A GUIDELINE FOR WEB-BASED GUIDANCE

Printed with the financial support of the European Commission, in the framework of SOCRATES
programme : Grundtvig 1 action.

Ariadne A Guideline for Web-based Based Guidance

SOCRATES Programme GRUNDTVIG 1
100907-CP-1-2002-1-SE-GRUNDTVIG-G1

PROJECT PARTNERS:
SWEDEN:
ITALY:
ROMANIA:
UK1:
UK2:

Adult Education Committee of Gothenburg, Coordinating organization

Risorse per lOrientamento e il LavoroDivisione di ASTER (Bologna)
MENTOR - Centre for Adult Education
Careers Europe (CE)
University of East London (UEL)

CONTRIBUTORS:
SWEDEN:

Tomas Mjrnheden (project coordinator), Ralf Stenered; Hongling

Tang.
ITALY:
Cristina Cogoi, Paola Valandro
ROMANIA: Diana Ghinea, Viorica Pop
UK1:
Mick Carey
UK2:
Rachel Mulvey, Nelica La Gro, Claudia Lasite

EDITOR: Diana Ghinea

PROOF READING: Rachel Mulvey

ARIADNE
- A Guideline for Web-based Guidance -

FOREWORD
The idea for the Ariadne project, looking at web-based guidance from an analytical
perspective, has its own history derived from the professional interest and history of
the project team. The field of web-guidance clearly emerged as a challenge for the
professional guidance communities, as reflected by the EU conference Quality and
Ethics in Web-based Guidance (Gothenburg, 2001). The consensus from this
conference was that as the number of adults using Internet-based guidance tools
increases, so the need for a set of common guidelines by which to judge these tools
becomes pressing. Both practitioners and users, need to deepen their respective
understanding about how and what to develop, when to use such tools, and when to
recognize that the tools are limited in addressing client needs.
Ariadne is a trans-national project developed in the framework of Socrates-Grundtvig
1 programme, aiming to examine, evaluate, structure and identify the underlying
assumptions for Internet-based guidance tools. Its main result is the production of a
set of guidelines highlighting the most important arguments and theories used in
guidance and counselling as Internet-based guidance tools should reflect them. In
addition, the guidelines are accompanied by a training model for professionals and
by a project website that stands as an explanatory tool and a platform for
dissemination.
The project work for the guidelines has proved to be more challenging than the
project members themselves had anticipated. Questions like: What makes a guidance
theory suitable for web-based guidance?, and What are the most relevant aspects
the guideline should comprise?, What should be the right order of the chapters?
seemed to make things even more confusing. Extensive discussions and the exchange
of opinions (strong at times) have made the attainment of a commonly shared view an
even more valuable outcome. There has been learning for everybody and the
knowledge and practical experience each group member has brought in provided
insight and diversity that otherwise would have been hardly attainable. And, as it is
always the case, the harshest criticism has come from authors themselves through
reflection and peer review. This heuristic activity has been supported by our external
evaluator Dr. Jenny Bimrose, from The University of Warwick.
The work itself was equally carried by all project members and it was structured on
working groups, corresponding to the chapters of the guidelines. And, even if the
same persons were simultaneous involved in several such groups, the responsibilities
were distributed as follows: the Users chapter was coordinated by Careers Europe,
Delivery by ASTER, Design/Development by the Adult Education Committee and
Theory and Ethics by University of East London, while MENTOR was
responsible for the overall coordination of the guidelines.
The Ariadne project means, most of all, a common reflection on web-based guidance
from a group of professionals who, were it not for the Socrates support, would have
pursued their interest individually. It means the creation of a discussion group that
will probably continue exploring their shared questions and expanding to a larger
community of interests. And it means increased awareness of Internet guidance: for
users, guidance professionals and guidance practitioners who may also become webdevelopers.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... 6
I. USERS ........................................................................................................................ 7
I.1. Advantages of the new medium .......................................................................... 7
I.2. Disadvantages of the new medium ...................................................................... 7
I.3. User profile .......................................................................................................... 8
I.4. Reviewing and handling information .................................................................. 9
I.5. The cognitive skills of the user .......................................................................... 11
I.6. Checklist ............................................................................................................ 12
II. DELIVERY ............................................................................................................. 14
II.1. Web-based guidance services........................................................................... 14
II.2. Reasons for web-based guidance ..................................................................... 15
II.3. Types of web-delivered guidance services....................................................... 15
II.4. Methods for delivering effective web-guidance services ................................. 17
II.5. Necessary skills for web-guidance practitioners .............................................. 19
II.6. Impact on the guidance practice ....................................................................... 20
II.7. Monitoring and evaluation ............................................................................... 21
II.8. Checklist ........................................................................................................... 23
III. DESIGN /DEVELOPING ..................................................................................... 24
III.1. The importance of web design in guidance .................................................... 24
III.2. Human-Computer Interaction in web design .................................................. 25
III.3. The human system .......................................................................................... 25
III.4. Usability .......................................................................................................... 27
III.5. Individual learning styles ................................................................................ 31
III.7. Useful web design ........................................................................................... 32
III.8. Web design and ethics .................................................................................... 34
III.9. Checklist ......................................................................................................... 35
IV. THEORY ............................................................................................................... 36
IV.1. The distance challenge .................................................................................... 36
IV.2. Relevance of theory ........................................................................................ 36
IV.3. Theories & web-based tools ........................................................................... 37
IV.4. Impact on the role of the guidance practitioner .............................................. 41
IV.5. Checklist ......................................................................................................... 42
V. ETHICS ................................................................................................................... 43
V.1. Looking forward, not back: ethics and new practice ....................................... 43
V.2. Ethical principles.............................................................................................. 44
V.3. The principles in practice ................................................................................. 44
V.4. Ethics and web-based practice ......................................................................... 45
References: ................................................................................................................... 47
Annex 1: ....................................................................................................................... 52
Annex 2: ....................................................................................................................... 53

ABSTRACT
In recent years the demand for new tools to support the growing need for
guidance within lifelong learning has increased. One strategic response has been to
take advantage of the Internet, in the belief that it offers greater accessibility to
guidance for a wider range of potential users, particularly those who face difficulties
in accessing more traditional forms of guidance. There is, however, a gap between the
expectation of Internet-based products to provide reliable solutions and the actual
development of trustworthy guidance tools. The present Guidelines aim to contribute
to bridging this gap.
The approach chosen is to highlight the essential aspects which are: the range
of existing web-based guidance1 services, how the adult users align themselves with
these services, how these services/tools are to be developed and which guidance
theories are relevant for this support. We consider a double perspective on this issue,
corresponding to our identified target groups: the adult users/ clients and the guidance
practitioners who can be guidance counsellors, content designers for web-based
guidance or developers. In accordance with this, the Guidelines can be seen as
consisting of two parts: one addressing the needs of the end users/ adult clients and
practitioners (guidance counsellors) wishing to identify and use existing webguidance services (chapters I and II); and one addressing practitioners/ developers
wishing to implement a web-based guidance tool (chapters III, IV and V). Each
chapter gives the relevant perspective and addresses specific issues, thus highlighting
useful aspects for the reader/ user. The first chapter addresses to the end users i.e.
people who are able to use the Internet by themselves, for self-help, and guidance
counsellors that may assist them. This chapter highlights the advantages and
disadvantages of the new medium, draws a general user profile and it gives useful tips
regarding the handling and reviewing the information available on the web. It also
focuses on the cognitive skills of the user. The next chapter (Delivery) makes an
inventory of the guidance services that can be delivered through the web, trying to
answer the following questions: what is the rationale for delivering this kind of
services, what can a guidance counsellor deliver through the web, how can
effectiveness be achieved, what are the necessary skills of the guidance practitioner
using the Internet in his/her practice, what is the impact on the guidance practice and
what monitoring and evaluation refers to in this context? The third chapter addresses
design issues for web development in the field of guidance and how to implement
such tool. Aspects like how design can support the content of a web-site, awareness
about human behaviour, design criteria and supporting different learning styles
through design, evaluation and ethical considerations are few of the issues treated
here. The theory chapter makes an assessment of traditional and new career theories
in relation to Internet guidance. It is written directly for guidance practitioners who
want to develop guidance services on the web. It is also considers the impact of this
new form of guidance on the guidance practitioners role. The final chapter considers
ethical aspects and brings together previous issues by highlighting the ethical
challenges the integration of web-based guidance brings to careers guidance practice.
It also stands as a conclusion of the whole analysis attempted by this set of guidelines.
1

The terms web-based guidance and Internet guidance are used interchangeably all through the
Guidelines, comporting no substantial difference with reference to their sphere of content.

I. USERS
This chapter seeks to look at the web in a practical way from an end users point of
view. It examines the advantages and disadvantages of the web, looks briefly at the
general profile of an average web user and then goes on to examine key factors
that a user should use to evaluate if a website is fit for purpose. It then dips into
theory again looking at cognitive skills of users and concludes with a practical tool, a
checklist for evaluating websites.

I.1. Advantages of the new medium

From a users perspective, the Internet can be a powerful instrument for obtaining
information. It is democratic and equal in the sense that everyone with access to the
Internet, and some basic skills, can put information out on the web. This means that
an Internet user has access to a far greater range of material than would have been
possible through older media, allowing more options and possibilities to be explored
and more comparisons to be made.
Because access is so easy and is not constrained by location or time, the Internet
allows the delivery of information and services to people who would have difficulty
accessing such information and services by other means. Someone working long
hours, who would like to seek information or advice from a guidance service, may not
be able to access services delivered face-to-face at a guidance centre. Services
available through the Internet, being available 24 hours a day, seven days a week
would offer such a person access to help that they may not otherwise get. For example
Careers Scotland has a website policy which aims to allow its clients living in remote
communities to have access to the same resources as a client living close to a careers
centre in a large city.

I.2. Disadvantages of the new medium

Because the Internet is a cheap and easily accessible medium that is largely
uncontrolled, anyone can create a website. It is also very anonymous, allowing the
creation of websites that give no indication of who has created them. Very
professional looking websites can be created with very limited resources. There are
few controls on the content or standards of websites. With traditional printed formats
for information the costs involved in the production and distribution of such material
meant that publishers would take care to produce accurate, up to date and quality
information in order to justify the cost to the user. Purchasers of such material would
look for guarantees of quality, by buying from recognised publishers and authors.
The fact that it is possible to create websites with minimal resources has contributed
to the massive growth in the number of websites. However it also raises important
questions about standards, accuracy and intent. The investment required in the

production of traditional materials acted as a guarantee of quality: the Internet offers

no such guarantees.
Searching the Internet using the term careers guidance on the internet produced as its
first result an organisation with the impressive word Institute in its title. The website
offered tests and careers information which had to be paid for. There was no information
on the Institute itself, where it was based or what its expertise was, nor was there much
information on the tests themselves. From the pricing information it was possible to discern
that the Institute was an American organisation, but that was about all. Now, it may be
that the Institute is a well known and much respected organisation among the guidance
community in the USA, on the other hand it is possible that it is not a professional
organisation at all, but rather a money-making venture created by someone with little or no
professional background in vocational guidance. In this latter case, for someone looking
for help on the Internet, the professional looking website may have convinced them that this
was a valuable service whereas the help they received for their money may well have been
of dubious value.

I.3. User profile

The range of people searching the World Wide Web for various reasons comprises
individuals that differ in many ways, starting with their interest and why are they
there and defined in terms of their education and culture. Still, despite their
overwhelming diversity, researchers have identified similar patterns of behaviour that
can make for a general user profile. Thus, a study conducted in 1997 (Holsanova& De
Leon, 1997) reveals that, in relation to the worldwide web, people:
lack ready made strategies;
prefer alternatives that are visible;
choose the path of less resistance;
exhibit social forms of behaviour;
engage in parallel activities;
object to misleadingly presented information,
have trouble orienting;
are late in using appropriate strategies;
are sensitive to matters of time, and
are emotionally involved in the activity.
While noting that this profile needs the attention of both developers and guidance
practitioners who are using the web in their work with clients, we will now on focus
on the other side of the equation, that is, the user perspective. What does a user need
to know? What are the key issues?

