Methanol Safe Handling Manual Final English

METHANOL INSTITUTE
Methanol Safe Handling Manual

January, 2013
www.methanol.org
SINGAPORE
10 Anson Road #32-10 International Plaza, Singapore 079903
+65.6325.6300
WASHINGTON DC
124 South West Street, Suite 203, Alexandria, VA 22314
+01.703.248.3636
BRUSSELS
Avenue Jules Bordet, 142, 1140 Brussels, Belgium
+32.276.116.59
Table of Contents
1
Introduction to the Manual .......................................................... 1

1.1
Purpose of the Manual ......................................................................................... 1
1.2
The Methanol Value Chain ................................................................................... 1
1.3
Methanol Institute Product Stewardship Policy .................................................... 2
1.4
Methanol Institute Contact Information................................................................. 3
1.5
About the Authors ................................................................................................. 3
1.6
Disclaimer ............................................................................................................. 3
Methanol General Information .................................................... 5

2.1
What Is Methanol?................................................................................................ 5
2.2
The Methanol Life Cycle (Value Chain)................................................................ 7
2.3
2.4
Table of Contents
2.2.1
Methanol Manufacture .................................................................................... 7
2.2.2
Sustainable Production ................................................................................. 10
2.2.2.1
Recycling ............................................................................................. 10
2.2.2.2
Reuse .................................................................................................. 11
2.2.2.3
Waste Management ............................................................................ 11
Uses of Methanol................................................................................................ 11
2.3.1
Chemical Intermediates ................................................................................ 11
2.3.2
Fuel Applications........................................................................................... 12
2.3.3
Biodiesel Fuel Production ............................................................................. 14
Emerging Uses of Methanol ............................................................................... 15

2.4.1
Wastewater Denitrification ............................................................................ 16
2.4.2
Direct Methanol Fuel Cells ............................................................................ 17
2.4.3
Turbine Engines ............................................................................................ 19
2.4.4
Offshore Platforms ........................................................................................ 20
2.4.5
Methanol Specifications ................................................................................ 21
Transportation and Storage of Methanol .................................. 23

3.1
3.2
Methanol Transportation..................................................................................... 23
3.1.1
Ocean-Going Transport ................................................................................ 23
3.1.2
Rail Transport................................................................................................ 24
3.1.3
Tanker Truck Transport ................................................................................ 24
Methanol Storage ............................................................................................... 24

3.2.1
Docks and Marine Terminals ........................................................................ 25
3.2.2
Tank Farms ................................................................................................... 25
3.2.3
Portable Containers (Totes and Drums) ....................................................... 25
3.2.4
Electrical Classification ................................................................................. 27
3.2.5
Grounding and Bonding ................................................................................ 27
Health and Safety...................................................................... 31

4.1
4.2
Exposure to Methanol......................................................................................... 31
4.1.1
Routine Sources of Exposure ....................................................................... 31
4.1.2
Accidental Sources of Exposure ................................................................... 32
4.1.3
Routes of Exposure ...................................................................................... 33
4.1.4
Methanol Metabolism .................................................................................... 33
4.1.5
Effects of Exposure ....................................................................................... 34
4.1.5.1
General Symptoms.............................................................................. 34
4.1.5.2
Acute Effects ....................................................................................... 34
4.1.5.3
Chronic Effects .................................................................................... 34
Exposure Control ................................................................................................ 35

4.2.1
Engineering Controls .................................................................................... 35
4.2.1.1
4.3
4.4
4.2.2
Exposure Monitoring ..................................................................................... 36
4.2.3
Personal Protective Equipment..................................................................... 37
4.2.4
Respiratory Protection .................................................................................. 37
4.2.5
Chemical-Resistant Clothing/Materials ......................................................... 37
Safety Precautions ............................................................................................. 38

4.3.1
Routine Operations ....................................................................................... 38
4.3.2
Special or High Hazard Operations .............................................................. 39
4.3.2.1
Confined Space Entry ......................................................................... 39
4.3.2.2
Hot Work.............................................................................................. 39
First Aid Measures.............................................................................................. 40

4.4.1
ii
Ventilation ............................................................................................ 35
Inhalation....................................................................................................... 40
Table of Contents
4.4.2
Skin Contact.................................................................................................. 40
4.4.3
Eye Contact................................................................................................... 40
4.4.4
Accidental Ingestion ...................................................................................... 40
Managing Methanol Safely: Process Safety............................. 41

5.1
Employee Participation ....................................................................................... 43
5.2
Process Safety Information ................................................................................ 43
5.3
Process Hazard Analysis.................................................................................... 44
5.4
Operating Procedures ........................................................................................ 44
5.5
Training............................................................................................................... 44
5.6
Contractors ......................................................................................................... 45
5.7
Pre-Startup Safety Review ................................................................................. 45
5.8
Mechanical Integrity............................................................................................ 46
5.9
Hazardous W ork Permits.................................................................................... 46
5.10
Management of Change ..................................................................................... 46
5.11
Emergency Planning and Response .................................................................. 47
5.12
Incident Investigation .......................................................................................... 47
5.13
Process Safety Audits ........................................................................................ 48
5.14
Trade Secrets ..................................................................................................... 49
5.15
Implementing Process Safety............................................................................. 49
5.15.1
What Is a Hazard? .................................................................................... 49
5.15.2
What Is a Risk? ........................................................................................ 50
5.15.3
Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment Methods ................................ 50
5.15.4
Process Hazard Assessment Documentation ............................................ 51
Fire Safety ................................................................................. 53

6.1
Fire Detection and Protection ............................................................................. 54

6.1.1
6.2
6.3
6.1.1.1
Storage Tank Safety Features ............................................................ 55
6.1.1.2
Pressure Relief Systems ..................................................................... 56
6.1.2
Heat Detection .............................................................................................. 56
6.1.3
Smoking, Vehicle Access, and Miscellaneous Ignition Sources................... 56
Fire Control ......................................................................................................... 57

6.2.1
Fire vs. Explosion.......................................................................................... 57
6.2.2
Extinguishing Materials ................................................................................. 57
Fire Ground Safety ............................................................................................. 58

6.3.1
Table of Contents
Vapor Control ................................................................................................ 55
Confined Space Fires ................................................................................... 58

iii
6.3.2
6.4
6.3.2.1
Outside Responders............................................................................ 58
6.3.2.2
Personal Protection Equipment........................................................... 58
6.3.2.3
Fire Responder Training...................................................................... 58
Methanol-Gasoline Blended Fuels Fire Safety................................................... 59

6.4.1
Properties of Methanol-Gasoline Blended Fuels .......................................... 59
6.4.2
Methanol-Gasoline Blended-Fuel Fires ........................................................ 60
6.4.3
Response to Methanol-Gasoline Blended-Fuel Fires ................................... 60
Emergency Response............................................................... 63
7.1
Spill Prevention................................................................................................... 63
7.2
Spill Response.................................................................................................... 64
7.3
Release Containment ......................................................................................... 65

7.3.1
Site Control Zones ........................................................................................ 66
7.4
Spill Cleanup and Remediation .......................................................................... 66
7.5
Spill Notification and Reporting .......................................................................... 67
7.6
Incident Investigation and Recordkeeping ......................................................... 67
7.7
Incident Command Structure.............................................................................. 67

7.7.1
Communications ........................................................................................... 68
Methanol Incidents and Safeguards ......................................... 69

8.1
iv
Fire Brigades................................................................................................. 58
Overview of Methanol Incidents ......................................................................... 69

8.1.1
Common Causes of Incidents ....................................................................... 71
8.1.2
Routine Operations and Maintenance .......................................................... 71
8.1.3
Transportation Activities................................................................................ 71
8.1.4
Pipeline Incidents .......................................................................................... 71
8.2
Key Findings ....................................................................................................... 72
8.3
Conclusions ........................................................................................................ 72
8.4
Safeguards ......................................................................................................... 73
8.4.1
Process Safety Management........................................................................ 74
8.4.2
Corrosion Prevention .................................................................................... 74
8.4.3
Hot Work Permit Program ............................................................................. 74
8.4.4
Fire Prevention and Response ..................................................................... 74
8.4.5
Employee Training ........................................................................................ 74
Table of Contents
10
Environmental Protection.......................................................... 77
9.1
Environmental Fate and Transport ..................................................................... 77
9.2
Air Emissions ...................................................................................................... 78
9.3
Groundwater Effects........................................................................................... 78
9.4
Impacts to Drinking Water .................................................................................. 79
9.5
Biological Effects ................................................................................................ 79
9.6
Climate Effects ................................................................................................... 79
9.7
Waste Treatment and Disposal .......................................................................... 80
Product Stewardship and Sustainability ................................... 81

10.1
Product Stewardship and Responsible Care ..................................................... 81
10.2
Product Stewardship Management System ....................................................... 82
10.3
Product Stewardship Practices .......................................................................... 82
10.3.1
PSP #1: Leadership and Accountability...................................................... 83
10.3.2
PSP #2: Environmental, Health, and Safety Information ............................ 83
10.3.3
PSP #3: Raw Material Selection and Procurement .................................... 84
10.3.4
PSP #4: Product Risk Assessment............................................................. 84
10.3.5
PSP #5: Product Security ........................................................................... 84
10.3.6
PSP #6: Risk Management ......................................................................... 84
10.3.7
PSP #7: Employee Training and Education................................................ 84
10.3.8
PSP #8: Selling ........................................................................................... 84
10.3.9
PSP #9: Public Concerns and Issues ......................................................... 85
10.3.10
Table of Contents
PSP #10: Performance Indicators ............................................................ 85
10.4
Responsible Distribution..................................................................................... 85
10.5
Sustainability ...................................................................................................... 86
10.5.1
A Primer on Sustainability........................................................................... 86
10.5.2
Alternative Energy....................................................................................... 87
11
Risk Communication ................................................................. 88

11.1
What Is Risk Communication? ........................................................................... 88
11.2
Why Is Risk Communication Important? ............................................................ 89
11.3
Risk Communication Basics ............................................................................... 89
11.4
Communicating Complex Technical and Scientific Information ......................... 90
11.5
Understanding the Publics Perception of Risk .................................................. 91
11.6
Earning Trust and Building Credibility ................................................................ 91
11.7
Looking for Opportunities to Get Your Message Out ......................................... 92
12
Glossary .................................................................................... 93
12.1
13
Terms, Abbreviations, and Acronyms ................................................................ 93
References .............................................................................. 109

13.1
List of References............................................................................................. 109
Process Safety Information..................................................... 115

A.1
Technology of the Process ............................................................................... 115
A.2
Equipment ........................................................................................................ 116
Properties of Methanol/Methyl Alcohol ................................... 117

B.1
B.2
Physical Properties ........................................................................................... 117

