Chapter 1: Understanding Mass Media, Convergence, and the Importance

of Media Literacy
media: platforms or vehicles industries have developed for the purpose of creating and sending
messages
media convergence: when products typically linked to one medium show up on many media

Mass Communication
Mass communication used to have to do with the size and composition of the audience
now, Audience fragmentation, the process of dividing audience members into segments
based on background and lifestyle in order to send them messages targeted to their specific
characteristics, challenges that notion
Now what makes mass communication special is the way the content of the communication
message is created
Definitions of mass communication
Dominick: Process by which a complex organization with the aid of one or more machines
produces and transmits public messages that are directed at scattered, heterogeneous, large
audiences
Turow: The industrialized production and multiple distribution of messages through
technological devices
leaves open the size and nature of the audience

Mass Production Process: the industrial process that creates the potential for reaching
millions, even billions of diverse anonymous people at around the same time.
Industrial Nature- the aspect of industrializedor mass productionprocesses involved in
creating the message material that distinguished mass communication from other forms of
communication. This industrial process creates the potential for reaching billions of diverse,
anonymous people simultaneously.
Communication- refers to people interacting in ways that at least one of the parties involved
understands the messages
Messages- collections of symbols that appear purposely organized to those sending or
receiving them
Interpersonal communication- a form of communication that involves two or three individuals
signaling to each other using their voices, facial and hand gestures, and other signs to convey
meaning.
Mediated interpersonal communication- a specialized type of interpersonal communication
that is assisted by a device, such as a pen or pencil, computer, or phone.
MAIN DIFFERENCE between MASS COMMUN and two forms of INTERPERSONAL COMM
relates to NATURE OF THE SOURCE AND RECEIVER
Medium: part of a technical system that helps in the transmission, distribution, or reception of
the messages.

COMPARING ELEMENTS ACROSS DIFFERENT FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

Source: the originator of the message
Encoding: when the source organizes and prepares to send the message
Transmitter: performs the physical activity of sending the message
Channel: pathway through which the transmitter sends the message
Receiver: the person or organization that gets the message
Decoding: the process by which the receiver makes sense of the message
Feedback: a response to the message
Noise: sounds that interferes with delivery of the message
Mass media- the technological vehicles through which mass communication takes place
Mass media outlets- companies that send out messages via mass media
Analog- electronic transmission accomplished by adding signals of varying frequency of
amplitude to carrier waves of a given frequency of alternating electromagnetic current.
Broadcast and phone transmissions conventionally have used analog technology.
Digital- electronic technology that generates, stores, processes, and transmits data in the forms
of strings of 0s and 1s: each of these digits is referred to as a bit (and a string of bits that a
computer can address individually as a group is a byte)
Convergence- the ability of different media to easily interact with each other because they all
deal with information in the same digital form
Three Cs of Mass Media Convergence:
content: messages
corporations: companies that interact to create and distribute content
computers: brings convergence into the mass communication picture
We use Media in our daily lives:
Enjoyment
Social currency- media content used as coins of exchange in everyday interpersonal
discussions.
Companionship
Parasocial interaction- the psychological connections that some media users establish with
celebrities whom they learn about through the mass media.
Surveillance
using the media to learn about what is happening in the world around us
Interpretation
using the media to find out why things are happeningwho or what is the causeand what to
do about them.
Interactivity- the ability to track and respond to any actions triggered by the end user, in order
to cultivate a rapport.
Subcultures- groups with habits that many people consider odd and unusual but not
threatening to the more general way of life (Amish)

Mass media presents ideas of culture in three broad and related ways:
1. identify and discuss codes of acceptable behaviors
2. Learning what and who counts in our world and why

3. Determine what others think of us and what people like us think of others
Criticism of mass medias influence on culture:
Uses stereotypespredictable depictions that reflect (and sometimes create) cultural
prejudices
Reflects political ideologiesbeliefs about who should hold the greatest power within
a culture

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.