I.4. Reviewing and handling information

1.4.1. Reviewing web sites some general rules
As discussed above the Internet is a vast and complex arena where you could find
information about practically everything. The quality of information varies, however,
though from excellent to abysmal. An Internet user, particularly a user trying to
obtain important advice or information, must be aware of this variation. As such
users are in effect alone on the web, they therefore need to develop skills with which
to judge web sites.
The following are some established criteria for source analysis that could be used.
I.4.2. Longevity
Careers information is volatile; it can quickly go out of date. A first and easy
criterion of quality is if a website gives update information, that is, if the user can see
when the site was last reviewed and updated by the sites producers. A lack of such
information does not necessarily indicate that a site is not regularly checked, however
it is an easily provided and basic piece of information and so its absence should warn
the user to treat the site with caution until they have established its quality by other
means.
I.4.3. Sources
A web site is dependent on other sources of information. These may be primary
research, i.e. the website producers research the information contained in the site
directly, by interviewing people in a certain occupation for example. These sources
may be secondary, i.e. found by taking information from other sources on the web or
elsewhere. A web site should explain what sources it draws on. If a website does this
then it allows the user to judge how accurate that website may be, by tracing some of
these sources. It also allows the user to verify accuracy by comparing some of the
data contained in that site with data from another source that the site is not dependent
on. If the independent source agrees with the data in the target site then this gives an
indication of accuracy and quality.
One difficulty in comparing information from different sources is that they sometimes
dont use the same definitions or worse, dont declare the definitions they use. If the
user cannot understand what the information is based upon then the value of the site
will be diminished. Therefore it is important that the definitions and precepts that the
site is based on are explicit. Another question to think about is the web sites capacity
to sustain the information. Availability of resources determines (in some cases) the
capacity to use the site over a longer period of time.
I.4.4. Authenticity
One main point in assessing a web site is to establish whether the organisation/person
behind an Internet product is reliable. As a minimum the website should give
information about the organisation or individual behind it. An address or other contact
details should be given, so that the user can verify that the organisation is genuine. If
guidance is offered then there should be information on how that guidance is offered
along with some concrete indication of the type of personnel, their experience and
their qualifications should be shown.

I.4.5. Bias
It is important to remember that each website is produced with a specific purpose or
agenda to fulfil and this will influence the nature of its content. It should also be
remembered that websites are designed and edited by people who themselves are
subject to bias. A website user needs therefore, to be aware of the underlying purpose
of a website before using it. For example, a website produced by a government
department such as a Ministry of Employment, whilst being basically honest, may
present labour market information that has a bias towards skill shortage areas. This
may unconsciously push a user towards these occupational areas rather than an area
more suited to their personality or skills.
In other cases a website may have a stronger and deliberate bias. For example a
website created by a university will aim at convincing potential students that it is the
best university for them. It may highlight the positive aspects of its courses, teaching
methods, resources and location while minimising or ignoring completely potential
drawbacks that a student might find (for example the university might be located in a
town or city that has a high cost of living).
In the case of the university above we have an example of strong bias that is at least
open. It should be reasonably obvious that such a website will naturally have a
positive bias about the institution it is promoting. In the case of some Internet
services this may not be so. It is perfectly feasible to imagine a website that offers
careers guidance, but in fact is basically trying to get people to sign up for
expensive training. In such a scenario a user might complete some online test
which then recommends that the user would be good at a particular job if they took a
training course that the website recommended for them.
Bias then, affects what information and services a website offers. It is difficult to
avoid bias in building a website. However the fact that bias is present should not
deter a user from using a particular site, but it is important that a user understands
what bias is present and can therefore judge the content in that light.
I.4.6. World-view or socio-cultural variations
Any website, as it is open to everyone, cannot be neutral. This is because the Internet
reaches across all cultural, religious and class boundaries. It is therefore impossible to
produce a single site that is neutral to all these groups. It is difficult, if not impossible
to satisfy everyone but once again the web site should favour transparency and
openly declare the background and implications of their Internet product.
I.4.7. Credibility
When using a website for the first time a user should ask if it feels credible. Does it
present well reasoned arguments, does it justify its content, is it well balanced and
recognise that there may be alternative views? A website that expresses very specific
opinions as facts, for example that states without doubt that a certain occupation will
be a major recruiter in 10 years time, should be treated with some caution. (Leth &
Thurn, 2000). It also is important that websites draw distinctions between trends and
opinion, however well founded, and facts.

10

I.5. The cognitive skills of the user

I.5.1. We have now briefly looked at various factors to take into consideration when
examining a web site. Linked to the skills necessary for reviewing web sites is the
individuals ability to deal with the information found on those web sites. In school
we exercise our cognitive skills in order to be more efficient in performing a task;
selecting, organising, synthesising and presenting information. We receive quite a lot
of support from our teachers in our early years. As our cognitive behaviours evolve
we are expected to become more self-reliant.
As an adult working with Internet the strain on our cognitive abilities increases. We
get rewarded if we sharpen our organising capability in order to manage the
information flood on the web. We need to transform raw data into meaningful
information so that we can learn from it and present it to others. In order to manage
this process many researchers believe that so called metacognitive competencies are
needed. It is not enough to perform a task; you should also understand how it was
done. To think of ones learning and performing style can strengthen the persons
strategic skills and improve future performances.
A metacognitive learner is able to distinguish what is from what can be. To be
able to distance you from yourself makes it possible to be aware of your learning
style, sensations, images and beliefs. If you engage in self-analysis there are grounds
for change in your behavioural patterns.
Indicators of a metacognitive learner can include these beliefs or characteristics:
Knowing is a dialogical process;
There is a dialogue within oneself;
Portray attitude as a continuous learner;
Working towards self-agency and authorship;
You are able to connect with others.
To develop this high quality thinking and behaviour there are among other
suggestions, some strategies that Blakey & Spence (1990) propose:
Identifying what you know and what you dont know;
Talking about thinking;
Keeping a thinking journal;
Planning and Self-regulation;
Debriefing the thinking process;
Self-evaluation.
A user interested in career planning should try to find web sites that are supportive in
diverse areas. Different users have various needs. If a user is in an early stage in the
career planning process then it would be of interest to look for sites that support the
development of the skills mentioned above in the process of becoming an independent
learner.

11

I.6. Checklist
The following checklist is not claimed to be the total solution to reviewing a website,
however it should provide a good starting point. Certainly any website that does not
pass at least a majority of the following criteria should be viewed with suspicion until
its quality can be verified by other means.

12

Criteria

Questions

Notes

Links

Is the site linked to, or

recommended by, other sites of
known quality?

Are such links made as a recommendation of

quality (rather than as advertising that the
referring site makes money from)?

Ownership

Is the ownership of the site

clearly stated?

Indicators of quality here include:

Can a user easily find out who

created the site and what kind of
organisation they are?

A contact page or details giving the name,

address, and telephone numbers for the
organisation owning the site.
An About Us page explaining who and
what the organisation behind the site is.

Updates

Does the site show when it was

last edited/verified?

Even if the first page of the site has been

updated it cannot be taken for granted that all
of its pages have been verified.

Is the content recent and if not is

there a valid reason for it not
having been changed?
4

Purpose

Is the purpose of the site clearly

stated?
Is the site upfront about any
charges that may be made for its
services?

A site that leads the user through a series of

questions or tests and then tries to get them
to pay for a service rather than stating that
some or all of its service are charged for
should be treated with some suspicion.

Commerciality

Is the site commercial?

Being commercial in itself is not a negative

indicator, however the user needs to be sure
that the prime purpose is to offer an
appropriate and quality service not just to
extract money from all and sundry.

Balance

Does the site allow that there are

other sources of information and
help?

Links to other apparently separate websites

that
are
owned
by
the
same
organisation/person that owns the site under
review are not necessarily a negative
indicator. It may be that the organisation
offers differing services through different
websites for reasons of clarity. However
websites that do not offer any links to other
organisations should be treated with caution.

Does the site link to other sites

(of quality) that are independent
of it?

Target Users

Does the site explain who the

site is for and why? Further,
does it direct visitors who do not
match its target audience to
alternatives better suited to their
needs (i.e. If you require
information about ********
then you should go to this
website)

13

A site that does not indicate who it is aimed

at may well be unclear itself as to whom it is
trying to reach and why.

II. DELIVERY
This chapter treats subjects linked to the guidance services delivery through the web.
It gives an overview on the potentialities and considerations on pros and cons of webbased tools compared to traditional guidance services, then it presents the types of
guidance services which can be delivered through the web and the difference to
traditional guidance, and it focuses on the skills needed by the guidance practitioner
who uses web-based tools in his/her practice. Finally, the chapter presents some
considerations on the monitoring and evaluation processes and the way they can be
done by using web-based tools. The chapter ends with a checklist summarising the key
issues one has to take into account if delivering web-based guidance.

II.1. Web-based guidance services

The number of people surfing the Internet is increasing and this tool is increasingly
used as an alternative way to search and find information. This can be done from
home, or from public places such as the local library or internet cafes. The web site is
a source of information which never closes and it is fairly easy and immediate to use.
Whilst some guidance services are more developed than others (such as the provision
of databases for a wide range of users) it is important to acknowledge that the use of
web-based tools in guidance is still developing.
In general, guidance delivery primarily involves a relationship between the guidance
practitioner and the user, where the former places his/her expertise and skills at the
disposal of the user, in order to help him/her in deciding his/her career management.
This help, generically defined, may consist of general information about: training
pathways, labour market information, professional opportunities - local, regional,
national or international level, all chosen according to user needs. The user may need
more in-depth help with career management and so the guidance and counselling
relationship can vary in duration and intensity.
Technically mediated careers guidance delivery embraces a range of media including
audio, video, CD-ROMs, websites, e-mail and telephone help. Up until recently,
computers, television and telephone were commonly delivered through separate
analogue streams. The technical developments within digital technology and
bandwidth can now comprise these 3 streams into a broadband river. These technical
developments will permit a far greater level of customisation and of interactivity
(Negroponte, 1995). This means the practitioner can use these technical possibilities
to tailor guidance delivery more closely to users needs.
In the guidance field, web sites are usually extra tools that constitute a back-up to the
services traditionally provided by specialised guidance centres which, historically,
have had a presence in one-stop shops and information centres. The web-based
guidance services are often delivered through structured web sites containing a range
of interactive and static services. Practitioners should be aware about the possibilities

14

given by these new tools and how to manage them, considering their impact on the
guidance relationship.

II.2. Reasons for web-based guidance

The guidance practitioner can use web-base tools in addition to traditional face to face
communication with users. In some cases very specific services (such as call centres)
can be only delivered though Information Communication Technology (ICT). Using
the web, guidance practitioners put a virtual space at the users disposal. This space
offers information and services with constant access. Sometimes access is restricted to
set times, such as the use of chat facility for real time interaction between the
guidance practitioner and the user.
Compared to a real careers centre a web site will hardly be able to offer the full range
of services. Nor can it be a substitute for real time guidance, given the complexities
of face to face interactions. Substitution however is not the goal. We must remember
that there are people who, for a wide variety of reasons, find computers off-putting.
They might have difficulty surfing the Internet; not feel comfortable with the process,
or prefer to talk to a guidance practitioner because of the complexity or sensitivity of
their situation.
So it is important to establish the purpose of the guidance meeting: What do you
intend to accomplish? Do you simply want to convey information? Messages that are
overloaded with too many ideas are difficult to comprehend, and are potentially
confusing. It is necessary to establish clear objectives for each guidance episode in
order to achieve coherence.
Nevertheless, the web poses real challenges for guidance: traditional guidance must
develop in this context, where information delivery and communication takes
different forms. These different forms offer the opportunity to develop web-based
tools. Web-based guidance and tools offers another way of reaching and empowering
the user. It fosters the development of self-help autonomy and client-centred practice.
It is arguable therefore that creating web-based tools can create the potential for a new
understanding of the constructivist value of the client as expert of his/hers life.

