Me2351 GDJP

A Course Material on
GAS DYNAMICS AND JET PROPULSION
By
Mr. C.RAVINDIRAN.
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
SASURIE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
VIJAYAMANGALAM 638 056
QUALITY CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the e-course material

Subject Code
: ME2351
Subject
: GAS DYNAMICS AND JET PROPULSION
Class
: III Year MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
being prepared by me and it meets the knowledge requirement of the university curriculum.
Signature of the Author

Name
: C. Ravindiran
Designation: Assistant Professor
This is to certify that the course material being prepared by Mr. C. Ravindiran is of adequate quality. He
has referred more than five books amount them minimum one is from abroad author.
Signature of HD
Name: Mr. E.R.Sivakumar
SEAL
CONTENTS
S.NO
TOPIC
PAGE NO
UNIT-1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND ISENTROPIC

1.1
Concept of Gas Dynamics
1.1.1 Significance with Applications
Compressible Flows
1.2.1 Compressible vs. Incompressible Flow
1.2.2 Compressibility
1.2.3. Compressibility and Incompressibility
1.3
Steady Flow Energy Equation
1.4
Momentum Principle for a Control Volume
1.5
Stagnation Enthalpy
1.6
Stagnation Temperature
1.7
Stagnation Pressure
1.8
Stagnation velocity of sound
1.9
Various regions of flow
1.10
Flow Regime Classification
11
1.11
Reference Velocities
12
1.11.1 Maximum velocity of fluid
12
1.11.2 Critical velocity of sound
13
1.12
Mach number
16
1.13
Mach Cone
16
1.14
Reference Mach number
16
1.15
Crocco number
19
1.16
Isothermal Flow
19
1.17
Law of conservation of momentum
19
1.17.1 Assumptions
20
1.2
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TOPIC
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1.18
Problems
22
1.19
Flow through Nozzles
28
1.20
Diffuser
29
1.21
Tutorial Problems
38
UNIT 2 FLOW THROUGH DUCTS

2.1
Introduction
39
2.2
Fanno Flow
39
2.2.1Applications
39
2.3
Fanno line or Fanno curve
40
2.4
Important features of Fanno curve
42
2.5
Chocking in Fanno flow
42
2.6
Adiabatic Flow of a Compressible Fluid Through a Conduit
42
2.7
Variation of flow properties
44
2.8
Variation of Mach number with duct length
53
2.9
Problems Based on Fanno Flow
54
2.10
Rayleigh Flow
58
2.11
Rayleigh line
59
2.12
Governing Equations
59
2.13
Fundamental Equations
62
2.14
Problems based on Rayleigh flow
68
2.15
Intersection of Fanno and a Rayleigh Line
72
2.16
Tutorial Problems
75
UNIT 3 NORMAL AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS

3.1
Normal Shocks
77
3.2
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves Normal Shocks
77
3.2.1 Assumptions
78
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3.3
TOPIC
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Governing Equations
78
3.3.1Property relations across the shock.
79
3.4
Prandtl-Meyer relationship
89
3.5
Governing relations for a normal shock
90
3.6
The Rankine Hugoniot Equatios
92
3.7
Strength of a Shock Wave
96
3.8
Problems
99
3.9
Tutorial Problems
106
UNIT 4 JET PROPULSION
4.1
Jet Propulsion System
107
4.2
Types of Jet Propulsion System
107
4.2.1 Air Breathing Engines
107
4.2.2 Rocket Engines
108
The Ramjet Engine
108
4.3.1 Principle of Operation
109
4.3.2 Advantages
110
4.3.3 Disadvantages
110
4.3.4 Application
111
Pulse Jet Engine
111
4.4.1 Operations
111
4.4.2 Characteristics
112
4.4.3 Advantages
113
4.4.4 Disadvantages
113
4.4.5 Applications
113
4.5
The Turbojet Engine
114
4.6
Turboprop Engine
116
4.3
4.4
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4.6.1 Advantages
119
4.6.2 Disadvantages
119
4.7
The Turbofan Engine
120
4.8
Nozzle and diffuser efficiencies
121
4.8.1 Nozzle performance
121
4.9
Problems
123
4.10
Tutorial Problems
127
UNIT -5 SPACE PROPULSION
5.1
Rocket Propulsion
129
5.2
General Principles of a Rocket Motor
129
5.3
Propellants
129
5.4
Energy Conversion
129
5.5
Kinetic energy of a body
130
5.6
Thrust
131
5.7
Flow expansion
131
5.8
Types of Rocket Engines
132
5.9
Grains
133
5.10
Composition
134
5.11
Composite
134
5.12
Liquid propellant
134
5.13
Rocket Ignition
135
5.14
Rocket Combution
135
5.15
Rocket nozzles
136
5.16
Propellant efficiency
136
5.17
Back pressure and optimal expansion
137
5.18
Thrust vectoring
138
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5.19
Overall rocket engine performance
138
5.20
Space Flights
138
5.20.1 Types of spaceflight
139
5.21
Effective Speed Ratio
140
5.22
Problems
144
5.23
Tutorial problems
145
TEXT BOOKS:
1. S.M. Yahya, fundamentals of Compressible Flow, New Age International (P) Limited
2. H. Cohen, G.E.C. Rogers and Saravanamutto, Gas Turbine Theory, Longman Group
Ltd
3. A.H. Shapiro, Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible fluid Flow, , John
wiley
4. N.J. Zucrow, Aircraft and Missile Propulsion, vol.1 & II, John Wiley
5. S.Senthil, Gas Dynamics and Jet Propulsion, A.R.S. Publicatons.
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3 1 0 4
AIM:
To impart knowledge to the students on compressible flow through ducts, jet propulsion
and space propulsion.
OBJECTIVE:
To understand the basic difference between incompressible and compressible flow.
To understand the phenomenon of shock waves and its effect on flow. To gain some
basic knowledge about jet propulsion and Rocket Propulsion.
UNIT I
BASIC CONCEPTS AND ISENTROPIC FLOWS
6
Energy and momentum equations of compressible fluid flows Stagnation states, Mach
waves and Mach cone Effect of Mach number on compressibility Isentropic flow
through variable ducts Nozzle and Diffusers Use of Gas tables.
UNIT II
FLOW THROUGH DUCTS
9
Flows through constant area ducts with heat transfer (Rayleigh flow) and Friction (Fanno
flow) variation of flow properties Use of tables and charts Generalised gas
dynamics.
UNIT III
NORMAL AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS
10
Governing equations Variation of flow parameters across the normal and oblique
shocks Prandtl Meyer relations Use of table and charts Applications.
UNIT IV
JET PROPULSION
10
Theory of jet propulsion Thrust equation Thrust power and propulsive efficiency
Operation principle, cycle analysis and use of stagnation state performance of ram jet,
turbojet, turbofan and turbo prop engines.
UNIT V
SPACE PROPULSION
10
Types of rocket engines Propellants-feeding systems Ignition and combustion
Theory of rocket propulsion Performance study Staging Terminal and characteristic
velocity Applications space flights.
TUTORIALS: 15, TOTAL: 60 PERIODS
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Anderson, J.D., Modern Compressible flow, McGraw Hill, 3rd Edition, 2003.
2. H. Cohen, G.E.C. Rogers and Saravanamutto, Gas Turbine Theory, Longman Group
Ltd., 1980.
3. S.M. Yahya, fundamentals of Compressible Flow, New Age International (P) Limited,
New Delhi, 1996.
REFERENCES:
1. P. Hill and C. Peterson, Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Propulsion, Addison
Wesley Publishing company, 1992.
2. N.J. Zucrow, Aircraft and Missile Propulsion, vol.1 & II, John Wiley, 1975.
3. N.J. Zucrow, Principles of Jet Propulsion and Gas Turbines, John Wiley, New York,
1970.
4. G.P. Sutton, Rocket Propulsion Elements, John wiley, 1986, New York.
5. A.H. Shapiro, Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible fluid Flow, , John
wiley, 1953, New York.
6. V. Ganesan, Gas Turbines, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co., New Delhi, 1999.
7. PR.S.L. Somasundaram, Gas Dynamics and Jet Propulsions, New Age International
Publishers, 1996.
8. V. Babu, Fundamentals of Gas Dynamics, ANE Books India, 2008.
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UNIT-1
BASIC CONCEPTS AND ISENTROPIC FLOWS
1.1. Concept of Gas Dynamics
Gas dynamics mainly concerned with the motion of gases and its effects .It differ
from fluid dynamics .Gas dynamics considers thermal or chemical effects while fluid
dynamics usually does not.
Gas dynamics deals with the study of compressible flow when it is in motion. It
analyses the high speed flows of gases and vapors with considering its compressibility.
The term gas dynamics is very general and alternative names have been
suggested e.g.: Supersonic flow, compressible flow and aero thermodynamics etc.,
1.1.1 Significance with Applications:
Gas dynamics is of interest to both mechanical and the aeronautical engineers but
particular field of interest of the two different .It may be said that thermodynamicist is
concerned with how an object in motion influenced as it flies through still air. In
contrast to it the thermodynamicist in more interested in the cases in which the object in
stationary and the fluid is in motion .The applications of gas dynamics are given below.
It is used in Steam and Gas turbines

High speed aero dynamics
Jet and Rocket propulsion
High speed turbo compressor
The fluid dynamics of compressible flow problems which involves the relation
between forse, density, velocity and mass etc.Therfore the following laws are frequently
used for solving the dynamic problems.
1. Steady flow energy equation
2. Entropy relations
3. Continity equation
4. Momentum equation
1.2 Compressible Flows
Compressible flow - Density changes
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We know that fluids, such as gas, are classified as Incompressible and

Compressible fluids. Incompressible fluids do not undergo significant changes in
density as they flow. In general, liquids are incompressible; water being an excellent
example. In contrast compressible fluids do undergo density changes. Gases are
generally compressible; air being the most common compressible fluid we can find.
Compressibility of gases leads to many interesting features such as shocks, which
are absent for incompressible fluids. Gas dynamics is the discipline that studies
the flow of compressible fluids and forms an important branch of Fluid Mechanics.
1.2.1 Compressible vs. Incompressible Flow
A flow is classified as incompressible if the density remains nearly constant.

Liquid flows are typically incompressible.
Gas flows are often compressible, especially for high speeds.
Mach number, Ma = V/c is a good indicator of whether or not
compressibility effects are important.
Ma < 0.3 : Incompressible
Ma < 1 : Subsonic
Ma = 1 : Sonic
Ma > 1 : Supersonic
Ma >> 1 : Hypersonic
1.2.2 Compressibility:
Measure of the relative volume change with pressure
A measure of the relative volume change with pressure for a given process.
Consider a small element of fluid of volume v, the pressure exerted on the sides of the
element is p. Assume the pressure is now increased by an infinitesimal amount dp. The
volume of the element will change by a corresponding amount dv , here the volume
decrease so dv is a negative quantity. By definition, the compressibility of fluid is
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The terms compressibility and incompressibility describe the ability of molecules

in a fluid to be compacted or compressed (made more dense) and their ability to bounce
back to their original density, in other words, their "springiness." An incompressible
fluid cannot be compressed and has relatively constant density throughout. Liquid is an
incompressible fluid. A gaseous fluid such as air, on the other hand, can be either
compressible or incompressible. Generally, for theoretical and experimental
purposes, gases are assumed to be incompressible when they are moving at low
speeds--under approximately 220 miles per hour. The motion of the object traveling
through the air at such speed does not affect the density of the air. This assumption has
been useful in aerodynamics when studying the behavior of air in relation to airfoils
and other objects moving through the air at slower speeds.
In thermodynamics and fluid mechanics, compressibility is a measure of the
relative volume change of a fluid or solid as a response to a pressure (or mean stress)
change.
Where V is volume and p is pressure. The above statement is incomplete,

because for any object or system the magnitude of the compressibility depends
strongly on whether the process is adiabatic or isothermal. Accordingly we define the
isothermal compressibility as:
Where the subscript T indicates that the partial differential is to be taken

at constant temperature. The adiabatic compressibility as:
Where S is entropy. For a solid, the distinction between the two is usually
negligible. The inverse of the compressibility is called the bulk modulus, often denoted
K(sometimes B).
1.2.3. Compressibility and Incompressibility
The terms compressibility and incompressibility describe the ability of molecules
in a fluid to be compacted or compressed (made more dense) and their ability to bounce
back to their original density, in other words, their "springiness." An incompressible
fluid cannot be compressed and has relatively constant density throughout. Liquid is an
incompressible fluid. A gaseous fluid such as air, on the other hand, can be either
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compressible or incompressible. Generally, for theoretical and experimental

purposes, gases are assumed to be incompressible when they are moving at low
speeds--under approximately 220 miles per hour. The motion of the object traveling
through the air at such speed does not affect the density of the air. This assumption has
been useful in aerodynamics when studying the behavior of air in relation to airfoils
and other objects moving through the air at slower speeds.
However, when aircraft began traveling faster than 220 miles per hour,
assumptions regarding the air through which they flew that were true at slower speeds
were no longer valid. At high speeds some of the energy of the quickly moving
aircraft goes into compressing the fluid (the air) and changing its density. The air at
higher altitudes where these aircraft fly also has lower density than air nearer to the
Earth's surface. The airflow is now compressible, and aerodynamic theories have had to
reflect this. Aerodynamic theories relating to compressible airflow characteristics and
behavior are considerably more complex than theories relating to incompressible
airflow. The noted aerodynamicist of the early 20th century, Ludwig Prandtl,
contributed the Prandtl-Glaubert rule for subsonic airflow to describe the
compressibility effects of air at high speeds. At lower altitudes, air has a higher density
and is considered incompressible for theoretical and experimental purposes.
Compressibility
Compressibility of any substance is the measure of its change in volume
under the action of external forces.
The normal compressive stress on any fluid element at rest is known as
hydrostatic pressure p and arises as a result of innumerable molecular collisions
in the entire fluid.
The degree of compressibility of a substance is characterized by the bulk
modulus of elasticity E defined as
Where and p are the changes in the volume and pressure respectively, and
is the initial volume. The negative sign (-sign) is included to make E positive, since
increase in pressure would decrease the volume i.e for p>0 , <0) in volume.
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1.3 Steady Flow Energy Equation

From first law of Thermodynamics, we know that the total energy entering the
system is equal to total energy leaving the system. This law is applicable to the steady
flow systems.
Consider an open system-through which the working substance flows as a steady
rate. The working substance entering the system at (1) and leaves the system at (2).
Let,
P1 - Pressure of the working substance entering the system (N/m2)
V1- Specific volume of the working substance entering the system
(m3/kg)
C 1- Velocity of the, working substance entering the system (m/s)
U1 - Specific internal energy of the working substance entering the system
(Jlkg)
Z1 - Height above the datum level for inlet in (m).
P2, v2 , c2, U2 and Z2 - Corresponding values for the working substance leaving the
system.
Q Heat supplied to the system (J/kg)
W Work delivered by the system (J/kg).
Total energy entering the system = Potential energy (gZ1) + Kinetic energy (c12/2)
+ Internal energy (U1) + Flow energy (p1 v1) + Heat (Q)
Total energy leaving the system = Potential energy (gZ2) + Kinetic energy (c22/2)
+ Internal energy (U2) + Flow energy (p2 v2) + Work (W)
From first law of Thermodynamics,
Total energy entering the system = Total energy leaving the system
gZ1 + (c12/2) + U1 + p1 v1 + Q = gZ2 + (c22/2) + U2+ p2 v2 + W
gZ1 + (c12/2) + h1 +Q = gZ2 + (c22/2) + W
[ i.e h = U + pv]
The above equation is known as steady flow energy equation.
1.4 Momentum Principle for a Control Volume
For a finite control volume between Sections 1 and 2 the momentum principle is,
Where F is the x-component of resultant force exerted on the fluid by the walls.
Note that the momentum principle is applicable even when there are frictional
dissipative processes within the control volume.
1.5 Stagnation Enthalpy
Suppose that our steady flow control volume is a set of streamlines describing
the flow up to the nose of a blunt object, as in Figure
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Streamlines and a stagnation region; a control volume can be drawn between the
dashed streamlines and points 1 and 2. The streamlines are stationary in space, so there
is no external work done on the fluid as it flows. If there is also no heat transferred to the
flow (adiabatic),
Stagnation enthalpy of a gas or vapor is its enthalpy when it is adiabatically

decelerated to zero velocity at zero elevation.
Put,
h1=h,
c1=c
for the initial state h2=h0
for the final state c2=0
We
have
the
energy
equation
for
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and
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By substituting this in above equation,
Where,
h0 = Stagnation enthalpy
h = Static enthalpy
c = Fluid velocity m / s
In an adiabatic energy transformation process the stagnation enthalpy remain constant.
1.6 Stagnation Temperature (or) Total temperature (T0)
Stagnation temperature of a gas when its isentropically decelerated to zero velocity at
zero elevation.
We know that, Stagnation enthalpy
We have stagnation enthalpy and static enthalpy for a perfect gas is,
By substituting this in above equation,
Divide by Cp through out the eqn.
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Where
To= stagnation temperature
T = static temperature
M = Mach number (C/a)
1.7 Stagnation Pressure, [Po] or total pressure
Stagnation pressure of a gas when it is isentropically decelerated to zero velocity at zero
elevation. For isentropic flow.
For stagnation condition,
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1.8 Stagnation velocity of sound (ao):

We know that the acoustic velocity of sound
.
For a given value of Stagnation temperature, Stagnation velocity of sound, For stagnation
condition, Put, a a0 , T T0
1.9 Various regions of flow

The adiabatic energy equation for a perfect gas is derived in terms of velocity of
fluid(C) and Velocity of sound
]
We have stagnation enthalpy and static enthalpy for a perfect gas is
h0 c pT0
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h c pT
Put
a a0
T T0
a0
RT0
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1.10 Flow Regime Classification
Subsonic Flow (0.8 < Mo)

Transonic Flow (0.8 > M0 > 1.2)
Supersonic Flow (M0 > 1.2)
Hypersonic Flow (M0 > 5)
Incompressible region
In incompressible flow region fluid velocity (c) is much smaller than
the sound velocity (a). Therefore the Mach number ( M = c/a) is very low.
Eg: flow through nozzles
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Subsonic flow region