B.1.1
Solid ............................................................................................................ 117
B.1.2
Liquid .......................................................................................................... 117
B.1.3
Vapor .......................................................................................................... 119
Chemical Properties ......................................................................................... 119

B.2.1
Reactivity .................................................................................................... 119
B.2.2
Decomposition ............................................................................................ 120
B.2.3
Incompatibilities .......................................................................................... 120
B.3
Corrosivity to Metals, Alloys, Gaskets and Plastic ........................................... 120
B.4
Structure and Properties................................................................................... 123
B.5
Combustion and Ignition Properties ................................................................. 123

B.5.1
vi
Fire Extinguishing Media ............................................................................ 124
Table of Contents
B.6
Regulatory, Health, and Safety Information for Methanol ...... 125

C.1
U.S. Regulations and Codes ............................................................................ 125
C.2
International Regulations, Standards, and Guidelines ..................................... 127
C.3
Hazardous Material and Health & Safety Information ...................................... 131
Table of Contents
Thermodynamic Properties .............................................................................. 124
Database of Methanol-Related Incidents (1998-2011)........... 133

D.1
Methanol Incidents by Sector, Location, and Cause ........................................ 133
D.2
Incident Description and Reference or Source ........................................... 139
Technical Bulletins .................................................................. 149
vii
Trademarks and Attributions
Responsible Care is a registered service mark of the American Chemistry Council in the
United States and various entities in other countries.
Responsible Care is a registered trademark of the Canadian Chemical Producers

Association.
Responsible Distribution is a registered trademark of the Canadian Association of Chemical

Distributors.
viii
Table of Contents
Chapter
1
1 Introduction to the Manual
This chapter explains the purpose of the manual and provides an introduction to the methanol
value chain. The Methanol Institutes Product Stewardship policy and contact information are
also included.
1.1 Purpose of the Manual

We at the Methanol Institute intend this manual to serve as a guidance document for
methanol distributors and users like you. The purpose of the manual is to promote the safe
handling of methanol in order to protect your health and that of your co-workers, your
workplace, the environment, and your community.
You may be a wastewater treatment plant operator in India, a biodiesel plant manager in
Canada, a Health and Safety Coordinator at a formaldehyde plant in Mexico, a tanker truck
driver at a chemical distribution warehouse in Algeria, a research engineer developing a fuel
cell in New Zealand, an antifreeze production supervisor in East Siberia, or a shipping
terminal manager in China. You and your colleagues in the worldwide methanol supply chain
together speak dozens of languages and are located in practically every country in the world.
This manual is designed to be a primary resource for information on methanol specifically for
you who are responsible for its safe handling. It presents current information on methanols
properties, potential environmental and health and safety hazards, safe handling practices,
emergency response procedures, product and distribution stewardship, and risk
communication.
The manuals chapter organization and content are intended to provide you with convenient
access to practical information. Key facts and useful references are highlighted in the text.
Additional technical data, such as methanols chemical, physical, and thermodynamic
properties, can be found in the appendices. The reference section presents a list of scientific
and technical resources for more in-depth research.
For additional convenience, we have included a glossary of scientific terms and commonly
used acronyms to help you navigate through the regulatory and technical language.
In addition to the manual, we have Fact Sheets available on a number of topics related to
methanol safe handling. These include methanol use as fuel, emergency response, product
stewardship, and health effects.
1.2 The Methanol Value Chain

Methanol is a product with many useful characteristics that allow it to serve as a fuel or fuel
additive, a chemical feed stock, a solvent, a refrigerant, and a component or intermediate in
many consumer goods. Methanol is also a hazardous chemical with significant toxic,
Purpose of the Manual
M E T H A N O L
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
flammable, and reactive properties that can produce deleterious impacts on human health
and the environment when not properly handled.
Natural sources of methanol include volcanic gases, vegetation, microbes, and insects, and it
is also manufactured from a variety of inorganic and organic sources. Most methanol is
produced from natural gas in large, integrated chemical manufacturing plants located in
regions where hydrocarbon feed stocks are plentiful, such as the Persian Gulf, the
Caribbean, South America, Africa, and Russia. In China, in particular, most methanol is
produced from coal. Although methanol is consumed throughout the world, the largest users
are in regions that have high industrial development, such as W estern Europe, North
America, and Asia (Japan, China, Taiwan, and South Korea). World consumption in 2010
was an estimated 45,198,000 metric tonnes.
Due to the geographical distance between the major manufacturing centers and the principal
users, as much as 80% of the worlds annual methanol production is transported between
continents by trans-ocean shipping. Methanol is received and stored in marine terminals and
trans-shipped via truck, rail, and barge to chemical production facilities and bulk distributors,
where it is stored in tank farms and repackaged into smaller containers. Tanker trucks and
trailers complete the distribution network, delivering methanol to the wide range of final users
in the methanol value chain. More recently developed industrial uses of methanol include its
application as a denitrification agent in wastewater treatment plants and as a reagent and
solvent in biodiesel production facilities. New applications of methanol are emerging with
technological innovations, such as fuel cells for vehicles and consumer electronic products.
Methanol is amenable to recycling by removing impurities through distillation and introducing
the recovered material back into the process. W aste methanol has high-caloric value and can
be used to recover energy through thermal destructive processes that generate heat to fuel
other reactions.
1.3 Methanol Institute Product Stewardship Policy

As the global trade association for the methanol industry, product stewardship is our primary
concern.
The Methanol Institute's Product Stewardship Committee is responsible for methanol health
and safety initiatives, including product risk evaluation, exposure risks throughout the supply
chain, education, and training on proper methanol handling. The product stewardship tools
developed by the committee and its individual members will benefit the global methanol
industry. The committee will closely coordinate with other working committees to provide
maximum support to Methanol Institute initiatives.
Methanol Institute Product Stewardship Policy
M E T H A N O L
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
1.4 Methanol Institute Contact Information

The Methanol Institutes headquarters are located in Singapore, with U.S. offices near
Washington, D.C. For additional information or to find out more about the Institute and its
programs, please contact:
Mr. Gregory Dolan
Executive Director Americas/Europe
Methanol Institute
4100 North Fairfax Drive, Suite 740
Arlington, VA 22203
(703) 248-3636
gdolan@methanol.org
www.methanol.org
1.5 About the Authors

The Methanol Institutes Product Stewardship Committee commissioned the authors of the
original manual, Alliance Consulting International, with the preparation of this second edition.
They are an environmental and health and safety professional services firm based in San
Diego, California. The project team consists of Enrique Medina (MS, CIH, Environmental
specialist, editor, and project manager), and Robert R. Roberts (MS, MBA, Process
Engineering and Reliability specialist). For additional information on Alliance Consulting
International, please contact:
Mr. Enrique Medina, MS, CIH
President
Alliance Consulting International
3361 28th Street
San Diego, California 92104
(619) 297-1469
(619) 297-1023 (fax)
emedina@pulse-point.com
www.pulse-point.com
1.6 Disclaimer
As part of its commitment to methanol product stewardship, the Methanol Institute has
prepared this Manual. Our intention is to improve the awareness of safe and environmentally
sound practices for the handling of methanol throughout the global distribution chain. The
information, procedures, recommendations, and data presented in this Manual are
informational only, and the Manual is designed to provide general guidance only. The
Methanol Institute and the report authors assume no liability whatsoever with respect to the
accuracy and completeness of the information, procedures, recommendations, and data
presented in this Manual and disclaim all liability arising out of the use of such information,
procedures, recommendations, and data. All users of this Manual must still use their own
independent judgment and discretion in ensuring that they handle methanol safely and
communicate appropriately. In doing so, they must develop the specific systems that best fit
their management structure, product lines, location, and other factors that are unique to the
user. We encourage you to research the local codes and regulations that may be applicable
to the handling of flammable and hazardous materials such as methanol. This Manual is not
a substitute for applicable laws and regulations, nor does it alter the obligation of the user to
comply fully with federal, state, and local laws.
Methanol Institute Contact Information
Chapter
2
2 Methanol General Information
This chapter summarizes the character of methanol as a chemical compound, the life cycle or
value chain of methanol, and both established and emerging uses of methanol.
2.1 What Is Methanol?

Methanol is a colorless alcohol, hygroscopic and completely miscible with water, but much
lighter (specific gravity 0.8). It is a good solvent, but very toxic and extremely flammable. This
simple single-carbon alcohol is a volatile solvent and a light fuel.
Methanol, also known as methyl or wood alcohol, is a colorless organic liquid at normal
o
temperature and pressure (NTP: 72 F and 1 atm). Though correct, this description is a small
part of what a handler must know and understand in order to transport, store, and use
methanol safely.
Methanol is a remarkably useful material that means different things to different users. To
some, methanol is a fuel, to others a fuel additive, to still others a chemical feed stock, a
solvent, a refrigerant, or a component of antifreeze. Emerging applications of methanol
include its use as a source of protons for direct methanol fuel cell technology and as a turbine
fuel for electric power generation.
The particular hazards of methanol that matter most to your facility depend in large part on
how methanol is received and stored, how it is used, where it is used, and how much is
stored and used at any given time. Failure to control hazards associated with a small amount
of methanol can be problematic with virtually no consequence; loss of control of a large
quantity can be catastrophic. Section 2 of this manual provides an overall view of methanol
for both large and small quantity handlers, transporters, and users.
Five overriding considerations are important when handling methanol:
1. Methanol is a flammable, easily ignited liquid that burns and sometimes explodes in
air.
2. The molecular weight of methanol vapor is marginally greater (denser) than that of air
(32 versus 28 grams per mole). As a result, and depending on the circumstances of a
release or spill, methanol liquid will pool and vapor may migrate near the ground and
collect in confined spaces and low-lying areas. It is expected that methanol vapor,
being near neutral buoyancy, will dissipate readily from ventilated locations. Do not
expect it to dissipate from non-ventilated locations such as sewers and enclosed
spaces. If ignited, methanol vapor can flash back to its source.
3. In certain specific circumstances, methanol vapor may explode rather than burn on
ignition. Methanol containers are subject to Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion
(BLEVE) when heated externally.
What Is Methanol?
M E T H A N O L
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
4. Methanol is a toxin; ingestion of a small amount (between one and two ounces,
approximately 30 to 60 milliliters) may cause death; lesser amounts are known to
cause irreversible blindness. Do not swallow methanol liquid, do not breathe methanol
vapor, do not walk in pooled liquid, and do not allow vapor or liquid to contact skin.
Methanol absorbs through the skin and other tissues directly into the blood stream.
5. Methanol is totally miscible in water and retains its flammability even at very high
concentrations of water. A 75v% water and 25v% methanol solution is considered to
be a flammable liquid. This has important consequences for firefighting. 1 Methanol is
a chemical solvent, which has important implications for materials selection and also
for firefighting.
The methanol molecule contains a single carbon, and is thereby the simplest alcohol that can
be derived from normal, saturated hydrocarbons namely, methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6),
and propane (C3H8). The two- and three-carbon-derived alcohols are ethanol and propanol,
respectively. The chemical names for alcohols come from the names of the corresponding
hydrocarbon groups. Accepted naming convention drops the -e ending and adds -ol.
Common alcohols methanol (CH3OH), ethanol (C2H5OH), and propanol (C3H5OH) have
similar physical and chemical properties, but very different toxicity hazards. As the number of
carbon atoms in alcohol molecules increases, the length of the straight carbon chain
increases, the molecular weight of the alcohol molecule increases, freezing point temperature
decreases, and boiling point temperature increases.
Figure 1. Methanol CH3OH