II.3. Types of web-delivered guidance services

As a working definition, we propose that a guidance website is a tool that offers
services both at a general and at a customised level.
The general level includes those services which, because of their characteristics and
aims, can be delivered to a general target-group (e,g. adults in general) and/or to
defined target-groups (e.g. women) and which meet particular needs (e.g. access to
information on training/educational courses offered in a given locality). This type of
information cannot be customised. It is provided as answers to general questions,
rather than specific responses to an individual request. As a rule, these services are
designed for users to access independently and require no specific interactions
between users and practitioners. The provision is unmediated.

15

Customised services include those services which, because of their characteristics and
aims, are designed for individual users and/or well-defined user groups. These
services (information, tools, etc.) are likely to include a more or less articulated and
lengthy interaction between user and guidance practitioner; often require customised
services and require consideration of confidentiality and data protection.
Such services include: information on specific subjects; information on training and
employment opportunities; customised information advice; advice on job hunting
techniques; counselling or testing.
1I.3.1. Information delivery
By this, we mean a service supplying information both of a wide interest and also
addressed to specific target-users:
Training and job opportunities available at a local, national and international
level;
Information about education and courses;
Types of contracts, financing/incentives/special terms, local and national
working standards and access to training opportunities;
Job-market, productive sectors, occupations;
Territorial centres for information, education/training and advice (addresses,
opening hours, access and contact modes).
Such information is selected and presented on the basis of:
Needs analysis, based on the most frequently asked questions from specific
target-groups (e.g. young people; adults; women; disabled people);
The duty of service provision;
The results consist of a preliminary dataset, with some degree of detail,
offered to an unspecified number of people.
I1.3.2. Information advice
This service supplies more detailed and customised information on the basis of
specific requests addressed from a single user or by a limited and well-defined user
group.
I1.3.3. Guidance training
This service offers support for users to develop career guidance competencies,
including; research and decision-making, and job hunting techniques. This service can
be set either for a general supply of self-guidance by preparing some materials (i.e.
technical forms and guides) or for more customised actions set on the basis of specific
needs of single users or of a limited and well-defined group of users; in the latter case,
autonomous guidance materials (i.e. self-assessment questionnaires, simulations) are
integrated with other tools which require a closer interaction between guidance
practitioners and users.
I1.3.4. Career counselling
This is a customised service for single users, involving the development interactions
of the users action planning.
I1.3.5. Self-assessment questionnaires
This service offers evaluation and/or self-evaluation tools for attitudes skills and
knowledge relating to specific training/educational pathways, professional profiles
16

and domains, vocational-guidance skills and professional expertise. The use of such
tools can include the interaction between the user and the practitioner (e.g. the user
completes a questionnaire, the guidance practitioner evaluates it, and the user receives
feedback). If the tool has been designed for self-assessment, no such interaction is
needed.

II.4. Methods for delivering effective web-guidance services

Through the web it is possible to deliver generalised services which include
information and tools available to all users. Eventually, more detailed information can
be supplied if the contents are addressed to a specific target group: the
classification/organisation of resources facilitates the users navigation, therefore
enabling to single out quickly what can better answer his/her own needs.
These services are available in a range of media including;
Web-pages available on-line such as information forms ;
Documents which can be downloaded such as rules and standards,
information forms;
Structured hyper-textual paths such as on-line guides;
Databases which can be interrogated, such as training/educational courses;
Audio-visual tools.
These modes can be employed to supply information on more or less specific themes
writing action plans; employment contracts; training/vocational courses, or to present
useful models (how to write a curriculum vitae, how to address a job interview).
This mode enables also offers online self-evaluation questionnaires and forms. It is
very important to complete these tools with a clear explanation about aims, usage, and
interpretation. Displaying the results should be automatic. Through the web it is also
possible to deliver more customised services by the use of specific web tools.
I1.4.1. Request forms
A website can offer customised information or consultancy. The basis for this is
specific requests from individual users by means of simple forms. Personal data,
including name, address, position, is collected on-line. Questions and relevant
answers can be put online or individual private responses can be sent to the users. To
assure service transparency and quality, it is recommended to state on the website the
name of the experts who answer the questions and indicate their qualification to
respond. In any case, it is important to state whether all answers are given by qualified
guidance practitioners working at the centre which masters the website; and to
indicate the delay between posting a question and receiving an answer. Issues of
confidentiality are discussed further under Ethics.
If the service includes an on-line publication of all answers, it is recommended to
present it to users as a service providing information on themes of general interest,
and to exclude personal aspects. Furthermore, it is likely that limited space will rule
out lengthy answers. Such a service can integrate the information already offered on
the website. A positive aspect of the online publication of questions/answers is that
the information addressed to single users can be useful also to other users having
similar needs. For this reason, online questions and answers can be used to design
special areas on the website named FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions).
Additional services/support can be offered as follows:
17

 E-mail to the users personal e-mail account;

By phone;
In person, by inviting the user to the centre for a meeting.
The website can include some reserved access areas, customised with communication
such as forums and chat-rooms.
I1.4.2. Thematic mailing lists
The website can include a mailing list system, which is a regular service of
information sent to lists of users on request. Users can enrol for the service by filling
in a form which includes personal data and their own e-mail address. In order to
increase the level of customisation, it is possible to offer a list of themes that users can
select by their own needs and interests. This type of service is useful for supplying
information requiring constant updating (i.e. job-opportunities; scholarships; public
events).
I1.4.3. Customised mailboxes
Customised services can be offered on the website through user-reserved and
dedicated personal password areas. Password protected space is allocated to a single
user who logs in at will. Users can add personal information and data to the space and
use it also to receive and store documents and information from the guidance
practitioner. Due to its privacy, this service is particularly fit for consultancy services
as it enables the user and guidance practitioner to work on guidance issues, such as:
guidance, job hunting, feedback on form filling and so on.
I1.4.4. Reserved web areas
Customised services can be offered in reserved areas that only a limited group of
users can access, through reserved login and password. This permits a closer and
customised relation between users and guidance practitioners. For instance, even the
information pages can be tailored to the users, according to their geographic and
social-economic context, as well as to their specific requirements. Reserved areas also
support use of interactive systems such as, forums, chat-rooms and mailing lists, for
finer service customisation.
I1.4.5. Chat-lines
Chat-lines allow a highly customised relationship between the guidance practitioner
and the user. With this tool, both partners communicate directly onscreen one to one
in real time, by using the keyboard. Web technologies also now offer a chat-line
system where audio and video communication can be used in addition to written
communication.
I1.4.6. Videoconferencing
Videoconferencing permits long-distance communication and maintains some of the
characteristics of direct (face-to-face) dealings: speakers can see one another and talk
to one another in real time. These two factors are important, because they provide
conversation which incorporates the emotional and contextual aspects minimised or
excluded by conversation ICT communication i.e conference calls, the internet, email, and web chat . Owing to its particular characteristics, video-conferencing can be
particularly useful in specific circumstances such as:
Communication with people who are geographically or physically isolated;

18

Overseas study and work information exchange between practitioners and

users in different countries;
Setting up long-distance meetings between practitioners in foreign countries,
to find out about innovative experience in different national situations;
The chance to "view" another country's guidance centre, without usual
overseas study visits.
According to the type of conference desired, communications can be between:
one practitioner and another practitioner;
a practitioner and a user;
a user and a user via a practitioner.

II.5. Necessary skills for web-guidance practitioners

Whatever the application of information and communication technology, new skills
are needed to deal with them. Communication, both written and oral skills, the use of
IT equipment and effective team working will be in demand. Much of the rhetoric
assumes that both practitioners and users are equipped to deal with digital technology,
and are predisposed to do so. But this is only an assumption. Not everybody can leap
in, not everybody wants to work in a virtual environment. The level of frustration and
impotence we have all experienced in the face of ICT non function can be acute
how do we manage this within a guidance encounter? Is ICT an intruder or a
facilitator?
Given that technologies are tools facilitating the delivering of guidance services it is
thus necessary for the guidance practitioner to have some knowledge and skills
regarding the use of computer and of main software. He/she should be able to surf the
Internet and to understand its communication logic.
Communication is often taking a written form (web pages, e-mails, chats, etc.), it is
asynchronous and with no visual connection. Therefore, it is important for the
guidance practitioner to be able to express him/herself appropriately in the writing.
Using e-mail to receive and send messages demands of the guidance practitioner the
capacity to read users requests attentively and focusing on what is expressly required
and without suppositions. The practitioner should be able to seek additional
information in order to give an effective and useful answer. Reading on the screen is
generally slower and more difficult than on the printed page. Practitioners who
compose on screen responses must take this into consideration. Writing needs to be
clear using simple linguistic structures and highlighting key messages. These
considerations are developed further in the Design chapter.
Guidance practitioners must know the particular system in which clients are
communicating in order to be aware of the rules of that system. They have to be
aware of them in order to avoid conveying an improper message in improper terms.
They have to be aware of the relevant socio-economic-cultural system and its norms
to be effective. It is important that the guidance practitioner has access to technical
staff that is specialised in the maintenance of hardware and software and can offer
technical support.

19

II.6. Impact on the guidance practice

In his classic study about communication, Mehrabian (1972) estimated that the total
impact of a message may be represented by the following equation:
Total impact = 0.07 verbal + 0.38 vocal + 0.55 facial/body
This shows that the impact of facial/body communication (what we call non-verbal
communication) is the major part in the impact of face to face communications.
Web-guidance is complicated by the fact that we do not meet the client in person. We
do not know the users, their self construct, their context, their world view or their
socio-cultural context. Whilst it is true that using ICT diminishes the impact of face
to face communication, nevertheless ICT permits a different relationship, one that is
not necessarily reductive. The impact on the relationship between the user and the
practitioner, as well as on that between the user and guidance services is clear.
Without any doubt a positive aspect is the services wider approachability for an
increasing number of people. This access is of course determined by their time and
choice of ways, and from places chosen by users, setting a limit to access and its
connected costs (Offer, 1999). Moreover, web-guidance allows us to reach people
who may feel uncomfortable about going to the guidance centre in person. In this
specific case the technological mediation and the absence of a direct contact between
practitioner and user provide the effect of enlarging services approachability and
encouraging the contact with the practitioner.
In this framework it is important to distinguish between general services, i.e. services
addressed to a wide range of users, (even if defined for a particular target group) and
personalized services which are characterised by a one-to-one relationship between
practitioner and user.
General services are offered on a user-access selfhelp basis, supplied and they do not
necessarily require feedback from the users. In these cases the service aims at
providing general answers to general questions within a specific target group (women,
workers, young jobseekers, etc.). It is clear that this type of service can work with
those users who already have a precise idea of what they need, who are autonomous,
who have the ability to search for information and to use specific on line tools.
Personalised services, such as the exchange of specific questions and answers through
e-mail or chat, can be developed to replace the one-to-one relationship, even where
interactions are written. This demands that the practitioner develop fine skills in
comprehension and expression in terms of reading and writing.
As for the impact on both the task of and the organisation of professional services the
following have to be considered:
Using distance delivery for information and services can reduce the number of
users who personally go to a guidance centre: this could focus practitioners on
users who prefer a face-to-face relationship;
The e-mail tool allows a better use of practitioner time and reduces user
waiting time in the centre;

20

Previous answers and information can be easily stored and used again for new
identical requests;
ICT demands greater practitioners involvement in selecting the appropriate
medium, in constant updating of materials and therefore in their continued
professional development.

Annex 1 offers a detailed comparative analysis of the strengths, weaknesses,

opportunities and threats.