The subsonic flow region is on the right of the incompressible flow region. In subsonic
flow, fluid velocity (c) is less than the sound velocity (a) and the Mach number in this region is
always less than unity.
i.e. M = ca 1.
Eg: passenger air craft
Sonic flow region
If the fluid velocity (c) is equal to the sound velocity (a), that type of flow is known as sonic flow.
In sonic flow Mach number value is unity.
M = ca = 1 c a. Eg: Nozzle throat
Transonic flow region
If the fluid velocity close to the speed of sound, that type of flow is known as transonic flow .In
transonic flow, Mach number value is in between 0.8 and 1.2. i.e.0.8 < M < 1.2.
Supersonic flow region
The supersonic region is in the right of the transonic flow region. In supersonic flow, fluid
velocity (c) is more than the sound velocity (a) and the Mach number in this region is always
greater than unity.
i.e. M = c/a >1.Eg: military air crafts
Hypersonic flow region
In hypersonic flow region, fluid velocity (c) is much greater than sound velocity (a).In this
flow, Mach number value is always greater than 5.
i.e. M = c/a >5. Eg: rockets
1.11 Reference Velocities

In compressible flow analysis it is often convenient to express fluid velocities is non
dimensional forms.
Local velocity of sound
Stagnation velocity of sound
Maximum velocity of fluid
Critical velocity of fluid/sound. C*=a*
1.11.1 Maximum velocity of fluid:
From adiabatic energy equation has two components of the total energy: the enthalpy h and the
kinetic energy .If kinetic energy is absent the total energy is entirely energy represented by the
stagnation enthalpy h0 .the other extreme conditions which can be conceived is when the entire
energy is made up of kinetic energy only=0 and C = Cmax. The fluid velocity (Cmax)
corresponding to this condition is the maximum velocity that would be achieved by the fluid
when it is accelerated to absolute zero temperature (T = 0, T = 0) in an imaginary adiabatic
expansion process.
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1.11.2 Critical velocity of sound

It is the velocity of flow that would exist if the flow is isentropically accelerated or
decelerated to unit Mach number (critical condition).
We have
Considering the *section (where M = 1) and its stagnation section
M 1
TT *
p p *
*
*
C
Mcritical = *
a
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1.12 Mach number

In fluid mechanics, Mach number (M or Ma) is a dimensionless quantity representing the
ratio of speed of an object moving through a fluid and the local speed of sound.
1.13 Mach Cone
A conical surface that bounds the region in a supersonic flow of gas in which the sound
waves (perturbations) emanating from a point source A of the perturbations are concentrated.
1.14 Reference Mach number M*
In the analysis of high speed flows, another Mach number called M*is employed. It is
defined as the non dymensionlizing the fluid velocity by the critical fluid velocity or the sound
velocity.
That is,
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Some it is more convenient to use M* instead of M because

(i) at high fluid velocities M approaches infinity
(ii) M is not proportional to the velocity alone
It should be pointed out here that M*does not mean M = 1this only other type of Mach number.
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1.15 Crocco number

A non -dimensional fluid velocity can be defined by using the Maximum fluid velocity,
1.16 Isothermal Flow

Adiabatic and Reversible.
No energy added, No energy losses.
Small and gradual change in flow variables.
The earliest reference to is other mal flow was found in Shapiros Book. The model Suggests
that the choking occurs at 1 /k and it appears that Shapiro was the first one to realize this
difference compared to the other models. In reality, the flow is choked somewhere between 1 /k
to one for cases that are between Fanno (adiabatic) and isothermal flow. This fact was evident in
industrial applications where the expectation of the choking is at Mach one, but can be explained
by choking at a lower Mach number. No experimental evidence, known by the undersigned, was
ever produced to verify this finding.
1.17 Law of conservation of momentum (Newtons Second Law)
Law of conservation of momentum to a system
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1.17.1 Assumptions
1 - D flow
Steady flow
Higher order terms (Hots) are neglected
The fluid is invicid (M = 0)
Compressible fluid
Fxx - This represents the summation of all forces acting on CV and includes surface
and body forces. Surface forces are of normal and tangential forms. Since the fluid is invicid
shear force (tangential) = 0
Figure above shows a flow through CV. All fluid properties at inlet and exit are
represented. Various fo r ces act ing are also represented in their respective direction at
the appropriate locations.
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1.18 Problems
1) Atm air at 1.1105 N/m2 and 65oC is accelerated isentropically to a mach number of 1.
Find final temp, pressure and flow velocity.
Ans.Assume, the given state is the stagnation state, From data book, is entropic table, K = 1.4
T = T* = 8.834 To
= 0.834 338
T = 281.9 K
Final temperature T* = 281.9 K
P
P o
M 1= 0.528
P = P* = Po 0.528
= 1.1 105 0.528
= 0.581 105 N/m2
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1.19 Flow through Nozzles

A nozzle is a duct that increases the velocity of the flowing fluid at the expense
of pressure drop. A duct which decreases the velocity of a fluid and causes a corresponding
increase in pressure is a diffuser. The same duct may be either a nozzle or a diffuser
depending upon the end conditions across it. If the cross-section of a duct decreases gradually
from inlet to exit, the duct is said to be convergent. Conversely if the cross section increases
gradually from the inlet to exit, the duct is said to be divergent. If the cross-section initially
decreases and then increases, the duct is called a convergent-divergent nozzle. The minimum
cross-section of such ducts is known as throat. A fluid is said to be compressible if its density
changes with the change in pressure brought about by the flow. If the density does not changes
or changes very little, the fluid is said to be incompressible. Usually the gases and vapors
are compressible, whereas liquids are incompressible.
Nozzle:
A nozzle is primarily used to increase the flow velocity.
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The velocity is increased at the cost of drop in enthalpy. If an ideal gas is flowing
through the nozzle, the exit velocity Ve can be expressed in terms of inlet and outlet pressure
and temperatures by making use of the relations
From the relations governing adiabatic expansion,
We get,
1.20 Diffuser:
A diffuser can be thought of as a nozzle in which the direction of flow is reversed.
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For an adiabatic diffuser, Q and W sh are zero and the first law reduces to
The diffuser discharges fluid with higher enthalpy. The velocity of the fluid is
reduced.
Example of a reversible process:
Slow compression of air in a balloon does work on the air inside the balloon, and takes
away energy from the surroundings - When the balloon is allowed to expand, the air inside and
the surrounding air are both restored to original conditions
Example of an irreversible process:
Heat flows from hot to cold, never in the opposite direction; Most conductive and
viscous processes are irreversible Stagnation point is thus when fluid is brought to stagnant state
(eg, reservoir)
Stagnation properties can be obtained at any point in a flow field if the fluid at that point
were decelerated from local conditions to zero velocity following an isentropic (frictionless,
adiabatic) process
Pressure:
Temperature:
Density:
p0
T0
0
If a fluid were brought to a complete stop (C 2 = 0)

Therefore, h0 represents the enthalpy of a fluid when it is brought to rest
adiabatically.
During a stagnation process, kinetic energy is converted to enthalpy.
Properties at this point are called stagnation properties (which are identified by
subscript 0)
If the process is also reversible, the stagnation state is called the isentropic
stagnation state.
Stagnation enthalpy is the same for isentropic and actual stagnation states
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Actual stagnation pressure P0,act is lower than P0 due to increase in entropy s as a result
of fluid friction. Nonetheless, stagnation processes are often approximated to be isentropic, and
isentropic properties are referred to as stagnation properties
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DF = 6.503 KN
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Q 9) Air is discharged from a reservoir at Po = 6.91 Kgf/cm2and to = 325oC through a nozzle

to an exit pressure of 0.98 Kgf/cm2 . If the flow rate is 1 kg/s, find the throat area, pressure
and velocity. Also find the exit area, exit temperature and exit velocity.
Ans
Exit Mach number Me] = 1.93
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Q 10) Air flows isentropically through a C.D. The inlet conditions are pressure 700
KN/m2, temperature 320oC, velocity 50 m/s. The exit pressure is 105KN/m2 and the exist
area is 6.25 cm2. Calculate
i)
Mach number, temperature and velocity at exit
ii)
Pressure, temperature and velocity at throat
iii)
Mass flow rate
iv)
Throat area
Ans: To find the exit mach number (M2)
Sonic velocity at inlet
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1.21 Tutorial Problems:

1.The pressure, temperature and Mach number at the entry of a flow passage are 2.45 bar, 26.5
C and 1.4 respectively. If the exit Mach number is 2.5 determine for adiabatic flow of perfect gas
( =1.3, R=0.469 KJ/Kg K).
2. Air flowing in a duct has a velocity of 300 m/s ,pressure 1.0 bar and temperature 290 k.
Taking =1.4 and R =287J/Kg K determine: 1) Stagnation pressure and temperature, 2)
Velocity of sound in the dynamic and stagnation conditions, 3) Stagnation pressure assuming
constant density.
3. A nozzle in a wind tunnel gives a test section Mach number of 2.0 .Air enters the nozzle from
a large reservoir at 0.69 bar and 310 k .The cross sectional area of the throat is1000cm
.Determine the following quantites for the tunnel for one dimensional isentropic flow 1)
Pressures,temperature and velocities at the throat and test sections, 2) Area of cross- sectional of
the test section , 3) Mass flow rate, 4) Power rate required to drive the compressor.
4. Air is discharged from a reservoir at Po =6.91bar and To =325c through a nozzle to an exit
pressure of 0.98 bar .If the flow rate is 3600Kg/hr determine for isentropic flow: 1)Throat area,
pressure,and velocity, 2)Exit area,Mach number ,and 3)Maximum velocity.
5. Air flowing in a duct has a velocity of 300 m/s ,pressure 1.0 bar and temperature 290 K.
Taking =1.4 and R =287J/Kg K determine: 1)Stagnation pressure and temperature, 2)Velocity
of sound in the dynamic and stagnation conditions 3)Stagnation pressure assuming constant
density.
6. A conical diffuser has entry and exit diameters of 15 cm and 30cm respectively. Pressure
,temperature and velocity of air at entry are 0.69bar,340 k and 180 m/s respectively . Determine
1) The exit pressure, 2) The exit velocity and 3) The force exerted on the diffuser walls.Assume
isentropic flow, =1.4,Cp =1.00 KJ Kg-K
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UNIT 2
FLOW THROUGH DUCTS
2.1 Introduction
Friction is present in all real flow passages. There are many practical flow
situations where the effect of wall friction is small compared to the effect produced due
to other driving potential like area, transfer of heat and addition of mass. In such
situations, the result of analysis with assumption of frictionless flow does not make
much deviation from the real situation. Nevertheless; there are many practical cases
where the effect of friction cannot be neglected in the analysis in such cases the
assumption of frictionless flow leads to unrealistic influence the flow. In high speed
flow through pipe lines for long distances of power plants, gas turbines and air
compressors, the effect of friction on working fluid is more than the effect of heat
transfer ,it cannot be neglected An adiabatic flow with friction through a constant
area duct is called fanno flow when shown in h-s diagram, curves ,obtained are fanno
lines. Friction induces irreversibility resulting in entropy increase. The flow is adiabatic
since no transfer of heat is assumed.
2.2 Fanno Flow
A steady one-dimensional flow in a constant area duct with friction in the
absence of Work and heat transfer is known as fanno flow.
2.2.1Applications
Fanno flow occurs in many practical engineering applications of such flow includes
Flow problems in aerospace propulsion system.

Transport of fluids in a chemical process plants.
Thermal and nuclear power plants.
Petrochemical and gas industries.
Various type of flow machineries.
Air conditioning systems.
High vacuum technology.
Transport of natural gas in long pipe lines.
Emptying of pressured container through a relatively short tube
Exhaust system of an internal combustion engine
Compressed air systems
When gases are transported through pipe over a long distances. It is also a
practical importance when equipment handling gases are connected to high pressure
reservoirs which may be located some distance away. Knowledge of this flow will allow
us to determine the mass flow rate that can be candled, pressure drop etc
In real flow, friction at the wall arises due to the viscosity of the fluid and this
appears in the form of shear stress at the walls far in our discussion, we have
assumed the fluid to be calorically perfect in viscid as well. Thus, strictly speaking,
viscous effects cannot be accounted for in this formulation.However,in reality,
viscous effects are confined to very thin region (boundary layer)near the walls.
Effects such as viscous dissipation are also usually negligible.Hence, we can still
assume the fluid to be inviscid and take the friction force exerted by the wall as an
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externally imposed force. The origin of this force is of significance to the analysis.
The following are the main assumptions employed for analyzing the frictional flow
problem. in fanno flow
One dimensional steady flow.

Flow takes place in constant sectional area.
There is no heat transfer or work exchange with the surroundings.
The gas is perfect with constant specific heats.
Body forces are negligible.
Wall friction is a sole driving potential in the flow.
There is no obstruction in the flow.
There is no mass addition or rejection to or from the flow.
In thermodynamics coordinates, the fanno flow process can be described by a

curve know as Fanno line and its defined as the locus of the state which satisfies the
continuity and energy and entropy equation for a frictional flow is known as fanno
line.
2.3 Fanno line or Fanno curve (Governing equation)
Flow in a constant area duct with friction and without heat transfers is
described by a curve is known as Fanno line or Fanno curve
Weknow that,
From continuity equation,
Where
G- Mass flow density.
c- Velocity of sound.
- Density of fluid.
Density is a function of entropy and enthalpy.

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Substitute the value for in the equation for h

We get,
The above equation can be used to show a fanno-line in h-s diagram.
In the line
Point F is the sonic point

Point lying below are super sonic points
Points lying above are subsonic flow
Since entropy can only increase the processes that happen will always
coverage to the sonic point F.The curve consists of two branches AF and FB. At point F
the flow is sonic i,e, M=1
The flow A to F is subsonic (M<1) and B to F is Supersonic (M>1 )
In subsonic flow region (A to F), the effect of friction will increase the velocity
and Mach number and to decrease the enthalpy and pressure of the gas.
In supersonic flow region (B to F), the effect of friction will decrease the velocity
and Mach number and to increase the enthalpy and pressure of the gas.
We know by the second law o thermodynamics that for an adiabatic flow,
the entropy may increase but cannot decrease. So the processes in the direction F to A
and F to B are not possible because they lead to decrease in entropy.
Fanno curves are drawn for different vales of mass flow density (G).When G
increases, the velocity increases and pressure decreases in the sub sonic region.
When G increases, the pressure increases and velocity decreases in the super sonic
region
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2.4 Important features of Fanno curve

From the second law of thermodynamics, the entropy of the adiabatic flow
increases but not decreases. Thus, the path of states along the Fanno curve must
be toward the right.
In the subsonic region, the effects of friction will be to increase the
velocity and Mach number and to decrease the enthalpy and pressure of the
stream .
In the supersonic region, the effects of friction will be to decrease the velocity and
Mach number and to increase the enthalpy and pressure of the stream.
A subsonic flow can never become supersonic, due to the limitation of second
law of thermodynamics, but in can approach to sonic i.e,M=1.
A supersonic flow can never become subsonic, unless a discontinuity
(shock)is present.
In the case of isentropic stagnation, pressure is reduced whether the flow is
subsonic or supersonic.
2.5 Chocking in Fanno flow
In a fanno flow, subsonic flow region, the effect of friction will increase the
velocity and Mach number and to decrease the enthalpy and pressure of the gas. In
supersonic flow region, the effect of friction will decrease the velocity and Mach number
and to increase the enthalpy and pressure of the gas. In both cases entropy increases up
to limiting state where the Mach number is one (M=1) and it is constant afterwards. At
this point flow is said to be chocked flow.
2.6 Adiabatic Flow of a Compressible Fluid Through a Conduit
Flow through pipes in a typical plant where line lengths are short, or the pipe is
well insulated can be considered adiabatic. A typical situation is a pipe into which gas
enters at a given pressure and temperature and flows at a rate determined by the length
and diameter of the pipe and downstream pressure. As the line gets longer friction
losses increase and the following occurs:
Pressure decreases
Density decreases
Velocity increases
Enthalpy decreases
Entropy increases
The question is will the velocity continue to increasing until it crosses the sonic
barrier? The answer is NO. The maximum velocity always occurs at the end of the
pipe and continues to increase as the pressure drops until reaching Mach 1. The
velocity cannot cross the sonic barrier in adiabatic flow through a conduit of constant
cross section. If an effort is made to decrease downstream pressure further, the velocity,
pressure, temperature and density remain constant at the end of the pipe corresponding to
Mach 1 conditions. The excess pressure drop is dissipated by shock waves at the pipe
exit due to sudden expansion. If the line length is increased to drop the pressure further
the mass flux decreases, so that Mach 1 is maintained at the end of the pipe.
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The effect of friction in supersonic flow of the following parameters

a) velocity
b) pressure
c) temperature
Flow properties at M = M* = 1 are used as reference values for nondimensionalizing

various properties at any section of the duct.
a) Velocity
b) Pressure
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c) Temperature
2.7 Variation of flow properties

The flow properties (P,T,,C) at M=M*=1are used as reference values for nondimensionalizing various properties at any section of the duct.
Temperature
Stagnation temperature Mach number relation
At critical state
M=1
T0 = T0*
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Velocity
Mach number M
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Density
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Pressure
Pressure= RT
At critical state
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Stagnation Pressure

We have
*
p0 = p0
p = p*
*
T0 = T
T = T*
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Impulse Function
Impulse function =PA (1+ M2 )
We have
F = F*
p = p*
A = A*
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Applying this equation for section 1 and 2

We know that
Entropy
Changing entropy is given by
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2.8 Variation of Mach number with duct length

The duct length required for the flow to pass from a given initial mach
number M1 to a given final mach number m2can be obtained from the following
expression.
Mean friction coefficient with respect to duct length is given by
The distance (L) between two section of duct where the ach numbers M1 &M2 are given
by
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2.9 Problems
1. Air flows through a pipe of 300 mm diameter. At inlet temperature is 35 C,

pressure is 0.6 bar and stagnation pressure is 12 bar.At a location 2 m down stream, the
static pressure is 0.89 bar.Estimate the average friction coefficient between two section.
Given data:
0
D =300 mm; T1 = 35 C Po1= 12 bar ; P2 =12 bar
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2 A circular duct passes 8.25 Kg / S of air at an exit Mach number of 0.5. The entry
0
pressure and temperature are 345 KPa and 38 C respectively and the co efficient of
friction 0.005. If the Mach number at entry is 0.15, determine,
(i) The diameter of the duct,
(ii) Length of the duct,
(iii) Pressure and temperature at exit and
(iv) Stagnation pressure loss.
Given Data:
m = 8.25 Kg / S ;
M2 = 0.5 ;
P1 = 345 KPa ; T1 = 311K ; f =0.005 ;
M1= 0.15
(i)
Diameter of the pipe
(ii) Length of the pipe

From Isentropic table M1 = 0.15, =1.4
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Pressure and temperature at the exit
(iv)Stagnation presure loss
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Question 3 :- Air is flowing in an insulated duct with a Mach number of M1 = 0.25. At
a section downstream the entropy is greater by amount 0.124 units, as a result of

friction. What is the Mach number of this section? The static properties at inlet are
700KPa and 600C. Find velocity, temperature and pressure at exit. Fin d the
properties at the critical section.
Given Data: M1 = 0.25; (S2 S1) = 0.124 KJ/ Kg K; P1 = 700 KPa;
T1 = 60 +273 = 333K
We know that,
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b) Velocity ,pressure and Temperature at the exit section
2.10 Rayleigh Flow (Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and Negligible Friction)
Flow in a constant area duct with heat transfer and without friction is known as
Rayleigh flow . Many compressible flow problems encountered in practice involve
chemical reactions such as combustion, nuclear reactions, evaporation, and condensation
as well as heat gain or heat loss through the duct wall Such problems are difficult to
analyze Essential features of such complex flows can be captured by a simple analysis
method where generation/absorption is modeled as heat transfer through the wall at the
same rate
In certain engineering processes, heat is added either by external sources across the
system boundary by heat exchangers or internally by chemical reactions in a combustion
chamber. Such process are not truely adiabatic, they are called adiabatic processes.
Applications
The combustion chambers inside turbojet engines usually have a constant area and the
fuel mass addition is negligible. These properties make the Rayleigh flow model
applicable for heat addition to the flow through combustion, assuming the heat
addition does not result in dissociation of the air-fuel mixture. Producing a shock wave
inside the combustion chamber of an engine due to thermal choking is very undesirable
due to the decrease in mass flow rate and thrust. Therefore, the Rayleigh flow model is
critical for an initial design of the duct geometry and combustion temperature for an
engine.
The Rayleigh flow model is also used extensively with the Fanno flow model.
These two models intersect at points on the enthalpy-entropy and Mach number-entropy
diagrams, which is meaningful for many applications. However, the entropy values for
each model are not equal at the sonic state. The change in entropy is 0 at M = 1 for
each model, but the previous statement means the change in entropy from the same
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arbitrary point to the sonic point is different for the Fanno and Rayleigh flow models.
Combustion processes.
Regenerator,
Heat exchangers.
Inter coolers.
The following are the assumptions that are made for analyzing the such flow
problem.
One dimensional steady flow.