Alcohols are structurally similar to water. Some properties of alcohols, specifically of
methanol, resemble properties of water. Both water and methanol are polar molecules. Table
1 lists the structural formulas, systematic names, common names, and solid melting and
boiling point temperatures for three representative alcohols.
Table 1. Three Representative Alkane-Derived Alcohols
Molecular
Structure
CH3OH
Systematic
Name
Methanol
Common
Name
Methyl alcohol;
wood alcohol 2
Liquid Freezing
Point
-144F (-97C)
Liquid Boiling
Point
149F (65C)
Refer to Methanol Institute Safe Handling Technical Bulletin Using Physical and Chemical Properties
to Manage Flammable Liquid Hazards: Parts 1A, 1B, 2 and 3.
2
Prior to 1926, methanol was referred to as wood alcohol. During this period, methanol was produced
by destructive distillation of wood.
What Is Methanol?
M E T H A N O L
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
CH3CH2OH
Ethanol
Ethyl alcohol;
grain alcohol 3
-175F (-115C)
172.4F (78C)
(CH3)2CHOH
2-Propanol
(Isopropanol)
Isopropyl
alcohol
-194.8F (-126C)
206.6F (97C)
If mishandled, methanol poses hazards to life safety. It is flammable, toxic, reactive with alkali
metals and strong oxidants, and 100% miscible in water. These properties necessitate
specific measures in handling and storage, as discussed in more detail in future sections.
2.2 The Methanol Life Cycle (Value Chain)

Methanol is produced, stored, and shipped in enormous quantities. As a result of the worldwide economic downturn, supply and demand have remained more or less flat; however, a
number of large plants have been constructed and brought online in late 2009 and the first
quarter of 2010, which has added 4.0 million tonnes of natural-gas-derived methanol.
Table 2. Summary of Estimated Global Methanol Capacity Additions in 2010 (Excluding
China) in Tonnes per Year
Region
Import
Added
Capacity
Total
Capacity
Production
Export
Caribbean
8,153
7,541
7012
Middle East/Persian
Gulf (Brunei=0.9;
Egypt=1.3;
Oman=1.0)
3.2
8,063.2
7,759.2
5,931.2
South America (Chile

& Argentina;
Venezuela=0.9)
0.9
4,281
3,567
3,332
Africa
1758
1475
1447
New Zealand
530
404
267
North America (U.S.

& Canada)
7,112
1,715
1,606
514
Western Europe
8,062
3,310
3,176
3,119
Asia (Japan, China,

Taiwan, & S. Korea)
5,427
9,931
7,623
206
2.2.1 Methanol Manufacture

Methanol producers are typically located in regions of the world that produce an excess of
natural gas, areas that mine large amounts of coal, and/or industrialized countries that can
access natural gas in large quantity at relatively low shipping cost. Natural gas supplies are
Grain alcohol, or ethanol, is produced by fermentation of grain. Typically, small amounts of methanol
are produced along with ethanol. Because methanol is a potent poison, it is necessary to separate the
methanol before consuming the ethanol.
The Methanol Life Cycle (Value Chain)
M E T H A N O L
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
increasing as a result of new drilling and hydro-fracturing technology, which allow

development of previously unrecognized low-cost reserves. These additional reserves, when
added to conventional reserves, are creating a shift in the availability of natural gas. This has
resulted in construction of gas to liquid processing plants in Asia and the Middle East. In the
United Arab Emirates, the liquid product is a high grade of kerosene, which is being used as
a replacement for petroleum-derived jet fuel.
Another market trend is caused by the cost of manufacturing methanol from natural gas
versus other sources such as coal. Because it is less expensive to manufacture methanol
from gas than from coal, high-cost coal-to-methanol producers are curtailing production,
particularly in China, in order to take advantage of lower-cost imported methanol (Saudi
Arabia, New Zealand, Malaysia, and Indonesia).
As Table 2 shows, more regions export than import, and production lags behind capacity.
Prior to the recent economic downturn, North America exported about 33% of what it
produced. Consumption was something over 8 million tonnes in 2006, but dropped
substantially by 2010. W estern Europe exports most of its production; consumption was
about 5 million tonnes but has also decreased. Consumption in Western Europe and North
America has decreased as a result of the slowdown in new construction and production of
automobiles. The Caribbean, the Persian Gulf, South America, and Africa are net exporters,
with the majority coming from the Caribbean and the Persian Gulf regions. In 2007, China
became the worlds largest producer and consumer of methanol, with annual average
demand of around 10 million tonnes. This appears to mark a turning point in global supply
and demand. It also marks a point at which the price of methanol began closely tracking the
cost of crude oil. At $310/tonne, the price of methanol is approximately equivalent to the cost
of crude at $80/bbl of oil equivalent.
M E T H A N O L
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
Table 3: MMSA Global Methanol Supply and Demand Balance, 2005-2010E

www.methanolmsa.com
2005
2006
2007
Name plate capacity
43,349
46,061
Adjustments
--
Total capacity
AAGR
05-10E
2008
2009
2010E
52,089
59,117
65,475
73,104
--
--
--
--
(1,250)
43,349
46,061
52,089
59,117
65,475
71,854
Macro operating rate
82.5%
78.7%
74.9%
68.1%
64.3%
62.9%
Production
35,773
36,267
39,034
40276
42,106
45,198
4.8
Imports
18,943
19,387
19,279
20,231
22,503
22,331
3.3
Total supply
54,716
55,654
58,313
60,507
64,609
67,528
Formaldehyde
13,714
14,481
15,086
15,160
14,193
14,800
1.5
Acetic Acid
3,588
3,849
4,003
4,278
4,244
4,585
5.0
Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether

(MTBE)
8,671
7,056
7,094
7,001
6,738
6,943
-4.3
Methyl Methacrylate
1,201
1,249
1,329
1,328
1,261
1,322
1.9
Dimethyl terephthalate
(DMT)
603
537
488
487
467
468
-4.9
Methanethiol (Methyl
Mercaptan)
373
394
416
432
425
439
3.3
Methylamines
1,065
1,099
1,140
1,167
1,132
1,201
2.4
Methyl Chloride
(Chloromethane)
1,525
1,572
1,686
1,713
1,692
1,764
3.0
1,075
2,244
2,799
3,091
4,903
5,775
40.0
264
176
410
327
817
932
909
1,824
832
3,338
998
3,428
30.5
81.2
Fuel cells
10
0.5
Methanol-to-Olefins
302
0.0
Others
3,499
3,059
3,169
3,038
2,834
3,167
-2
Total
35,759
55,673
58,251
40,445
42,072
45,198
4.8
Exports
18,943
19,387
19,279
20,231
22,503
22,331
3.3
Total country demand
54,701
55,673
58,251
60,676
64,575
67,528
Net
14
(19)
62
(168)
34
--
Methanol supply
11.0
10.6
Methanol demand
Alternative fuels
Gasoline blending &
combustion
Biodiesel
DME
The global methanol market in 2010 and the foreseeable future will likely be driven by supply
and demand in China as Chinas high-cost, coal-based sources go offline, and by energyrelated applications in the transportation sector and the power sector. Methanol is
M E T H A N O L
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experiencing increased application as a replacement for gasoline in China in taxis and public
transportation such as buses. This is beginning to occur also for personal automobiles,
though more slowly.
Demand for fuel oxygenates such as Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (MTBE) and TAME remains
flat, as does demand for formaldehyde and acetic acid. Increases in demand appear to be
coming from increased use of methanol as a gasoline replacement, for biodiesel, and for
Dimethyl Ether (DME), a liquid fuel similar to Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG).
Increased demand for DME is most likely due to use in the power generation sector, use as a
blend material with LPG, and use as an alternative to diesel fuel.
Originally, methanol was produced by destructive distillation of wood; it is now produced
largely from natural gas in large, integrated chemical manufacturing plants. In some regions
particularly China methanol is produced from the gasification of coal. Because of the
western worlds dependence on hydrocarbon fuels, and manufacture of derivative products,
methanol is produced in regions where feedstock is plentiful (Persian Gulf, the Caribbean,
South America, Africa, and New Zealand). Methanol is consumed in regions that have a high
level of industrial development. By contrast, methanol fuel and fuel additives are in high
demand in regions with developing economies. North America, Western Europe, and a
handful of Asian countries (Japan, China, Taiwan, and South Korea) consume methanol as
chemical feedstock, and in the case of China, as a replacement fuel. These regions
manufacture derivative products: formaldehyde, resins, methylamines, methyl chlorides,
silicones, dimethyl terephthlate (DMT), terephthalic acid (TPA), and methyl methacrylates.
Technology for production of methanol will likely continue to evolve throughout this century as
feedstocks change, low-pressure and low-temperature catalysts improve, applications for
methanol change, and market demand increases. Continued technological improvements are
expected in catalyst efficiency and catalyst tolerance of feed stream impurities. Improved
catalysts may increase the variety of feed materials that can be used to manufacture
methanol, and lower manufacturing process energy requirements.
2.2.2 Sustainable Production

Sustainable production of methanol derives from three specific chemical characteristics:
1. Methanol comprises the widely abundant and almost ubiquitous methyl and hydroxyl
groups.
2. Methanol is chemically simple, and is readily synthesized from a variety of carboncontaining materials, though production from some of these materials is more
expensive than from others, such as natural gas.
3. Methanol is a fundamental building block for a wide variety of useful materials: fuels,
glues, plastics, solvents, antifreeze, and others.
In small amounts and low concentrations, methanol is a naturally occurring material. It is a
natural byproduct of most bacterial-driven bio-decomposition cycles. Chemical plants have
the ability to replicate and accelerate these natural processes. As a result, methanol, or more
appropriately, bio-methanol, can be manufactured from natural materials even more easily
and efficiently than ethanol, the next-larger alcohol molecule, and from less-expensive nonfood-stuff feedstock.
2.2.2.1 Recycling
Methanol is an eminently recyclable material. As a solvent, it can be readily separated from
contaminates by distillation. Similarly, excess reactant can be recovered at the end of a
process, refined, and recycled back into the process.
10
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2.2.2.2 Reuse
Because methanol is a basic building block in a large number of chemically complex
materials such as plastics, it can be recovered from these materials by chemically destructive
processes, which decompose complex inorganic molecules into their simple components.
2.2.2.3 Waste Management
Methanol is a commonly used solvent in many organic reactions, and the resulting spent
methanol is considered a hazardous waste in the United States. Distillation of the spent
solvent to recover methanol for recycling is a standard process. However, some
contaminants may be too difficult, hazardous, or expensive to remove. In such cases, spent
methanol waste may find use as secondary fuel for energy recovery.
In the future, new processes with new catalysts will be used for recovery of waste organic
materials. As with the de-nitrification application in sewage water treatment plants, described
in a subsequent section, methanol will be used to reduce waste from existing processes and
reuse waste from other waste streams.
2.3 Uses of Methanol