II.7. Monitoring and evaluation

Monitoring and evaluating the efficacy of services delivered through ICT gathers
important information which can be used to develop, specify and improve services to
users. This process is also important in organising the practitioners work more
effectively way. The type of quantitative and qualitative data which can be collected
varies according to the type of tool method of delivery.
For those on-line service aimed at self-access, and which do not envisage any feedback or direct contact between the user and the guidance practitioner, it is impossible
to know who the individual user is. It will however permit an overview of service
usage, including:
The number of hits to the home page address (URL) ;
The starting domain of hits (this datum can identify the providers nation and,
so roughly, that of users) ;
The duration of connection time ;
The most and least visited web pages ;
How long the hit lasts (percentage datum on overall hits);
The most searched keywords (where the web site has an internal search
engine);
The provenance of the hit (e.g. from another web site, from a search engine,
etc.) and which browser has been used.
If all these data are recorded daily they provide statistics and comparisons to evaluate
the service as a whole: if and how services are used; if there are peak periods in the
year; if there are users visiting the web sites several times in a certain length of time,
and if there are critical aspects to be solved.
In addition, it is possible to envisage tools/mechanisms such as on-line questionnaires
which can collect the opinion and evaluations of users regarding the web site and/or
certain services included in the web site. As, generally, they are tools used by users on
a voluntary basis it will not be possible to obtain systematic quality data on users
satisfaction towards the service. Such data can also be obtained when services
delivered through ICT include the direct contact between the client and the guidance
practitioner (such as e-mail, chat or videoconference). These procedures enable a
more detailed and qualitative knowledge of the individual user and of his/her requests,
on the type and number of answers received, whether the relationship has followed
more traditional procedures. One of the advantages of ICT is the facility where all
exchanges are stored and can be easily interrogated for evaluation and reporting.

21

It is very helpful to incorporate some system developer, with a greater or lesser degree
of regularity, the results of the service provided on the Internet. Examining the results
is important for any service, but it becomes strategically so for a web site since this is
a tool used by visitors who are practically located "somewhere else". Some of the
most widely-used systems for site monitoring are:
Hit-counters: predetermined parameters are chosen to measure the quantity
and quality of "hits." Automatic counters can forward periodic reports on the
number of hits to the home page address (URL), where the visitor goes next,
and how long the hit lasts. These data, when properly interpreted, can be a
useful method for seeing how efficient the site is and how popular the
information given on it appears. Moreover, it can also show which the most
popular web pages are, where people stop longer, or which pages are merely
skimmed over. Such information can be useful while modifying, reshaping,
and improving online services.
Popularity feedback, which provides user opinions about the site. A form can
be put on a page for filling in, or an e-mail address published. The form can
contain specific questions, to find out whether visitors find the service useful,
sufficient, complete, and quick and easy to use, etc. These data, too, can help
to understand where the service needs to be improved.

22

II.8. Checklist
Criteria

Questions

Notes

Reasons

Why deliver guidance

through the web?
Can the website
substitute the physical
Careers Centre?

It offers a virtual space always at users disposal. Many

people use computer and surf the Internet.
The website offers new ways of developing self-help
autonomy and the client centred practice.
Its not a matter of substitution, its a matter of
integration

Services

What kind of
approach?
What kind of services?

General services answer to generalised needs and

customised services answer to well-defined needs.
Information delivery on different subjects
Information advice
Guidance training
Career counselling for single users
Self-evaluation questionnaires

Effectiveness

What kind of tools

permit these services
to be delivered in an
effective way?

Tools to deliver general services: Information forms;

Documents to be downloaded; On-line guides; Databases
Tools to deliver customised services: Request forms;
Thematic mailing lists; Customised mailboxes; Reserved
web areas; Chat-lines; Videoconferencing

Skills

What do the
practitioners needs for
the delivery of
guidance services
through the web?

To be able in communication, both written and oral

skills, considering that the relationship can be carried out
in a distance, in an asynchronous way and with no visual
connection.
To be self-confident in ICT equipment.
To be able to surf the Internet and to understand its
communication logic.
To be able to select the appropriate medium for
delivering different services.
To be updated on ICT development.

Impact

How do the web

guidance impact on
the professional
practice?

It can:
Reach a wide the number of people
Give to the users more choices in using services
Encourage the access to services thanks to the
anonymity
Reduce the number of users who go to the centre
Allow to store many information
The lack of face-to-face communication:
Can reduce the impact of the communication it-self
Makes more difficult to know the social-cultural
context of the users

Monitoring
Evaluation

What kind of feedback

can the practitioners
have about the
services delivered
through the web site?

Quantitative and qualitative feedback, in direct or non

direct ways.
Non direct, by the use of hit-counters. These data can be
stored and used to create periodical reports.
Direct, by the use of forms and e-mail addresses. It can
provide users opinions on voluntary basis so its
difficult to have systematic data.

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III. DESIGN /DEVELOPING

This chapter stresses different aspects of web design and it depicts the most important
things that what one has to think about when designing web pages. It starts with the
interaction between human and computer and continues with the issue of usability, of
which most known aspect is represented by the user friendly (or not?) concept. It
then follows a discussion about the use of language (verbal and text design), colours
and help functions. The learning styles are just another aspect to be aware of in the
context of web guidance. The chapter ends with a portrayal of useful web design and
finishes with a checklist.

III.1. The importance of web design in guidance

During the past decades, the application of computers and information technologies
has made an explosive breakthrough in both working life and private life. When the
Internet came into existence, so did the phrase net present. This meant that if you
are not on web, you dont exist. (Tallmo, 1999). Web design has become more and
more important and is now essential activities for companies and organisations.
Design is solving problems that cannot be formulated until they have been solved.
The shaping of the answer is part of the question. (Cato, 2001: p 12). Design of well
functioning and effective web systems with human-computer dialogue is therefore a
matter of importance for many companies and public authorities. Web design supports
the contents of web pages, the user understanding of a text, learning styles and
inspiration.
The modern computer technique offers new possibilities to make guidance more
efficient and easier. The task of guidance is to support individuals choice of
education and professional career. When an individual gets support from the web with
analysing ones own qualifications and information on possibilities of education and
job, the work of guidance has got a pedagogical characteristic. To develop the
applicants personality is important in guidance context. Information technology shall
therefore make contribution to increase the applicants awareness on himself/herself
and the surrounding world (Nordiska arbetsmarknadsutskottet, 1984: p.17).
While referring to web design it is important to have in mind, both as practitioner and
developer, the clear agenda that stays behind the creation of tool as such and the
purpose a particular web site is serving. In this respect, it is relevant a distinction that
Sampson (Sampson, 2003) is introducing between need-based and resource-based
web sites (thus identifying corresponding design strategies). According the author,
resource-based sites usually contain lists of resources and/or links, are mainly
targeting expert or experienced users and assume they have knowledge, skills and
critical judgement that makes it easier for them to connect resources to their needs. By
contrast, the needs-based web sites are designed around user needs and learning
principles, addressing specific categories of users and offering in depth guidance and
direct and specific links to appropriate resources.

24

Thus, from the users angle, web-based guidance creates a new useful learning
situation. With the high awareness of web design, it will support the user to acquaint
himself/herself with contents of web pages.

III.2. Human-Computer Interaction in web design

Human-Computer-Interaction studies the relationship between a user and a computer
system (HCI). Of late in HCI, the human aspect has become the focus in contrast to
earlier technique-centred approaches. The aim of a user-centred approach is to
increase the usability of a computer system. The task of HCI is to design for people,
for tasks and for environments. (Meggerle and Steen, 2002). It is important to
understand human limitations and conditions in order to adapt the technology to meet
user needs. HCI is an interdisciplinary subject, which supports the design of userfriendly systems.
The quality of user interface is a critical factor. Hgglund et al identify four types:
Quality can be improved by a better understanding users conditions and needs. The
report showed that there are four kinds of interactive systems:
Administrative routine system, such as in banking;
Life-critical system, such as a weapons system;
Qualified tool, such as Computer Assisted Design (CAD).
Individual formed system, web-based guidance. This kind of system demands
that the user finds it attractive and easy to use. It is therefore very important
for individual formed systems to have a good user interface. Web-based
guidance is one of the new public web services, where the user chooses to use
the system, or not. A web-based system, anticipates infrequent usage, should
be designed to be easily learned, even by a novice.

III.3. The human system

The knowledge on human eyesight, memory and thought is of great importance in the
user interface design.

III.3.1. Eyesight and reading from the computer screen

According to Berndtsson and Ottersten, to see or perceive is the result of a complex
adaptation of the brain, partly controlled by experience and interest. It is therefore
important to eliminate anything unnecessary, anything that doesnt provide any
information. (Berndtsson and Ottersten, 2002).
It is easier to read and search for information on the screen if the eye can follow a
line. Normally it is 20-30 % slower to read text on screen than on paper. So web
design should:
Design text and links for skimming to help the user can get an idea of
relevance contents;
Show clearly what links are and give a clear description of them;
Use a large font and avoid italic type for links;
Use grouping to create affinity.

25

This means that the related information and functions should be presented in groups
to help the user reduce overwork at the interpreting of what he/she reads from the
screen. (See Annex 2).

III.3.2. The psychology of human memory

Human memory and memory process mean a great deal for interaction between
human and computer. (Allwood, 1998). The human use of computer depends on the
property of human memory system. The human thought can be described more or less
as conscious process in the memory. According to Berndtsson and Ottersten, there are
three kinds of memory:
Sensory memory receives information from five senses (eyesight, hearing,
touch, smell and taste).
Short-term memory/working memory receives selective perception, which can
resembled that we call the consciousness.
Long-term memory stores selective information, which can be recalled
gradually and can continue work on the impression. (Berndtsson and
Ottersten, 2002).
In connection with the learning and recollection/oblivion, there are three phases:
encoding, storing and compiling.
Encoding occurs when information from surroundings is received by the memory.
Storing means that information is kept in the memory.
Compiling means that information in the memory is activated and reported or used in
another way. (Allwood, 1998).
Sensory memory, first and foremost, comes up under the encoding phase, while shortterm memory/working memory and long-term memory are activated under all these
three phases. Short-term memory/working memory is very limited and can only
manage a small number of information units (Allwood, 1998). It is considerably
easier to recognize information than recall/remember information. Long-term memory
uses associations to recall things, which provides user with eligible options in a list
instead of an empty input field. (Berndtsson and Ottersten, 2002) There is a large
amount of scientific knowledge about psychology of computer use and memory is one
of the most important areas. So is cognition/thought.

III.3.3. Cognition/thought
Cognitive psychology2 is about to understand in which way human beings handle
information and through which processes information becomes lasting knowledge.
Because cognitive psychology considers the learning process, it is therefore important
for design of interface. To some degree, our thought is affected by consciousness. We
are good at judging information, analyzing and managing text and numbers. However
the problem is that we manage information sequentially and cant manage particularly
much at a time. As Berndtsson and Ottersten mention, it is to judge and find the
pattern that we are effective. A good interaction design requires making the best use
of the users existing knowledge.

The use of the term cognitive psychology is taken from the collection of articles Multimedia (p. 2124) by Barbro Funseth (1999).

26

Without our consciousness, the brain tries all the time to find the pattern so that the
process is activated automatically, which lead to the reduced work load. Thus it is
important to design homogeneous interface. That is why the same word should be
used for the same thing everywhere and the same colour for the same thing. To help
the user find the pattern for how the system works is very important in the interface
design. The user learns faster if the system stimulates the users exploration. The
relevant feedback on the users acts is important so that the user is able to understand
the structure and behaviour of the system to en great extent. Feedback is as well an
important element to create pattern. (Berndtsson and Ottersten, 2002).

III.4. Usability
III.4.1. About usability
Usability is one of the central concepts in HCI field. Usability is a property of
interactive products/systems that reflects their quality (Berndtsson and Ottersten,
2002). Many important questions of usability are only marked in the real situation.
That is why usability should include at least four different aspects: the user, the task,
the system and the environment (Hgglund et al., 1989). Four different factors
determine together the usability of a system. Those four factors are: adaptation, userfriendliness, satisfaction/acceptance and user-competence.