Flow takes place in constant area duct.
The frictional effects are negligible compared to heat transfer effects..
The gas is perfect.
Body forces are negligible.
There is no external shaft work.
There is no obstruction in the flow.
There is no mass addition or rejection during the flow.
The composition of the gas doesnt change appreciably during the flow.
2.11 Rayleigh line (or) curve

The frictionless flow of a perfect gas through a constant area duct in which heat
transfer to or from the gas is the dominant factor bringing about changes in the flow is
referred to as Rayleigh flow or diabetic flow. In thermodynamic coordinates, the
Rayleigh flow process can be described by a curve known as Rayleigh line and is
defined as the locus of quasi- static thermodynamic state points traced during the
flow. The Rayleigh line satisfies the equation of state along with simple forms of
continuity and momentum equation.
2.12 Governing Equations
In order to formulate the equation for the Rayleigh line, let us consider steady
flow of a perfect gas through a constant area passage in which transfer of heat with the
surroundings is the major factor responsible for changes in fluid properties. The
simple form of continuity equation for steady one dimensional flow in a constant
area duct is
.
Where
G- Mass flow density.
c- Velocity of sound.
- Density of fluid.
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Momentum equation is given by

p c 2 cont.
substitute
c
Equation 1 may be used for representing Rayleigh line on the h- s diagram, as illustrated
in fig shown in below. In general, most of the fluids in practical use have Rayleigh
curves of the general form shown in fig.
The portion of the Rayleigh curve above the point of maximum entropy usually
represents subsonic flow (M<1) and the portion below the maximum entropy point
represents supersonic flow (M>1).
An entropy increases due to heat addition and entropy decreases due to heat
rejection. Therefore, the Mach number is increased by heating and decreased by cooling
at subsonic speeds. On the other hand, the Mach number is decreased by heating and
increased by cooling at supersonic speeds. Therefore, like friction, heat addition also
tends to make the Mach number in the duct approach unity. Cooling causes the Mach
number to change in the direction away from unity.
Rayleigh Flow
Rayleigh flow refers to adiabetic flow through a constant area duct where the
effect of heat addition or rejection is considered. Compressibility effects often come
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into consideration, although the Rayleigh flow model certainly also applies to
incompressible flow. For this model, the duct area remains constant and no mass is
added within the duct. Therefore, unlike Fanno flow, the stagnation temperature is a
variable. The heat addition causes a decrease in stagnation pressure which is known as
the Rayleigh effect and is critical in the design of combustion systems. Heat addition will
cause both supersonic and subsonic Mach numbers to approach Mach 1, resulting in
choked flow. Conversely, heat rejection decreases a subsonic Mach number and
increases
a
supersonic
Mach
number
along
the
duct.
It
can be shown that for calorically perfect flows the maximum entropy occurs at M = 1.
Rayleigh flow is named after John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh.
Theory
A Rayleigh Line is plotted on the dimensionless H-S axis.
The Rayleigh flow model begins with a differential equation that relates the
change in Mach number with the change in stagnation temperature, T0. The
differential
equation is shown below.
Solving the differential equation leads to the relation shown below, where T0*
is the stagnation temperature at the throat location of the duct which is required for
thermally choking the flow.
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2.13 Fundamental Equations

The following fundamental equations will be used to determine the variation of flow
parameters in Rayleigh flows.
Continuity equation
We know that
Mass flow rate,
m A1C1 A2C2
For constant area duct A1 = A2
m C1 C2
C1 C2
C1
C2
Where ;-
C1 Velocity of fluid at inlet-m/s

C2 Velocity of fluid at outlet-m/s
- Density of fluid at inlet-kg/m3
- Density of fluid at out let-kg/m3
Momentum equation
Momentum equation between state 1nad 2 is given by
p1 A mc1 p2 A mc2
P1 A P2 A mc2 mc1
P1 P2 A m c2 c1
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Mach Number
The Mach number at the two states are
Impulse Fuction
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Stagnation Pressue
Stagnation pressure-Mach number relation is given by
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Static Temperature
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Stagnation Temperature
Stagnation Temperature Ach Number Relation is Given by
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Change of Entropy
Heat Transfer
We have
Q mc p T02 T01
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Expression for Heat Transfer
we have
Q mc pT02T01
the condition 1 is fixed but the value of T02 attains its maximum when T02 = T0*
2.14 Problems based on Rayleigh flow
1.The condition of gas in a combustion chamber at entry are M1=0.28, T 01=380 K,
P01=4.9 bar. The heat supplied in the combustion chamber is 620 kJ/kg.Determine
Mach number, pressure and temperature of the gas at exit and also determine the
stagnation pressure loss during heating. Take = 1.3, cp=1.22 kJ/Kg K.
Given,
M1 = 0.28, T01 = 380 K,
P01 = 4.9 bar = 4.9 105 N/m2
Q = 620 kJ/kg = 620 103 J/kg
3
Take = 1.3, cp=1.22 kJ/Kg K.= 1.22
J/kg K
To find
1. Mach number, pressure and temperature of the gas at exit,(M2,P2 and T2)
2. Stagnation pressure loss ( p0)
Solution
Refer Isentropic flow table for =1.3 and M1=0.28
T2
= 0.988
[From gas table]
T01
P2
= 0.951
P02
P1 = P010.951
= 4.91050.951
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P1 = 4.659 105 N/m2
T1 =T01 0.988
=380 0.988
T1 =375.44 K
Refer Rayleigh flow table for =1.3 and M1=0.28
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Result,
1) M2=0.52, P2=3.79
105 T2=859.55 K
2) p0=0.389 105 N/m2

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2.A gas (=1.3 and R = 0.46 KJ / Kg K) at a pressure of 70 Kpa and temperature of

295 K enters a combustion chamber at a velocity of 75 m / sec. The heat supplied in a
combustion chamber is 1250 KJ / Kg .Determine the Mach number, pressure and
temperature of gas at exit.
Given: = 1.3: R = 0.46 KJ / Kg K -1= 70 Kpa : T1 =295 K
C1 = 75 m/sec: Q = 1250 KJ / Kg
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Result:
1. Mach number at the exit
M2 = 0.35
2. Pressure of the gas at the exit P2 = 62.99111Kpa
3. Temperature of the gas at the exit T2 = 900 K
2.15 Intersection of Fanno and a Rayleigh Line
Fanno and Rayleigh line, when plotted on h-s plane, for same mass velocity G,
intersect at 1 and 2.as shown in fig. All states of Fanno line have same stagnation
temperature or stagnation enthalpy, and all states of Rayleigh line have same stream
thrust F / A. Therefore, 1 and 2 have identical values of G, h0 and F / A. from 1 to 2
possible by a compression shock wave without violating Second Law Thermodynamics.
A shock is a sudden compression which increases the pressure and entropy of the fluid
but the velocity is decrease from supersonic to subsonic.
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A change from states 2 to 1 from subsonic to supersonic flow is not possible in

view Second Law Thermodynamics. (Entropy can not decrease in a flow process)
3.The pressure temperature and Mach no. of air in combustion chamber are 4 bar,100C
and 0.2 respectively. The stagnation temperature of air in combustion chamber
is increased 3 times the initial value. Calculate:
1. The mach no., pressure and temperature at exit.
2. Stagnation pressure
3. Heat supplied per Kg of air
Solution
Refer isentropic flow table for =1.4and m1=.2
T1
0.992
T01
P1
0.973
P01
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1.A circular duct passes 8.25Kg/s of air at an exit Mach number of 0.5. The entry
pressure temperature are 3.45 bar and 38C respectively and the coefficient of friction
0.005.If the Mach number at entry is 0.15, determine : I. The diameter of the duct,
II. Length of the duct, III. Pressure and temperature at the exit, IV. Stagnation pressure
loss, and V. Verify the exit Mach number through exit velocity and temperature.
2) A gas ( =1.3,R=0.287 KJ/KgK) at p1 =1bar, T1 =400 k enters a 30cm diameter
duct at a Mach number of 2.0.A normal shock occurs at a Mach number of 1.5 and the
exit Mach number is1.0, If the mean value of the friction factor is 0.003 determine:
1)Lengths of the duct upstream and downstream of the shock wave, 2)Mass flow rate of
the gas and downstream of the shock.
3) Air enters a long circular duct ( d =12.5cm,f=0.0045) at a Mach number 0.5,
pressure 3.0 bar and temperature 312 K.If the flow is isothermal throughout the duct
determine (a) the length of the duct required to change the Mach number to 0.7,(b)
pressure and temperature of air at M =0.7 (c) the lengthof the duct required to attain
limiting Mach number, and (d) state of air at the limiting Mach umber.compare these
values with those obtained in adiabatic flow.
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4. Show that the upper and lower branches of a Fanno curve represent subsonic and
supersonic flows respectively . prove that at the maximum entropy point Mach number is
unity and all processes approach this point .How would the state of a gas in a flow change
from the supersonic to subsonic branch ? Flow in constant area ducts with heat
transfer(Rayleigh flow)
5) The Mach number at the exit of a combustion chamber is 0.9. The ratio of stagnation
temperature at exit and entry is 3.74. If the pressure and temperature of the gas at exit are
2.5 bar and 1000C respectively determine (a) Mach number, pressure and temperature
of the gas at entry, (b) the heat supplied per kg of the gas and (c) the maximum heat that
can be supplied. Take = 1.3, Cp= 1.218 KJ/KgK
6) The conditions of a gas in a combuster at entry are: P1=0.343 bar ,T1 = 310K
,C1=60m/s.Detemine the Mach number ,pressure ,temperature and velocity at the exit if
the increase in stagnation enthalpy of the gas between entry and exit is 1172.5KJ/Kg.
Take Cp=1.005KJ/KgK, =1.4
7) A combustion chamber in a gas turbine plant receives air at 350 K ,0.55bar and 75 m/s
.The air fuel ratio is 29 and the calorific value of the fuel is 41.87 MJ/Kg .Taking =1.4
and R =0.287 KJ/kg K for the gas determine.
a) The initial and final Mach numbers
b) Final pressure, temperature and velocity of the gas
c) Percent stagnation pressure loss in the combustion chamber, and
d) The maximum stagnation temperature attainable.
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UNIT 3
NORMAL AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS
3.1 Normal Shocks
When there is a relative motion between a body and fluid, the disturbance is
created if the disturbance is of an infinitely small amplitude, that disturbance is
transmitted through the fluid with the speed of sound. If the disturbance is finite shock
waves are created.
3.2 Shock Waves and Expansion Waves Normal Shocks
Shocks which occur in a plane normal to the direction of flow are called normal
shock waves. Flow process through the shock wave is highly irreversible and cannot be
approximated as being isentropic. Develop relationships for flow properties before and
after the shock using conservation of mass, momentum, and energy.
In some range of back pressure, the fluid that achieved a sonic velocity at the
throat of a converging-diverging nozzle and is accelerating to supersonic velocities in
the diverging section experiences a normal shock.
The normal shock causes a
sudden rise in pressure and temperature and a sudden drop in velocity to subsonic
levels. Flow through the shock is highly irreversible, and thus it cannot be approximated
as isentropic. The properties of an ideal gas with constant specific heats before
(subscript 1) and after (subscript 2) a shock are related by
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3.2.1 Assumptions
Steady flow and one dimensional

dA = 0, because shock thickness is small
Negligible friction at duct walls since shock is very thin
Zero body force in the flow direction
Adiabatic flow (since area is small)
No shaft work
Potential energy neglected
3.3 Governing Equations:

(i) Continuity
AV x AV y
x Vx y Vy (Shock thickness being small Ax = Ay) Gx = Gy (Mass velocity). Mass
velocity remains constant across the shock.
(ii) Energy equation
To remains constant across the shock.
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(iii) Momentum
Newtons second law
Impulse function remains constant across the shock.
3.3.1Property relations across the shock.
Energy
hox hoy
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Momentum
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Property relations in terms of incident Mach Number Mx
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Equation (1) becomes,
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Substituting and simplifying
Substituting (2) in (1), we have
3.4 Prandtl-Meyer relationship
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3.5 Governing relations for a normal shock
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3.6 The Rankine Hugoniot Equatios

Density Ratio Across the Shock
We know that density,
For upstream shock,
For down stream shock
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We know that,
We know that,
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We have,
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the above eqn.s is knows Rankine - Hugoniot equations.

3.7 Strength of a Shock Wave
It is defined as the ratio of difference in down stream and upstream shock pressures
(py - px) to upstream shock pressures (px). It is denoted by .
Substituting for py/px
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From the above equation;
The strength of shock wave may be expressed in another form using RankineHugoniot equation.
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From this equation we came to know strength of shock wave is directly proportional to;
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3.8 PROBLEMS
1.The state of a gas ( =1.3,R =0.469 KJ/KgK.) upstream of normal shock wave is given by
the following data: Mx =2.5, Px =2 bar. Tx =275 K calculate the Mach
number,pressure,temperatureand velocity of a gas down stream of shock: check the calculated
values with those given in the gas tables.Take K = .
Ans
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2. An Aircraft flies at a Mach number of 1.1 at an altitude of 15,000 metres.The

compression in its engine is partially achieved by a normal shock wave standing at the
entry of the diffuser. Determine the following for downstream of the shock.
1. Mach number
2. Temperature of the air
3. Pressure of the air
4. Stagnation pressure loss across the shock.
Given
M x = 1.1
Altitude, Z 15, 000 m
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3. Supersonic nozzle is provided with a constant diameter circular duct at its exit. The duct
diameter is same as the nozzle diameter. Nozzle exit cross ection is three times that of its
throat. The entry conditions of the gas (=1.4, R= 287J/KgK) are P 0 =10 bar, T0 =600K.
Calculate the static pressure, Mach number and velocity of the gas in duct.
(a) When the nozzle operates at its design condition. (b) When a normal shock occurs at its
exit. (c) When a normal shock occurs at a section in the diverging part where the area
ratio, A/A* =2.
Given:
A2 =3A*
Or A2/A*=3
= 1.4
R= 287 J/KgK
P0= 10 bar = 106 Pa
T0= 600K
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{Note: For A2/A* =3, we can refer gas tables page no.30 and 36. But we have to take M >1
corresponding values since the exit is divergent nozzle}
i.e. T2 = 0.417 xT02
= 0.417 x 600 {sinceT0=T01=T02} T2 = 250.2 K
P2 = 0.0471 x p02
= 0.0471 x 10 x 105
{since p0 =p01= p02}
p2 = 0.471 x 105 N/m2

We know
C2= M2 a2
= M 2 RT2
= 2.64 (1.4 287 250.2).5
C2 =837.05 m/s
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Case (iii)
Area ratio A/A* =2
i.e . Ax/Ax* =2
Refer isentropic flow table for Ax/Ax* =2 and = 1.4
Mx =2.2 [from gas tables page no. 35]
Refer Normal shocks table for Mx = 2.2 and = 1.4
My =0.547
P0y/P0x = 0.628
P0y = 0.628 P0x
= 0.628 10 105
P0y = 6.28 105 N/m2
Refer isentropic flow table for My =0.547 and =1.4

Ay/Ay* =1.255
We know that
[Since Ax= Ay, A*= Ax*] A2/Ay* = (A2/Ax*) (Ax*/Ax) (Ay/Ay*)
i.e. A2/ Ay* = 3.5 1.255 or A2/ Ay* =1.8825
Refer isentropic table for A2/Ay* = 1.8825= 1.871 and = 1.4
M2= 0.33
[From gas tables page no. 29] T2/T0y =0.978
P2/p0y =0.927
i.e. T2= 0.978 T0y
= 0.978 600 or T2 = 586.8 K
So P2= 0.927 p0y
=0.927 6.28 105
or P2= 5.82 105 N/m2
C2= M2 a2
= M 2 RT2 = 0.33 (1.4 287 586.8).0.5
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C2= 160.23 m/s

