it is called linear motor. Linear motors have
the advantages of high speeds, high precision and fast response. In the 1980s,

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machine tool builders started using linear motors with the common motion
control servo drives in the machine tool design.

Fig.1-15 Linear Motor (Courtesy of Renishaw)

Among different designs of linear motors, permanent magnet brushless motors

demonstrate a high force density, high maximum speed, and stable force constant. The
lack of a brushed commutater assembly has the advantages of fewer
maintenance, higher reliability and better smoothness.
An iron core brushless linear motor is similar to a conventional brushless rotary
motor slit axially and then rolled out flat. The unrolled rotor is a stationary plate
consisting of magnets tiled on an iron back plate and the unrolled stator is a
moving coil assembly consisting of coils wound around a laminated steel core. Coil
windings are typically connected in conventional 3 phase arrangement and
commutation is often performed by Hall-effect sensors or sinusoidal. It has high efficiency and
good for continuous force.
An ironless linear motor consists of a stationary U shaped channel filled with permanent
magnets tiled along both interior walls. A moving coil assembly traverses between two
opposing rows of magnets. Commutation is done electronically either by Hall-effect sensors
or sinusoidal.

The ironless linear motor has the advantages of lower core mass, lower

inductance and no cogging for smooth motion as the ironless motors have no attractive
force between the frameless components.

Fig.1-16 Ironcore and Ironless Linear Motor (Courtesy of ETEL)

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1.2.5 Feedback Device

In order to have a CNC machine operating accurately, the positional values and
speed of the axes need to be constantly updated. Two types of feed back devices
are normally used, positional feed back device and velocity feed back device.

a. Positional Feed Back Devices

There are two types of positional feed back devices: linear transducer for direct positional
measurement and rotary encoder for angular or indirect linear measurement.

Linear Transducers - A linear transducer is a device mounted on the

machine table to measure the actual displacement of the slide in such a way
that backlash of screws; motors, etc would not cause any error in the feed back
data. This device is considered to be of the highest accuracy and also more
expensive in comparison with other measuring devices mounted on screws or
motors.

Fig.1-17 Linear Transducer (Courtesy of Heidenhain)

Rotary Encoders - A rotary encoder is a device mounted at the end of the

motor shaft or screw to measure the angular displacement. This device
cannot measure linear displacement directly so that error may occur due to
the backlash of screw and motor etc. Generally, this error can be
compensated for by the machine builder in the machine calibration
process.

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Fig.1-18 Incremental and Absolute Rotary Encoder

b. Velocity Feedback Device

The actual speed of the motor can be measured in terms of voltage generated from
a tachometer mounted at the end of the motor shaft. DC tachometer is essentially
a small generator that produces an output voltage proportional to the speed. The
voltage generated is compared with the command voltage corresponding to
the desired speed. The difference of the voltages can is then used to actuate the
motor to eliminate the error.

Fig.1-19 Tachogenerator (Courtesy of Callan)

1.2.6 Display Unit

The Display Unit serves as an interactive device between the machine and the
operator. When the machine is running, the Display Unit displays the present

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status such as the position of the machine slide, the spindle RPM, the feed rate, the
part programmes, etc.
In an advanced CNC machine, the Display Unit can show the graphics simulation
of the tool path so that part programmes can be verified before the actually
machining. Much other important information about the CNC system can also
displayed for maintenance and installation work such as machine parameters, logic
diagram of the programmer controller, error massages and diagnostic data.

Fig.1-20 Display Unit for CNC machines (Courtesy of Heidenhain)

1.3

Applications of CNC Machines

CNC machines are widely used in the metal cutting industry and are best used to
produce the following types of product:

Parts with complicated contours

Parts requiring close tolerance and/or good repeatability

Parts requiring expensive jigs and fixtures if produced on

conventional machines

Parts that may have several engineering changes, such as during

the development stage of a prototype

In cases where human errors could be extremely costly
Parts that are needed in a hurry

Small batch lots or short production runs

Some common types of CNC machines and instruments used in industry are
as following:

Drilling Machine

Lathe / Turning Centre

Milling / Machining Centre

Turret Press and Punching Machine

Wirecut Electro Discharge Machine (EDM)

Grinding Machine

Laser Cutting Machine

Water Jet Cutting Machine

Electro Discharge Machine

Coordinate Measuring Machine

Industrial Robot
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Chapter 2. CNC Part Programming

Objectives:

To understand the Dimension Systems in CNC Part Programming.