Usability

Adaptation

Userfriendliness

Satisfaction/
Acceptance

Usercompetence

Figure Usability. (Allwood, C.M., 1998)

Adaptation: The functions of program are designed in a way to follow the structure of
the task optimally, which the user tries to deal with.
User-friendliness: The term user-friendliness is often used in an unspecified way but
according to Allwood, it contains several different aspects. One of important aspects
here is availability of the system. The other important aspect is that the program
makes demands on the user and at the same time the user has to be compatible with
the program. It needs some knowledge on memory system and thought of the user to
give support for the users mental process. (See III.4 The human system,). The user is
different, so that individualization is important as well. Another aspect of userfriendliness is quality of the help resource. When the user runs into trouble, there
should be effective help resource at hand.
Satisfaction/acceptance: The user is favorably disposed to the system and has
motivation to use it. Without the necessary motivation and goodwill towards the
system, there is an obvious risk that the user will not learn to use it. Furthermore,

27

there is a risk that the user will not use the system even if he or she knows how to use
it.
User-competence: The user has enough understanding and skill to be able to interact
with the computer in an effective way. (Allwood, 1998: p.11-13)

III.4.2. Another aspect of usability

Usability is related to the interaction between the user and the computer on a special
occasion in time and space. In order to understand the complexity in interaction
between the user and the computer, usability should be looked at in certain context.
There are three main categories of usability: learnability, flexibility and robustness.
Learnability: a novice should understand the system. This makes it possible for the
user for maximum effect of the performance. It is important for the user to predict
what is going to happen in the system while the performance is in action. It should be
possible for the user to reuse the experience of some result in another situation, which
makes the learning easier (Meggerle and Steen, 2002)
Flexibility: The user is in charge of more initiative and can change the task, which
ought to be dealt with. There are possibilities to be able to adapt to the interface: input
and output can be better adapted to see to that the needs of the user and settings in the
system will be automatically adjusted, depending on which user it is.
Robustness: The system is protected from incorrect and unacceptable using so that the
system will be kept in a definable state when an error occurs. There shall be chance of
restoring an error.
Usability is of primary importance for web design. Usability in a web-based guidance
context is often connected with individual formed system (See paragraph HumanComputer-Interaction in web design), which means that users have to take
responsibility for learning how to use the system by themselves. Web design should
therefore start from every users perspective and need. We should be aware on
usability and support every individual to achieve the result.

III.4.3. The user influence and user-centered web design

An important condition for acceptable results and sheer activity benefit is that the
users are represented under the process of web design (Nielsen, 2001). Under the
times pressure, it is not unusual that the user influence is regarded as timeconsuming. It is not unusual either that many decisive decisions are made without
making use of the experience and knowledge of the users. When the system is readybuild, it shows that the accrued time cannot compare with the time used on changing
and correcting faults (Pettersson, 1994). According to Nielsen, 85 % usability
problem will be found with the help of 5 users in a usability test. (See paragraph
Evaluation).
The human view, which today is comprised of the modern research in psychology
and other behaviorism, provides one of the most important foundations for user-center
design. (Hgglund et al, 1989). Human strives to control the machine, but not to be
controlled by the machine. User-centered design stresses the computing systems part
as tool for human. And the tool makes it possible for human to use his experience,
28

knowledge, skills and occupational competence instead of that the system controls
him. For a good Human-Computer-Interaction, the emotional environment is the same
important as the physical one. User-centered design should lay stress on the aspects of
motivation and the aesthetic illustrations etc. One of fundamental demands of design
is to start from the human ability, limitations, needs and the interactions with
computing technique.

III.4.4. User interface:

Interface is the aid that makes a system available. It is used to interact with the
system. There are two kinds of interfaces:
System interface is the interface (technically) between two systems3.
User interface. The user interface is the interface dealing with the user
(Mathiassen et al, 2001).
Today there are lots of good and simple guidelines for user interface design, for
example Apples Human Interface Guidelines and The windows Interface
Guidelines for Software Design from Microsoft, but the problem is that they seldom
or never focus on the task that should be performed. (Sandred, 1996). Many systems
are difficult to use. That is due to the fact that there are not available methods to
design user interface. The quality of user interface, i.e. usability, should adapt to the
range of uses, see usability. A good user interface is based on knowledge on the future
user and on how the system will be used. (Mathiassen et al, 2001). A user interface
has complicated interactions and should be experimented and iterated.
It shows in the report (Hgglund et al, 1989) that design of messages, first of all
instructions to the user, help texts and messages of errors are important for the users
reception and experience. Information ought to be correct, consistent, complete and
comprehensible, at the same time, you will avoid information the user too much by
dividing up and structure the information in an appropriate way.
Different measures should be taken in order to tackle the approach to the problem
(Hgglund et al, 1989: p. 64-65):
Lay stress on the verbal design on the basis of the users situation and
conceptions when choosing formulations. Use professional writer if it is
possible. The programmer, the user and the writer should participate in the
quality control, such as approving procedures.
Develop guidelines for how different kinds of texts shall be designed. For
example, error-messages are recommended to have a positive manner, use a
standardized layout and homogeneous terminology, etc.
Carry out acceptance test, if it is possible, do it by evaluating how texts works
in the realistic practical use situation.
Register use problems when the system is in operation, for example by
registering usual risk situations and possible difficulties to get out of them.
Layout is about how you use colours, fonts, and sizes of letters. At the same time, it is
about how data are grouped and placed on the screen. The goal of layout design is
legibility, clarity and consequence. An effective layout design on screen is an
3

System interface is more a technical issue and we dont go further with it in this chapter. We just
concentrate us on user interface.

29

important task. Colours can be used to strengthen or weaken information. Some

proposed guidelines for colour use are:

Limit the number of colours and use colour to support the structure in an
illustration and make legibility easy;
Notice the possibility to use colour to convey types of information, for
example directions, help, changed data, etc.
Be consistent in colour use everywhere in a system and notice existing
meanings and associations for different colour in the current application.

To develop a user interface, which is easy to be used, has got considerably increased
importance in HCI design. There is a lot of knowledge about design. Design should be
consistent and clear. The main criterion for a good graphic design is that the design is
not conspicuous but it should bring out the message and its structure. The message
should not be disturbed by bad language. Shortcomings in formulation, spelling,
punctuation etc. can attract attention from the message. The typographical design
aims to, among other things, line length, font and different headlines and way to
indicate a new passage. All the initiative from the user ought to be given some form
of response.
Design of help information can be structured in different way:

General help, of the type of support to go on and use the system or to learn
new functions;
Orientation, meaning that the user, for example, gets help to go further or go
back in the dialogue to a required state;
Help in error, supporting the user to explain the reason of an error and if it is
possible to set it right, without needing to terminate the progressive progress;
Input with guidance, meaning that the system either gives supporting
information in advance (for example, in form of directions or presentation of
suggestion) or that the user in insecurity can get supplementary assignment as
guidance;
Education on-line, meaning that a computer-based education program gives to
the user the possibility to learn the system by himself and it trains his ability
by simulated assignments;
Documentation on-line, meaning that documentation is available from the
computer.

III.4.5. Evaluation
Evaluation is an activity which tests a design idea or to guarantee that the system
works in using. There are different evaluation techniques, which have different
purpose and adapt to various situations. The techniques4 are such as:
Expert evaluation;
Usability testing with users;
Heuristic evaluation;
Interaction testing;
Lab testing.
4

Heuristic evaluation, interaction testing and lab testing are more costly and we dont go further with
it in this chapter. We just concentrate us on expert evaluation and usability testing with users.

30

Usability testing with users and expert evaluation are the less costly and can be used
in different stages. It is better for usability5 specialists to be involved with the
project, to plan, guide and do user-centred design and usability testing, from the very
beginning from the earliest discovery stages. (Cato, 2001: p.191). According to
Berndtsson and Ottersten, usability testing can be carried out with one user, or two at
the same time. Tests should be done in as realistic environment as possible, rather in
the users everyday life. With the help of usability testing, the possible causes of the
problem will be found. That will lay the good foundations for dealing with problems.
With that, the better computer system will be constructed. Tests should be carried out
iteratively. Testing with representative users throughout the development is the only
way of finding out the real issues of usability before going live. (Idem, p.193).
An expert evaluation can be carried out on a design suggestion, a prototype or an
existing system. Those who carry out the evaluation should rapport on the problem
which must/should be attended to.

III.5. Individual learning styles

Web-based guidance uses web design to create learning situation and to support
learning. Therefore it is important for web design to support different learning styles
in its pedagogical approach. (Larsson, 2002: p. 35-41). Not all individuals learn in the
same way: some people learn best by reading and listening, while others learn best by
doing things physically. The holistic-analytic dimension states how the individual
takes in and organizes information. The holistic approach works for those who want
an overall impression sooner in the learning process. The analytic approach, however,
assumes that the learner wants to investigate elements and is interested in details.
Holistic learners prefer pictures, slides, video and cassette recording to printed
material. Analytic learners prefer highly printed material such as books and articles.
The verbal-visual dimension describes the individuals way of representing
information in memory during thinking. Four different ways of learning have been
identified:
Concrete experience (understand, experience, imitate);
Reflected observation (observe, consider, reflect);
Abstract thinking (analyse, summarize, generalize);
Active experimentation (apply, try out, venture).
And four domains:
Environment factors (sound, temperature, design);
Emotional factors (motivation, endurance, responsibility, structure);
Social factors (friends, self-image, groups);
Physical factors (ability to observation, time and mobility).
Computers allow information to be presented in different ways, to account for this
range of learning styles. Computer-supported information can be tailored: the same
course can be presented differently according to different learning styles.

The author of the book User-centre web design uses the term usability. Usability is the common one
and is used in this chapter. (Cato,J. User- centred web design. (2001). London: Addison-Wesley.)

31

III.7. Useful web design

Nielsen, (2001), argues that: Usability is Alpha and Omega in web design. Websites
which are easy to use, prioritise simplicity and lay stress on the users needs rather
than glitzy design are to be prized.

III.7.1. Display
When the online-user just skims the text, avoid density by using short pages with all
the secondary information placed in subordinate pages. Nielsen considers that empty
space is not a waste if it is conscious design for content or navigation help; simplicity
always wins over complexity: the web designers most important job is to make it
easy for the user (Nielsen, 2001).

III.7.2. Resolution
Pages should be designed to function independent of screen resolution, and to adapt to
all kinds of screens, making sure that design works with various font sizes.

III.7.3. Response time

Rapid response time is the most important of all design criteria. Response time from
one page to the other should be less than 1 second. Other rules are:
Response time of less than 10 seconds keeps within the limit of typical
attention span;
The limit of what the user sees as direct response is around the 10th second;
Beyond 11 seconds, the user loses the feeling of direct contact;
If the user downloads big pages or multimedia files, the delay should be
indicated. Longer than 8 seconds reduces confidence.
To optimise response time, investigate fast web servers and be sparing with pictures
and graphics. Berndtsson and Ottersten, 2002 show users prefer speed to trendy
design.
III.7.4. Links
Linked texts should not be too long to be understood easily at a rapid perusal. Nielsen
(2001) stresses that only key words should be used in the texts of links and the use of
colours to show links is important. Nielsen suggests that links to pages, which the user
has already visited, be shown in purple or red. But links to the pages, which the user
has not visited, be shown in blue. This makes navigation easier, because the user
knows what is left to investigate.

III.7.5. Design for contents

The golden rule in all web design is that less is more, so remember:
Text should be easy to read through;
Keep pages short;
Use item lists and the like in order to break up dense text;
Emphasize the keywords;
Error-messages should always be constructive.

32

III.7.6. Simple and clear language

It is important to give a summary in the beginning of each web page. The most
important thing should be introduced first, so users can see what the page is about and
what it has to offer. Introduce the subject in the first sentence of each paragraph and
avoid complicated sentences and difficult words. Be moderate with metaphor and be
careful with jokes on the web. Long articles shall be rewritten and made shorter or
divided up in several pages. Each page of text should be written according to the
pyramid principle begin with a short summary and information should be visible
without the user needing to roll the page (Nielsen, 2001).