Methanol markets have changed during the course of the past 15 years as usage and
demand patterns are continuing to shift. Evolving global economic, energy, and
environmental realities will continue to drive the methanol market in the foreseeable future.
During the first quarter of 2008, crude oil prices spiked over $140 U.S. per barrel. At the same
time, natural gas (methane) prices (in the United States in particular) lagged behind crude oil
prices. Use of food crops to produce ethanol fuel has been blamed in part for driving supply
and demand of some staple food items. These circumstances provide an increased incentive
to use methanol as a replacement for ethanol as a direct additive to motor fuel to reduce air
emissions, and perhaps eventually as an alternate for gasoline in automobiles.
This may well become a major factor in supply and demand in both developed and
developing countries, particularly for Asia.
Other new fuel/energy applications for methanol are emerging, such as methanol-fueled
turbine engines, biodiesel, and direct methanol fuel cells. In addition, applications, such as
wastewater treatment, are using increasing quantities of methanol for denitrification.
Globally, formaldehyde manufacture has accounted for about 40% of methanol demand for
production of urea-formaldehyde and phenol-formaldehyde resins, glues, and adhesives.
These are used extensively as bonding agents in particleboard, plywood, and fibrous wood
panels. Demand for these building materials has decreased sharply due to a downturn in new
construction. At present, the distribution of methanol demand is changing radically. This is
expected to continue during the next decade.
2.3.1 Chemical Intermediates

Methanol is a basic building block for chemical synthesis and is, therefore, the starting point
for primary, secondary, and tertiary derivatives. Formaldehyde is the primary product,
followed by acetic acid. Figure 2 summarizes the role of methanol in the production of
intermediate chemical feedstock.
METHANOL
Uses of Methanol
Formaldehyde Resins
Methyl Amines
Methyl Chlorides Silicones
DMT
Methyl Methacrylates
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Acetic Acid
vinyl acetate (50% of acetic acid production)
Acetic Acid
dimethyl terephthalate/terephthalic acid
Acetic Acid
acetate esters
Acetic Acid
cellulose acetate
Acetic Acid
other acetic anhydride uses
Acetic Acid
textiles
Figure 2. Methanol as Intermediate Chemical Feedstock
2.3.2 Fuel Applications

Supplementing and eventually replacing conventional motor fuels with methanol received
widespread attention during the spikes in crude oil prices of the 1970s. In the 1980s, interest
was again generated in alternate sources of energy and specifically in alternate motor fuels.
Methanol was recognized at that time as a potential replacement for crude-oil-derived
gasoline. During the intervening years between the 1970 and the recent 2010 price spike,
various agencies and organizations have assessed the hazards, challenges, and benefits of
using methanol as a motor fuel. A study by the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) [63] concludes that methanol is a safer motor fuel than gasoline. Other studies
have concluded that hazards posed by the motoring publics use of methanol are greater than
those of gasoline. An important factor often not considered in the discussion is the proportion
of methanol used in a fuel blend. Most current blends envisioned for vehicle fuel range from
5-15% up to 70-85% methanol content, not 100% pure methanol. As methanol becomes
widely available as a motor fuel, these differences will need to be resolved.
The question of public safety when using methanol as a vehicle fuel centers on its potential
for causing vehicle fires, as compared to gasoline. According to a recent National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA) study [43], the incidence of vehicle fires in the United States
has decreased by 45% between 1980 and 2006 to the lowest level in 20 years. Vehicle fires
were identified as being responsible for 15% of all civilian deaths and 12% of all property
losses. Interestingly, only 3% of vehicle fires involved collisions, which accounted for over
half the deaths. Over half of the fires were due to vehicle component failure, such as fuel
system leaks, loose wiring connections, or cracked insulation. The type of fuel is not the main
factor in vehicle fire incidence. Proper vehicle maintenance is the best prevention against a
fire, according to the NFPA.
The automobile racing industry has considerable hands-on experience in selecting and using
motor fuels, including various fuel grade methanol, ethanol, and gasoline blends. In racing,
the most appropriate fuel depends on the type of race, and the type of race determines the
characteristics of the car. For example, prior to 2006, NASCAR engines used 110-octane
leaded gasoline, a fuel that is much different from that used in street-legal automobiles, which
use unleaded gasoline rated between 87 and 93 octane. In 2006, NASCAR switched to
SUNOCO 260 GTX gasoline as the sanctioned racing fuel. The SUNOCO fuel is unleaded,
with an octane of 99. Oxidant additives are prohibited. SUNOCO NASCAR-sanctioned fuel is
entirely petroleum-derived and operates at compression ratios of 12:1.
By comparison, Indianapolis 500 (Indy) race cars used pure methanol prior to 2006, at which
time the fuel was switched to a 90%/10% methanol/ethanol blend and then to a 98%
ethanol/2% gasoline blend in 2007. Commercially available gasoline-methanol and gasolineethanol blends range from 10% to 30% methanol or ethanol. Each fuel is selected for a
specific purpose and has advantages and disadvantages relative to other possible choices.
Methanol and, subsequently, ethanol fuels used in Indy cars have the advantage of enabling
engines to operate at extremely high compression ratios, which produces more power for a
given volume of engine displacement than a NASCAR engine. As a bonus, and contributing
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to its selection as the fuel of choice, methanol and its current replacement, ethanol, have
multiple desirable safety features:
Methanol flame is low temperature and non-luminous; therefore, methanol fires

generate substantially less radiant heat than gasoline fires, which have higher flame
temperatures and burn with luminous flames.
Because of low-radiant heat generation, methanol fires spread more slowly than
gasoline fires. Likewise, allowable approach distance is closer, so portable
extinguishers can be used more effectively to quench the fire. When using a portable
extinguisher, it is necessary to aim at the base of the flames, not at the flames
themselves.
The concentration of methanol in air necessary for combustion is approximately four
times greater than that for gasoline. Coincidentally, the vapor pressure of methanol at
a specified temperature is lower. At a predetermined temperature, methanol releases
less vapor than gasoline. In other words, methanol must be raised to a higher
temperature in order to generate vapor concentrations (> 6 v%) necessary to support
combustion in air.
Methanol vapor is near neutral buoyancy; therefore, vapors are more likely to
dissipate and less likely to flow along the ground and accumulate in low-lying areas
than those of gasoline. Nevertheless, methanol vapor is reported to sometimes
accumulate in low-lying areas.
Large methanol pool fires are best extinguished with alcohol-resistant foam; however,
small fires can be extinguished with portable extinguishers and/or water spray,
provided the volume of water is at least 4 (and preferably 5) times the volume of the
methanol pool. Secondary containment must be capable of holding a volume 4-5
times larger than that of the methanol pool.
These considerations also apply to normal transportation modes and especially to automobile
fires. In fleeing from an automobile gasoline fire, the factors of time to escape, temperature,
safe standoff distance, rate of fire propagation, and ease of flame suppression are critical life
safety considerations. This is particularly true of methanol/gasoline-blended fuels.
Considerations for tank farms and fuel terminals need to be even more detailed.
Indy racing officials elected to replace gasoline with methanol (and subsequently ethanol) to
increase life safety of drivers and pit crew. The driving public may elect to use methanol
and/or methanol blends as alternatives to gasoline. This change is anticipated to have both
pros and cons. An anticipated benefit is that driver-occupant safety will be increased. Another
potential benefit is that of reducing the already low likelihood of fuel station fires. A
disadvantage is that the complexity of responding to tanker truck, rail tanker, and fuel
distribution facility fires will increase. Responders must be better trained, better managed,
and equipped with equipment such as Alcohol-resistant Aqueous Film Foam (AR-AFFF)
foam, which is not available in all circumstances.
A recent study [49] identifies a fundamental driving force for making the change from gasoline
to methanol as the abundance of and variety of sources for obtaining methane gas. One
difficulty in making this transition is the high energy necessary to generate hydrogen gas
required for methanol synthesis using existing technology. The technical feasibility of using
methanol as a fuel was addressed by the Methanol Conversion Group [67]. A general finding
is that direct substitution of methanol for gasoline is technically feasible.
The current world crude oil supply-demand situation is requiring substantial changes in fuel
consumption, fuel formulation, and vehicle design and operation. Methanol will likely be an
important factor in that change, placing greater responsibility for acceptable standards of
product stewardship on methanol transporters, handlers, and users.
Uses of Methanol
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2.3.3 Biodiesel Fuel Production