Result
Case (i): p2=0.471 105 N/m2, M2= 2.64, c2= 837.05 m/s
Case (ii): p y= 3.75 105 N/m2, My=0.5, cy= 239.32 m/s
Case (iii): p2= 5.82 105 N/m2, M2= 0.33, c2= 160.23 m/s
1) The state of a gas (=1.3,R =0.469 KJ/Kg K) upstream of a normal shock is given by the
following data: Mx =2.5, px= 2bar ,Tx =275K calculate the Mach number,
pressure,temperature and velocity of the gas downstream of the shock;check the calculated
values with those give in the gas tables.
2) The ratio of th exit to entry area in a subsonic diffuser is 4.0 .The Mach number of a jet of
air approaching the diffuser at p0=1.013 bar, T =290 K is 2.2 .There is a standing normal
shock wave just outside the diffuser entry. The flow in the diffuser is isentropic . Determine at
the exit of the diffuser.a) Mach number , b) Temperature, and c) Pressure d) What is the
stagnation pressure loss between the initial and final states of the flow ?
3) The velocity of a normal shock wave moving into stagnant air (p=1.0 bar, t=170C ) is 500
m/s . If the area of cross- section of the duct is constant determine (a) pressure (b) temperature
(c) velocity of air (d) stagnation temperature and (e) the mach number imparted upstream of
the wave front.
4)
The following data refers to a supersonic wind tunnel:
Nozzle throat area =200cm,Test section cross- section =337.5cm, Working fluid ;air (
=1.4, Cp =0.287 KJ/Kg K) Determine the test section Mach number and the diffuser throat
area if a normal shock is located in the test section.
5) A supersonic diffuser for air ( =1.4) has an area ratio of 0.416 with an inlet Mach
number of 2.4 (design value). Determine the exit Mach number and the design value of the
pressure ratio across the diffuser for isentropic flow. At an off- design value of the inlet Mach
number (2.7) a normal shock occurs inside the diffuser .Determine the upstream Mach
number and area ratio at the section where the shock occurs, diffuser efficiency and the
pressure ratio across the diffuser. Depict graphically the static pressure distribution at off
design.
6) Starting from the energy equation for flow through a normal shock obtain the following
relations (or) prandtl meyer relation Cx Cy =a* M*x M*y =1
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UNIT 4
JET PROPULSION
4.1 Jet Propulsion System
It is the propulsion of a jet aircraft (or) Rocket engines which do not use
atmospheric air other missiles by the reaction of jet coming out with high velocity. The
jet propulsion in used when the oxygen is obtained from the surrounding
atmosphere.
Jet propulsion is based on Newtons second and third low of motion. Newtons
second law states that the range of momentum in any direction is proportional to the
force acting in that direction. Newtons third low states that for every action there is an
equal and opposite reaction.
In propulsion momentum is imparted to a mass of fluid in such a manner that
the reaction of the imparted momentum furnishes a propulsive force. The jet aircraft
draws in air and expels it to the rear at a markedly increased velocity; the rocket greatly
changes the velocity of its fuel which it ejects rearward in the form of products of
combustion. In each case the action of accelerating the mass of fluid in a given direction
created a reaction in the opposite direction in the form of a propulsive
force. The magnitude of this propulsive force is defined as thrust.
4.2 Types of Jet Propulsion System:
The jet propulsion engines are classified basically as to their method of operation.
The two main categories of jet propulsion engines are the atmospheric jet engines and the
rockets. The atmospheric jet engines require oxygen from the atmospheric air for the
combustion of fuel. As a result, their performance depends to a great degree on the
forward speed of the engine and upon the atmospheric pressure and temperature.
The rocket engine differs from the atmospheric jet engines in that the entire
mass of jet is generated from the propellants carried within the engine, i.e., the rocket
engine carries its own oxidant for the combustion of the fuel and is therefore,
independent of the atmospheric air. The performance of this type of power plant is
independent of the forward speed and affected to a maximum of about 10% by changes
in altitude.
4.2.1 Air Breathing Engines
Air breathing engines can further be classified as follows:
1.Reciprocating engines (Air screw)
2. Gas Turbine engines
(i) Turbojet
(ii) Turbojet with after burner (also known as turbo ramjet, turbojet with tail pipe
burning and turbojet with reheater)
(iii) Turboprop (also known as propjet).
3. Athodyds (Aero Thermodynamics Ducts)
(i)
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Lorin tube)
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(ii)
Intermittent combustion system, intermittent air flow Pulse jet (also

known as aero pulse, resojet, Schmidt tube and intermittent jet).
The reciprocating engine develops its thrust by accelerating the air with the help
of a propeller driven by it, the exhaust of engine imparting almost negligible amount of
thrust to that developed by the propeller.
The turbojet, turbojet with afterburner and turboprop are modified simple open
cycle gas turbine engines. The turbojet engine consists of an open cycle gas turbine
engine (compressor, combustion chamber and turbine) with an entrance air diffuser added
in front of the compressor and an exit nozzle added aft of the turbine. The turbojet with
afterburner is a turbojet engine with a reheater added to the engine so the extended tail
pipe acts as a combustion chamber. The turboprop is a turbojet engine with extra turbine
stages, a reduction gear train and a propeller added to the engine. Approximately 80 to
905 of the thrust of the turboprop is produced by acceleration of the air outside the
engine by the propeller and about 10 to 20% of the thrust is produced by the jet exit of
the exhaust gases. The ramjet and the pulsejet are athodyds, i.e., a straight duct type of jet
engine without compressor and turbine wheels.
4.2.2 Rocket Engines
The necessary energy and momentum which must be imparted to a
propellant as it is expelled from the engine to produce a thrust can be given in many
ways. Chemical, nuclear or solar energy can be used and the momentum can be imparted
by electrostatic or electromagnetic force.
Chemical rockets depend up on the burning of the propellant inside the
combustion chamber and expanding it through a nozzle to obtain thrust. The propellant
may be solid, liquid, gas or hybrid.
The vast store of atomic energy is utilized incase of nuclear propulsion.
Radioactive decay or Fission or Fusion can be used to increase the energy of the
propellant.
In electrical rockets electrical energy from a separate energy source is used and
the propellant is accelerated by expanding in a nozzle or by electrostatic or
electromagnetic forces.
In solar rockets solar energy is used to propel spacecraft.
4.3 The Ramjet Engine
The ramjet engine is an air breathing engine which operates on the same
principle as the turbojet engine. Its basic operating cycle is similar to that of the turbojet.
It compresses the incoming air by ram pressure, adds the heat energy to velocity and
produces thrust. By converting kinetic energy of the incoming air into pressure, the
ramjet is able to operate without a mechanical compressor. Therefore the engine
requires no moving parts and is mechanically the simplest type of jet engine which has
been devised. Since it depends on the velocity of the incoming air for the needed
compression, the ramjet will not operate statistically. For this reason it requires a turbojet
or rocket assist to accelerate it to operating speed.
At supersonic speeds the ramjet engine is capable of producing very high thrust
with high efficiency. This characteristic makes it quite useful on high speed aircraft and
missiles, where its great power and low weight make flight possible in regions where it
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would be impossible with any other power plant except the rocket. Ramjets have also
been used at subsonic speeds where their low cost and light weight could be used to
advantage.
4.3.1 Principle of Operation:
The ramjet consists of a diffuser, fuel injector, flame holder, combustion
chamber and exit nozzle (Ref figure 9). The air taken in by the diffuser is compressed in
two stages.
The external compression takes place takes place because the bulk of the
approaching engine forces the air to change its course. Further compression is
accomplished in the diverging section of the ramjet diffuser. Fuel is injected into and
mixed with air in the diffuser. The flame holder provides a low velocity region
favourable to flame propagation, and the fuel-air mixture recirculates within this sheltered
area and ignites the fresh charge as it passes the edge of the flame holder. The burning
gases then pass through the combustion chamber, increasing
in temperature and
therefore in volume. Because the volume of air increases, it must speed up to get out
of the way off the fresh charge following behind it, and a further increase in velocity
occurs as the air is squeezed out through the exit nozzle. The thrust produced by the
engine is proportional to this increase in velocity.
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4.3.2 Advantages
Ramjet is very simple and does not have any moving part. It is very cheap
and requires almost no maintenance.
Since turbine is not used the maximum temperature which can be allowed in
ramjet is very high, about 2000 0 C as compared to about 1000 0C in turbojets.
This allows a greater thrust to be obtained by burning fuel at A/F ratio of
about 15.1 which gives higher temperatures.
The SFC is better than turbojet engines at high speed and high altitudes.
There seems to be no upper limit to the flight speed of the ramjet.
4.3.3 Disadvantages
Since the compression of air is obtained by virtue of its speed relative to
the engine, the take-off thrust is zero and it is not possible to start a ramjet
without an external launching device.
The engine heavily relies on the diffuser and it is very difficult to design a
diffuser which will give good pressure recovery over a wide range of speeds.
Due to high air speed, the combustion chamber requires flame holder to
stabilise the combustion.
At very high temperature of about 20000 C dissociation of products of
combustion occurs which will reduce the efficiency of the plant if not recovered
in nozzle during expansion.
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4.3.4 Application:
Due to its high thrust at high operational speed, it is widely used in high speed
aircrafts and missiles.
Subsonic ramjets are used in target weapons, in conjunction with turbojets or
rockets for getting the starting torque.
4.4 Pulse Jet Engine
The pulse jet engine is an intermittent, compressor less aerodynamic power
plant, with few or none of the mechanical features of conventional aviation power
plants. In its simplest form, the operation of the pulse jet depends only on the properties
of atmospheric air, a fuel, a shaped tube and some type of flow-check valve, and not on
the interposition of pistons, impellers, blades or other mechanical part whose geometry
and motion are controllable. The pulse jet differs from other types of air breathing
engines, in that the air flow through it is intermittent. It can produce static thrust.
4.4.1 Operations:
During starting compressed air is forced into the inlet which opens the spring
loaded flapper valves. In practice this may done by blowing compressed air though the
valve box or by the motion of the engine through the air. The air that enters the engine
passes by the fuel injector and is mixed with the fuel(Fig. A)
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When
the
fuel-air
mixture reaches the proper
proportion to burn, it is ignited
by a spark plug. The burning
takes place with explosive
force, thus causing a very rapid
rise in pressure, the increase in
pressure forces the flapper
valves shut and propels the
charge of burned gases out of
the tail pipe, as in B of the
figure.
The momentum of the gases
leaving the tailpipe causes the
air to continue t flow out even
after the pressure within the engine has reached atmospheric pressure. The pressure
within the engine is therefore evacuated to below atmosphere, part C in figure.
After the pressure has reached its lowest point, atmospheric pressure (and the ram
pressure if the engine is in flight) forces air into the engine through the flapper
valves. At the same time, air will also be drawn in through tailpipe, since the
pressure within the tailpipe is low and has nothing to prevent the entry of air, At this
point, part D in figure, the engine is ready to begin another cycle. The fequency of
cycles depends upon the duct shape and working temperature in V-1 rocket it was about
40 c/s which corresponds to about 2400 rpm of a two stroke reciprocating engine.
Once the engine operation has become established, the spark plug is no
longer necessary. The reignition between each cycle is accomplished when the fresh
charge of fuel and air is ignited by some residual flame which is left over from the
preceding cycle. The air flow which reenters the tailpipe is important from both the
engine operation and thrust stadpoints. Experiments have shown that the amount of
air which flows into the tailpipe can be several times as much as that which flows into
the inlet. This mass flow of air increases the thrust of the engine by providing additional
mass for the explosion pressure to work on. It also increases the pressure within the
engine at the beginning of each explosion cycle, resulting in a more efficient burning
process. Reentry of air into the tailpipe is made more difficult as the airspeed surrounding
the engine increases. The thrust of the engine, therefore, tends to decrease with speed.
As the speed increases, the amount of reentering air flow decreases to the point where
the internal pressure is eventually too low to support combustion and the engine will no
longer operate.
4.4.2 Characteristics :
The chief advantages of the pulse jet are its simplicity, light weight, low cost and
good zero speed thrust characteristic. Its particular disadvantages are its 650-800 km/h.
operating speed limit, rather limited altitude range and somewhat unpredictable valve
life.
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One interesting and sometimes objectionable, feature of the pulse jet engine is the
sound it makes when in operation. The sound is a series of loud reports caused by the
firing of the individual charges of fuel and air in the combustion chamber. The frequency
of the reports depends upon the length of the engine form the inlet valves to the end of
the tailpipe and upon the temperature of the gases within the engine. The resulting
sound is a continuous, loud, and vibratory note that can usually be heard for several
kilometers.
The pulse jet has low thermal efficiency. In early designs the efficiency obtained
was about 2 to 3% with a total flight life of 30 to 60 minutes. The maximum operating
speed is seriously limited by tow factors: (i) It is possible to design a good diffuser at
high speeds. (ii) The fiepper valves, the only mechanical part in the pulse jet, also have
certain natural frequency and if resonance with the cycle frequency occurs then the valve
may remain open and no compression will take place. Also, as the speed increases it is
difficult for air to flow back. This reduces total compression pressure as well as the
mass flow of air which results in inefficient combustion and lower thrust. The reduction
in thrust and efficiency is quite sharp as the speed increases.
4.4.3 Advantages :
This is very simple device only next to ramjet and is light in weight. It
requires very small and occasional maintenance.
Unlike ramjet, it has static thrust because of the compressed air starting, thus
it does not need a device for initial propulsion. The static thrust is even more than
the cruise thrust.
It can run on an almost any type of liquid fuel without much effect on the
performance. It can also operate on gaseous fuel with little modifications.
Pulse jet is relatively cheap.
4.4.4 Disadvantages :
1.The biggest disadvantage is very short life of flapper valve and high rates of
fuel consumption. The SFC is as high as that of ramjet.
The speed of the pulse jet is limited within a very narrow range of about 650-800
km/h because of the limitations in the aerodynamic design of an efficient diffuser
suitable for a wide range.
The high degree of vibrations due to intermittent nature of the cycle and the
buzzing noise has made it suitable for pilotless crafts only.
It has lower propulsive efficiency that turbojet engine.
The operational range of the pulse jet is limited in altitude range.
4.4.5 Applications:
German V-1 buzz bomb,
American Helicopter companys Jet Jeep Helicopter,
Auxiliary power plant for sail planes.
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4.5 The Turbojet Engine

The turbojet engine consists of diffuser which shows down the entrance air and
thereby compresses it, a slows down the entrance air and thereby compresses it, a
simple open cycle gas turbine and an exist gas into kinetic energy. The increased
velocity, of air thereby produces thrust.
Figure 2 shows the basic arrangement of the diffuser, compressor, combustion
chamber, turbine and the exhaust nozzle of a turbojet engine. Of the total pressure rise of
air, a part is obtained by the rain compression in the diffuser and rest in the compressor.
The diffuser converts kinetic energy of the air into pressure energy. In the ideal
diffuser, the air is diffused isentopically down to zero velocity. In the actual diffuser the
process is irreversible adiabatic and the air leaves the diffuser at a velocity between 60
and 120 m/s.
The centrifugal compressor gives a pressure ratio of about 4:1 to 5:1 in a single
stage and usually a double-sided rotor is used. The turbojet using centrifugal compressor
has a short and sturdy appearance. The advantages of centrifugal compressor are high
durability, ease of manufacture and low cost and good operation under adverse conditions
such as icing and when sand and small foreign particles are inhaled in the inlet duct. The
primary disadvantage is the lack of straight-through airflow. Air leaves compressor in
radial direction and ducting with the attendant pressure losses is necessary to change the
direction. The axial flow is more efficient than the centrifugal type and gives the turbojet
a long slim, streamlined appearance. The engine diameter is reduced which results in low
aircraft drag. A multistage axial flow compressor can develop a pressure ratio as high as
6:1 or more. The air handled by it is more than that handled by a centrifugal compressor
of the same diameter.
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A variation of the axial compressor, the twin-spool (dual spool, split spool or
coaxial) compressor has two or more sections, each revolving at or near the optimum
speed for its pressure ratio and volume of air. A very high-pressure ratio of about 9:1
to 13:1 is obtained. The use of high-pressure ratio gives very good specific fuel
consumption and is necessary for thrust ratings in the region of 50000 N or greater.
In the combustion chamber heat is added to the compressed air nearly at
constant pressure. The three types being can, annular and can-annular (ref.fig.3). In
the can type individual burners, or cans, are mounted in a circle around the engine axis
with each one receiving air through its own cylindrical shroud. One of the main
disadvantages of can type burners is that they do not make the best use of available space
and this results in a large diameter engine. On the other hand, the burners are individually
removable for inspection and air-fuel patterns are easier to control than in annular
designs. The annular burner is essentially a single chamber made of concentric
cylinders mounted co-axially about the engine axis. This arrangement makes more
complete use of available space, has low pressure loss, fits well with the axial compressor
and turbine and form a technical viewpoint has the highest efficiency, but has a
disadvantage in that structural problems may arise due to the large diameter, thin-wall
cylinder required with this type of chamber. The problem is more severe for larger
engines. There is also some disadvantage in that the entire combustor must be removable
from the engine for inspection and repairs. The can- annular design also makes good use
of available space, but employs a number of individually replaceable cylindrical inner
liners that receive air through a common annular housing for good control of fuel and air
flow patterns. The can-annular arrangement has the added advantage of greater
structural stability and lower pressure loss than that of the can type.
The heated air then expands through the turbine thereby increasing its
velocity while losing pressure. The turbine extracts enough energy to drive the
compressor and the necessary auxiliary equipments. Turbines of the impulse,
reaction and a combination of both types are used. In general, it may be stated that those
engines of relatively low thrust and simple design employ the impulse type, while those
of large thrust employ the reaction and combination types.
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The hot gas is then expended through the exit nozzle and the energy of the hot gas is
converted into as much kinetic energy as is possible. This change in velocity of the air
passing through the engine multiplied by the mass flow of the air is the change of momentum,
which produces thrust. The nozzle can be a fixed jet or a variable area nozzle. The variable area
nozzle permits the turbojet to operate at maximum efficiency over a wide range of power
output. Clamshell, Finger or Iris, Centre plug with movable shroud, annular ring, annular ring
with movable shroud are the various types of variable area nozzle for turbojet engines. The
advantage of variable area nozzle is the increased cost, weight and complexity of the exhaust
system.
The needs and demands being fulfilled by the turbojet engine are
Low specific weight to of the reciprocating engine
Relative simplicity no unbalanced forces or reciprocating engine
Small frontal area, reduced air cooling problem- less than th the frontal area of the
reciprocating engine giving a large decrease in nacelle drag and consequently
giving a greater available excess thrust or power, particularly at high speeds.
Not restricted in power output - engines can be built with greatly increased power output
over that of the reciprocating engine without the accompanying disadvantages.
Higher speeds can be obtained not restricted by a propeller to speeds below 800 km/h.
4.6 Turboprop Engine (Propeller turbine, turbo-propeller, prop jet, turbo-prop)
For relatively high take-off thrust or for low-speed cruise applications, turboprop
engines are employed to accelerate a secondary propellant stream, which is much larger than
the primary flow through the engine. The relatively low work input per unit mass of secondary
air can be adequately transmitted by a propeller. Though a ducted fan could also be used for
this purpose, a propeller is generally lighter compared to ducted fan could also be used for
this purpose, a propeller is generally lighter compared to ducted fan engine and with variable
pitch, it is capable of a wider range of satisfactory performance.
In general, the turbine section of a turboprop engine is very similar to that of a turbojet
engine. The main difference is the design and arrangement of the turbines. In the turbojet engine
the turbine is designed to extract only enough power from the high velocity gases to drive the
compressor, leaving the exhaust gases with sufficient velocity to produce the thrust required of
the engine. The turbine of the turboprop engine extracts enough power from the gases to drive
both the compressor and the propeller. Only a small amount of power is left as thrust. Usually a
turboprop engine has two or more turbine wheels. Each wheel takes additional power from the
jet stream, with the result that the velocity of the jet is decreased substantially.
Figure 6 shows a schematic diagram of a turboprop engine. The air enters the
diffuser as in a turbojet and is compressed in a compressor before passing to the combustion
chamber. The compressor in the turboprop is essentially an axial flow compressor. The products
of combustion expand in a two-stage or multistage turbine. One stage of the turbine drives the
compressor and the other drives the propeller.
Thus the turbine expansion is used to drive both compressor as well as propeller and
less energy is available for expansion in the nozzle. Due to lower speeds of propeller a
reduction gear is necessary between turbine and the propeller. About 80 to 90% of the
available energy in exhaust is extracted by the turbine while rest, about 10 to 20%,
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contributes the thrust by increasing the exhaust jet velocity.