III.7.7. Readability
Avoid combinations such pink text against a green background, which is unreadable
for the colour-blind. ...Let text be still! Mobile, blinking text is much more difficult
to read than static one (Nielsen, 2001, p.126). Avoid animation as far as possible
because most of users regard it as irritating. The quality of contents is one of the most
important factors for usability on the web. Content on the web must give direct
satisfaction, otherwise the user will leave.

III.7. 8. Navigation
Web is a navigational system. (Nielsen, 2001: p.188). Three fundamental questions
must be answered as far as navigation is concerned: Where am I? Where have I
been? Where am I going to go? The users have to know where they are and
understand the structure of the web place. It is important to put any logo in the same
place on each page. The pages should have clear headlines to give information about
the name of the page or the essential contents. A common mistake is the web place
reflecting the organization structure of the company rather than the need of the user.

III.7.9. Accessibility
It is important to design web pages, which are accessible to everyone, especially for
those with disabilities. Remember:
Avoid blinking or rolling text. This works badly for many screen readers that
are used frequently by visually impaired, blind and sometimes by dyslexic
people (Webbdesign: p. 2). For dyslexic people this can be very disturbing.
Avoid using too many photos and graphics; It becomes useless for visually
impaired people;
The best is to avoid opening new windows. Blind people using screen readers
can be very confused and it makes it difficult for them to navigate;
Use a good contrast between background colour and text in order to make it
accessible for people with a vision impairment;
Colours help dyslexics to navigate;
Avoid the PDF (Portable Document Format) because PDF is largely
inaccessible to visually impaired people (www.hi.se).
The solution for how to design an accessible Web page is simple: Use only text and
hypertext links with ASCII characters6, avoid graphics and sounds (www.hi.se).
6

ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. Computers can only
understand numbers, so an ASCII code is the numerical representation of a character such as 'a' or '@'
or an action of some sort.

33

Still, this does not mean that the use of graphics and sounds is not allowed. There are
a number of strategies to use graphics and sounds and still maintain accessibility: A
number of Accessibility Guidelines have been developed to ensure that that
accessibility and usability by people with disabilities is maximized (www.hi.se)

III.7.10. Simplicity in the web design

Web design must take the user into consideration, to ensure that what the user wants
the website to do can be done as simply as possible. The four characteristics which the
user appreciates most and which constitute good web design are:
High quality of contents;
Intensive updating;
Rapid download time;
Ease of use.
Earlier design concentrated on functionality and performance at the expense of
usability. But usability has grown in importance, and understanding usability has
become a principal competence in web design (Nielsen, 2001).
There are different kinds of users with different kinds of computers, connections and
web browsers in the open Internet-environment. The most important characteristics
from the user perspective are: easy comprehensibility and personal satisfaction. To be
consistent is an essential characteristic in all user interface design. Simplicity is the
guiding star in web design: few distracting elements, a clear information structure and
matching navigational tools.

III.8. Web design and ethics

Ethics is an important part of web design, and we chose to emphasise it as the
conclusion of this chapter.
Every organisation should have an ethical policy in web design. While the most
important aspect is confidentiality, some other ethical issues that should be included
are:
How to handle collection, storing, sharing and delivery of information;
Ownership of information; who is responsible for information;
Protection against intrusions on the integrity of users and organisations;
The use of language in respecting cultural difference;
Widening access by designing web pages which are accessible to everyone;
How to protect against intrusions on the integrity of users and organisations.

34

III.9. Checklist

Criteria

Questions

Notes

Design

Is design important for a It is good to ask yourself how you appreciate

website?
different websites and how come that you
prefer one to another.

Content

Ownership of content: To be responsible for a website means also

who is responsible for responsibility for the content. It can be
content?
information, tools, pictures, communication,
etc. There must be a plan for the
administration and management of the
content.

Usability

How usable is a website?

Learnability

Can a website create a If you work with career education and use the
learning situation?
web, are you aware about different learning
styles? And is the website designed for
different learning styles?

Language

How do you describe

different things?
Is the website accessible
for people who speak
another native language?

Colours

Is the website suited to Colours are of importance in several ways. It

have the optimal colours? can support attention to different things in the
content. It can support reading. For those who
are colour-blind some colours do not fit
together. With the right use it can be very
supportive, but without awareness it can be
an obstacle.

Navigation

Is it easy to navigate on Navigating on a website is the main task for

the website?
the users. Navigation has to be logical and
transparent.

Technical

How to handle collection, It is important to have a technical (design)

storing,
sharing
and strategy on how to handle information.
delivery of information?

What is the relationship between the user and

a computer system? Is the website designed
for the user and his/hers expected purpose?
Have you involved the users in the
development of the website? Do you have a
plan for evaluating the usability?

The language itself is of importance. How do

you write? What words do you choose? Do
you create long or short sentences?
Several countries have a multi-ethnical
population, how do we support minorities?

35

IV. THEORY
This chapter is aimed primarily at practitioners in the field of guidance. It will look at
the development of various theoretical approaches to guidance, starting with the
underlying assumptions of early traditional theories. There will be some discourse on
modern theories and conclude by examining the impact of new technology, primarily
web-based tools on both client and practitioner.

IV.1. The distance challenge

The danger in developing the use of new technology in the workplace is that the new
technology is used to do the same old thing but in a new way. The challenge is not
how to incorporate new technology into existing practice, but to develop the practice
itself in the light of the possibilities that new technology offers. The aim is to use the
experience of both practitioner and client to add value to the guidance process by
developing skills for both parties to make best use of what new technology has to
offer. The problem is that we dont always know what the technology can do; but we
can try to work out what the client would want. The client can be seen as a customer
in a sales context, and the customer encounter can itself be used as a learning process
(Chattell, 1998). To create value in a digital age is to change our perception of what
is possible. This does not mean huge innovation, but a gradual shift in expectation on
the part of the customer in the light of value added to the product or service so that the
customer sees things differently.
Just as new technology challenges the individual, so the challenge extends to
organisations which employ careers practitioners. The skills challenge for individuals
as they adapt to working in new ways and with new technology is bound up in the
challenge for organisations to make effective use of new technology for competitive
advantage. For some organisations the goal will be not to gain advantage, but to
survive in a competitive market, be it at the mercy of market forces or political
decisions. Innovation and learning in the context of organised work is at the heart of
current debate on strategic management. Time, money and energy can be invested in
innovation, with no certainty that there will be any sure return, still less any sure
return within a given period of time. In uncertain times, the only certainty is change:
the need is to anticipate change and ensure that individuals and organisations alike
can adapt, or face the consequences.

IV.2. Relevance of theory

Often the theories underpinning web-based tools are not transparent and few tools
explicitly identify the theoretical constructs on which they are based. As practitioners
who are making informed use of these resources it is valuable to be aware of the range
of theories relating to guidance practice and how clients approach decision-making
processes.

36

When using web-based tools it is important for practitioners to be conversant with

their scope and limitations. One should feel confident about evaluating the resource
and using ones professional expertise to consider how the various web-based tools fit
into your guidance practice.

IV.3. Theories & web-based tools

Although one might find a lot of guidance programs when using the world wideweb, at a closer look many of them are basically databases. Whilst it is very useful to
be able to check out where to study plumbing or how to teach a foreign language,
information on its own is not really guidance but supports the guidance process. Many
of the web-based guidance tools use a matching process which equates a persons
interests, skills and abilities to jobs which are broken down into categories such as
skills and ability, thereby matching you to a job.
Traditional approaches to career decision-making tend to be rational, assume choice
by the individual as well as stable labour market conditions. Differential or matching
approaches have continued to exert a significant influence on the practice of careers
guidance and also related policy initiatives. They lie at the root of many Computer
aided guidance and internet-based instruments used within guidance practice. There
have been developments in both theory and practice emphasising the client as a more
active participant in the career process and this is also reflected in the development of
computer based tools. New theories have emerged that take account of contextual
issues and offer different perspectives. For example Savickas (1993) discusses the
general move towards a multiple perspective discourse(p205) and suggests that
changes in career counselling re-define the practitioner as co authors and editors of
career narratives. Instead of diagnosing, assessing and matching, they authorise
careers by narrating coherent stories; invest career with meaning by identifying
themes and tensions in the story line and help clients learn the skills necessary for
the next episode in the story.
Law (1981, 1996, 1999) in particular has turned his attention to the use of biography
in career management. By reviewing and reframing both internal experiences and
experience of the outside world, we can frame and re-frame our career thinking; and
our career feeling. Using the modelling properties of computer programs permits
the individual to re-visit old ideas, and try out new ideas. Such a process permits the
user to move from the planful to the playful in managing career. It is important to
consider how new thinking can be accessed through web-based tools. The newer
thinking can then harness new technology.

IV.3.1. Differential (Trait & Factor or Matching):

These theories (Rodger, 1952; Holland, 1966, 1973) evolved from early studies of
individual differences and developed closely with the psychometric movement. The key
assumption is that individuals have unique patterns of ability and traits that can be
objectively measured and matched with the requirements of the job. It is assumed that
the provision of information about the client and the world of work will result in

37

behaviour change and outcomes such as increased certainty of choice and improved
decision-making skills.
As indicated earlier, this approach tends to assume choice and autonomy for the
individual, and we can question this as a reasonable assumption for some client
groups. Matching individuals to particular environments assumes that individuals
do not change, whereas in reality, individuals constantly change and develop.
Theory development has also taken account of the significant labour market
changes and the way in which occupational environments are becoming more
fluid. Web-based tools based on this perspective clearly have a valuable role to
play in providing information and providing useful starting points for individuals
who wish to explore options. At the same time it is necessary to be aware of their
limitations.
IV.3.2. Humanistic (Client Centred):
The relationship between a practitioner and client arising from the clients career
concerns creates a psychological climate in which the client can evolve a personal
identity (Rodger, 1952). The aim is to help clients to become self-reliant, identify the
vocational goal that is the fulfilment of that identity, determine a route to that goal and
feel empowered to implement that plan.
This raises questions about how the web-based resources can be designed to ensure
empowerment and client-centredness and also highlights one of the limitations of
web-based resources which is the value clients place on the one-to-one exchange.
IV.3.3. Developmental:
Various accounts of development theory involve different numbers of stages through
which individuals move (Super, 1957, 1980, 1990; Ginzberg et al, 1951). The process
helps a person to develop and accept an integrated and adequate picture of self and
their role in the world of work, to test that concept and to convert it into a reality, with
satisfaction to self and eventual benefit to society.
IV.3.4. Behavioural (Social Learning):
People acquire their preferences for various activities through a variety of learning
experiences. They make sense of their activities because of ideas they have been
taught or have learned through experience. They acquire beliefs about themselves and
the nature of their world through direct and indirect educational experiences. They
then take action on the basis of their beliefs using skills that they have developed over
time. Krumboltz (1976, 1990) emphasises the importance of learning experiences (e.g.
skills and work roles) and their effect on career decision-making process.
Krumboltz suggests the goal of practitioners is to foster client learning and to generate
learning experiences for clients that involve a wide array of personal as well as career
issues. This can be relevant to the opportunities afforded by internet-based tools, which
potentially offer rich possibilities for extending peoples knowledge of possibilities, the
reality of learning or work opportunities. This also leads to a shift in the role of the
practitioner to a learning facilitator.
IV.3.5. Sociological Approaches:
The approaches described so far take a more individualistic perspective, largely
rooted in psychology. Many web-based tools are based on this starting point and are