Biodiesel is diesel fuel that has been sourced from biodegradable materials, specifically
vegetable waste, or rendered oils, rather than from petroleum distillate.
There are many reasons for making biodiesel, which range from saving money to going
green. Diesel fuel prices are continuing to increase globally, and have recently approached
$5.00 per gallon in some areas of the United States. Biodiesel allows recycling of waste
material and replacing a consumable resource with a renewable resource. It also diversifies
the fuel supply base away from solely petroleum-based fuels. Regardless of the motivation,
biodiesel production involves using neat (100% pure) alcohol, typically either methanol or
ethanol.
Biodiesel is made by reacting vegetable oils and animal fat 4 with pure methanol or 200-proof
ethanol in the presence of a sodium or potassium hydroxide catalyst. The chemical process
is called trans-esterification. The objective is to convert fat molecules in the oils into an ester,
biodiesel, and the remainder into glycerol, a byproduct that can be processed to make soap,
or disposed of as waste, depending on circumstances. Once dried, glycerol can also be
burned as fuel or potentially used as an additive in livestock feed.
When methanol is used to process bio-waste material into biodiesel, it produces a
hydrocarbon fuel with properties similar to diesel fuel. Conversion can be accomplished on
scales that range from 30-gallon capacity trash-can-sized batches, to continuous processes
operated intermittently, to continuously operated plants with capacities ranging from 4 million
to 100 million gallons (15000 to 378000 cubic meters) per year.
Typically, people using methanol to produce biodiesel in small-scale batch applications are
not trained chemists. Operators are likely unaware of the hazards and regulatory compliance
necessary to manufacture fuel safely and legally. These individuals may not be trained or
experienced in handling concentrated hazardous chemicals such as lye (sodium/potassium
hydroxide, Na/KOH) and methanol.
Operators of intermittently operated continuous processes will likely be familiar with
precautions and laws that accompany production of biodiesel, but they may or may not have
the proper equipment and procedures and training necessary for self protection and efficient
chemical handling.
Small-scale operators of continuous processes likely have access to people trained in
chemistry and chemical safety and are likely interfacing with regulatory agencies regarding
health and safety regulations, process safety, chemical reporting, and waste disposal.
Waste oil is acidic. A mixture of sodium/potassium hydroxide is added to nearly pure methanol
and mixed until conversion to sodium/potassium-methoxide, a very strong base, is complete.
The methoxide is then reacted with additional methanol and the vegetable or waste oil in a
reactor until esterification is complete. At this point, the reactor will contain two raw products: a
light-colored upper layer of methyl esters floating on top of a heavier and darker glycerol
product. Reaction products are separated by either decanting the biodiesel away
from the glycerol, or draining the glycerol away from the methyl esters.
Approximately 30% by volume of the original methanol reactant remains un-reacted and can
be recovered by vacuum distillation and recycled. After distillation, the biodiesel is waterwashed, separated from the wash water, and finally dried to obtain the finished biodiesel
product.
Emphasis is placed on using vegetable oils because animal fat spoils. Spoilage, in addition to being
unpleasant, reduces the yield of the conversion process.
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A variety of precautions must be observed:
Methanol must be stored in a dedicated location, where it is protected from heat and
ignition sources. All electrical systems must be fully enclosed and explosion proof. In
order to prevent the methanol from absorbing moisture, it must be stored in a sealed
container. If the container is sealed, there should be an allowance for thermal
expansion; otherwise, large changes in temperature may cause the methanol to
expand and rupture the container.
Methanol must be stored in a bermed, diked or bunded, well-ventilated area, which, if
designed in accordance with NFPA 30 [45], shall be capable of containing at least
110% of the volume of the largest methanol storage tank in the contained area. Best
practice dictates considerably more than 110%. Following a leak inside the
containment area, the resulting methanol pool should be completely covered with
alcohol-resistant foam. If the containment area is adequately sized, the methanol spill
can be diluted with at least four parts water to one part methanol to reduce the risk of
fire. Insufficient freeboard within the bermed area can result in overflow of the berm
and a so-called running fire. Running fires are difficult to control.
It is desirable to preheat the waste oil prior to reaction with methoxide. This must be
done carefully to prevent oil spattering and accidental ignition when the methanol
hydroxide reactant is added.
Care must be taken in handling methanol, adding hydroxide, mixing hydroxide, and
then introducing the methoxide into the waste oil.
Temperature control throughout the process is critical to safe and efficient operation. If
the temperature rises too high, and agitation is too vigorous, then fire and/or explosion
are possible. If the temperature is too low and agitation too gentle, then the reaction
will not go to completion.
The potential for spills is consistent throughout the process. A closed reactor, whether
batch or continuous, is preferable to a reactor that is open to the atmosphere.
2.4 Emerging Uses of Methanol

Previously mentioned applications account for most of the worlds current methanol
consumption. Although consumption has leveled off during the recent world economic
downturn, methanols use is anticipated to increase due to new applications in emerging
technologies and increased demand in developing countries during the 2010 to 2020 time
frame.
Four of these new uses are discussed here:
1.
2.
3.
4.
De-nitrification of wastewater treatment plant organic-laden effluent.

Fuel in methanol-fired turbine engines.
Fuel in direct methanol fuel cells.
Natural gas hydrate inhibition and mitigation in intermediate and deep-water offshore
hydrocarbon production.
The current spike in the price of fuels is forcing drivers to alter driving habits and change fuels
and/or vehicles to cope with rising fuel costs. It is likely that additional pressure will be placed
on developing alternate modes of transportation and power sources, including fuel cells and
methanol-fired turbine engines.
Emerging Uses of Methanol
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2.4.1 Wastewater Denitrification

Wastewater effluent from municipal waste treatment plants characteristically contains high
levels of nitrogen in the form of nitrates and ammoniated compounds (NH3 anhydrous
ammonia, NH4OH ammonium hydroxide, etc.). Nitrogen is an excellent fertilizer, which
enhances plant growth in soils and water. Overactive plant growth may damage ecosystems
if the effluent is released into natural waters, such as streams, rivers, lakes, and even the
ocean. Methanol denitrification is a simple, effective, and comparatively inexpensive method
of removing excess nitrogen and inhibiting plant growth.
In the broadest sense, denitrification is removal of nitrogen and nitrogen compounds from soil
and water media. The intent is to reduce the amount of fertilizer available to plant life, and
thereby slow the growth rate of algae. This is necessary in circumstances in which a body of
water is receiving a combination of excess organic and nitrogen nutrients. In this situation,
plant growth may become excessive to the point of depleting dissolved oxygen below the
threshold concentration necessary to support water column ecology. The environmental
effects may be devastating.
Denitrification is a natural process, which occurs within surface water, ground water, and near
surface soils. W ithin the context of wastewater effluent conditioning, denitrification is a liquid
phase biochemical reduction reaction which is facilitated by the presence of methanol. Under
anaerobic (oxygen free) conditions, microorganisms such as bacteria convert nitrogencontaining compounds, (for example, ammonium (NH4 -), ammonia (NH3), nitrates (NO3 -1),
nitrites (NO2-1), and proteinaceous organic nitrogen) into elemental nitrogen (N2). The overall
chemical reaction is
-1
6 NO3 + 5 CH3OH(l) 5 CO2(g) + 3 N2(g) + 7 H2O(l) + 6 OH
-1
(l).
Elemental nitrogen atoms combine and form a gas (N2(g)) which escapes into the atmosphere,
thereby reducing availability of nitrogen within the wastewater discharge. Limiting the amount
of nitrogen available as fertilizer slows down plant growth. Oxygen uptake likewise
decreases, and dissolved oxygen becomes more available throughout the water column.
If the effluent is left untreated, the contained organic material combines with oxygen, thereby
depleting dissolved oxygen within the natural waters that receive the effluent. Without
sufficient oxygen, aquatic animal life suffocates and dies. In short, methanol is added to
wastewater plant effluent to preserve wildlife ecology and protect the environment.
The metabolic energy necessary for microorganisms to break the nitrogen-oxygen chemical
bond can be obtained from a carbon-containing biodegradable substrate material, such as
methanol, or from dissolved oxygen (O2(g)). By forcing anoxic conditions, the reduction
conversion reaction is forced to occur at the nitrogen-oxygen bond, rather than the oxygenoxygen bond, thus purging nitrogen and preserving oxygen within the system.
Presence of excessive quantities of nitrogen compounds enhances growth of algae and other
water plants, and essentially cokes even large bodies of water with nitrogen-fertilized plant
material. The issue of excessive plant growth upsetting waterway ecology can become so
severe, even in large bodies of water, that waste treatment plant effluent is a U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulated discharge. Addition of methanol, a watersoluble biodegradable liquid, at process plant denitrifying filters, can provide a well-dispersed
form of solubilized carbon, which is used by a host of organisms to denitrify the effluent.
Hundreds of waste treatment plants are currently using denitrification to meet increasingly
stringent EPA regulatory limits for nitrogen in waste treatment plant effluent with excellent
results. This can be done at significantly lower cost than some alternative technologies.
Over 200 wastewater treatment plants in the United States alone are currently using
methanol for denitrification. One of these, the Blue Plains Wastewater Treatment Facility in
Washington D.C., has been able to reduce the amount of nitrates entering Chesapeake Bay
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from 20 tons per day to 10 tons per day, with a resulting 30% decrease in nitrogen levels
within the Bay. This has been accomplished at a cost of U.S. $0.50 to $0.60 per pound of
nitrogen removed, which is 12% of previously reported costs.
2.4.2 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells

At present, there are about a dozen fuel cell technologies. Direct methanol fuel cells are
discussed here because they constitute an emerging technology that uses methanol as fuel.
(2.3.2-1 to 2.3.2-5)
Direct methanol fuel cells are electrochemical cells, which produce electricity and function
somewhat like conventional lead acid car batteries, but with exotic catalysts, special
materials, advanced technology, and slightly elevated temperature and pressure operating
conditions.
Direct methanol fuel cells function in a manner similar to, but distinct from, that of a lead acid
battery. They use a polymer membrane instead of an aqueous electrolyte. The membrane
+
serves the purpose of an electrolyte and transfers hydrogen ions (H ) or protons, produced at
the anode to the surface of the cathode. In direct methanol fuel cells, hydrogen ions are
generated by direct oxidation of methanol (CH3OH) at a catalyzed anode. The oxidation
reaction generates hydrogen ions, which diffuse through the membrane to the cathode.
Electrons from the anodic oxidation reaction circulate through an external electrical circuit as
current, and carbon dioxide (CO2) is generated at the anode as a gaseous waste product.
Oxidation-reduction reactions necessary to generate hydrogen ions at the anode and water at
the cathode occur in the vapor or liquid phase, depending on cell design. A mixture of steam
and methanol is injected under pressure and at elevated temperature into the anode
compartment. An anode with a highly specialized catalytic coating enhances the kinetics of a
direct chemical reaction, which breaks the carbon-hydrogen bonds of methanol molecules
into hydrogen ions, and re-combines carbon with oxygen in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2).
A solid polymer membrane transports hydrogen ions generated at the anode to the cathode.
The cathode, also a pressurized gas chamber, contains compressed air. Oxygen within the
air reacts with the hydrogen ions on the catalyzed surface of the cathode to complete the
reduction portion of the reaction by forming water vapor. Using highly advanced catalyst and
polymer materials a direct methanol fuel cell essentially burns methanol at the anode and
reduces hydrogen ions at the cathode, generating an electrical current and forming carbon
dioxide and water vapor.
Anode (Methanol) noble metal
catalyzed oxidation rxn:
CH3OH+H2O(steam) CO2+6H +6e
Polymer Electrolyte conveys H