Total thrust = jet thrust + propeller thrust
Turboprop engines combine in them the high take-off thrust and good propeller
efficiency of the propeller engines at speeds lower than 800 km/h and the small weight, lower
frontal area and reduced vibration and noise of the pure turbojet engine.
Its operational range is between that of the propeller engines and turbojets though it
can operate in any speed up to 800 km/h.
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The power developed by the turboprop remains almost same at high altitudes and
high speeds as that under sea-level and take-off conditions because as speed increases ram effect
also increases. The specific fuel consumption increases with increase in speed and altitude. The
thrust developed is high at take-off and reduces at increased speed.
4.6.1 Advantages
Turboprop engines have a higher thrust at take-off and better fuel economy.
The frontal area is less than air screw so that drag is reduced.
3.The turboprop can operate economically over a wide range of speeds ranging from low
speeds, where pure jet engine is uneconomical, to speeds of about 800 km/h where the
propeller engine efficiency is low.
It is easy to maintain and has lower vibrations and noise.
The power output is not limited as in the case of propeller engines (air screw).
The multicast arrangement allows a great flexibility of operation over a wide range of
speeds.
4.6.2 Disadvantages
The main disadvantage is that at high speeds due to shocks and flow separation, the
propeller efficiency decreases rapidly, thereby, putting up a maximum speed limit on the
engine.
It requires a reduction gear which increases the cost and also consumes certain
energy developed by the turbine in addition to requiring more space.
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4.7 The Turbofan Engine

The turboprop is limited to mach number of about 0.7 because of the sharp decrease in
propeller efficiency encountered above that mach number. However, the turboprop concept of
increasing mass flow rate without producing an excessive increment in exhaust velocity is
valid at any mach number and the use of a ducted fan combined with a jet turbine provides
more economical operation at mach numbers close to unity than does the simple jet turbine. If a
duct or shroud is placed around a jet engine and air is pumped through the annular passage by
means of one or more sets of compressor blades, the resulting engine is called a turbofan, and is
capable of producing (under proper conditions) somewhat better thrust specific fuel consumption
characteristics than the turbojet itself. Basically, the air passing through the fan bypasses the
combustion process but has energy added to it by the compressor fan, so that a sizable mass
flow can be shunted through the fan. The air which bypasses the combustion process leaves the
engine with a lower amount of internal energy and a lower exhaust speed than the jet exhaust. Yet,
the thrust is not decreased since the turbofan can pump more air per unit time than a conventional jet
at subsonic speeds. Accordingly, the average exhaust velocity of the turbofan (averaging the turbine
flow and the bypass flow) can be made smaller at a given flight speed than that of a comparable
turbojet and greater efficiency can be obtained. In turbofan engine the fan cannot be designed for all
compressor ratios which is efficient at all mach numbers, thus, the turbofan is efficient over a
rather limited range of speeds. Within this speed range, however, its improved cruise economy
makes it a desirable unit for jet transport aircraft.
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The turbofan engine has a duct enclosed fan mounted at the front or rear of the
engine and driven either mechanically geared down or at the same speed as the
compressor, or by an independent turbine located to the rear of the compressor drive
turbine (Ref. Figure 7). There are two methods of handling the fan air. Either the fan can
exit separately from the primary engine air, or it can be ducted back to mix with the
primary engines air at the rear. If the fan air is ducted to the rear, the total fan pressure
must be higher than the static pressure in the primary engines exhaust, or air will not
flow. Similarly, the static fan discharge pressure must be less than the total pressure
the primary engines exhaust, or the turbine will not be able to extract the energy
required to drive the compressor and fan. By closing down the area of flow of the fan
duct, the static pressure can be reduced and the dynamic pressure is increased.
The efficiency of the fan engine is increased over that of the pure jet by
converting more of the fuel energy into pressure energy rather than the kinetic energy of
a high velocity exhaust gas stream. The fan produces additional force or thrust without
increasing fuel flow. As in the turboprop primary engine exhaust gas velocities and
pressures are low because of the extra turbine stages needed to drive the fan, and as
a result this makes the turbofan engine much quieter. One fundamental difference
between the turbofan and the turboprop engine is that the air flow through the fan is
controlled by design so that the air velocity relative to the fan blades is unaffected by the
aircrafts speed. This eliminates the loss in operational efficiency at high air speeds
which limits the maximum air speed of propeller driven aircraft.
Fan engines show a definite superiority over the pure jet engines at speeds
below Mach 1. The increased frontal area of the fan presents a problem for high- speed
aircraft which, of course require small frontal areas. At high speeds air can be offset at
least partially by burning fuel in the fan discharge air. This would expand the gas, and
in order to keep the fan discharge air at the same pressure, the area of the fan jet nozzle is
increased. This action results in an increase in gross thrust due to an increase in pressure
times an area (PA), and an increase in gross thrust specific fuel consumption.
4.8 Nozzle and diffuser efficiencies
In ideal case, flow through nozzle and diffuser is isentropic. But in actual case,
friction exists and affects in following ways:
i) Reduces the enthalpy drop reduces the final velocity of steam iii) Increases the final
dryness fraction iv) Increases specific volume of the fluid v) Decreases the mass flow rate
4.8.1 Nozzle performance
The isentropic operating conditions are very easy to determine. Frictional losses
in the nozzle can be accounted by several methods.
(1) Direct information on the entropy change could be given although this is usually not
available.
(2) Some times equivalents information is provided in the form of stagnation
pressure ratio. Normally nozzle performance is indicated by efficiency parameter defined
as
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Note : If the nozzle inlet is not stagnant.
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4.9 Problems:
1. Air is discharged from a C - D nozzle. Pilot-tube readings at inlet and exist of the
nozzle ae 6.95 105 N/m2 and 5.82 105 N/m2 respectively. The inlet stagnation
temp 250oC and exit static pressure, 1.5 105 N/m2. Find the inlet and exit
stagnation pressure, exit Mach numbers, exit flow velocity and nozzle efficiency.
Note:
i) (Pitot - tube reading gives stagnation pressure)
ii) (Since stagnation pr. vlaues are different for inlet and exit the flow is no longer
isentropic) Mach number at exist (Ma). Consider the isentropic deceleration process
shown (a - oa)
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2. A converging, nozzle operating with air and inlet conditions of P = 4 Kg/cm2,

T0 = 450oC and T = 400oC is expected to have an exit static pressure of 2.5 Kgf/cm2
under ideal conditions. Estimate the exit temperature and mach number, assuming a
nozzle efficiency = 0.92 when the expansion takes place to the same back pressure.
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3. An aircraft flies at a speed of 520 kmph at an altitude of 8000 m. The diameter of the
propeller of an aircraft is 2.4 m and flight to jet speed ratio is 0.74. Find the following:
(i) The rate of air flow through the propeller
(ii) Thrust produced
(iii) Specific thrust
(iv) Specific impulse
(v) Thrust power Given:
Air craft speed (or) Flight speed = 520 kmph
520 103
=
3600 s
144.44 m / s
Altitude z 8000 m
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1.The diameter of the propeller of an aircraft is 2.5m; It flies at a speed of 500Kmph at
an altitude of 8000m. For a flight to jet speed ratio of 0.75 determine (a) the flow rate of
air through the propeller, (b) thrust produced (c) specific thrust, (d) specific impulse and
(e) the thrust power.
2. Aircraft speed of 525 Kmph. The data for the engine is given below
Inlet diffuser efficience =0.875
Compressor efficieny =0.790
Velocity of air at compressor entry =90m/s
Properties of air : =1.4, Cp =1.005 KJ/kg K
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3. An aircraft flies at 960Kmph. One of its turbojet engines takes in 40 kg/s of air and
expands the gases to the ambient pressure .The air fuel ratio is 50 and the lower calorific
value of the fuel is 43 MJ/Kg .For maximum thrust power determine (a)jet velocity (b)
thrust (c) specific thrust (d) thrust power (e) propulsive, thermal and overall efficiencies
and (f) TSFC
4. A turboprop engine operates at an altitude of 3000 meters above mean sea level and an
aircraft speed of 525 Kmph. The data for the engine is given below
Inlet diffuser efficience =0.875,Compressor efficieny =0.790. Velocity of air at
compressor entry =90m/s Properties of air :_ =1.4, Cp =1.005 KJ/kg K
5. A turbo jet engine propels an aircraft at a Mach number of 0.8 in level flight at an
altitude of 10 km .The data for the engine is given below: Stagnation temperature at the
turbine inlet =1200K Stagnation temperature rise through the compressor =175 K
Calorific value of the fuel =43 MJ/Kg Compressor efficiency =0.75. Combustion
chamber efficiency =0.975, Turbine efficiency =0.81,Mechanical efficiency of the power
transmission between turbine and compressor =0.98, Exhaust nozzle efficiency=0.97,
Specific impulse =25 seconds.Assuming the same properties for air and combustion gases
calculate,
i.
Fuel air ratio
ii.
Compressor pressure ratio,
iii.
Turbine pressure ratio
iv.
Exhaust nozzles pressure ratio ,and
v.
Mach number of exhaust jet
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UNIT -5
SPACE PROPULSION
5.1 Rocket Propulsion

In the section about the rocket equation we explored some of the issues surrounding
the performance of a whole rocket. What we didnt explore was the heart of the rocket, the
motor. In this section well look at the design of motors, the factors which affect the
performance of motors, and some of the practical limitations of motor design. The first part
of this section is necessarily descriptive as the chemistry, thermodynamics and maths
associated with motor design are beyond the target audience of this website.
5.2 General Principles of a Rocket Motor
In a rocket motor a chemical reaction is used to generate hot gas in a confined space
called the combustion chamber. The chamber has a single exit through a constriction called
the throat. The pressure of the hot gas is higher than the surrounding atmosphere, thus the
gas flows out through the constriction and is accelerated.
5.3 Propellants
The chemical reaction in model rocket motors is referred to as an exothermal
redox reaction. The term exothermal means that the reaction gives off heat, and in the
case of rocket motors this heat is mainly absorbed by the propellants raising their
temperature.
The term redox means that it is an oxidation/reduction reaction, in other words one
of the chemicals transfers oxygen atoms to another during the reaction. The two chemicals
are called the oxidising agent and the reducing agent.
The most popular rocket motors are black powder motors, where the oxidising agent
is saltpetre and the reducing agents are sulphur and carbon. Other motors include Potassium
or ammonium perchlorate as the oxidising agent and mixtures of hydrocarbons and fine
powdered metals as the reducing agents. Other chemicals are often added such as retardants
to slow down the rate of burn, binding agents to hold the fuel together (often these are the
hydrocarbons used in the reaction), or chemicals to colour the flame or smoke for effects. In
hybrid motors a gaseous oxidiser, nitrous oxide, reacts with a hydrocarbon, such as a plastic,
to produce the hot gas.
5.4 Energy Conversion
This reaction releases energy in the form of heat, and by confining the gas within the
combustion chamber we give it energy due to its pressure. We refer to the energy of this hot
pressurised gas as its enthalpy. By releasing the gas through the throat the rocket motor
turns the enthalpy of the gas into a flow of the gas with kinetic energy. It is this release of
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energy which powers the rocket. So the energy undergoes Two conversions:
Chemical energy to enthalpy
Enthalpy to kinetic energy
The conversion from chemical energy to enthalpy takes place in the combustion
chamber. To obtain the maximum enthalpy it is clearly important to have a reaction which
releases lots of heat and generates lots of high energy molecules of gas to maximise
pressure here is clearly a limit to the temperature & pressure, as the combustion chamber
may melt or split if these are too high. The designer has a limitation placed on his choice of
reagents in that the reaction must not heat the combustion chamber to a point where it is
damaged, nor must the pressure exceed that which the chamber can survive.
Changing enthalpy to kinetic energy takes place in the throat and the nozzle. Our mass
of hot gas flows into the throat, accelerating as the throat converges. If we reduce the
chameter of the throat enough, the flow will accelerate to the speed of sound, at which pint
something unexpected occurs. As the flow diverges into the nozzle it continues to accelerate
beyond the speed of sound, the increase in velocity depending on the increase in area. This
type of nozzle is called a De Laval nozzle.
5.5 Kinetic energy of a body:

If we consider a small volume of gas, it will have a very low mass. As we accelerate
this gas it gains kinetic energy proportional to the square of the velocity, so if we double the
velocity we get four times the kinetic energy. The velocity of the supersonic flow increases
proportional to the increase in area of the nozzle, thus the kinetic energy increases by the
fourth power of the increase in nozzle diameter. Thus doubling the nozzle diameter
increases the kinetic energy by 16 times! The De Laval nozzle make rocket motors possible,
as only such high velocity flows can generate the energy required to accelerate a rocket.
In model rockets the reaction is chemical generally short lived, a few seconds at
most, sothe amount of heat transferred to the structural parts of the motor is limited. Also,
the liner of the motor casing acts to insulate the casing from the rapid rise in temperature
which would result from a reaction in direct contact with the metal casing. Model rocket
motors also run at quite low pressure, well below the limits if the motor casing, further
protecting the casing. It can be seen that the enthalpy of a model rocket motor is thus quite
low. In large launch vehicles such as Ariane, the pressure and temperature are high, the burn
may last several minutes, and the mass budget for the designer is very tight. Designing
motors for these purposes is highly complex.
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5.6 Thrust
The basic principles of a rocket motor are relatively straightforward to understand. In
rocketry the motor exists to accelerate the rocket, and thus it has to develop a force called
thrust. One of several definitions of force is that: Force = rate of change of momentum If
we ignore (for a few paragraphs) any external effects we can say that the thrust is entirely
due to the momentum of the propellant, a force called the momentum thrust. If we
denote the thrust as F and the momentum as P, then mathematically:
Sometimes for mathematical clarity we us the notation of P with a dot on top to denote the
first derivative of P, and with 2 dots for the second derivative. Thus, in this new notation:
You may also recall from the section on the rocket equation that momentum is the product of
the mass and velocity. Thus we can say that the momentum of the flow from the nozzle of the
rocket has a momentum:
If the exhaust velocity remains constant, which is a reasonable assumption, we arrive at the
equation:
The term m-dot is known as the mass flow rate, in other words the rate at which mass is
ejected through the nozzle in kg/sec. In other words this is the rate at which the rocket burns
fuel. This is an interesting relationship, which can be expressed in words as: Momentum
Thrust = mass flow rate x exhaust velocity
5.7 Flow expansion
The propellant is accelerated into the atmosphere. As it leaves the nozzle the
propellant has an exit pressure Pexit and enters an atmosphere which has a pressure Patm.
The transition from one pressure to the other cannot happen instantaneously as any pressure
difference will cause a flow of high pressure fluid into the low pressure region.
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So the force (a component of thrust called pressure thrust) depends on the

pressure difference and the area
5.8 Types of Rocket Engines:

Rocket or rocket vehicle is a missile, spacecraft, aircraft or other vehicle which
obtains thrust from a rocket engine. In all rockets, the exhaust is formed entirely from
propellants carried within the rocket before use. Rocket engines work by action and reaction.
Rocket engines push rockets forwards simply by throwing their exhaust backwards extremely
fast.
Rockets for military and recreational uses date back to the 13th century. Significant
scientific, interplanetary and industrial use did not occur until the 20th century, when
rocketry was the enabling technology of the Space Age, including setting foot on the moon.
Rockets are used for fireworks, weaponry, ejection seats, launch vehicles for artificial
satellites, human spaceflight and exploration of other planets. While comparatively inefficient
for low speed use, they are very lightweight and powerful, capable of generating large
accelerations and of attaining extremely high speeds with reasonable efficiency.
Chemical rockets are the most common type of rocket and they typically create their
exhaust by the combustion of rocket propellant. Chemical rockets store a large amount of
energy in an easily released form, and can be very dangerous. However, careful design,
testing, construction and use minimize risks.
Rocket vehicles are often constructed in the archetypal tall thin "rocket" shape that
takes off vertically, but there are actually many different types of rockets including, tiny
models such as balloon rockets, water rockets, skyrockets or small solid rockets that can be
purchased at a hobby store missiles space rockets such as the enormous Saturn V used for the
Apollo program rocket cars rocket bike, rocket powered aircraft (including rocket assisted
takeoff of conventional aircraft- JATO), rocket sleds rocket trains rocket torpedos, rocket
powered jet packs, rapid escape systems such as ejection seats and launch escape systems
space probes
Propellants:
A propellant is a material that is used to move ("propel") an object. The material is
usually expelled by gas pressure through a nozzle. The pressure may be from a compressed
gas, or a gas produced by a chemical reaction. The exhaust material may be a gas, liquid,
plasma, or, before the chemical reaction, a solid, liquid or gelled. Common chemical
propellants consist of a fuel; like gasoline, jet fuel, rocket fuel, and an oxidizer. Propellant
used for propulsion Technically, the word propellant is the general name for chemicals used
to create thrust.
For vehicles, the term propellant refers only to chemicals that are stored within the
vehicle prior to use, and excludes atmospheric gas or other material that may be collected in
operation.
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Amongst the English-speaking laymen, used to having fuels propel vehicles on Earth,
the word fuel is inappropriately used. In Germany, the word Treibstoffliterally "drivestuff"is used; in France, the word ergols is used; it has the same Greek roots as hypergolic,
a term used in English for propellants which combine spontaneously and do not have to be set
ablaze by auxiliary ignition system.
In rockets, the most common combinations are bipropellants, which use two
chemicals, a fuel and an oxidiser. There is the possibility of a tripropellant combination,
which takes advantage of the ability of substances with smaller atoms to attain a greater
exhaust velocity, and hence propulsive efficiency, at a given temperature. Although not used
in practice, the most developed tripropellant systems involves adding a third propellant tank
containing liquid hydrogen to do this.
5.8 Solid propellant:
In ballistics and pyrotechnics, a propellant is a generic name for chemicals used for
propelling projectiles from guns and other firearms. Propellants are usually made from low
explosive materials, but may include high explosive chemical ingredients that are diluted and
burned in a controlled way (deflagration) rather than detonation. The controlled burning of
the propellant composition usually produces thrust by gas pressure and can accelerate a
projectile, rocket, or other vehicle. In this sense, common or well known propellants include,
for firearms, artillery and solid propellant rockets: Gun propellants, such as:
Gunpowder (black powder)

Nitrocellulose-based powders
Cordite
Ballistite
Smokeless powders
Composite propellants made from a solid oxidizer such as ammonium perchlorate or

ammonium nitrate, a rubber such as HTPB, or PBAN (may be replaced by energetic
polymers such as polyglycidyl nitrate or polyvinyl nitrate for extra energy) , optional high
explosive fuels (again, for extra energy) such as RDX or nitroglycerin, and usually a
powdered metal fuel such as aluminum.
Some amateur propellants use potassium nitrate, combined with sugar, epoxy, or other
fuels / binder compounds.
Potassium perchlorate has been used as an oxidizer, paired with asphalt, epoxy, and
other binders.
5.9 Grain
Propellants are used in forms called grains. A grain is any individual particle of
propellant regardless of the size or shape. The shape and size of a propellant grain determines
the burn time, amount of gas and rate produced from the burning propellant and consequently
thrust vs time profile.
There are three types of burns that can be achieved with different grains.
Progressive Burn:
Usually a grain with multiple perforations or a star cut in the center providing a lot of
surface area.
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Digressive Burn
Usually a solid grain in the shape of a cylinder or sphere.
Neutral Burn
Usually a single perforation; as outside surface decreases the inside surface increases
at the same rate.
5.10 Composition
There are four different types of solid propellant compositions:
Single Based Propellant:
A single based propellant has nitrocellulose as its chief explosives ingredient.
Stabilizers and other additives are used to control the chemical stability and enhance the
propellants properties.
Double Based Propellant:
Double based propellants consist of nitrocellulose with nitroglycerin or other liquid
organic nitrate explosives added. Stabilizers and other additives are used also. Nitroglycerin
reduces smoke and increases the energy output. Double based propellants are used in small
arms, cannons, mortars and rockets.
Triple Based Propellant
Triple based propellants consist of nitrocellulose, nitroquanidine, nitroglycerin or
other liquid organic nitrate explosives. Triple based propellants are used in cannons.
5.11 Composite
Composites contain no nitrocellulose, nitroglycerin, nitroquanidine or any other
organic nitrate. Composites usually consist of a fuel such as metallic aluminum, a binder such
as synthetic rubber, and an oxidizer such as ammonium perchlorate. Composite propellants
are used in large rocket motors.
5.12 Liquid propellant
Common propellant combinations used for liquid propellant rockets include:
Red fuming nitric acid (RFNA) and kerosene or RP-1
RFNA and Unsymmetrical dimethyl hydrazine (UDMH) Dinitrogen tetroxide and
UDMH, MMH and/or hydrazine Liquid oxygen and kerosene or RP-1
Liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen
Liquid oxygen and ethanol
Hydrogen peroxide and alcohol or RP-1
Chlorine pentafluoride and hydrazine
Common monopropellant used for liquid rocket engines include:
Hydrogen peroxide
Hydrazine
Red fuming nitric acid (RFNA)
Introducing propellant into a combustion chamber
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Rocket propellant is mass that is stored, usually in some form of propellant tank, prior
to being ejected from a rocket engine in the form of a fluid jet to produce thrust.
Chemical rocket propellants are most commonly used, which undergo exothermic
chemical reactions which produce hot gas which is used by a rocket for propulsive purposes.
Alternatively, a chemically inert reaction mass can be heated using a high- energy power
source via a heat exchanger, and then no combustion chamber is used.
A solid rocket motor:
Solid rocket propellants are prepared as a mixture of fuel and oxidizing components
called 'grain' and the propellant storage casing effectively becomes the combustion chamber.
Liquid-fueled rockets typically pump separate fuel and oxidiser components into the
combustion chamber, where they mix and burn. Hybrid rocket engines use a combination of
solid and liquid or gaseous propellants. Both liquid and hybrid rockets use injectors to
introduce the propellant into the chamber. These are often an array of simple jets- holes
through which the propellant escapes under pressure; but sometimes may be more complex
spray nozzles. When two or more propellants are injected the jets usually deliberately collide
the propellants as this breaks up the flow into smaller droplets that burn more easily.
5.13 Rocket Ignition :
Rocket fuels, hypergolic or otherwise, must be mixed in the right quantities to have a
controlled rate of production of hot gas. A hard start indicates that the quantity of
combustible propellant that entered the combustion chamber prior to ignition was too large.
The result is an excessive spike of pressure, possibly leading to structural failure or even an
explosion (sometimes facetiously referred to as "spontaneous disassembly").
Avoiding hard starts involves careful timing of the ignition relative to valve timing or
varying the mixture ratio so as to limit the maximum pressure that can occur or simply
ensuring an adequate ignition source is present well prior to propellant entering the chamber.
Explosions from hard starts often cannot happen with purely gaseous propellants,
since the amount of the gas present in the chamber is limited by the injector area relative to
the throat area, and for practical designs propellant mass escapes too quickly to be an issue.
A famous example of a hard start was the explosion of Wernher von Braun's "1W"
engine during a demonstration to General Dornberger on December 21, 1932. Delayed
ignition allowed the chamber to fill with alcohol and liquid oxygen, which exploded
violently. Shrapnel was embedded in the walls, but nobody was hit.
5.14 Rocket Combution:
Combustion chamber
For chemical rockets the combustion chamber is typically just a cylinder, and flame
holders are rarely used. The dimensions of the cylinder are such that the propellant is able to
combust thoroughly; different propellants require different combustion chamber sizes for this
to occur. This leads to a number called L
L = Vc/At
where:Vc is the volume of the chamber
At is the area of the throat, L* is typically in the range of 2560 inches (0.631.5 m).
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The combination of temperatures and pressures typically reached in a combustion

chamber is usually extreme by any standards. Unlike in air-breathing jet engines, no
atmospheric nitrogen is present to dilute and cool the combustion, and the temperature can
reach true stoichiometric. This, in combination with the high pressures, means that the rate of
heat conduction through the walls is very high.
5.15 Rocket nozzles:
Typical temperatures (T) and pressures (p) and speeds (v) in a De Laval Nozzle. The
large bell or cone shaped expansion nozzle gives a rocket engine its characteristic shape.
In rockets the hot gas produced in the combustion chamber is permitted to escape
from the combustion chamber through an opening (the "throat"), within a high expansionratio 'de Laval' nozzle.
Provided sufficient pressure is provided to the nozzle (about 2.5-3x above ambient
pressure) the nozzle chokes and a supersonic jet is formed, dramatically accelerating the gas,
converting most of the thermal energy into kinetic energy.
The exhaust speeds vary, depending on the expansion ratio the nozzle is designed to
give, but exhaust speeds as high as ten times the speed of sound of sea level air are not
uncommon.
Rocket thrust is caused by pressures acting in the combustion chamber and nozzle.
From Newton's third law, equal and opposite pressures act on the exhaust, and this
accelerates it to high speeds.
About half of the rocket engine's thrust comes from the unbalanced pressures inside
the combustion chamber and the rest comes from the pressures acting against the inside of the
nozzle (see diagram). As the gas expands (adiabatically) the pressure against the nozzle's
walls forces the rocket engine in one direction while accelerating the gas in the other.
5.16 Propellant efficiency:
For a rocket engine to be propellant efficient, it is important that the maximum
pressures possible be created on the walls of the chamber and nozzle by a specific amount of
propellant; as this is the source of the thrust. This can be achieved by all of: Heating the
propellant to as high a temperature as possible (using a high energy fuel, containing hydrogen
and carbon and sometimes metals such as aluminium, or even using nuclear energy)
Using a low specific density gas (as hydrogen rich as possible). Using propellants which are,
or decompose to, simple molecules with few degrees of freedom to maximize translational
velocity. Since all of these things minimise the mass of the propellant used, and since
pressure is proportional to the mass of propellant present to be accelerated as it pushes on the
engine, and since from Newton's third law the pressure that acts on the engine also
reciprocally acts on the propellant, it turns out that for any given engine the speed that the
propellant leaves the chamber is unaffected by the chamber pressure (although the thrust is
proportional). However, speed is significantly affected by all three of the above factors and
the exhaust speed is an excellent measure of the engine propellant efficiency. This is termed
exhaust velocity, and after allowance is made for factors that can reduce it, the effective
exhaust velocity is one of the most important parameters of a rocket engine (although weight,
cost, ease of manufacture etc. are usually also very important). For aerodynamic reasons the
flow goes sonic ("chokes") at the narrowest part of the nozzle, the 'throat'. Since the speed of
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sound in gases increases with the square root of temperature, the use of hot exhaust gas
greatly improves performance. By comparison, at room temperature the speed of sound in air
is about 340 m/s while the speed of sound in the hot gas of a rocket engine can be over 1700
m/s; much of this performance is due to the higher temperature, but additionally rocket
propellants are chosen to be of low molecular mass, and this also gives a higher velocity
compared to air.
Expansion in the rocket nozzle then further multiplies the speed, typically between 1.5
and 2 times, giving a highly collimated hypersonic exhaust jet. The speed increase of a rocket
nozzle is mostly determined by its area expansion ratiothe ratio of the area of the throat to
the area at the exit, but detailed properties of the gas are also important. Larger ratio nozzles
are more massive but are able to extract more heat from the combustion gases, increasing the
exhaust velocity.
Nozzle efficiency is affected by operation in the atmosphere because atmospheric
pressure changes with altitude; but due to the supersonic speeds of the gas exiting from a
rocket engine, the pressure of the jet may be either below or above ambient, and equilibrium
between the two is not reached at all altitudes (See Diagram).
5.17 Back pressure and optimal expansion:
For optimal performance the pressure of the gas at the end of the nozzle should just
equal the ambient pressure: if the exhaust's pressure is lower than the ambient pressure, then
the vehicle will be slowed by the difference in pressure between the top of the engine and the
exit; on the other hand, if the exhaust's pressure is higher, then exhaust pressure that could
have been converted into thrust is not converted, and energy is wasted.
To maintain this ideal of equality between the exhaust's exit pressure and the ambient
pressure, the diameter of the nozzle would need to increase with altitude, giving the pressure
a longer nozzle to act on (and reducing the exit pressure and temperature). This increase is
difficult to arrange in a lightweight fashion, although is routinely done with other forms of jet
engines. In rocketry a lightweight compromise nozzle is generally used and some reduction in
atmospheric performance occurs when used at other than the 'design altitude' or when
throttled. To improve on this, various exotic nozzle designs such as the plug nozzle, stepped
nozzles, the expanding nozzle and the aerospike have been proposed, each providing some
way to adapt to changing ambient air pressure and each allowing the gas to expand further
against the nozzle, giving extra thrust at higher altitudes.
When exhausting into a sufficiently low ambient pressure (vacuum) several issues
arise. One is the sheer weight of the nozzle- beyond a certain point, for a particular vehicle,
the extra weight of the nozzle outweighs any performance gained. Secondly, as the exhaust
gases adiabatically expand within the nozzle they cool, and eventually some of the chemicals
can freeze, producing 'snow' within the jet. This causes instabilities in the jet and must be
avoided.
On a De Laval nozzle, exhaust gas flow detachment will occur in a grossly overexpanded nozzle. As the detachment point will not be uniform around the axis of the engine,
a side force may be imparted to the engine. This side force may change over time and result
in control problems with the launch vehicle.
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5.18 Thrust vectoring:

Many engines require the overall thrust to change direction over the length of the
burn. A number of different ways to achieve this have been flown: The entire engine is
mounted on a hinge or gimbal and any propellant feeds reach the engine via low pressure
flexible pipes or rotary couplings.
Just the combustion chamber and nozzle is gimbled, the pumps are fixed, and high
pressure feeds attach to the engine multiple engines (often canted at slight angles) are
deployed but throttled to give the overall vector that is required, giving only a very small
penalty fixed engines with vernier thrusters high temperature vanes held in the exhaust that
can be tilted to deflect the jet
5.19 Overall rocket engine performance:
Rocket technology can combine very high thrust (meganewtons), very high exhaust
speeds (around 10 times the speed of sound in air at sea level) and very high thrust/weight
ratios (>100) simultaneously as well as being able to operate outside the atmosphere, and
while permitting the use of low pressure and hence lightweight tanks and structure.
Rockets can be further optimised to even more extreme performance along one or
more of these axes at the expense of the others.
Specific impulse:
The most important metric for the efficiency of a rocket engine is impulse per unit of
propellant, this is called specific impulse (usually written Isp). This is either measured as a
speed (the effective exhaust velocity Ve in metres/second or ft/s) or as a time (seconds).
An engine that gives a large specific impulse is normally highly desirable. The
specific impulse that can be achieved is primarily a function of the propellant mix (and
ultimately would limit the specific impulse), but practical limits on chamber pressures and the
nozzle expansion ratios reduce the performance that can be achieved. Space flight:
Spaceflight is the act of travelling into or through outer space. Spaceflight can occur with
spacecraft which may, or may not, have humans on board. Examples of human spaceflight
include the Russian Soyuz program, the U.S. Space shuttle program, as well as the ongoing
International Space Station. Examples of unmanned spaceflight include space probes which
leave Earth's orbit, as well as satellites in orbit around Earth, such as communication
satellites.
5.20 Space Flights
Spaceflight is used in space exploration, and also in commercial activities like space
tourism and satellite telecommunications. Additional non-commercial uses of spaceflight
include space observatories, reconnaissance satellites and other earth observation satellites.
A spaceflight typically begins with a rocket launch, which provides the initial thrust to
overcome the force of gravity and propels the spacecraft from the surface of the Earth. Once
in space, the motion of a spacecraftboth when unpropelled and when under propulsionis
covered by the area of study called astrodynamics. Some spacecraft remain in space
indefinitely, some disintegrate during atmospheric reentry, and others reach a planetary or
lunar surface for landing or impact.
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5.20.1 Types of spaceflight

Human spaceflight:
The first human spaceflight was Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961, on which cosmonaut
Yuri Gagarin of the USSR made one orbit around the Earth. In official Soviet documents,
there is no mention of the fact that Gagarin parachuted the final seven miles.[3] The
international rules for aviation records stated that "The pilot remains in his craft from launch
to landing". This rule, if applied, would have "disqualified" Gagarins space-flight. Currently
the only spacecraft regularly used for human spaceflight are Russian Soyuz spacecraft and
the U.S. Space Shuttle fleet. Each of those space programs have used other spacecraft in the
past. Recently, the Chinese Shenzhou spacecraft has been used three times for human
spaceflight, and SpaceshipOne twice.
Sub-orbital spaceflight
On a sub-orbital spaceflight the spacecraft reaches space and then returns to the
atmosphere after following a (primarily) ballistic trajectory. This is usually because of
insufficient specific orbital energy, in which case a suborbital flight will last only a few
minutes, but it is also possible for an object with enough energy for an orbit to have a
trajectory that intersects the Earth's atmosphere, sometimes after many hours. Pioneer 1 was
NASA's first space probe intended to reach the Moon. A partial failure caused it to instead
follow a suborbital trajectory to an altitude of 113,854 kilometers (70,746 mi) before
reentering the Earth's atmosphere 43 hours after launch.
The most generally recognized boundary of space is the Krmn line (actually a
sphere) 100 km above sea level. (NASA alternatively defines an astronaut as someone who
has flown more than 50 miles or 80 km above sea level.) It is not generally recognized by the
public that the increase in potential energy required to pass the Krmn line is only about 3%
of the orbital energy (potential plus kinetic energy) required by the lowest possible earth orbit
(a circular orbit just above the Krmn line.) In other words, it is far easier to reach space
than to stay there.
On May 17, 2004, Civilian Space eXploration Team launched the GoFast Rocket on a
suborbital flight, the first amateur spaceflight. On June 21, 2004, SpaceShipOne was used for
the first privately-funded human spaceflight.
Orbital spaceflight
A minimal orbital spaceflight requires much higher velocities than a minimal suborbital flight, and so it is technologically much more challenging to achieve. To achieve
orbital spaceflight, the tangential velocity around the Earth is as important as altitude. In
order to perform a stable and lasting flight in space, the spacecraft must reach the minimal
orbital speed required for a closed orbit.
Interplanetary spaceflight
An artist's imaginative impression of a vehicle entering a wormhole for interstellar
travel Interplanetary travel is travel between planets within a single planetary system. In
practice, the use of the term is confined to travel between the planets of the Solar System.
Interstellar spaceflight five spacecraft are currently leaving the Solar System on escape
trajectories. The one farthest from the Sun is Voyager 1, which is more than 100 AU distant
and is moving at 3.6 AU per year.[4] In comparison Proxima Centauri, the closest star other
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than the Sun, is 267,000 AU distant. It will take Voyager 1 over 74,000 years to reach this
distance. Vehicle designs using other techniques, such as nuclear pulse propulsion are likely
to be able to reach the nearest star significantly faster.
Another possibility that could allow for human interstellar spaceflight is to make use
of time dilation, as this would make it possible for passengers in a fast-moving vehicle to
travel further into the future while aging very little, in that their great speed slows down the
rate of passage of on-board time. However, attaining such high speeds would still require the
use of some new, advanced method of propulsion.
Intergalactic spaceflight
Intergalactic travel involves spaceflight between galaxies, and is considered much
more technologically demanding than even interstellar travel and, by current engineering
terms, is considered science fiction.
5.21 Effective Speed Ratio ():
Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption (TSFC)