To understand the structure of a CNC Part Programme.

To understand the G-codes and other functions of a CNC Part

Programme.

2.1

Axis of motion

In generally, all motions have 6 degrees of freedom. In other words, motion can be
resolved into 6 axes, namely, 3 linear axes (X, Y and Z axis) and 3 rotational axes (A,
B, and C axis).

Y
Z

Fig.2-1 Axis of Motion

2.2

Dimension Systems

2.2.1 Incremental System

This type of control always uses as a reference to the preceding point in a
sequence of points. The disadvantage of this system is that if an error occurs, it will
be accumulated.

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Fig.2-2 Incremental System

2.2.2 Absolute System

In an absolute system all references are made to the origin of the co ordinate
system.
All commands of motion are defined by the absolute coordinate
referred to the origin.

Fig.2-3 Absolute System

2.3

Definition of Programming

NC programming is where all the machining data are compiled and where the
data are translated into a language which can be understood by the control
system of the machine tool. The machining data is as follows:

a.
b.
c.

Machining sequence classification of process, tool start up point, cutting

depth, tool path etc.
Cutting conditions spindle speed, feed rate, coolant, etc.
Selection of cutting tools.

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2.4

Programme Structure

Program
start

Block
#1

Block
#2

Block
#30

Sequence
Number

Word
#1

N002

G
X

End of
Programme

Word
#2

G01

Address

Block
#31

X12.0

Value

01
12.0

Fig.2-4 Structure of CNC Part Programme

A CNC programme consists of blocks, words and addresses.

a.
Block
A command given to the control unit is called a block.
b.
Word
A block is composed of one or more words. A word is composed of an
identification letter and a series of numerals, e.g. the command for a feed rate
of 200mm/min is F200.
c.
Address
The identification letter at the beginning of each word is called address.
The meaning of the address is in accordance with EIA (Electronic
Industries Association) standard RS-274-D. The most common 'addresses' are
listed below:
Function

Address

Sequence number
Preparatory function
Co ordinate word
Parameters for Circular Interpolation
Feed function
Spindle function
Tool function
Miscellaneous function

N
G
X, Y, Z
I, J, K
F
S
T
M

An example of a programme is as follows:

N20 G01 X20.5 F200 S1000 M03
N21 G02 X30.0 Y40.0 I20.5 J32.0

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2.5

Explanation of Words

2.5.1 Sequence Number (N Address)

A sequence number is used to identify the block.
It is always placed at the
beginning of the block and can be regarded as the name of the block. The
sequence numbers need not be consecutive. The execution sequence of the
programme is according to the actual sequence of the block and not the
sequence of the number. In fact some CNC systems do not require sequence
numbers.

2.5.2 Preparatory Function (G Address)

A preparatory function determines how the tool is to move to the programmed
target. The most common G addresses are listed below:
Code
G00
G01
G02
G03
G40
G41
G42
G45 - G48
G70 - G79
G80 - G89
G90
G91

Function
Point to point position at rapid feed
Linear interpolation
Circular interpolation, clockwise
Circular interpolation, anti clockwise
Cutter compensation cancel
Cutter compensation, Left
Cutter compensation, Right
Other cutter compensation, if used
Milling and turning cycle
Drilling and tapping cycle
Absolute dimensioning
Incremental dimensioning

2.5.3 Co-ordinate Word (X/Y/Z Address)

A co-ordinate word specifies the target point of the tool movement (absolute
dimension system) or the distance to be moved (incremental dimension). The
word is composed of the address of the axis to be moved and the value and
direction of the movement.
Example:

X100 Y-200
represents the movement to (100, 200). Whether the dimensions are
absolute or incremental will have to be defined previously (using
G90 or G91).

2.5.4 Parameter for Circular Interpolation (I/J/K Address)

These parameters specify the distance measured from the start point of the arc to the
centre. Numerals following I, J and K are the X, Y and Z components of the distance
respectively.