(Protons) from anode to cathode:
Cathode (Oxygen as Air)
reduction rxn:
6H
6H +3/2O 2+6e 3H 2O
Methanol fuel is an easily handled liquid, and the products of the oxidation-reduction reaction
are water and carbon dioxide absent NOx and SOx contaminants.
Operating temperature is between 60-130 C with a typical operating temperature near 120 C.
Operating pressure may be somewhat elevated and may be manipulated to achieve optimum
performance for a given set of conditions. Operating efficiency is expected to approach 40%.
Direct methanol fuel cells are an outgrowth of indirect fuel cells, which use hydrogen (H2) as
the fuel rather than methanol. Direct methanol cells provide several advantages compared to
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indirect fuel cells. In direct methanol fuel cells, the fuel is liquid and easily stored and
transferred. In indirect fuel cells, hydrogen is used directly or is generated by chemical stream
reforming. Storage of hydrogen gas is difficult and potentially hazardous; addition of a steam
reformer increases the complexity of the cell.
Direct methanol fuel cells and indirect cells are essentially the same, except that methanol
substitutes for hydrogen as a source of protons, and the anode of the direct methanol fuel cell
is a noble metal catalyst. Both types of cells have a polymer membrane that transfers protons
from the anode to the cathode, and both produce water as a waste material. Both cells also
generate an electrical current by an oxidation reaction which occurs at the anode. The
cathode side of the fuel cell consists of air (21 v% oxygen and 79 v% nitrogen). Hydrogen
ions diffuse through an electrolytic proton membrane and react with oxygen in the air at the
cathode to form water.
The number of direct methanol fuel cells is increasing by about 2000 units per year. Currently
there are well over 10,000 units in the field. Most of these units are less than 1.5 kW. About
three quarters of these are being used in portable applications, with the remaining quarter
being used in niche transportation applications in marine and submarine vessels, scooters,
motorbikes, and as niche units in transportation vehicles. The majority of units are installed in
North America, Europe, and Japan, although developing countries are applying this
technology at an increasing rate. W hen fully developed, consumption of methanol direct fuel
cells may be driven by consumer electronics, or possibly even as an alternative source of
power in hybrid automobiles. In the latter application, it is conceivable that both the fuel cell
and an internal combustion engine would run on methanol as fuel.
Current configurations emphasize a modular approach in which fuel cell components and
entire fuel cells are easily exchanged, and stacking multiple units satisfies power needs. An
application that appears to be growing in popularity is using direct methanol fuel cells to
charge batteries, which in turn power electronic equipment. This approach is being tested by
the military for field operation of electronics, and by Toshiba for personal electronics such as
cell phones, smart phones, laptop computers, and other portable electronic items.
Manufacturers are developing modularized component-based configurations, which can be
exchanged to replenish various cell components as they become depleted or wear out. The
International Civil Aviation Organization has approved use of DMCs to power passenger
personal devices, such as laptop computers, while on-board airplanes. Several development
companies have direct methanol fuel cells commercial productions at this time.
Hurdles to even more widespread commercialization appear to be methanol crossover from
the anode to the cathode, and the catalytic activity of the anode and cathode surface
materials. Crossover has two deleterious effects on cell performance. The first is polarization
of the cathode, which reduces effective voltage; the second is loss of fuel resulting in reduced
power capacity. A better understanding of the various factors such as pressure of oxygen on
the cathode side of the cell is ongoing and appears to be creating more favorable results.
One of the more exciting applications of fuel cell technology may be replacement of batteries
in hybrid automobiles. Regardless of whether this is done with direct or indirect methanol fuel
cells, methanol provides the advantage that a fully electric, a hybrid, or an engine-powered
vehicle could use a single fuel to power the engine and the motor. Refueling would be similar
to that for gasoline, and would serve for all types of automobiles.
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2.4.3 Turbine Engines

Stationary turbines are typically fueled with natural gas or distillate jet fuel, both of which are
products refined from crude oil. These fuels contain sulfur and nitrogen, which cause air
quality compliance issues. Air quality within the United States is regulated by the EPA under
auspices of local air quality management districts.
Within the United States, nitrogen and sulfur oxides (NOx and SOx) emissions from fixed
sources are monitored and strictly regulated to control air quality. The cost and operating
restrictions forced by these regulations are considerable. Industries that use substantial
amounts of direct-fired equipment, such as heaters, furnaces, and boilers, have incentive to
find alternate ways of obtaining process heat and electrical power without incurring penalties
associated with fuel contaminates and polluting oxides.
Low NO x burners and air monitoring systems have been retrofitted to most furnaces, heaters,
and boilers within the United States. Low NO x burners may pose a safety hazard if the
replacement burners are upsized to increase heating capacity of direct-fired equipment.
Turbine users and manufacturers began investigating combustion technology, which could
replace natural gas and distillate fuels with methanol, as early as 1971. Methanol contains no
sulfur or nitrogen and burns at a lower temperature, thereby substantially improving stack gas
air quality.
Air monitoring requirements for methanol-fueled turbines are less than those for natural gas
and distillate fueled turbines. Air quality control has become an increasingly expensive
operating issue as air quality standards have become increasingly more stringent. There are
multiple disadvantages of firing with refined hydrocarbon fuels: capital cost of monitoring
equipment, increased operating cost, cost of uncertainty and penalties associated with noncompliance, shortened mean time between failures and associated increased maintenance
cost, shortened life of turbine components, and increased lifetime cost associated with
system unavailability. Taken together, methanol may have significant economic and
operating advantages over conventional fuels.
There are technical and economic considerations in switching from natural gas or distillate to
methanol. These considerations are much the same as those associated with substituting
methanol for gasoline in internal combustion engines. Some considerations have been
successfully resolved for automobiles, which presumably can likewise be resolved for turbine
service.
As evidence of this, GE has published written indication that the use of methanol as a turbine
fuel is feasible and, in fact, offers some advantage over using natural gas and distillate fuels.
The principal technical considerations are discussed below.
Methanol has a low heating value compared to natural gas and currently used distillate
turbine fuels. A greater volume of methanol must be combusted in order to produce
the same base load output (brake horsepower) as that of natural gas or distillate fuel.
Turbine fuel storage, and transfer and combustion systems may need to be modified
to accommodate appropriately larger fuel volume. Testing indicates that turbine
operability and performance with methanol fuel is equivalent to that of natural gas and
distillate; air quality is superior.
Methanol has low lubricity. Distillate has inherent lubricity because of the nature of the
carbon-hydrogen molecules that comprise the fuel and the presence of small amounts
of sulfur. Testing is in progress on additives that will increase methanol lubricity.
Methanol has a low flash point (very low vapor pressure at low temperature), which
affects cold weather starting and operation and the need for explosion safeguards.
Cold weather starting issues can be circumvented by starting up with conventional
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fuels. The explosion issue requires modification of engine configuration. Testing is

being done for several methods of resolving the explosion issue.
Methanol liquid is electrically conductive compared to natural gas and distilled fuels.
Conductivity increases corrosion of alloys commonly used to handle natural gas and
distillate fuel. This is particularly true for aluminum and titanium alloys. Additives are
being tested to inhibit corrosion. Alternatively, commonly used materials may be
replaced with more corrosion-resistant materials. Aluminum and titanium alloys should
not be used in methanol or methanol vapor service without a rigorous mechanical
integrity program.
Methanol is a solvent, which attacks some plastics, resins, and fiberglass compounds.
A variety of compatible materials are available to replace incompatible materials.
Special care must be taken in selection and storage of gaskets, O rings, and other
parts that prevent leakage.
Methanol absorbs water from the atmosphere. Unlike gasoline, neat methanol and
gasoline-methanol blend fuels absorb moisture from the air. Moisture absorbed by
neat methanol is fully miscible, and is retained as a single phase that does not affect
combustion. Moisture absorbed by gasoline-methanol blends forms an immiscible
phase, which sinks, thereby accumulating in the bottom of tanks and piping low spots.
If the amount of water is small, presence of an immiscible phase has little or no effect
on the combustion properties of the blended fuel. Large amounts of water-phase
material interfere with combustion, and in extreme circumstances may result in
flameout.
2.4.4 Offshore Platforms

Wellhead crude and natural gas products consist of a mixture of hydrocarbon and water. The
water is derived from down-hole hydrocarbon bearing strata. So-called Produced Water is
water consisting of formation water, injection water, and condensed water vapor. It also
includes trace amounts of chemical additives, which perform a variety of functions, such as
inhibiting hydrate formation, capturing water vapor, preventing scale formation, controlling
corrosion, preventing bacteria growth, breaking and coagulating oil water emulsions,
preventing foaming, and removing deposited paraffin. Hydrate and dehydration additives are
used primarily in production of natural gas; however, they are also used in crude production
when hydrocarbon is accompanied by large amounts of associated gas and water.
In general the amount of produced water increases throughout the life of a well, and the
amount of hydrocarbon decreases. In this circumstance, the likelihood of hydrate formation
increases, and risks associated with hydrates increase, as wellhead yield becomes less. As a
result, gas wells are usually shut down at the onset of substantial amounts of water. Effective
use of methanol can reduce hydrate risk, thereby extending well production life. This is
typically an economic decision based on the break-even point of product revenue and the
cost of hydrocarbon production, including increased amounts of methanol inhibitor.
Costs associated with treatment of produced water are a small percentage of the overall cost
of natural gas production. However, incorrect or inadequate treatment may compromise
equipment performance, thereby increasing operating cost. Likewise, mean time between
equipment failure is decreased by exposure to untreated wellhead product, with resulting
increases in maintenance cost and shortening of equipment service life. The above is
particularly relevant to formation of natural gas hydrate or clathrate in subsea natural gas
piping, valves, and equipment.
Methane hydrate, methane clathrate, hydro-methane, methane ice, fire ice, and natural gas
hydrate are synonyms for a solid clathrate compound that traps a large amount of methane
within its crystal structure of frozen water, thereby forming a porous ice-like solid. A typical
composition of methane clathrate hydrate is 1 mole of methane for every 5.75 moles of water
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at an observed density of 0.9 g/cm . One liter of methane clathrate contains 168 liters of
methane gas at standard temperature and pressure. Clathrates contain sufficient amounts of
methane to ignite and burn in air, hence the name fire ice.
At high pressure and moderate temperature, hydrate forms a solid which adheres to the
inside surfaces of piping and equipment. If hydrate formation is not mitigated, then undersea
gathering lines and flow transfer lines may plug and interrupt fluid flow. Chunks of hydrate
that break away from pipe walls may mobilize in the fluid stream thereby interfering with
production, damaging equipment, and in extreme cases causing catastrophic piping failure.
Piping failure may necessitate blocking in the wellhead, loss of product, and release of
hydrocarbon directly into the water column.
Hydrate formation can be controlled mechanically with thermal insulation and heat tracing to
avoid temperature conditions necessary for hydrate formation, and by chemical means where
the freezing point is lowered below minimum operating temperature.
Chemical hydrate inhibitors serve the same function as antifreeze in an automobile engine
cooling system. Addition of ethylene glycol (and more commonly methanol) at the wellhead
and, in some cases, in the well lowers the freezing temperature of water, thereby preventing
formation of the clathrate structure. Methanol is most frequently the preferred additive due to
the higher cost of ethylene glycol. About half as much ethylene glycol is required to achieve
the same level of protection as that provided by methanol. Ethylene glycol remains in the
produced water, which facilitates recovery and reuse. About half of the methanol additive
vaporizes to the gas phase and is non-recoverable; the other half of the methanol remains
dissolved in the produced water, which facilitates recovery and recycling.
Except in warm shallow water, offshore production of natural gas requires use of either
methanol or ethylene glycol to avoid hydrate formation. Methanol is being used extensively in
Gulf Coast intermediate and deep-water production, where flow pressures may be high and
temperatures low.
2.4.5 Methanol Specifications