The fuel consumption rate per unit thrust is known as Thrust Specific Fuel
Consumption
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Specific Impulse (I sp )
The thrust developed per unit weight flow rate is known as specific impulse
propulsive efficiency:
At the outlet of the engine , the power is
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Thermal Efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of power output of the engine to the power input to the engine.
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Where,
m Mass of air fuel mixture
c j Velocity of jet
u Flight velocity
m f Mass of fuel
C V Calorific value of fuel
If efficiency of combustion is considered ,
Overall Efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of propulsive power to the power input to the engine.
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5.22 Problems:
1.A rocket moves with a velocity of 10,000 km/hr with an effective exhaust velocity of 1400
m/sec, the propellant flow rate is 5 kg/sec and the propellant mixture has a heating value of
6500 kJ/kg. Find
1. Propulsion efficiency
2. Engine output power
3. Thermal efficiency
4. Overall efficiency
Sol)
Rocket speed, u
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5.23 Tutorial problems:

1. Calculate the orbital and escape velocities of a rocket at mean sea level and an altitude of
300km from the following data:
Radius of earth at mean sea level =6341.6Km
Acceleration due to gravity at mean sea level =9.809 m/s
2. A missile has a maximum flight speed to jet speed ratio of 0.2105 and specific impulse
equal to 203.88 seconds .Determine for a burn out time of 8 seconds
a) Effective jet velocity
b) Mass ratio and propellant mass functions
c) Maximum flight speed, and
d) Altitude gain during powered and coasting flights
3. A ramjet engine operates at M=1.5 at an altitude of 6500m.The diameter of the inlet
diffuser at entry is 50cm and the stagnation temperature at the nozzle entry is 1600K.The
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calorific value of the fuel used is 40MJ/Kg .The properties of the combustion gases are same
as those of air (y =1.4, R=287J/Kg K ). The velocity of air at the diffuser exit is negligible.
Calculate
(a) the efficiency of the ideal cycle,
(b) flight speed
(c) air flow rate
(d) diffuser pressure ratio
(e) fuel ratio
(f)nozzle pressure ratio
(g) nozzle jet Mach number
(h) propulsive efficiency
(i) and thrust.
Assume the following values:0D =0.90,0B =0.98, 0 j= 0.96.
Stagnation pressure loss in the combustion chamber =0.002Po2.
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UNIT- 1
1. What is the basic difference between compressible and incompressible fluid flow?
Compressible
1. Fluid velocities are appreciable
Incompressible
1. Fluid
velocities
are
small
compared with the velocity of
compared with the velocity of
sound
sound
2. Density is not constant
2. Density is constant
3. Compressibility factor is greater
3. Compressibility factor is one.
than one.
2. Write the steady flow energy equation for an adiabatic flow of air.
In an adiabatic flow q = 0. Therefore energy equation becomes.
c12
c 22
h1 +
+ gZ1 = h2 +
+ gZ 2 + Ws
2
2
Adiabatic energy equation is h0 = h + c2
3. Define the mach number in terms of bulk modulus of elasticity.
Mach number is a non-dimensional number and is used for the analysis of

compressible fluid flows.
M=
int ertiaforce
elasticforce
Ac 2
KA
where K = Bulk modulus of elasticity K = a2
M =
Ac 2 c
=
Aa 2 a
4. Explain the meaning of stagnation state with example.

The state of a fluid attained by isentropically decelerating it to zero velocity at zero
elevation is referred as stagnation state.
(e.g.) Fluid in a reservoir (or) in a settling chamber.
5. Distinguish between static and stagnation pressures.

In stagnation pressure state, the velocity of the flowing fluid is zero whereas in the
static pressure state, the fluid velocity is not equal to zero.
6. Differentiate between the static and stagnation temperatures.
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The actual temperature of the fluid in a particular state is known as static
temperature whereas the temperature of the fluid when the fluid velocity is zero at zero
elevation is known as stagnation temperature.
c2
where
2C p
T0
=T+
= static temperature
T0
= stagnation temperature
c2
2C p
= velocity temperature
7. What is the use of mach number?

Mach number is defined as the ratio between the local fluid velocity to the velocity of
sound.
i.e. Mach number
M=
Localfluidvelocity c
=
Velocityofsound
a
It is used for the analysis of compressible fluid flow problems. Critical mach number
is a dimensionless number at which the fluid velocity is equal to its sound velocity.
Therefore,
M critical =
c*
=1
a*
[ c* = a* ]
Crocco number is a non dimensional fluid velocity which is defined as the ratio of
fluid velocity to its maximum fluid velocity.
i.e. C r =
c
c max
Fluidvelocity
Maximumfluidvelocity
8. Write down the relationship between stagnation and static temperature interms of
the flow, mach number for the case of isentropic flow.
T0
1 2 where,
= 1+
M
T
2
T0
= stagnation temperature
= Static temperature
= Mach number.
9. Give the expression of

The expression of
P
for an isentropic flow through a duct.
P0
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T0
1 2 , but we know that,
= 1+
M
T
2
T0 P0
=
T P
P T 1
(or ) 0 = 0
P T
P ( 1) 2 1
Therefore 0 = 1 +
M (or )
P
2
P0
1
=
P
( 1) 2 1
1 + 2 M
10. Name the four reference velocities that are used in expressing the fluid velocities in
non-dimensional form?
RT
i.
Local velocity of sound a =
ii.
Stagnation velocity of sound a0 =
iii.
Maximum velocity of sound C max = a0
iv.
Critical velocity of sound / fluid a* = c* =
RT0
2
1
RT *
11. What are the different regions of compressible flow.
The adiabatic energy equation for a perfect gas is derived in terms of fluid velocity
and sound velocity (a). This is then plotted graphically on the c- a co-ordinates, a steady flow
ellipse is obtained.
The various regions of flow are:
(i)
Incompressible region (M 0)
(ii)
Subsonic region
(M < 1)
(iii)
Transonic region
(0.8 1.2)
(iv)
Supersonic region
(M > 1 and M < 5)
(v)
Hypersonic region
(M 5)
12. Define M* and give the relation between M

and M*.
It is a non-dimensional mach number and is defined by the ratio between the local
fluid velocity to its critical velocity of sound / fluid.
M* =
c
c
=
c* a*
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It is also called a characteristic Mach number.
M 2 ( 1)
2 + M 2 ( 1)
13. If an aeroplane goes to higher altitudes maintaining the same speed, the Mach
M* =
number will remain constant. Say true or false.

False.
c
a
At higher altitude, the sound velocity a will decrease and hence M will increase.
W.K.T. M =
Therefore, M is not constant.
14. Show h S diagram for the flow through a nozzle. Show how the stagnation
properties get affected.
1 2 = Isentropic expansion
1 2 = Adiabatic expansion
It is assumed that, the exit pressure is same for
both cases. But stagnation pressure at the exit of the
adiabatic process ( P02 ) will be less than isentropic
pressure ( P02 ' ) .
This
is
due
to
friction
and
irresversibilities. But stagnation temperature remains constant.
15. A plane travels at a speed of 2400 KM/h in an atmosphere of 5C, find the mach
angle.
2400
= 666.66667; T = 278 K
3.6
c
666.6667
M =
=
= 1.9947
RT
1.4 x 287 x 278
1
= sin 1 = 30.0876
M
c=
16. Define mach angle and mach wedge.
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Mach angle is formed, when an object is moving with supersonic speed. The wave
propagation and changes are smooth. When an object is moving with hypersonic speed the
changes are abrupt is shown in Fig. Hence for a supersonic flow over two dimensional
object mach wedge is used instead of mach cone.
17. How will you illustrate the role of mach number as a measure of compressibility?
If the flow is assumed to be incompressible, the value of pressure co-efficient (or)

compressibility factor obtained by Bernoulli equation is unity.
i.e.,
P0 P
M2 M4
=
1
+
+
+ ....... [for = 1.4]
4
40
C 2
2
By substituting different values of M, we can get different values of compressibility

factor and is given in the table.
M
Compressibility
factor (%)
Compressibility
factor(%)
Compressibility
factor(%)
0.1
0.3
0.5
6.4
0.9
22
0.2
1.0
0.6
9.3
10
27.5
0.3
2.3
0.7
12.9
0.4
4.1
0.8
17.0
In the above table, when M increases, the compressibility factor also increases from
the initial value 1. Thus the role of mach number is a measure of compressibility.
18. What is meant by isentropic flow with variable area?
A steady one dimensional isentropic flow in a variable area passages is called

variable area flow. The heat transfer is negligible and there are no other irreversibilities
due to fluid friction, etc.
19. Define zone of action and zone of silence with neat sketch.
20. Find the sonic velocity in oxygen when it is at 110 C, =1.4 and molecular weight 32.
a=
RT = 1.4 x 259.8125x383 = 373.244m / s
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Unit - II
21. Give the expression for
T0
T
and
for isentropic flow through variable area in
T
T*
terms of Mach number.
T
T0
T
T*
1
1 2
1+
M
2
( 1)
1 2
M
1+
2
22. Sketch the isentropic and adiabatic expansion process in P-V and T-S diagram}.
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23. Represent the adiabatic flow through a diffuser on T-S diagram. Label the different
states, the initial and final points.
24. Air from a reservoir is discharged through a nozzle. Show the variation of pressure
along the axis of the nozzle.
25.
What
will happen
if
the
air
flowing through a nozzle is heated?

When the flowing air is heated in a nozzle, the following changes will occur.
Velocity of air will increase.
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Increase in temperature and enthalpy
Pressure increases
Increase in entropy
26. Write the Fliegners formula.

+1
T0
mmax
X
=
A*
P0
2 2( 1)
R +
For air = 1.4 and R 287 J / Kg K [SI units]
mmax T0
= 0.0404 Fliegners formula
A * P0
27. Write the equation for efficiency of the diffuser.

Diffuser efficiency
= static pressure rise in the actual process

static pressure rise in the ideal process
P2 P1
P2 ' P1
28. What is impulse function and give its uses?
Impulse function is defined as the sum of pressure force and intertia force. Impulse
function F = Pressure force A + intertia force Ac2
Since the unit of both the quantities are same as unit of force, it is very convenient for
solving jet propulsion problems.
The thrust exerted by the flowing fluid between two
sections can be obtained by using change in impulse function.
29. What is chocked flow? State the necessary conditions for this flow to occur in a
nozzle.
When the back pressure is reduced in a nozzle, the mass flow rate will increase. The
maximum mass flow conditions are reached when the back pressure is equal to the critical
pressure. When the back pressure is reduced further, the mass flow rate will not change and
is constant. The condition of flow is called chocked flow. The necessary conditions for
this flow to occur in a nozzle is
* The nozzle exit pressure ratio must be equal to the critical pressure ratio where the
mach number M = 1.
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30. Draw the variation of
P
along the length of a convergent divergent device when it
P0
functions as (a) diffuser, (b) nozzle and (c) venturi.
Curves
a, b, c venture
d, e diffuser
g nozzle
31. Give the expression for nozzle efficiency and diffuser efficiency with h s diagram.
Nozzle efficiency N =
T T2
actual enthalpy drop
= 1
ideal enthalpy drop
T1 T2 '
Diffuser efficiencyD =
T 'T
ideal enthalpy rise
= 2 1
actual enthalpy rise T2 T1
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32. Give the important difference between nozzle and venturi.
NOZZLE
VENTURI
1. The flow is accelerated continuously
1. The flow is accelerated upto M = 1
i.e., Mach number and velocity
and then Mach number is decreased.
increases continuously.
2. Used
2. Used to increase velocity and Mach
for
flow
measurement
(discharge)
number.
3. Convergent and divergent portions
3. Generally convergent portion is short.
are equal.
33. What is the normal shock?

When the shock waves are right angles to the direction of flow and the rise in pressure
is abrupt are called normal shock waves.
34. What is meant by normal shock as applied to compressible flow?

Compression wave front being normal to the direction of compressible fluid flow. It
occurs when the flow is decelerating from supersonic flow. The fluid properties jump across
the normal shock.
35. Shock waves cannot develop in subsonic flow? State the reason.
Shocks are introduced to increase the pressure and hence it is a deceleration process.
Therefore, shocks are possible only when the fluid velocity is maximum. In a subsonic flow,
the velocity of fluid is less then the critical velocity and hence deceleration is not possible.
Thus, shock waves cannot develop in subsonic flow.
36. Define strength of a shock wave.

Strength of a shock wave is defined as the ratio of increase in static pressure across
the shock to the inlet static pressure.
Strength of shock =
py px
px
37. Calculate the strength of shock wave when normal shock appears at M = 2.
From normal shock table M = 2, = 1.4.
Strength of shock =
py
px
py
px
1 = 4.5 1 = 3.5
= 4.5
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38. Define oblique shock where it occurs.
The shock wave which is inclined at an angle to the two dimensional flow direction is
called as oblique shock. When the flow is supersonic, the oblique shock occurs at the corner
due to the turning of supersonic flow.
39. Give the difference between normal and oblique shock.

NORMAL SHOCK
(a)
The shock waves are right angles

to the direction of flow.
(b)
May be treated as one dimensional

analysis.
OBLIQUE SHOCK
(a) The shock waves are inclined at an
angle to the direction of flow.
(b) Oblique shock is two dimensional
analysis.
40. What is Prandtl-Meyer relation? What its significance?

The fundamental relation between gas velocities before and after the normal shock
and the critical velocity of sound is known as Prandtl-Meyer relation.
i.e., (i) cx x cy = a*2 and (ii) M*x x M* y = 1
it signifies the velocities (before and after the shock) with the critical velocity of
sound and the product of mach numbers before and after the shock is unity.
41. Shown a normal shock in h-s diagram with the help of Rayleigh line and Fanno line.
42. Define the term Fanno flow.

A steady one-dimensional flow in a constant area duct with friction in the absence of
work and heat transfer is known as fanno flow.
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43. Define Fanno line.
The locus of the state which satisfy the continuity and energy equation for a frictional
flow is known as fanno line.
44. Give fanno line in h s diagram with isentropic stagnation line and show various
mach number regions.
A to F -
heating process
F to A -
cooling process
B to F -
heating process
F to B -
cooling process
M<1
M>1
Point F is critical point where mach number M = 1.
The equation which yields the fanno line for the given values of h0 and G is called
fanno flow equation.
i.e., h = h0 -
G2
Fanno equation
2[ f (h, s ) 2 ]
45. Explain briefly the chocking in fanno flow.

In a fanno line, any heating process (both subsonic and supersonic) will increase the
enthalpy, entropy and mass flow rate. This will go upto the limiting state where mach
number M* = 1. Further heating is not possible, because the entropy change will be negative
which violates the second law of thermodynamics. Hence the mass flow rate is maximum at
the critical state and is constant afterwards, then the flow is said to be chocked flow.
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46. Give two practical examples where the fanno flow occurs.
Flow occurs in gas ducts of aircraft propulsion engines, flow in air-conditioning ducts
and flow of oil in long pipes. etc.
47. Give the effect of increasing the flow length after reaching critical condition in a
fanno flow.
The mass flow rate will increase only upto the critical condition and is constant
afterwards. Therefore, if the length of pipe is increased afterwards will not give any effect.
48. Write down the expression for the length of duct in terms of the two mach numbers
M1 and M2 for a flow through a constant area duct with the influence of friction.
4 fL 4 fLmax
4 fLmax
=

D
D M1 D M 2
49. Define isothermal flow with friction. Give the applications.
A steady one dimensional flow with friction and heat transfer in a constant area duct
is called isothermal flow with friction. Such a flow occurs in long ducts where sufficient
time is available for the heat transfer to occur and therefore the temperature may remains
constant.
Hence the friction factor may be assumed constant along the duct.
The
applications of isothermal flow are oil or water flow in buried pipe.

50. State assumptions made to derive the equations for isothermal flow.
i.
One dimensional flow with friction and heat transfer.
ii.
Constant area duct
iii.
Perfect gas with constant specific heats and molecular weights
iv.
Isothermal flow i.e., the temperature is constant
v.
On account of constant temperature the friction factor may be assumed constant along
the duct.
51. Differentiate between isothermal flow and fanno flow.