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2.5.5 Spindle Function (S Address)

The spindle speed is commanded under an S address and is always in revolution per
minute. It can be calculated by the following formula:

Spindle Speed=

Surface Cutting Speed (m/min) 1000

Cutter Diameter (mm)

The following table gives the surface cutting speeds for some common materials:

Example:

Cutting tool

Workpiece material

Material

Al alloy

Brass

Cast Iron

Mild Steel

HSS

120

75

18

30

Carbide

500

180

120

200

S2000 represents a spindle speed of 2000rpm

2.5.6 Feed Function (F Address)

The feed is programmed under an F address except for rapid traverse. The unit may
be in mm per minute (in the case of milling machine) or in mm per revolution
(in the case of turning machine). The unit of the feed rate has to be defined at the
beginning of the programme. The feed rate can be calculated by the following
formula:

Feed Rate = Chip Load / tooth No of Tooth Spindle Speed

The following table gives the chip load per tooth of milling cutters cutting some
common materials:

Milling Cutter

Chip load per tooth (mm/rev)

Material

Al alloy

Brass

Cast Iron

Mild Steel

HSS

0.28

0.18

0.20

0.13

Sintered Carbide

0.25

0.15

0.25

0.25

Example:

F200

represents a feed rate of 200mm/min

2.5.7 Tool Function (T Address)

The selection of tool is commanded under a T address.
Example:

T02

represents tool number 2

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2.5.8 Miscellaneous Function (M Address)

The miscellaneous function is programmed to control the machine operation
other than for co ordinate movement. The most common M functions are as
follows:
Code

Function

M00
M03
M04
M05
M06
M08
M09
M10
M11
M30

Programme stop
Spindle rotation clockwise
Spindle rotation counterclockwise
Spindle STOP
Change of Tool
Coolant ON
Coolant OFF
Clamp
Unclamp
Programme end and ready for another start

2.6

Steps for CNC Programming and Machining

The following is the procedures to be followed in CNC programming and

machining. The most important point is to verify the programme by test run it on the
machine before the actual machining in order to ensure that the programme is free of
mistakes.
a.
b.

c.
d.
e.
f.

g.
h.
i.
j.

Study the part drawing carefully.

Unless the drawing dimensions are CNC adapted, select a suitable
programme zero point on the work piece. The tool will be
adjusted to this zero point during the machine set up.
Determine the machining operations and their sequence.
Determine the method of work clamping
(vice, rotary table,
fixtures etc).
Select cutting tools and determine spindle speeds and feeds.
Write programme (translate machining steps into programme
blocks). If many solutions are possible, try the simplest solution
first. It is usually longer, but better to proceed in this way.
Prepare tool chart or diagram, measure tool geometry (lengths,
radii) and note.
Clamp work piece and set up machine.
Enter compensation value if necessary.
Check and test programme. It is a good practice to dry run the
programme (i) without the work piece, (ii) without the cutting
tools, or (iii) by raising the tool to a safe height.
If necessary, correct and edit programme and check again.

k.

Start machining.

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2.7

G-codes in Part Programming

2.7.1 Absolute and Incremental Dimensioning (G90/G91)

G90 and G91 are used to control the dimensioning system that will be used in the
data input. In G90 mode, the dimensions will be recognized as absolute while in G91
will be incremental.

2.7.2 Rapid Positioning (G00)

This is to command the cutter to move from the existing point to the target
point at the fastest speed of the machine.
Programme Format
G00
X
Y
Z
Z

Rapid
Traverse

X
Fig.2-5 Rapid Positioning

2.7.3 Linear Interpolation (G01)

This is to command the cutter to move from the existing point to the target
point along a straight line at the speed designated by the F address.
Programme Format
G01
X
Y
Z
F

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At Designated
Speed

X
Fig.2-6 Linear Interpolation

2.7.4 Circular Interpolation (G02/G03)

This is to command the cutter to move from the existing point to the target
point along a circular arc in clockwise direction (G02) or counterclockwise
direction (G03).
In this case, beside the target point, the radius or the centre of the arc is also
required. Most of the CNC systems nowadays still require the data of the arc
centre rather than the radius.
The parameters of the centre of the circular arc is designated by the I, J and K
addresses. I is the distance along the X axis, J along the Y, and K along the Z. This
parameter is defined as the vector (magnitude and direction) from the starting
point to the centre of the arc.
Programme Format
(Clockwise Direction)
G02
X
Y
I (XC - XS)
J (YC - YS)
Where
XC and YC is the coordinate of the centre, and
XS and YS is the coordinate of the start point of the arc.