Literacy- the ability to effectively comprehend and use messages that are expressed in written
or printed symbols, such as letters.
Media literacy
the ability to apply critical thinking skills to the mass media, thereby becoming a more aware
and responsible citizen in our media-driven society
an understanding of commercial forces and political influences behind media materials
ability to examine media content
an ability to think about ethical implications
ability to understand research
awareness of ways public can influence media
Other tools:
Consider authorship
evaluate the audience
determine the institutional purpose
analyze the content
identify the creative techniques
PRINCIPLES OF MEDIA LITERACY
The media construct our individual realities
The media are influenced by industrial pressures
The media are influenced by political pressures
The media are influenced by format
Audiences are active recipients of the media
The media tell us about who we are as a society

Chapter 2: Research on Media Effects and Media Culture

Mass media research: the use of systematic methods to understand or solve problems
regarding the mass media

Early Years of Mass Media Research in the US

concern of maintaining community and encouraging bad behavior among children
some argued that media had power to unite different individuals together by broadcasting the
same materials to them new type of community
Chicago school
Propaganda- messages designed to change the attitudes and behavior of huge numbers of
otherwise disconnected individuals on controversial social issues
fear that media organizations could use propaganda (WW1)
Agenda setting- the notion that the media create the ideas in our heads about what is going
on in the world
Propaganda analysis- the systematic examination of mass media messages that seem
designed to sway the attitudes of large populations on controversial issues.
Magic bullet or Hypodermic Needle approach: the idea that messages delivered through the
mass media persuade all people powerfully and directly without the people having any control
over the way they react. (too simplistic)
Kids and Movies mid 1920s
Motion Pictures and Youth/ Payne Fund Studies
tested children who see violent films sleep patterns
qualitative questions about female perception of romance
Social relations: interactions among people that influence the way individuals interpret media
messages
Panel survey: asking the same individuals questions over a period of time in order to find out
whether and how the attitudes of these people change over time.
two-step flow model: states the media influence often works in two stages: (1) media content
is picked up by people who use media frequently and (2) these people in turn act as opinion
leaders when they discuss content with others
Active audience: the idea that people are not simply passive recipients of media messages;
they respond to content based on their personal backgrounds, interests, and interpersonal
relationships.
Uses and gratifications research: research that studies how people use media products to
meet their needs and interests; it asks and answers questions about why individuals use the
mass media
Even Propaganda doesnt work 100% of the time. in the 40s social psychologists were pointing
out that even propaganda would succeed only under limited circumstances with certain types of
people
Naturalistic experiment- a study in which randomly selected people are manipulated in a
relatively controlled environment without knowing that they are involved in an experiment. (the

American Soldier study)

showed how difficult it is to change peoples minds

Consolidating the Mainstream Approach:

Studying Opinion and Behavior change
depends a lot on family and those factors, but consistent viewing of violent shows does promote
aggressive behaviors
Studying what people learn from media
children and education and adults and national and world affairs
Priming- the process by which the media affect the standard that individuals use to evaluate
what they see and hear in the media.
Knowledge gap- a theory that holds that, in the development of any social or political issues,
the more highly educated segments of a population know more about the issues early on and
acquire information about that issue at a faster rate than the less educated segments, so the
gap widens
Digital divide- the separation between those who have access and knowledge about
technology and those who (perhaps because their level of education or income) do not.
Mainstream approaches- the research models that developed out of the work of the Columbia,
Yale and Payne Fund studies critiques is that it stresses change rather than continuity and
emphasis on active role of the individual and not on larger social forces that control media

Mainstream approaches: the research models that developed out of the work of the Columbia
School, the Yale School, and the Payne Fund Studies
Frankfurt School 30s & 40s
Capitalism- as defined by Marx, the ownership of the means of production by a ruling class in
society.
Critical theory- theories focusing on the corrosive influence of capitalism on culture.
Co-optation- a term coined by Marcuse to express the way in which capitalism takes potentially
revolutionary ideas and tames them to express capitalist ideas
Political economy- an area of study that focuses specifically on the relationship between the
economic and the cultural and that looks at when and how the economic structures of society
and the media system reflect the political interests of societys rich and powerful
Cultural colonialism- the exercise of control over an area or people by a dominant power, not
so much through force of arms as by surrounding the weaker countries with cultural materials
that reflect values and beliefs supporting the interests of that dominant power.
CULTIVATION THEORY overtime subgenres give people views of certain areas of society
Cultivation studies- studies that emphasize that when media systematically portray
certain populations in unfavorable ways, the ideas that mainstream audiences pick up
about those people help certain groups in society retain their power over the groups they
denigrate.
Cultural studies- studies that start with the idea that all sorts of mass media present their
audiences with technologies and texts and that audiences find meaning in them;
scholars then ask questions that center on how to think about what making meaning of

technologies and texts means and what consequences it has for those audiences in
society.
Polysemous- open to multiple meanings