38

unable to view the person in their context. Other approaches, such as Roberts
Occupational Allocation (1977, 97) challenge this individualistic perspective and
emphasise the fact that individuals are constrained in their choice of occupations by
social variables, outside their control such as class, gender, ethnicity and age.
The link between learning and career decision-making was reflected in the work
carried out by Law and Watts (1977) in the development of DOTS model, which
centred on learning about Self, Opportunities, Decision-making and Transitions.
Work carried out by Law suggests the most significant factors in occupational choice
are interpersonal exchanges that occur in local settings (Law, 1981, 1996). Most
significant are the personal exchanges which occur between individuals and others
such as family, neighbourhood, peer groups, ethnic group and teachers at school, with
whom they are routinely in contact.
Law has developed the model, coined New-DOTS (1999) to emphasise that career
learning occurs in the context of community interaction and also that individuals can
be helped to gain confidence and make progress in career-development activities. He
put forward the SeSiFu model that emphasises a developing repertoire of capacities
that move from more basic gathering information to sensing, sifting, focusing and
understanding. Such approaches challenge the notion of autonomous and rational
decision-making as a sole method for career decision-making (Savikas, 2000:62).
This perspective has impact on web-based tools, which aim to help people consider
more carefully what are the constraining factors affecting their approach to decisionmaking and highlight the value of building on information gathering to develop more
active career learning.
Theories are now developing that attempt to meet the needs of specific client groups,
such as minority ethnic groups (Pedersen,1994) or girls and women (Coyle and
Skinner,1988) Multiculturalism assumes each client, careers counsellor and the
presenting problems are shaped by different culturally defined relationships and
therefore approaches to practice must acknowledge cultural factors and cultural values
(Sue, 1995).
In addition to the development of newer theories concerned with addressing individual
difference, theories are being developed that offer alternative ways of working. These
include Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT), Constructivist theories, Solution
Focused Theory, amongst others. In such approaches the client is encouraged to be
both introspective and actively engaged in understanding career issues and moving
forward. The emphasis is on collaboration and joint action (Sampson, 1998). The
individuals uniqueness is emphasised as well as the opportunity to become more
actively involved and also to engage all senses, including creativity and imagination.
IV.3.6. Constructivist career counselling theory
Constructivist theory (Peavy, 1995; McMahon & Tatham, 2002) developed in
response to the realisation that clients lives are increasingly influenced by social
transformations: for example the deterioration of family and community networks,
uncertainty and conflict, acknowledging the impact of his environment or worldview
on the career development of the individual. It is a holistic framework from which to
work rather than a set of techniques. Constructivist career counselling is described as

39

a method of life planning where new knowledge is incorporated into an individuals

existing frameworks. It has been described as the client constructing himself through
the interpretation he makes of his societal conditions and the actions he subsequently
takes. This means that depending on the conditions the individual will be in turns
resistant or creative in relationships and work.
Both practitioner and client are experts in counselling and on him/herself respectively,
and both try to identify patterns of influence that shape the clients thinking and
acting. Influential relationships are seen as more influential in career development
than traditional career counselling activities e.g. psychometric testing. The client and
practitioner work with the clients life experiences with the counselling process seen
as a method of influencing rather than initiating change.
IV. 3.7. Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT):
Like many of the emerging theories SCCT appreciates cognitive variables as an
important aspect of the career making process, with the notion of the client as a
personal agency having an important position. SCCT attempts to offer a unifying
framework for different but related theories where standpoints can complement each
other (and perhaps converge to a new synthetic whole), being situated between the
Krumboltz social learning theory and the constructivist view. SCCT look upon the
self as a dynamic and situation-specific. Thus, to synthesize: while the Constructivist
theory conceives the individual as a producer of the self and its behaviour and
Krumboltz, on the other hand, imagines the individual as a product of social factors,
the SCCT suggests that a person is both a producer and a product of the social
environment with a potential for self-regulative activities.
The input of SCCT to the web-environment could be that it illuminates the Internet as
a general service-supplying tool in contrast to specific intervention sequences with
face-to-face encounters that can deal with complex patterns of social circumstances. It
can also put some focus on the web service as a social-cultural product in itself as one
of the mediating tools that a client could come across in the career development
process. A tool or working method mirrors the developers and practitioners cultural
inheritance and the social codes in practise. Another point to be made with SCCT in
mind is the possibility with communication between peers on the Internet that could
be seen as a supportive complement to self-regulative activities.
IV. 3. 8. Solution Focused Theory:
This theory or set of methods assume that each person is very unique and should be
treated that way. The career problem can mostly not be separated from the personal
life. These two domains are intertwined.
In the solution-focused theory the emphasis is on the high degree of client
engagement in the process of guidance, where an essential element is the
documentation of the process - not only written words but also with all sorts of visual
effects. Various methods in this kind of setting are using qualitative assessment
exercises where the client is really involved in the pursuit for solving a problem or
dilemma. This is an approach that relies heavily on the users intellectual capacity and
structural thinking, putting a special emphasis on the communication skills of the
client.

40

The usefulness of this approach in the context of Internet based guidance and the
creation of adequate tools could be seen as relying upon three main arguments:
1. There is a high degree of client activity that complies with the dominant
pedagogic ideas of today and which points out the advantage of a learning
strategy that will not settle for memorizing simple facts. A medium such as the
Internet is broadly seen as one tool to make this happen.
2. The imagination and creativity of the users can be assisted with possible
multimedia effects on the web; furthermore, the solution focused approach
have a promising prospect on visualising the users thoughts about career with
different exercises, e.g. simulating different work opportunities to see what
happen when you are choosing one solution before another.
3. This approach only deals with clients future possibilities and does not focus
on past difficulties. This reductive attitude can be questionable as an approach
in a traditional counselling environment with face-to-face encounters, but this
reductive way of thinking can be quite suitable when guidance tools are
constructed on the Internet. An Internet product - where a client is on his/her
own - should not stimulate any negative feelings that cannot be cared for.
***
While these approaches are starting to have an impact on web-based resources there
are few sites that deliver resources based on such principles directly to clients. In
relation to web-based tools and learning styles, such approaches rely on a high level
of client activity. At the same time the client can have the opportunity to observe
their personal development, gaining the feedback that may encourage taking more
personal responsibility. Multimedia options offered by the web offer the opportunity
to enhance creativity and simulation exercises, e.g. considering impact of different
choices can contribute to the process. Documentation may include visual images in
addition to words. This approach also relies on users ability to think in a systematic
manner and requires support for those who have less confidence. Very clear
signposting and introductions are essential for such tools to be used purposefully.

IV.4. Impact on the role of the guidance practitioner

Web-based tools are already out there and as practitioners we would do well to
embrace them as added value to the guidance process. In fact one might say that it is
the responsibility of the practitioner not only to be aware of the range of the resources
available, but to be able to evaluate their usefulness. For example what are the
websites offering and where do they fit during intervention? Because these sites are
easily accessible for the main part they could easily have been used by the client as a
preparatory tool prior to seeing the adviser, testing out possible career ideas. At the
same time it may very well be used by the practitioner as well outside actual interview
time to pursue other lines of thinking and hyperlinks, not possible within the usual
time constraints of the one to one interview. Thus, one important task for the
practitioners is to build learning situations on the Internet that with some degree
should be based upon self-regulative means. The developer and provider of career
services on the web need to focus on how the user could be an independent learner,
with appropriate support regarding different target groups.

41

Where traditional theories see the practitioner as the expert, modern theories see the
role of the practitioner as one of facilitator - clients are invited to take ownership of
their career awareness and development. Both practitioner and client are able to make
sense of the situation and can provide opportunity for the client to work
autonomously. Moreover, using web-based tools can prove financially efficient. The
user can invest as much time needed outside the interview to sift information or
explore options leaving the shared (but limited) available during the one to one
interview for actual guidance expertise.
If the development of career guidance will include the Internet as a strong element in
guidance as a whole then this could imply a somewhat different role for the
practitioner. The term facilitator would apply where guidance practitioners are
moving towards the educational field in the sense that more attention will be turned to
the insights from the pedagogical, instructional and cognitive sciences field in order to
create learning environments on the web. With the development in the e-learning field
it can be argued that both the guidance practitioner and the teacher are adapting more
of a mentor/facilitator role for the users learning process.
Some questions arise: with regard to the evolution of guidance practice: How far can
we go in delivering services through Internet? Is web-counselling possible? Many
practitioners are reluctant to accept the notion that a guidance practitioner could
successfully carry out a counselling session at a distance. But there are practitioners
who already have challenged the received wisdom that client interaction must be
face-to-face to notice subtle body language and other features important for the
outcome.
There is another aspect that should not escape our attention here: that the Internet can
and should be viewed also as a communication tool which gives practitioners greater
possibilities to share information with each other, regionally, nationally and
internationally, thus further empowering the profession and developing good practice.

IV.5. Checklist

1.

Criteria
Information

Questions
What is the purpose of the
information on the website?

2.

Role

What is the role of the

practitioner?

3.

Intervention

At what point of guidance

intervention is the tool useful?

4.

Threat or
opportunity

How can these tools be used to

add value to the role of
practitioner?

42

Notes
Is this a database of information or
intended to support the guidance
process?
Consider the context of the client and
the theoretical approach/s used by the
practitioner; consider also the
maturity of the client in relation to
own career development.
The client may already have accessed
this site; or may not be comfortable
with modern technology
Embracing modern technology for
added efficiency; role of practitioner
moving on to that of
facilitator/mentor; the opportunity to
explore different ways of working.

V. ETHICS
This chapter also stands as a conclusion of the previous work. It focuses on the
challenges that web-based guidance brings to the ethics of practice and it tries to look
at the future. Ethical principles are analyzed in a comparative and applied manner,
from careers guidance perspective.

V.1. Looking forward, not back: ethics and new practice

These guidelines are aimed at professionals and their clients and web tool designers
and as such intend to offer a regulatory framework the individual can apply to the
vast, unregulated mass of the Internet. Any guidelines for professionals working
directly with clients will comprise some ethical considerations. Given that, in
principle, web-based guidance tools should be evaluated by practitioners in the
context of the science-practice or theoretical basis in which they are derived, so must
any ethical protocol or guidelines be set in the framework of ethical theory. In order
to help practitioners develop the skills and understanding they will need to work
effectively in the post- information age of information communication technology,
there is a clear imperative to look towards the future in identifying the underpinning
ethical codes. Whilst it is important that current ethical support be assessed and
compared across different domains, the focus must be on the future. The question is
to what extent existing ethical frameworks can support the dilemmas of the future.
The challenge is to evaluate ethical practice across different domains (different by
science practice, different by professional or occupational discipline and difference
across cultural context) in order to select that which will usefully transfer to the
future.
The issue of protection lies at the heart of ethical practice. Given that there are three
distinct user groups envisaged within the project design, namely the practitioners and
the end users, careful thought needs to be given to the intention of a set of guidelines
or ethical protocol. Ethical codes are often presented as the client's best protection
against malpractice. There is a counterbalance, however, that the practitioners
themselves may find adherence to an ethical protocol is important for their own
protection. This duality of protection needs to be explicitly understood by
practitioners, and where necessary, professionals will need to ensure that they have
some support on which to draw, ideally in the form of membership of a professional
body. Indeed, in most professions, membership of the appropriate governing body
and adherence to an explicit ethical code is a condition both of initial entry and
continued inclusion on the professional register. Sampson (2002) argues that the
assumption that developers need only to assure quality leaving practitioners to
maintain ethics in delivery is too simplistic. His analysis reveals that maintaining
quality and ethics is a function of a system with multiple participants (Sampson 2002,
p158). This chapter attempts to tease out some of this complexity.

43

V.2. Ethical principles

Professionals who wish to make claims for the integrity and accountability of their
profession need at some stage to address the question of self-regulation through their
professional body. If called to justify our professional decision-making there needs to
be certainty of the moral ground on which individual practice is predicated. Henry
(1996: 43) argues that there is a vital role for the treatment of ethics in the fields of
guidance and counselling, and maintains that professionals themselves should be
involved in explaining and defending those values which are shared.
Beauchamp and Childress (1983) set out the four principles underpinning ethical
codes of practice commonly found in helping professions in western countries. These
are:
beneficence;
non-maleficence;
autonomy;
justice.
Beneficence was evident in the illustration of the doctor: patient relationship. Doing
good for the client requires some positive action on the part of the professional, which
may extend as far as advocacy on the client's behalf. The principle of nonmaleficence (the avoidance of harm) can be used in effect as a default mechanism.
Whilst action is also implied, the underlying principle here is to ensure that no more
harm will be done to the client by any action, lack of action or judgement on the part
of the professional. The principle of autonomy assumes that the client has the right to
be involved in those professional decisions that will affect them. The assumption is
that the client is capable of making choices, and on this basis the professional ensures
the client's active participation in the decision-making process, even where the client's
decision-making faculties are impaired. The principle of justice is the point of entry
for utilitarian ethics (Winkler and Coombs, 1993) and the quest for the greatest good
for the greatest number, even though this necessarily implies some disadvantage for
the minority, and so raises important questions about how decisions are made for
'most' people. Where professionals are employed in the public service, the principle
of justice is most evident in the consideration of how limited resources are allocated
to unlimited demand. Such considerations are also to be found in private professional
practice, but the operational ethos of direct payment by the client for services
rendered by the professional means the question of justice is seen as a consideration
for the client rather than the professional to address. Justice strives to enable the
professional to act fairly, and it is in this regard that issues of equality and equity
come into the professional domain. It is the very fact that the professional is bound to
practise by an ethical code that is the client's guarantee.