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I

Start point
(Xs, Ys)

J
(Xc, Yc)

End
point

Fig.2-7 Circular Interpolation - Clockwise

Programme Format
(Counterclockwise Direction)
G03
X
Y
I
J
Y

End

(Xc, Yc)

J
Start point
(Xs, Ys)

Fig.2-8 Circular Interpolation - Counterclockwise

2.7.5 Cutter Compensation (G40/G41/G42)

In CNC machining, if the cutter axis is moving along the programmed path, the
dimension of the work piece obtained will be incorrect since the diameter of the
cutter has not be taken into account.
Modern CNC systems are capable of doing this type of calculation which is known
as cutter compensation. What the system requires are the programmed path, the
cutter diameter and the position of the cutter with reference to the contour.
Normally, the cutter diameter is not included in the programme. It has to be input to
the CNC system in the tool setting process.

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Final contour does not

Match with programme path

Programme

Final contour matches

with programme path

Cutter path offset from

the programme path

Fig.2-9 Comparison of Tool Path with and without Cutter Compensation

If the cutter is on the left of the contour, G41 is used. If the cutter is on the right
of the contour, G42 will be used. G40 is to cancel the compensation calculation.

Cutter on the Left of the contour, use G41

Cutter on the Right of the contour, use G42

Fig.2-10 Direction of Cutter Compensation

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Programme Example 1

Programme

Explanation

N01

G90

Absolute Dimensioning

N02

G00

N03

T01

X-30 Y-30 Z100

Rapid move to (X-30, Y-30, Z100)

Using Tool Number 1

N04

G00

Z5 S1000 M03 Rapid move to Z5;

start spindle clockwise at 1000rpm

N05

G01

Z-10 F100

N06

G41 G01 X0 Y15 F200 Call up compensation,

cutter on the left feed to
(X0, Y15) at 200mm/min

N07

G01

Y66.564

N08

G02

X16.111 Y86.183
I20 J0

N09

G02

X93.889 Y86.183
I38.889 J-196.183

N10

G02

X110 Y66.564
I-3.889 J-19.619

N11

G01

Y26.247

N12

G02

X98.882 Y11.758
I-15 J0

N13

G01

X55 Y0

N14

G01

X15

N15

G02

X0 Y15
I0 J15

Feed to Z-10 at 100mm/min

From N07 to N15 is the contour cutting

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N16

G40

X-30 Y-30

Cancel of compensation;
feed to (X-30, Y-30)

N17

G00

Z100 M30

Rapid move to Z100; programme end

Programming Example 2

PARTING OFF TOOL

T3

MACHINE ZERO

40,30 FROM
TOOL CHANGING
POSITION

T2
LEFT-HAND
TURNING TOOL
T3

RIGHT-HAND
TURNING TOOL

T1

T2
PATH ? B ?

TOOL CHANGING POSITION

100,200 FROM PROGRAMME ZERO
T1
PROGRAMME
ZERO

PATH ? A?

Programme

Explanation

N01

G28

U0.1 W0.1;

Return to Machine Zero

N02

G00

U-60.0 W-40.0;

Rapid move to Tool Changing position

N03

G50

X200.0 Z100.0; Assign the Programme Zero

N04

G97

S2000;

N05

M03;

Switch on spindle,
turning in forward direction

N06

T0101;

Select Tool Number T1 and call tool offset

N07

G00

N08

M08;

N09

G69

F0.15;

N10

G01

Z40.45;

N11

G03

X 9.217 Z31.13 R5.8;

N12

X8.955 Z29.465 R1.556; N13

G02

X 9.6 Z29.1 R1.48; N14

Assign revolution speed as 2000 rpm

X0 Z42.0;

Rapid move to (X0, Z42.0)

Switch coolant on
Assign feed to be 0.15 mm/rev
Start cutting the Contour along path A

G01

X11.142;
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N15

G03

X 11.142 Z25.4 R2.398;

N16

G01

X16.6 Z9.385;

N17

Z8.5;

N18

X20.6;

N19

Z-3.0;

N20

G00

N21

T0100;

Cancel tool offset

N22

T0202;

Select Tool Number T2 and call tool offset

N23

G00

N24

G01

N25

G03

N26

G01

N27

X14.0;

N28

G00

N29

T0200;