Additional information and specifications for methanol are available on the Internet at the
International Methanol Producers and Consumers Association (IMPCA). IMPCA members
are an excellent source of information.
21
Chapter
3
3 Transportation and Storage of Methanol
This chapter summarizes the safety issues related to methanol storage and transportation
from manufacturing centers to end users.
3.1 Methanol Transportation

Geography and demographics of the methanol market require heavy reliance on
transportation in order to move methanol product from manufacturers to consumers.
Methanol is manufactured in several regions of the world and used in other, separate regions.
Lack of proximity between manufacturing and use requires that as much as 80% of the
worlds annual methanol production is transported between continents. The safety, reliability,
and integrity of trans-ocean shipping, dockside transfer, and marine terminal storage
constitute a large portion of the potential loss exposure resulting from accidental and
unmitigated release that is borne by the methanol industry.
3.1.1 Ocean-Going Transport

Methanol is pumped from dockside storage tanks into sealed cargo holds of tanker ships.
Delivery to dockside storage may be by pipeline, barge, rail, or truck.
Trans-oceanic transport is similar to that for other hydrocarbon liquids, such as crude oil,
gasoline, diesel, and fuel additives such as MTBE. Double-hulled vessels are commonly used
by shippers, and will likely become the standard as world production increases. Special
provisions for tanker shipment are: cleanliness (to prevent contaminating the methanol),
methanol leak detection, appropriate firefighting equipment (including alcohol-resistant
foams) and pump, piping, hose, and gasket materials that are suitable for methanol service.
Accidental releases into open ocean are to be avoided, but are considered to pose less of a
threat to the environment than crude oil, bunker fuel, gasoline, or diesel fuels. Solubilization
of pure (100%) methanol in water is rapid and complete. The accompanying dilution reduces
methanol concentrations to a level that is nontoxic to marine life in less than one mile, even
for large catastrophic releases.
Methanol Transportation
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3.1.2 Rail Transport

Precautions for rail transport are much the same as those for ethanol, gasoline, MTBE, jet
fuel (kerosene), and distillate. This includes grounding for protection against static discharge.
Specially designed tanker cars are equipped with provisions for pressure relief in order to
accommodate thermal expansion during transit and short-term (less than 30 days) side-lining
during switching and temporary holding. Rail transport is considered to be safe, as long as
methanol is contained within an upright tanker car.
In the event of derailment, first responders should treat methanol as highly flammable and
highly toxic. The 2008 edition of the Emergency Response Guidebook (ERG2008) [19]
recommends an immediate isolation distance of 150 feet (50 meters) in all directions. Socalled running fires may be expected with large-volume releases. Flashback can be
expected. Running fires are particularly hazardous if allowed to flow into sewers and drains.
In the event of accidental release as a result of derailment or some other circumstance that
compromises containment, ERG2008 recommends that responders isolate and consider
evacuating in all directions from the release to a radial distance of one-half mile (800 meters).
First responders should be equipped with chemical protective clothing and a Self-Contained
Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) in the event of a spill. Turnouts are appropriate for fire
response, but not for spill response tasks that will place responders in contact with
uncontained methanol. Ignition sources must be eliminated to a distance of at least one-half
mile (800 meters).
Methanol tanker cars are known to BLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion, an
instantaneous tank failure and catastrophic release and ignition of vapor) when involved in
flames and/or when subject to high radiant heat flux.
3.1.3 Tanker Truck Transport

Comments relating to rail tank cars apply equally for tankers attached to tractor haul trucks
and for tank trailers towed by tractor haul trucks. Methanol transport by truck haulage is
subject to substantially the same precautions as are routinely exercised for gasoline
transport.
3.2 Methanol Storage

Storage of methanol is subject to substantially the same provisions as those used for
gasoline storage. Methanol is routinely stored in tank farms consisting of above-ground,
floating roof tanks and smaller, internally baffled floating baffle tanks. Tanks must be
grounded to avoid hazards associated with static discharge. Ignition control may be by
nitrogen padding, natural gas padding, or by designation of a hazard zone with ignition
control.
Because methanol is commonly stored with other solvents and feed stocks, all piping and
valves subject to carrying methanol should be consistently labeled, and direction of flow
should be indicated. All storage materials, including totes and drums, require berming and
adequate ventilation. Berming should be stabilized by compacting, by use of suitable
methanol resistant fabric, or with concrete. Because of the solvent properties of methanol,
hydrocarbon residuum, asphalt, and road oil are not suitable as berm cover/stabilization
materials.
Methanol burns with a non-luminescent flame, which may be invisible in bright sunlight.
Responders should be equipped with infrared devices that allow remote heat and relative
temperature detection. It is highly desirable to have this capability overhead in an emergency
response helicopter, if at all possible.
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3.2.1 Docks and Marine Terminals

Storage facilities at docks and marine terminals are typically floating roof tanks, dedicated to
methanol handling. Internal floating roofs are preferred to avoid contamination. Facilities may
be equipped with leak detection and alarms. Appropriate suppression and spill response
capability is important, and is likely required by insuring parties.
The larger concern is for unattended tank leaks. American Petroleum Institute codes,
standards, and recommended practices should be referenced to obtain specific information
regarding tank construction, inspection, and maintenance.
3.2.2 Tank Farms

Tank farms at facilities such as refineries and chemical plants likely have dedicated methanol
storage and handling systems. Typically, tanks are above ground, and piping is above ground
and overhead in pipe racks. In general, fire protection for gasoline tanks is sufficient for
methanol tanks, provided extra precaution is made for leak detection, toxic hazard, and
availability of alcohol-compatible fire suppression foam.
3.2.3 Portable Containers (Totes and Drums)

Totes and drums can be problematic. The methanol industry has gone to considerable lengths
to design and fabricate satisfactory totes that are easily obtainable. Because the number of
users of tote and drums far outnumbers the number of facilities with dedicated bulk storage
and handling systems, this manual stresses the importance of safe methanol
handling for tote and drum containment. It is strongly suggested that handlers consult
methanol providers concerning their selection of containment. Unlike tank farms, where
personnel seldom have direct contact, users of totes and drums are typically subject to
spillage, need for immediate response, and subsequent cleanup.
The following provisions are suggested for tote, drum, and can users:
Methanol Storage
Methanol should be purchased only from reputable sources. The Methanol Institute
provides a service to link methanol customers with methanol suppliers. Visit the MI
web site at www.methanol.org, and click on the Methanol Source Request link.
Complete and submit this online form, providing information on your methanol needs,
and your information will be shared with MI members representing the leading global
methanol producers and distributors. These suppliers will then contact you directly to
discuss price and supply.
Providers should be consulted regarding the intended application and circumstances
of use before committing to a sales contract. Many merchant chemical companies are
equipped and willing to extend their services in order to assure safe use of the
chemicals they sell.
After agreeing on facilities and provisions for receiving, storage, and local transfer,
establish and train a local response team in the actions that are necessary and
prudent in the event of a spill.
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Certain aspects of methanol handling require special provisions and protective

measures. These include the following:
As much as possible, methanol should be stored and used in a dedicated area

that is specifically marked off and appropriately labeled. This area should have
safety measures readily available to employees working in the area. The area
should be designated as a hazardous area, and protective measures should be
immediately available in the event of spillage, exposure, and ignition.
The area designated for methanol handling should be equipped with an effective
audible alarm, which will summon assistance in a timely manner.
Use positive materials identification for gaskets, filters, hose material, and similar
supplies.
Replace gaskets, hoses, and O rings periodically, before they are expected to
degrade or fail.
Ensure that procedures are in place to ground, and periodically verify grounding.
Ensure that procedures are in place to protect from water uptake and
accumulation.
Ensure that provisions and procedures are in place to prevent spilled methanol
from entering drains, manholes, and confined spaces.
Ensure that procedures and provisions are in place for preventing methanol entry
into the water table or aquifers.
Ensure that procedures and equipment are in place for personnel protection and
exposure mitigation. This should include eye wash and shower stations.
Ensure that procedures and equipment are in place for leak detection and alarm.
Ensure that procedures and equipment are in place for onsite emergency
response.
Ensure that procedures and possibly specialized equipment are in place for
offsite emergency responders.
Guidelines and considerations relating to handling and storage of methanol in small

tanks, totes, and drums are provided in the following regulatory and best practice
documents:
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S A F E
IFC Chapter 34.
NFPA 30.
OSHA CFR 49 1910.119 and other regulations pertaining to hazardous

materials.
Policies and procedures must also address safety considerations raised in a

Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP), performed prior to delivery of the first
tanker truckload, tote, or drum of methanol.
Methanex Corporations Corporate Manual: Container Filling Best Practice,

Document #CR3RC250.
ISO 9001: 2000 Quality Management Systems.
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3.2.4 Electrical Classification

Electrical equipment within the proximity of methanol storage and handling must be explosion
proof to meet National Electrical Code (NEC) requirements [42]. Positive pressure may be
required to ensure that methanol-free areas, such as smoking rooms and control systems
and electrical switch gear, are protected.
3.2.5 Grounding and Bonding