CHAPTER 3: THE BUSINESS OF MEDIA

Audience- the people to whom a media product is directed
Media practitioners- the people who select or create the material that a mass media film
produces, distributes, or exhibits.
Adequate revenue- enough cash to allow the enterprise to pay for itself and give the owners or
bankers who put up the money the desired return on their investment.
Demographics- characteristics by which people are divided into particular social categories.
1. How should we think about our audience? How should we define our audience?
2. Will the material we are thinking of creating, distributing, or exhibiting to attract that audience
generate adequate revenues
3. Were the people we thought would be attracted to our products in fact attracted to our products
accumulate info to show characteristics that they can use to show potential advertisers the type
of people they can reach through their magazine
advertisers care about what they consider when they think about buying space
Demographic indicators- age, gender, occupation, ethnicity, race, income
Psychographics- a way to differentiate among people or groups by categorizing them
according to their attitudes, personality types, or motivations.
Lifestyle categories- activities in which potential audiences are involved that mark them as
different from others in the population at large.

To lower risk when creating content:

they will choose creators with good track record- the previous successes or failures of a
product, person, or organization
look for content similar to other successful material
familiar tends to draw audiences more readily than new
familiar makes for an easier sell to advertiser
familiar streamlines the production process (racial and ethnic representations)
R&D: research and development: departments within companies that explore new ideas and
generate new products and services, systematically investigating potential sources of revenue
through surveys, focus groups, or the analysis of existing data.
Surveys- a research tool that seeks to ask a certain number of carefully chosen people the
same questions individually over the phone, online, or in person.
Focus group- an assemblage of 8 to 10 carefully chosen people who are asked to discuss their
habits and opinions about one or more topics.
Analysis of existing data- a systematic investigation into the potential audience for the
material and into the competitors.
Measuring success: counting sales, conducting surveys to count audiences
Genres- major categories of media content
Entertainment- material that grabs the audiences attention and leaves agreeable feelings, as
opposed to challenging their views of themselves and the world.
SUB-GENRES of Entertainment
o Festivals
o Gaming

Drama
Comedy
school sitcoms, workplace sitcoms, buddy sitcoms
Entertainment Formulas: the family situation comedy, the hospital drama, the baseball
broadcast - combination of elements is called the formula
o Formula- a patterned approach to creating content that is characterized by the
use of setting, typical characters, and patterns of action.
o setting: environment, typical characters- those who appear regularly in the
subgenre, patterns of action- the predictable activities associated with the
characters in the settings.
Hybrid genres- a term used by some academic writers to describe mixed genres
Hybridity- the process of mixing genres within a culture and across cultures
Dramedy- a subgenre that blends the rules associated with drama and comedy
o
o

NEWS

Journalists: people who are trained to report nonfiction to an audience

Hard news: a news story marked by timeliness, unusualness, conflict, and closeness
Soft News: stories that may not have critical importance but nevertheless would appeal to a
large audience
Editorial: subgenre of news that concentrates on an individuals or an organizations point of
view
Investigative Report: in depth explorations of some aspects of reality
Objectivity- impartial representation of events that have taken place. No interpretation
HARD NEWS
timeliness, unusualness, conflict, closeness of the incident
OBJECTIVITY: fair, balanced, impartial representation of events
written in inverted pyramid:
recounting the entire story concisely giving increasingly specific info supporting quotes
additional peripheral
an objective story told in third person, reporting two sides of the conflict, use quotes from 2
sources
Objectivity in TV NEWS:
title on screen. equal time to both sides, film like height of a normal person,
INVESTIGATIVE REPORTS:
traditionally have longer deadlines
seek to uncover corruption in government or business, resembles detective story
EDITORIALS
Columnists- individuals who are paid to write editorials on a regular basis
Blogs- journalistic websites or opinion sites in which writings are in the style of journal entries,
often in reverse chronological order
SOFT NEWS
human interest stories, considered to lack critical importance but appeal to larger audiences
Information- raw material that journalists use when they create news stories.
Education- content that is purposefully crafted to teach people specific ideas about what the
world in specific ways.