Cancel tool offset

N30

T0303;

Select Tool Number T3 and call tool offset

N31

G00

X24.0 Z0;

Rapid move to (X24.0 Z0)

N32

G01

X-0.5 F0.06;

Part off in feedrate 0.06 mm/rev

N33

G00

X200.0 Z100.0; Rapid move to Tool Changing position

N34

T0300;

Cancel tool offset;

N35

M30;

Programme end

Finish Contouring
X200.0 Z100.0;

X21.0 Z9.385;
X16.6 F0.15;

Rapid move to Tool Changing Position

Rapid move to (X21.0 Z3.985)

Start cutting contour along path B,
in 0.15mm/rev feed

X9.6 Z24.203 R34.2;

Z25.4;
Finish contouring
X200.0 Z100.0; Rapid move to Tool Changing position

2.7.6 Other Functions

Modern CNC systems have some specially designed functions to simplify the
manual programming. However, since most of these functions are system
oriented, it is not intended to discuss them here in detail. The following
paragraphs give a brief description of commonly used functions in modern CNC
systems. The user should refer to the programming manuals of the machine for the
detail programming and operation.

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a.
Mirror Image
This is the function that converts the programmed path to its mirror
image, which is identical in dimensions but geometrically opposite about
one or two axes.
b.
Programme Repetition and Looping
In actual machining, it is not always possible to machine to the final
dimension in one go. This function enables the looping of a portion of the
programme so that the portion can be executed repeatedly.
c.
Pocketing Cycle
Pocketing is a common process in machining. This is to excavate the
material within a boundary normally in zigzag path and layer by layer. In a
pocketing cycle, the pattern of cutting is pre-determined. The user is
required to input parameters including the length, width and depth of the
pocket, tool path spacing, and layer depth. The CNC system will then
automatically work out the tool path.
d.
Drilling, Boring, Reaming and Tapping Cycle
This is similar to pocketing cycle. In this function, the drilling pattern is
pre-determined by the CNC system. What the user has to do is to input
the required parameters such as the total depth of the hole, the down
feed depth, the relief height and the dwell time at the bottom of the hole.

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Chapter 3. Computer Aided Manufacturing

Objectives:

3.1

To understand the flow of a Computer Aided Manufacturing System.

To understand the characteristics of the process Tool Motion Definition
in a CAM system.
To understand the characteristics of the process Data Transmission in a
CAM system.
Computer Aided Part Programming

In manual preparation of a CNC part programme, the programmer is required to

define the machine or the tool movement in numerical terms.

If the geometry is

complicated 3D surfaces cannot be programmed manually.

Over the past years, lot of effort is devoted to automate the part programme
generation.

With the development of the CAD/CAM system, interactive graphic

system is integrated with the CNC part programming.

Graphic based software

using menu driven technique improves the user friendliness.

The part

programmer can create the geometrical model in the CAM package or directly
extract the geometrical model from the CAD/CAM data base.

Built in tool

motion commands can assist the part programmer to calculate the tool paths
automatically.

The part programmer can verify the tool paths through the

graphic display using the animation function of the CAM system.

It greatly

enhances the speed and accuracy in tool path generation.

3.2

Flow of A Computer Aided Manufacturing System

There are several computer aided manufacturing or CAD/CAM system available

in the market. Their basic features can be summarized below:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Geometric Modeling / CAD Interface

Tool Motion definition
Data Processing
Post Processing
Data Transmission

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CAM
CAD/CAM
rface
CInte/CAM

3D Geometry
Construction

Scanning
/Copy Mill
/Copy
Geometry
Files

Tool Motion Definition

Tool Motion definition
Sequence Machining
Operation Parameter

Data
Processing

Post
Processing
NC
Program
CNC Machine

Fig.3-1 Flow Chart of a CAM System

3.2.1 Geometric Modeling / CAD Interface

The geometry of the workpiece can be defined by basic geometrical elements
such as points, lines, arcs, splines or surfaces.
The two dimensional or three
dimensional geometrical elements are stored in the computer memory in forms of
a mathematical model. The mathematical model can be a wire frame model, a
surface model, or a solid model.
In addition, the geometric models can be imported from other CAD/CAM system
through standard CAD/CAM interface formats such as Initial Graphic Exchange
Specification (IGES). Initial Graphic Exchange Specification (IGES)
IGES is a graphic exchange standard jointly developed by industry and the
National Bureau of Standards with the support of the U.S. Air Force. It provides
transportability of 3-dimensional geometry data between different systems.
Throughout this system, geometrical elements from one system can be
translated into a neutral file standard and then from this standard into other
format.
3.2.2 Tool Motion Definition
After the geometric modeling, machining data such as the job setup, operation
setup and motion definition are input into the computer to produce the cutting
location file (CL file) for machining the workpiece.