ISOTHERMAL
a) Static temperature is constant
FANNO FLOW
a) Static temperature is not
constant
b) With heat transfer.
b) Without heat transfer.
c) Flow occurs in a long ducts where
c) Long
sufficient time is required for heat
ducts
are
not
required.
transfer.
d) On account of constant temperature,
the friction factor is assumed as
constant.
d) Friction factor is constant.
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52. Define the term Rayleigh flow.
The one-dimensional flow in a constant area duct with heat transfer and without
friction is called Rayleigh flow.
55. Define Rayleigh line.
The locus of the points of properties during a constant area frictionless flow with heat
exchange is called Rayleigh line.
54. What is diabatic flow?
It is the flow which deals with the exchange of heat from the system in the absence of
friction (Rayleigh flow).
55. Give the assumptions made in Rayleigh flow.
i.
Perfect gas with constant specific heats and molecular weight.
ii.
Constant area duct,
iii.
One dimensional, steady frictionless flow with heat transfer.
iv.
Absence of body forces.
56. What do you understand by chocking in Rayleigh flow.
When the fluid is heated in a subsonic region, the entropy increases and the mach
number and fluid properties move to the right unitil the maximum entropy is reached where
M* = 1. When the fluid is heated in a supersonic region, the entropy increases and the mach
number and the fluid properties move to the right until the maximum entropy is reached
where M* = 1. Further heating is not possible because, if it is heated the change in entropy is
negative which violates the second law of thermodynamics. Therefore, the type of flow when
the limiting condition M* = 1 is called chocked flow.
57. Differentiate between Fanno flow and Rayleigh flow.
FANNO FLOW
a) One dimensional steady frictional

flow.
b) Stagnation temperature is constant.
c) Because of considering the wall
friction forces it is accurate.
d) Without heat transfer.
RAYLEIGH FLOW
a) One dimensional steady frictionless

flow.
b) Stagnation temperature is not constant
c) Less accurate.
d) With heat transfer.
58. What is meant by a jet propulsion system?
It is the propulsion of a jet aircraft (or)other missiles by the reaction of jet coming out
with high velocity. The jet propulsion in used when the oxygen is obtained from the
surrounding atmosphere.
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59. How will you classify propulsive engines?
The jet propulsion engines are classified into

i.
Air breathing engines and
ii.
Rocket engines which do not use atmospheric air.
60. What is the difference between shaft propulsion and jet propulsion?
SHAFT PROPULSION
a) The
power to
the propeller is
JET PROPULSION
a) There is no reduction gear.
transmitted through a reduction gear

b) At higher altitude, the performance is
poor. Hence it is suitable for lower
b) Suitable
for
higher
altitudes.
altitudes.
c) With increasing speeds and size of the
c) Construction is simpler.
aircrafts, the shaft propulsion engine

becomes too complicated.
d) Propulsive efficiency is less.
d) More.
61. List the different types of jet engines.
i.
Turbo-jet
ii.
Turpo-prop engine,
iii.
Ram jet engine,
iv.
Pulse jet engines.
62. Define the principle of Ram jet engine.
The principle of jet engine is obtained from the application of Newtons law of
motion. We know that when a fluid is accelerated, a force is required to produce this
acceleration is the fluid and at the same time, there is an equal and opposite reaction force of
the fluid on the engine is known as the thrust, and therefore the principle of jet propulsion is
based on the reaction principle.
63. Give the components of a turbo jet.
i.
Diffuser
ii.
Mechanical compressor,
iii.
Combustion chamber,
iv.
Turbine and
v.
Exhaust nozzle.
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64. Give the difference between pulse jet and ram jet engine.
PULSE JET
RAM JET
a) Mechanical valve arrangements
a) Works without the aid of any
are used during combustion.
mechanical device and needs no
b) The stagnation temperature at the

diffuser exit is comparatively less.
moving parts.
b) Since the mach number in Ram
jet engine is supersonic, the
stagnation temperature is very
high.
65. Give the difference between turbojet and ram jet engine.
TURBO JET
RAM JET
a) Compressor and turbine are
a) Compressor and turbine are not
used.
used but diffuser and nozzle are

used.
b) Lower thrust and propulsive
b) It provides high thrust per unit
efficiency at lower speeds.
weight.
c) Construction cost is more.
c) In
the
machines,
absence
the
of
rotating
construction
is
simple and cheap.
66. What is specific impulse?
Specific impulse is the thrust developed per unit weight flow rate through the
propulsive device. It is a useful performance parameter in aerospace propulsion systems.
F
W
67. Give the difference between Jet propulsion and Rocket propulsion.
I spe
JET PROPULSION
a) Oxygen
is
surrounding
obtained
ROCKET PROPULSION
from
atmosphere
the
a) The propulsion unit consists of
for
its own oxygen supply for
combustion purposes.
b) The
jet
consists
combustion purposes.
of
air
plus
combustion products.
c) Mechanical devices are also used.
b) Jet consists of the exhaust gases

only.
c) Mechanical devices are not used.
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68. What is the difference between turbo prop engine and turbo jet engine.
TURBO PROP
a) The
specific
fuel
TURBO - JET
consumption
a) TSFC is comparatively higher at
based on thrust is low.
lower speeds and altitudes.
b) Propulsive efficiency within the
b) Propulsive efficiency is low.
range of operation is higher.

c) On account of higher thrust at low
c) Take off role is longer and
speeds the take-off role is short and
requiring longer run way.
requiring shorter runway.

d) Use
of
centrifugal
compressor
d) Lower Frontal area.
stages increases the frontal area.

e) Higher weight per unit thrust.
e) Lower weight per unit thrust.
69. Write the formula for propulsive efficiency and define the same.
The force which propels the aircraft forward at a given speed is called thrust (or)
propulsive force.
Propulsive efficiency is defined as the ratio between propulsive power (or) thrust
power to the power output of the engine.
P =
=
Thrust power (or) Propulsive power

Fxu
=
Power output of the engine
Poutput
2
where,
1
u
Cj
Effective speed ratio (or) flight to jet velocity

70. What is ram effect?
When an aircraft flies with high velocity, the incoming air is compressed to high
pressure without external work at the expense of velocity energy is known as ram effect.
71. Explain specific thrust as applied to jet engines.
Specific thrust is defined as the thrust produced per unit mass flow rate through the
propulsive device.
Fspec =
F
where, F = thrust and m = mass flow rate
m
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72. Differentiate between pressure thrust and momentum thrust.
Pressure thrust is mainly depends on the difference in pressure between the nozzle
exit pressure and the ambient pressure and is given by
Pressure thrust = (Pe Pa) A
Momentum thrust depends on the difference in velocity between the aircraft velocity
and jet velocity is given by
Momentum thrust = m (cj u) where,
Pe
= nozzle exit pressure
Pa
= ambient pressure
= Area of cross section at the nozzle exit
Cj
= jet velocity and
= forward speed of aircraft
73. What is thrust augmentation?
To achieve better take-off performance, higher rates of climb and increased

performance at altitude during combat maneuvers, there has been a demand for increasing the
thrust output of aircraft for short intervals of time. This is achieved by during additional fuel
in the tail pipe between the turbine exhaust and entrance section of the exhaust nozzle. This
method of thrust increases the jet velocity is called Thrust Augmentation.
74. Why after burners are used in turbojet engine?
Exhaust gases from the turbine have large quantity of oxygen, which can support the
combustion of additional fuel. Thus if a suitable burner is installed between the turbine and
exhaust nozzle, a considerable amount of fuel can be burned in this section to produce
temperatures entering the nozzle as high as 1900C. The increased temperature greatly
augments the exhaust gas velocity, and hence provides the thrust increase.
75. Why a ram jet engine does not require a compressor and a turbine?
In general, the speed of a ram jet engine is supersonic (the range of Mach number) is
very high. At this flight speed the contribution of the compressor to the total static pressure
rise is insignificant. Hence, arm jet engine does not require compressor and turbine.
76. Define Rocket propulsion.
If the propulsion unit contains its own oxygen supply for combustion purposes, the
system is known as Rocket propulsion.
77. Define thrust for a rocket engine and how it is produced.
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The force that propels the rocket at a given velocity is known as thrust. This is
produced due to the change in momentum flux of the outgoing gases as well as the difference
between the nozzle exit pressure and the ambient pressure.
78. What are the types of rocket engines?
Rocket engines are classified in the following manner.

a) On the basis of source of energy employed
i. Chemical rockets,
ii. Solar rockets
iii. Nuclear rockets and
iv. Electrical rockets
b) On the basis of propellants used
i. Liquid propellant
ii. Solid propellant
iii. Hybrid propellant rockets.
79. Compare solid and liquid propellant rockets.
SOLID PROPELLANT
a) Solid fuels and oxidizers are used

in rocket engines
chamber (both oxidizer and fuel).

in
a) Liquid fuels and oxidizers are

used.
b) Generally stored in combustion
c) Burning
LIQUID PROPELLANT
the
combustion
b) Separate oxidizer and fuel tanks

are used for storing purposes.
c) Controlled rate.
chamber is uncontrolled rate.

80. What are the types of liquid propellants used in rocket engines?
i. Mono propellants
ii. Bi propellants
81. Give two liquid propellants.
Liquid fuels
Liquid hydrogen, UDMH, hydrazine
Solid fuels
Polymers, plastics and resin material
82. What is mono-propellants? Give example.
A liquid propellant which contains both the fuel and oxidizer in a single chemical is
known as mono propellant. e.g.,
i.
Hydrogen peroxide
ii.
Hydrazine
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iii
Nitroglycerine and
iv
Nitromethane, etc.
83. What is bi-propellant? Give Example.

84. Name some oxidizers used in rockets.
A liquid propellant which contains the fuel and oxidizer in separate units is known as
bi-propellant. The commonly used bi-propellant combinations are:
OXIDIZER
FUEL
a) Liquid oxygen
a) Gasoline
b) Hydrogen peroxide
b) Liquid bydrogen
c) Nitrogen tetroxide
c) UDMH
d) Nitric acid
d) Alcohol, ethanol
85. Name few advantages of liquid propellant rockets over solid propellant rockets.
i.
Liquid propellant can be reused or recharged. Hence it is economical.
ii.
Increase or decrease of speed is possible when it is in operation.
iii.
Storing and transportation is easy as the fuel and oxidizer are kept separately.
iv.
Specific impulse is very high.
86. What is inhibitors?
Inhibitors are used to regulate (or prevent) the burning of propellant at some sections.
87. Give the important requirements of rocket engine fuels.
i.
It must be able to produce a high chamber temperature. It should have a high calorific
value per unit of propellant.
ii.
It should not chemically react with motor system including tanks, piping, valves and
injection nozzles.
88. What is meant by restricted burning in rockets?
In this case, the inhibition material (or) restrictions prevent the propellant grain from
burning in all directions. The propellant grain burns only at some surfaces while other
surfaces are prevented from burning.
No of
Main sheet
Required
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UNIT I
1. Show the sound wave movement pattern when an object producing sound waves
moves with (i) subsonic velocity and (ii) supersonic velocity. (6)
2. At a section in a flow of a perfect gas, the properties of the gas are P = 4 bar p = 4.5
kg/m3 and V =200 m/s. Estimate the stagnation properties of the gas and its enthalpy.
(10).
3. for isentropic flow show that the effect of mach number on compressibility(6)
4. An aeroplane travels at a speed of 900 km/hr in air atp = 0.5 bar and t = -15C.
Calculate the pressure, density, temperature and enthalpy at a stagnation point on the
aeroplane. (10)
5. Derive expressions for pressure, temperature and density ratios at two distinct points in an
isentropic flow in terms of mach number. (6)
6. A stream of air flows in a duct of 100 mm diameter at the rate of 1 kg/s. The stagnation
temperature is 37C. At one section of the duct the static temperature is 10C. Calculate
the mach number, velocity and stagnation pressure at this section. (6)
7. Give the expression for in terms of m and and show how a convergent section acts as
nozzle m and diffuser at different mach numbers. (4)
8. Air is kept in a tank at a pressure of 700 kPa and a temperature of 15C. If the air is
allowed to issue out of the duct in one dimensional isentropic flow, what is the maximum
possible flow per unit flow, what is the maximum possible flow per unit area. What is the
flow per unit area at the exit of the nozzle where pressure is 500 kPa. (8)
UNIT II
1. Derive an expression for the area ratio in terms of mach number for isentropic flow. (6)
2. A supersonic nozzle is to be designed for flow with mach number 3 at exit section which
is 20 cm in diameter. The pressure and temperature of air at nozzle exit are 0.08 bar and 73C respectively. Determine the reservoir pressure, temperature and throat area. (6)
3. . Air discharges from a reservoir into atmosphere through a convergent divergent nozzle
of circular cross section. Calculate the exit diameter of the nozzle if the mach number of 2
is obtained and the throat diameter is 1.27 cm. Also find the reservoir pressure if the
temperature of air in it is 21C. Give the properties of air at the throat and exit sections.
(12)
4. Derive an expression for the area ratio in terms of mach No. for isentropic flow. (6)
5. ..A perfect gas at pressure 7.14 bar and temperature 327C (stagnation conditions)
expands in a nozzle to a pressure of 1 bar. Assuming frictionless adiabatic flow,
calculate for a rate of flow of 1 kg/s the mach No., area of cross section and velocity
at the exit of the nozzle. (10)
6. Stream of air passes from a duct of uniform cross section of 0.001 m2 through a
converging diverging diffuser correctly designed so as to increase the pressure of air.
The air enters the diffuser at 105 MPa and 75C with a velocity of 600 m/s. Assuming
the flow as frictionless adiabatic and the exit has a cross section as that of entry,
estimate the pressure of air leaving the diffuser. Find also the mass flow rate. Show
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the process in a h-s diagram. (16)
UNIT III
1. Explain chocking in Rayleigh flow. (4)

9.2 kg/s of air flows adiabatically through a circular duct and has M = 0.5 at the exit, the
pressure and temperature at the inlet are 320 kN/m2 and 27C respectively. For an inlet M =
0.1, calculate the length of the duct, pressure, temperature and velocity at exit and the
stagnation pressure loss. Take /= 0.005. (12)
2. Describe isothermal flow in a constant area duct.(4)
(ii) The conditions of a gas in a combustion chamber at entry are p = 34.3 kPa; T
300 K; V = 60 m/s. Determine M, P, T and V at the exit if the increase in stagnation enthalpy
of the gas in the chamber is 1100 kJ/kg. (12)
3.. A long pipe of 35 mm diameter has a mean friction factor 4 / = 0.05. At inlet the
stagnation pressure and temperature of air are 55 kPa and 320 K. The air velocity at entry is
700 m/S. Determine at a section where mach number is 1.2. (a) Velocity of air (b) Length of
pipe and maximum possible length of pipe (c) Increase in entropy and (d) Mass flow rate.
(10)
4.. Draw the Rayleigh line on T-S plane. Show the following on this line : (i) stagnation
temperature lines for both subsonic and supersonic flows, (ii) maximum stagnation
temperature point and (iii) constant static and stagnation pressure lines(6)
5. (a) Discuss isothermal flow in a constant area duct. (6)
(b) Air is heated in a constant area duct from a mach number of 0.2 to 0.8. The inlet
stagnation conditions are 2 bar and 93C. Determine the stagnation conditions of air at exit,
the amount of heat transferred per unit flow and the change in entropy. (10)
6. (a) For flow through a constant area passage with only friction, derive an expression for the
pressure ratio between two sections in terms of their Mach number. (8)
(b) Air flows through a constant area duct The initial total conditions of air are 3 bar and
17C. The initial Mach number is 0.2. The final total temperature is 897C. Obtain the Mach
number and the conditions of air at final state. Also find the change in entropy. . (8)
UNIT IV
1. Discuss normal shock in Fanno flow. (b) Derive the Prandtl Meyer relationship.
(7)
2. Atmospheric air at a pressure of 1 bar is drawn into a vacuum tank through a variable
area nozzle. The throat area is 6.456 cm2. A normal shock occurs in the divergent part
of the nozzle where the area is 8.4 cm2. Calculate the exit mach No. and the pressure
ME2351

in the tank, if the cross sectional area of the nozzle at exit is 9.287 cm2. Assume
isentropic flow before and after the normal shock. (16)
3. 15 (i) Derive an expression for the mach No. downstream of a normal shock in terms
of upstream mach No. (6)
4. (ii) Derive rankine huginot equation.(10)
5. 16. Air is expanded through a convergent-divergent duct from stagnation conditions
of 300 kPa and 310 K. A normal shock appears in the divergent section where
6. the area ratio AS.. is 2. The throat area of the duct is /A
a. m2. The exit area of the duct is 0.3 m2. Find the properties just before and after
shock, mass flow rate, mach number and velocity at exit. (12)
7. Air is expanded from a reservoir in which the pressure and temperature are
maintained at 1000 kPa and 30C. At a point in the flow at which the static pressure
150 kPa a normal shock wave occurs. Find (i) Strength of shock wave (ii) Static
properties after the shock and (iii) Entropy rise across shock wave. (8)
UNIT V
1.
(i) Explain effective jet velocity and thrust equation in rocket propulsion. (4)
(ii) A ram jet engine is moving at a velocity of 1320 m/s. The inlet temperature is 53C. The temperature after ram compression is 847C with an efficiency of 85%.
The maximum cycle temperature is 1727C. The gases expand upto throat without
any loss with isentropic temperature ratio of 1.2 and thereafter with an efficiency of
98%. Find the specific thrust, overall efficiency and ratio of exit to inlet diameter.
(12)
2. (i) Explain the principle of working of turbo jet engine and pulse jet engine. (8)
3. Explain with a neat sketch the principle of liquid propelled rocket. What are its merits over
solid propelled rockets? (8)
Derive an expression for propulsive efficiency for a jet engine. (4)
4. Explain the working principle of Ram jet engine with a neat sketch. (4)
(b) Air enters the convergent nozzle of a jet engine at 120 kPa and 600C and expands to the
ambient pressure 70 kPa. Assume the expansion isentropic efficiency of nozzle as 95% and
the mass of air jet as 48 kg/sec. Calculate jet velocity, thrust produced for a flight velocity
400 km/h and propulsive efficiency. (8)
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A Course Material on

GAS DYNAMICS AND JET PROPULSION

This is to certify that the e-course material

: GAS DYNAMICS AND JET PROPULSION

: III Year MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Signature of the Author

Designation: Assistant Professor

UNIT-1 BASIC CONCEPTS AND ISENTROPIC

Concept of Gas Dynamics

1.1.1 Significance with Applications

1.2.1 Compressible vs. Incompressible Flow

1.2.3. Compressibility and Incompressibility

Steady Flow Energy Equation

Momentum Principle for a Control Volume

Stagnation velocity of sound

Various regions of flow

Flow Regime Classification

1.11.1 Maximum velocity of fluid

1.11.2 Critical velocity of sound

Reference Mach number

Law of conservation of momentum

Flow through Nozzles

UNIT 2 FLOW THROUGH DUCTS

Fanno line or Fanno curve

Important features of Fanno curve

Chocking in Fanno flow

Adiabatic Flow of a Compressible Fluid Through a Conduit

Variation of flow properties

Variation of Mach number with duct length

Problems Based on Fanno Flow

Problems based on Rayleigh flow

Intersection of Fanno and a Rayleigh Line

UNIT 3 NORMAL AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS

Shock Waves and Expansion Waves Normal Shocks

3.3.1Property relations across the shock.

Governing relations for a normal shock

The Rankine Hugoniot Equatios

Strength of a Shock Wave

Jet Propulsion System

Types of Jet Propulsion System

4.2.1 Air Breathing Engines

4.2.2 Rocket Engines

The Ramjet Engine

4.3.1 Principle of Operation

Pulse Jet Engine

The Turbojet Engine

The Turbofan Engine

Nozzle and diffuser efficiencies

4.8.1 Nozzle performance

General Principles of a Rocket Motor

Kinetic energy of a body

Types of Rocket Engines

Back pressure and optimal expansion

Overall rocket engine performance

5.20.1 Types of spaceflight

Effective Speed Ratio

GAS DYNAMICS AND JET PROPULSION

GAS DYNAMICS AND JET PROPULSION

It is used in Steam and Gas turbines