Advertisement- a message that explicitly aims to direct favorable attention to certain goods and
services.
Product placement- the process by which a manufacturer paysoften tend of
thousands of dollarsa production company for the opportunity to have its product
displayed in a movie or TV show.
Informational ads- ads that rely on the recitation of facts about a product and its features to
convince target consumers that it is right for them to purchase
Hard-sell ads- messages that combine information about the product with intense attempts to
get the consumer to purchase it as soon as possible.
Soft-sell ads- ads that aim mostly to create good feelings about the product or service by
associating it with music, personalities, or events that the creators of that product or service feel
would appeal to the target audience.
5 Primary Business Activities
Production: creating the content
Distribution: circulating the materials to exhibitors
Exhibition:
Audience Research
Finance
Production
Mass media production firm- a company that creates materials for distribution through
one or more mass media vehicles.
o Administrative personnel- workers who oversee the business side of the media
organization.
o Creative personnel- individuals who get initial ideas for the material or use their
artistic talent to put the material together.
o On-staff worker- a worker who has secured a full time position at a production
firm.
o Free-lancers- workers who make a living by accepting and completing
assignments for a number of different companiessometimes several at one
time.
o Talent guild- a union formed by people who work in similar crafts to help
negotiate rules with major production firms in their industries regarding the ways
in which freelance creatives will be treated and paid.
Collaborative activity- an activity in which many people work together to initiate, create,
and polish the end material.
Schedule- the pattern in which the programs are arranged and presented to the
audience.
Format- the rules that guide the flow of products that are put together with a particular
audience-attracting goal in mind; a formula that describes a particular media product.
Distribution
Distribution- the delivery of the produced material to the point where it will be shown to

its intended audience.

Powerful distributor- a firm that can ensure the media products it carries will end up in
the best locations at the best exhibitions to the best audience.

Exhibition
Exhibition- the activity of presenting mass media materials to audiences for viewing or
purchase.
Shelf space- the amount of area or time available for presenting products to consumers.
Trade incentives- payments in cash, discounts, or publicity activities that provide
special reason for an exhibitor to highlight a product.
Cooperative advertising- advertising paid for in part by media production firms or their
distributors in order to help the exhibitor promote the product
Vertical integration- an organizations control over a media product from production
through distribution to exhibition.
Financing
Taking out loans
o Loan- money borrowed from an organization, usually a bank, for a certain price
(a percentage of the loan called an interest rate).
o Investment banks- companies that arrange to lead millions, evens tens and
hundreds of millions, of dollars to companies and that also arrange stock
offerings.
o Syndicate- a group of banks that agree to share the risks and rewards of the
lending deal, organized by investment banks when very large amounts of money
are required.
Encouraging investments
o Stock offerings- selling units of ownership in the company, or shares of stock, to
organizations and individuals.
o Venture capitalists- individuals or companies that invest in startup or nonpublic
firms in the hope that the firms value will increase over time.
o Initial public offering (IPO)- the offering for sale to the general public of a
predetermined number of shares of company stock that were previously owned
by a limited number of individuals and the listing of the companys shares on the
stock exchange.
After production:
o Profits- the amount of money brought in by the completed products (the
revenues) minus expenses.
Direct sales, license fees, rentals, usage fee, subscriptions, advertising
Retransmission fee- amount a cable system or satellite firm pays to a
broadcaster for the right to pick the broadcasters signal off the air and
send it to cable or satellite subscribers.
o Government regulation- a wide variety of activities and laws through which
elected and appointed officials at local, state, and federal levels exercise
influence over media firms.