V.3. The principles in practice

The four principles do not always stand in isolation, one from the other, indeed there
is often a trade-off of one principle against another in order to deliver a professional
service. In medicine and its allied professions, the principle of beneficence can come
into conflict with the principle of autonomy.
For example, the clinical
recommendation in the best interest of a patient might be to administer a blood

44

transfusion. The patient however, may have strong objection to this course of action
on religious or moral grounds, even where they understand fully the potentially fatal
consequences of refusing professional advice.
One of the four ethical principles can form the basis for the very orientation of an
entire profession: in medicine we as patients assume our best interests are at the heart
of clinical judgements and indeed, beneficence is the over-riding principle in
medicine, which is why sometimes, clinical judgements will be upheld by the full
force of the law and doctors will do good for the patient against the patient's wishes.
'Trust me, I'm a doctor' is a clich that encapsulates the universal belief that the
doctor's decision is in my best interests as a patient, and is based solely on clinical
considerations of what will help me. My assumption as a patient is that the doctor, as
a professional, intends me no harm, indeed is bound to do me good. In ethical terms,
the practice of medicine is beneficent. In the practice of law, the ethical imperative is
justice. This can of course lead to a situation in which the law is applied equally to
everybody but seems to show little mercy in respect of a particular individual caught
in a particular set of circumstances. Nevertheless, whilst we strive for a society where
Justice is tempered with mercy, we want justice to prevail as the guiding principle.
In careers guidance however, the common orientation is towards client-centred
practice: the underlying ethical principle is autonomy (Mulvey, 2001). This means in
practice that, when weighing up how best to serve our client, how best to ensure that
our client benefits from our greater, professional understanding of both career
guidance practice and its underlying theory, we may sometimes bow to the will of the
client even when, in our professional judgement, the client is making an ill advised
decision. In practice, most of the ethical issues careers guidance workers encounter
are to do with client confidentiality and this is particularly so where the client is of a
legal age (commonly below the age of eighteen) where the professional has a duty of
care which over rides the ethical commitment to client centred practice: practice
which should put the client at the centre of any decision making. Sometimes, a client
shared in the interview which gives the practitioner cause for concern, but is unwilling
to permit the practitioner to relay that information to a third party. Where there is a
legal duty of care for example if the professional judges that the confidential matter
clearly indicates immediate and grave danger either to the client themselves or to
another, the professional must obey the governing laws has no option but to betray
client confidence in order to protect client safety. This can equally apply to an adult
client: a client who discloses that s/he is being coerced into a particular career choice
or perhaps being denied a particular educational or career path by norms of the family
or society they come from.

V.4. Ethics and web-based practice

For web based practice, the duty of care is an important question. If we offer access
to careers guidance 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, are we also implying that we are
available for instant response to clients in distress 24 hours a day, 7 days a week
(Bloom, 1998). And if we do offer this level of service, how can we safeguard the
well being of the practitioner who is on call for lengthy periods periods without
limits? What of information disclosed by a client across a virtual domain: can we
undertake that such information will be kept confidential? How do we ensure

45

appropriate levels of access to all those who might legitimately have access to e-files
and how can we ensure those who do not have legitimate access will not hack into
e-files and misuse them? Perhaps the key is transparency: to be honest with the client
that we will do whatever we can to protect them, but we have to acknowledge that
working with web-based tools is pushing back the limits of what we know and taking
us into unchartered territories, to meet with ethical issues we have not, as yet,
identified.
We may have to acknowledge that, no matter how detailed our consideration of
possible responses to possible issues, we can not anticipate everything. We need to
accept that there are limits to any ethical protocol (Mulvey, 2002). It needs to be
clearly understood by all beneficiaries that, whilst adherence to ethical practice is not
only welcomed but expected of accredited practitioners, it cannot solve insoluble
problems. Many issues which arise in guidance practice within the domain of ethics
are not problems to which there are solutions, but dilemmas to which there is more
than one acceptable and morally justifiable answer. The distinction between a
problem, which has a solution, and a dilemma, which may be worked through towards
a state of resolution, is an important one to make. Ethical protocols have limits, even
if web-based careers guidance does not.

46

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51

Annex 1:
SWOT analysis of web-based guidance from service delivery perspective:
Strengths
Provide information quickly
The adviser has time to think about their
response, to write a clear action plan and
to undertake any necessary research
(Madahar, 2003)
Professional counsellors can provide
guidance to clients living at distance or
who do not have time to go to face-toface sessions
Counsellors and clients who prefer
writing rather than speaking can express
themselves more easily
If the career counsellor lacks knowledge
she can gather information before
answering
Anonymity
A record of the dialogues with the
client is retained in archives
More clients contacted the counsellors
after they found information on the
Internet (Evangelista, 2003)
Information is increasingly easy to
access, so our ( counsellors) role
consists less in looking for information
and more in helping people to built a
personal career plan (idem)

Weaknesses
The lack of non-verbal communication
and nuances of pace and tone of voice
can lead to ambiguity and confusion
(Madahar, 2003)
The body language and emotions of the
client cannot be observed
No feedback from client, dissatisfying for
the adviser (idem)
A lack of dialogue means lack of initial
clarification of the problem (idem)
E-guidance can be unpredictable in terms
of content and quantity (idem)
If the client is not skilled enough to use
ITC tools and needs help, the helping
person can interfere in the counselling
process
The Internet is a large-scale consumer of
time and it is impossible to circumvent it
(Evangelista, 2003)

Opportunities
Enables the
supply of vocational
guidance services both at a general and at
customized level
FAQ and relevant answers can be put on
line in special areas of a website
The Internet is of growing importance to
guidance in terms of swift information
delivery (Plant, 2002)
Possibility of constant updating of
information
Possibilities for the counsellors to build
programs that can offer opportunities for
the clients to learn how to use the
Internet critically and analytically to meet
their needs
E-mails, thematic discussions lists,
forums on Internet can be used by
professionals to share good practice and
information

Threats
Someone gains unauthorized access to
counsellors or clients computer
Clients
print
out
e-Counselling
correspondence and someone finds and
reads it
The e-mails are accidentally misdirected
The e-mails are intercepted by computer
hackers
Loss of data caused by computer errors,
server crashes or bad phone
connections
Viruses in the system
Is difficult to check the quality of some
information obtained through the Internet

Annex 2:
Illustration of technique and design with regard to eyesight and reading from the
computer screen (the importance of grouping):

Help the user interpret the picture by presenting groups with related information and
functions (Source: Berndtsson, J., & Ottersten I. 2002)

53

Adult Education Committee of Gteborg (www.vux.goteborg.se) works with purchasing and developing adult
education. One main task is to support applicants for adult education with information and guidance,
while investing in the development of web-based tools for guidance.
Risorse per lOrientamento e il Lavoro Divisione di ASTER (http://www.aster.it ) develops research in the
field of guidance and gives technical assistance to public services in field. It investigates and tests new
guidance methodologies developed within pilot projects.
MENTOR - Centre for Adult Education (http://europe.org.ro/mentor) is a NGO, researching and providing adult
education. It provides expertise in: training of trainers and mentors in adult education, guidance and
counselling, curricula, evaluation and intercultural education.
Careers Europe ( http://www.careerseurope.co.uk ) is the UK national resource centre for international careers
and is also the UK Euroguidance centre in the Euroguidance network. It produces information materials,
runs an enquiry service and offers training and support.
University of East London (UEL), Centre for Training in Careers Guidance ( http://www.uel.ac.uk ) offers
initial professional qualification in guidance and continuing professional development. It has a proven
track record in designing and delivering training in careers guidance.
*

Mick Carey has worked in career guidance since 1978. He has acquired substantial experience in mainstream
careers work and development work. Mick has been manager of Careers Europe since 1995, and has been
involved in a number of transnational development projects.
Cristina Cogoi is mainly in charge with the project planning and coordination at European level of projects in
ICT applied to guidance and in guidance in adult education. She published some contributions in these fields.
Diana Ghinea has been working with careers guidance since 1999, having an interest in guidance policies and
networks. Her experience includes: guidance research, training in information and career counselling,
transnational projects and evaluation. She also works as consultant.
Nelica La Gro works as a senior lecturer at UEL. She is course leader for the full-time postgraduate Diploma in
Career Guidance (QCG) and teaches on both the QCG and MA Careers. Her research interests include
investigating interview practice, web-based tools and guidance practice.
Claudia Lasite currently lectures on the Qualification in Career Guidance at UEL. In addition to her
involvement with this project, other research interests include the application of theoretical approaches to
careers guidance and approaching diversity within education and the labour market.
Rachel Mulvey, PhD is Head of the Centre for Training in Careers Guidance at UEL and teaches both on the
Post graduate Qualification in Careers Guidance and the MA Careers. Her research interests are the application
of ethical frameworks within guidance practice and the management of professionals.
Tomas Mjrnheden has been working with computer-based guidance since 1987. His experience includes both
using methodology and developing strategies. He works with ICT strategies in guidance, both for the Adult
Education Committee of Gothenburg and the Swedish National Education Agency.
Viorica Pop has extensive experience in the education field, which includes teaching, research and training in
education management, training in information and career counselling, transnational projects and evaluation.
She is currently working towards the finalization of her PhD studies in Education Sciences.
Ralf Stenered is working as a career counsellor and is involved in development and implementation of webbased guidance products at the Adult Education Committee of Gothenburg. He has a BA in Career Counselling,
a Master of Education for the Upper Secondary School and an MA degree in History.
Hongling Tang is a Master student at the University of Gteborg, Institute of Informatics. Her progress thesis is
specialised in the use of web-based application system for adult education.
Paola Valandro mainly works in the management of information resources and in the project planning and
production of ICT information products (especially web sites and databases) for careers guidance and
employment. She published some contributions in these fields.

54

The World Wide Web (as the name itself shows) is a vast
resource which is still expanding. It provides access to masses
of information and service. It is very open and easy to access,
and it offers unparalleled opportunities for information and
service providers to reach the public. However this very
openness also means it is a very anarchic medium.
It is almost absurdly easy to create websites and add these to
the web. Because of this freedom of input it has grown as an
unstructured resource. There is no index to the web. It is
incompletely catalogued by a variety of search engines,
however the methods by which these search engines work
(looking at metacodes or embedded key words for example)
are problematic. As a website designer, how do you know that
the keywords you include are the ones that your target
audience will use? Also the keywords that you think describe
your website might also be used by other web editors to
describe their websites which are totally different from yours.
As an illustration, using the search term guidance on the
Google search engine produced over 9,000,000 results. The
first result of which was a childrens organisation in the USA
and the second was a recording company. The first result
which was actually connected with careers guidance was 9th
on the list. A similar search using the term Careers
Guidance produced 1,260,000 results.
The sheer volume of websites is daunting. Even quite specific
enquiries to a search engine produce a huge volume of
returns. The search Careers Guidance in London produced
125,000 results of which the 7th in the list was for a careers
centre in Birmingham and the third was for the training
course for Guidance Counsellors at a London University.
From here, even more the need for a common protocol when it
comes about web-based guidance.

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