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a.
Job setup
This is to input the machine datum, home position, and the cutter
diameters for the CL file.
b.
Operation setup
This is to input into the system the operation parameters such as the feed
rate, tolerance, and approach / retract planes, spindle speed, coolant
ON/OFF, stock offset and the tool selection etc.
c.
Motion definition
Built in machining commands are used to control the tool motion to
machine the products. This includes the hole processing, profile
machining, pocketing, surface machining, gouge checking, etc.

Fig.3-2 CAM System

3.2.3 Data Processing

The input data is translated into computer usable format.
The computer will
process the desired part surface, the cutter offset surface and finally compute the
paths of the cutter which is known as the cutter location data file (CL file). The
tool paths can normally be animated graphically on the display for verification
purpose.
Furthermore, production planning data such as tool list, set up sheet, and
machining time is also calculated for users' reference.
3.2.4 Post Processing
Different CNC machines have different features and capabilities, the format of the
CNC program may also vary from each other. A process is required to change
the general instructions from the cutter location file to a specific format for a
particular machine tool and this process is called post processing.
Post processor is a computer software which converts the cutter location data
files into a format which the machine controller can interpret correctly.
Generally, there are two types of post processor.

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a.

Specific Post Processor

This is a tailor-made software which output the precise code for a specific
CNC machine. The user is not required to change anything in the
programme.
b.

Generic (Universal) Post Processor

This is a set of generalized rules which needs the user to customize into
the format that satisfies the requirements of a specific CNC machine.
3.2.5 Data Transmission
After post processing, the CNC programme can be transmitted to the CNC
machines either through the off line or on line process.
a.

Off Line Processes

Data carriers are used to transmit the CNC programme to the CNC
machines. It includes paper tapes, magnetic tape or magnetic disc.
b.

On Line Processes

On line processes is commonly used in DNC operation and data is

transferred either serially or parallel using data cables.
Serial Transmission
Asynchronous serial transmission is most widely used in data
transmission and RS232C is the most popular asynchronous
standard. Built in RS232C serial port (9 pins or 25 pins) is available in
many computers. RS232C is inexpensive; easy to program and with
a baud rate up to 38400. However, its noise margin is limited up to
15 meters.
Parallel Transmission
Parallel transmission is commonly used in data transmission
between computers and external devices such as sensors,
programmable logic controllers (PLC) or actuators. One common
standard is IEEE488. It contains a 24 lines bus with 8 for data, 8 for
controls and 8 for ground. It can transfer data up to 1 Mbps for a
20-meter cable.
Local Area Networks
To enable the CAD/CAM facilities to run smoothly, it is desirable
for the facilities to be linked together. In the local-area network,
terminals can access any computer on the network or devices on
the shop floor without a physical hardwire with speed up to 300
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megabits per second. For instance, Ethernet runs at 100Mbps

which is much faster than an RS232 serial communication
(115.2kbps).
A LAN consists of both software and hardware design, which
governed by a set of rules called protocol. The design of software
enable controls of data handling and error recovery, while
hardware generates and receives signals, and media that carries the
signals.
The protocol defines the logical, electrical, and
physical specifications of the network. The same protocol must be
followed in order to have an effective communication with each
other in the network.

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References
Computer Numerical Control of Machine Tools, G.E.Thyer,
Heinemann Professional Publishing 1988
The CNC Workshop, Frank Nanfara, Tony Uccello, Derek
Murphy, Prentice-Hall 2002
CNC Programming, Michael Mattson, Delmar Cengage
Learning, 2010
The Machining of Metals, Armsrego E. J. A., R. H. Brown,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall 1969
Managing Computer Numerical Control Operations, Mike
Lynch, Society of Manufacturing Engineers 1995
International Standard ISO2806 Industrial Automation System Numerical Control of Machines - Vocabulary, International
Organization for Standardization

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