Chapter 4: Financing and Shaping the Media

Advertising, Public Relations, and Marketing Communications

Americans pay $218 billion on media content and services (2010)
Firms spend about $370 to support media content/services we receive
includes Advertising: company support of media we see
Public Relations too: unannounced insertion of products or ideas into media materials
Advertising
is the activity of explicitly paying for media space or time in order to direct favorable attention to
certain goods and services
agency holding companies: umbrella firms that own two or more ad agencies, plus research
firms, public relations consultancies, or other organizations that contribute to the business of
selling products, services, or ideas
things ad agencies do:
business to business agencies versus consumer agencies
general agencies versus specialty agencies
traditional agencies versus direct-marketing agencies
agency networks versus stand-alone firms
AD AGENCIES
Business to business agencies
advertising agencies that carry out work for companies that are interested in persuading
personnel in other companies to buy from them instead of from their competitors
Consumer agencies:
advertising agencies that carry out work for advertisers that want to persuade people in their
nonwork roles to buy products
General Agency vs Specialty Ad Agency (ex: internet agency):
invites business from all types of advertisers vs. tackling only a certain type of client
direct-to-consumer: type of ad used most effectively by the pharmaceutical industry which
presents a prescription drug as a medial solution and encourage viewers to ask their physician
to order the medicine if appropriate
Traditional Ad Agency:
creates and distributes persuasive messages with the aim of creating a favorable impression of
the product in the minds of target consumers that will lead them to buy it in stores
Direct-marketing agencies:
agencies that focus on consumer mailings, telephone marketing, TV commercials, and other
appeals to target audiences so as to elicit purchases right then and there
Agency Networks
Advertising agencies with branch offices in a number of different cities worldwide (work for
Procter & Gamble)
Three Basic Functions of Ad Work
creative persuasion
set of imaginative activities involving production and creation of ads
market research
research whose end goal is gathering info that will help an organization sell more products or
services
media planning and buying
purchasing media space/time on strategically selected outlets that are deemed best suited to
carry a clients ad message

Production in Ad Agency
Account executive: assigned to move info between advertiser and agency as well as
make sure all production, distribution, and exhibition activities take place as planned
creatives: people whose work relates directly to creation of firms media materials
Market segmentation: dividing society into different categories of consumers
branding: creating a specific image of a product that makes it stand out in the market
place

Distribution of Ad content
becoming easier with technology, but harder bc of fragmentation
media planners: agency personnel who make decisions about where to place advertisements
psychographic data: info that links demographic categories to the personality characteristics of
an audience
media plan: list of media outlets in which companies advertise their products
in-store media print/audiovisual ads that people see in retail spaces
Cost per thousand: CPM: basic measurement of advertising efficiency in all media
Exhibition in the Ad Industry
ad campaign: entire set of advertisements using a particular theme to promote a certain
product for a certain period of time
trying to track customers across media
location based advertising: process of sending commercial messages to people based on
their geographic location
Determining an Ads Success
not just on how many people bought the product - also based on visibility of the ad
Public Relations
Publicity is the practice of getting companies, people, or products mentioned in the news and
entertainment media in order to get people interested in them
PR involves information, activities, and policies by which corporations and other organizations
seek to create attitudes favorable to themselves and their work, and to counter adverse
attitudes
Media relations: all dealings with reporters and other members of media organizations who
might tell a story about a client
Big Four; the largest agency holding companies, including Omnicom, WPP, Interpublic, and
Publicis
Areas of PR: Corporate communications, financial comm, health care, public affairs, crisis
management
publicity outlet: a media vehicle that has been in the past been open to input from public
relations practitioners
Exhibition in the PR Industry
information subsidies: time and money that PR people provide media practitioners that helps
the latter get their work done

The Rise of Marketing Communications

a type of PR, the goal of which is to blend or integrate historically different ways to communicate
to an organizations various audiences and markets
Branded entertainment:
the act of linking the firm/products name with an activity that the target audience enjoys
event marketing: creating compelling circumstances that command attention in ways that are
relevant to the product or firm (mobile trailers, road shows, on college campuses)
event sponsorship: situation in which companies pay money to be associated with particular
activities that their target audiences enjoy or value: sports, concerts, charities
product placement: a firm manages to insert its brand in a positive way into a fiction or
nonfiction content
Direct Marketing
uses media vehicles created by the marketer (phone messages, email, postal mailings) to send
persuasive messages asking that the consumers who receive them respond to the marketer
Databases: lists of customers and potential customers that can be used to determine what
those people might purchase in the future
Database marketing: Practice of constructing computerized lists of customers that can be used
to determine what those people might purchase in the future. The marketer then contacts the
people on these lists with advertising or PR mesages
Relationship Marketing
involves a determination by the firm to maintain long-term contact with its customers
PR, Advertising, and Convergence
commercialism: buying and selling is a highly promoted value
hidden curriculum: a body of knowledge that people unconsciously absorb when consuming
ads
media firms can efficiently attract all sorts of marketers by offering
selectability: ability to reach an individual with entertainment, news, information, and advertising
based on knowledge of the individuals background, interests, and habits
accountability to advertisers: the ability to trace an individuals response to a particular ad
interactivity: the ability to cultivate a rapport with, as well as the loyalty of, individual customers