Grounding is especially important in protecting methanol from accidental ignition resulting
from static discharge. Methanol is an electrically conductive, polar compound. In general,
methanol storage is not expected to accumulate static charge. However, circumstances such
as a tank with a non-conductive liner can change the rate of charge accumulation.
It is recommended that grounding straps be equipped with carbide-tipped clamps to ensure
electrical contact through nonconductive surface coatings, such as paint. Tanks and storage
vessels should be fitted with dip-tube-filling to protect against ignition from static electricity
generated as a result of liquid falling through air.
Grounding is required for lighting systems, pipe racks, pumps, vessel, filters, and all other
equipment near and potentially within range of methanol vapor. Tall towers and other
equipment subject to lightning strike must be equipped with lightning arresters.
Hoses must be grounded. In methanol loading and unloading situations, the possibility of
spark generation due to accumulation of static electricity is less than with materials such as
low sulfur diesel. Methanol is not a static accumulator. Electrical conductivity of methanol is
relatively high when compared to that of most fuel materials. Nevertheless, velocity limits
should be placed on transfer operations that involve high pressure drop, hydraulic impacts,
and erosion concerns. Refer to API and NFPA publications for specific guidance.
Bonding is a measure intended to dissipate static electricity generated during fluid transfer
through a conductive or nonconductive material. It involves making a connection between a
grounded object and an ungrounded object. Methanol transfer operations should be bonded
and grounded.
Metal containers (drums or totes) and the associated fill equipment pump should be bonded
together and grounded during methanol transfer operations. Fill pipes or hoses should be
conductive and should be bonded to the filling system. Bonding should be done with a 1/8inch bare stainless steel cable 5 connected to a clamp with hardened steel points and screws
or a strong spring that will penetrate paint, corrosion, and accumulated materials. Apply the
bonding clamp on the top chime of drum containers prior to removing the bung. Extend the
pipe to within one inch (25 mm) of the bottom of the container. Start pouring slowly (at less
than one meter per second or a container fill rate of less than 2 inches or 5 cm of fluid level
rise per minute) until the container is filled to a level equivalent to two pipe diameters up the
side of the fill pipe.
In recent years, attention has been drawn to the hazard of using personal electronic items,
such as cell phones, laptop computers, etc., in environments subject to potentially explosive
atmospheres, e.g., gasoline stations, and fueling terminals. The energy necessary to ignite
gasoline vapors (0.2 mJ at the optimum mixture ratio for combustion) is similar to the energy
produced by static electricity and by sparks generated by low-voltage electrical devices when
they are turned on. It is not considered good practice to operate electronics such as cell
phones and laptop computers in a potentially flammable atmosphere.
A 1/4 to 3/8 flexible, bare bronze cable can be used for large grounding and bonding clamps.
Methanol Storage
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Be aware of the following:
Mobile phones can ignite fuel fumes from gasoline, ethanol, methanol, propane, and
compressed natural gas (CNG).
Mobile phones that light up when switched on or when they ring release enough
energy to provide a spark capable of igniting hydrocarbon vapors.
Mobile phones should not be used (should be turned off) in filling stations, fuel
terminals, or when filling portable containers, fueling lawn mowers, boats, etc.
Mobile phones should not be used (should be turned off) around materials that
generate flammable or explosive fumes (e.g., solvents, chemicals, gases).
The same precautions apply for laptop computers, flashlights, battery lanterns, and other
battery-operated devices that are not rated as explosion proof. As a general rule, electronic
devices should not be used within 20 feet (7 meters) of a potentially explosive atmosphere
[40]. This distance is sufficient to provide a buffer of distance between the potential source of
ignitable fumes and the device. Increase this distance to 50 feet (17 meters) for pressurized
liquid gases, such as propane.
When dispensing from a metal container, the container and the associated fill equipment,
including dip pipes, conductive hose, and pump, should be bonded together and grounded.
Plastic-lined metal containers with epoxy or phenolic coatings less than 2 mm thick can be
treated as metal containers. If the liner is more than 2 mm thick, the container should be
treated as non-conductive. When handling methanol, treat non-conductive containers as if
both the container and the methanol are non-conductive.
Plastic containers cannot be grounded and should not be used for Class I Flammable liquids,
such as methanol, without expert review, as per NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible
Liquids. If a plastic container must be used, follow the same procedure as for metal
containers.
Consult the following standards and references for additional information regarding issues
pertaining to preventing accidental ignition:
28
ASTM E681 describes a standard test method for determining flammability limits.
Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 6th Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
San Francisco, Sec. 3, pp. 256-257, 1984.
NFPA-325, Guide to Fire Hazard Properties of Flammable Liquids, Gases and
Volatile Solids, 1994.
Glassman, I., Combustion, 2nd Edition, pp. 321-313, pp. 486-489, 1987.
NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair Garages, 2008.
UFC, Article 52, Motor Vehicle Fuel-Dispensing Stations, 1997.
NEC, Chapter 5, Articles 500-504, 2008. These articles define requirements for
intrinsically safe electronic devices in Class I, Division 1, and Class 1, Division 2 area
hazardous locations.
ANSI/UL 1203 Explosion-proof and Dust-Ignition-proof Electrical Equipment for Use in
Hazardous (Classified) Locations.
ANSI/UL 913 Intrinsically Safe Apparatus and Associated Apparatus for Use in Class
I, II, and II Division 1, Hazardous Locations.
UL 1604 Electrical Equipment for Use in Class I and II, Division 2, and Class III
Hazardous (Classified) Locations.
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DOD-HDBK-263, Electrostatic Discharge Control Handbook.

IEC 60050-426:1990, IEC 60079-4:1975, IEC 60079-4A:1970, IEC 60079-20:199.
29
Chapter
4
4 Health and Safety
This chapter describes the toxicological properties of methanol; routes and symptoms of
exposure; and effective control strategies, safety precautions, and first aid measures.
4.1 Exposure to Methanol

4.1.1 Routine Sources of Exposure
Humans are exposed to methanol from many sources. Not only does methanol occur
naturally in the human body, but humans are exposed routinely to methanol through air,
water, and food. Food is the primary source of exposure for the general population. It is
generally believed that dietary sources contribute to the observed background blood
methanol concentrations. Methanol is widely found in small concentrations in the human diet
from fresh fruits, vegetables, commercial beverages like fruit juices, beers, wines, and
distilled spirits. The food additives Aspartame (an artificial sweetener) and Dimethyl
Dicarbonate (DMDC) (a yeast inhibitor used in tea beverages, sports drinks, fruit or juice
sparklers), as well as wines, release small amounts of methanol when metabolized in the
human body. Table 4 illustrates examples of methanol levels in common foods and
beverages, compared to background levels in the human body.
Table 4. Methanol Levels in Foods and Beverages and in Blood
Sample
Methanol Level
Fresh and canned fruit juices

(orange and grapefruit juices)
1-640 mg/l
(average of 140 mg/l)
Beer
6-27 mg/l
Wines
96-329 mg/l
Beans
1.5-7.9 mg/kg
Lentils
4.4 mg/kg
Carbonated beverages
~56 mg/l
Human body background level
0.5 mg/kg (0.73 mg/l in blood)
Exposure to Methanol
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Non-dietary potential exposure to methanol (primarily through inhalation) can result from
using certain consumer products, such as paints, windshield washer fluids, antifreeze, deicers, and adhesives that contain methanol as a solvent. Methanol vapors may also be
present in cigarette smoke at a level of 180 micrograms (g) per cigarette. Methanol is also
used in fuel cells that power consumer electronic devices such as laptop computers and
cellular phones. Fuel cell-powered vehicles may also use methanol as a hydrogen carrier
fuel. These relatively new uses of methanol may become more common in the future.
Studies have shown that the U.S. general population has a background blood methanol
concentration of between .025 to 4.7 mg/l in blood (milligrams per liter in blood). In
controlled studies, humans breathing air containing 200 ppm (parts per million) methanol
had blood levels below 10 mg/l.
Most routine environmental exposures to methanol vapor in the air are significantly below
occupational exposures. Typical environmental exposures to methanol in the air in rural
areas are below 0.0008 ppm and approaching 0.03 ppm in urban areas. Methanol is currently
used to a limited extent as an alternative fuel, primarily in a mix of 85% methanol and 15%
gasoline, otherwise known as M85. Methanols proposed use as a substitute for petroleum
fuels may result in greater environmental releases to the air through vehicle emissions and at
fueling stations.
Occupational (workplace) exposure is likely to cause the highest daily exposure to methanol.
Occupational exposures typically occur through inhalation of methanol vapors during
production or use. About 70% of the methanol produced in the United States is used as
feedstock for the production of other organic chemicals and a variety of consumer products,
including windshield washer fluid. It is also used in the treatment of wastewater and sewage.
Occupational exposure to methanol may occur during its production, or result from its
presence in refrigeration systems and as a component in the production of formaldehyde,
MTBE, acetic acid, and other industrial chemicals. The Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) Time-Weighted-Average (TWA) Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) to
methanol is 200 ppm for an 8-hour day and 40-hour week.
Concentrations of methanol vapors measured in the breathing zone of workers during

refueling of methanol-powered transit buses are generally less than 10 ppm.
Concentrations of methanol vapors measured in the breathing zone of mechanics changing
fuel filters (2-minute procedure) for these buses averaged approximately 50 ppm.
4.1.2 Accidental Sources of Exposure

Less common scenarios that are part of general population exposures include the use of
methanol-containing fuels as solvents and accidental spillage. Another type of potential
accidental exposure to methanol warrants mention. Each year, several thousand cases of
accidental ingestion of gasoline are reported to United States poison control centers. Analysis
of the data found that 39% of accidental ingestions involve teenage and young adult males,
and 36% involved children under 6 years old. Almost all of the former cases occurred during
the course of (mouth) siphoning to transfer fuel from one container to another. Most of the
latter cases occurred when the children found a used beverage container in which gasoline
was stored. With gasoline, the primary toxicity hazard lies in the possibility of regurgitating the
fuel and aspirating the vomitus, which can induce chemical pneumonitis. However, if M85
were substituted for gasoline in these situations, methanol would considerably increase the
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potential for serious morbidity or mortality. Skin contact with methanol solutions can also lead
to rapid absorption and appearance of signs of toxicity. Cases of methanol poisoning in
children exposed dermally have been reported.
The following table illustrates some of the potential methanol exposure routes and the added
methanol body burden expected from the exposure for a 154 lb (70 kg) person.
Table 5. Added Body Burden of Methanol [32]
Exposure/Dose
Added Body Burden of

Methanol
Background body burden in humans
35 mg*
Skin contact of hand in liquid

methanol, 2 min
170 mg
Inhalation, 40 ppm methanol for 8 hr
170 mg
Inhalation, 150 ppm for 15 min
42 mg**
Ingestion of 12 oz (0.34 liter) of

Aspartame sweetened diet beverage
21 mg
Ingestion of 0.2 ml of methanol
170 mg
Ingestion, 0.7-3 oz (25-90 ml) of

methanol
Lethal
(~21000-70000 mg)
*Estimated from methanol body burden of 0.5 mg/kg body weight for a 70 kg person
**Assuming 100% absorption in lung (60%-85% more likely)
4.1.3 Routes of Exposure

Methanols primary routes of entry into the body are by inhalation, absorption through the skin
as a result of contact, eye contact, and ingestion by either eating or drinking.
4.1.4 Methanol Metabolism

Methanol is easily and rapidly absorbed by all routes of exposure and distributes rapidly
throughout the body. Humans absorb 60%-85% of methanol that is inhaled. A small amount
is excreted by the lungs and kidneys without being metabolized. The rate of metabolism for
methanol in the body is 25 mg/kg-hr, which is seven times slower than for ethanol and is
independent of concentrations in the blood. Humans metabolize methanol into formaldehyde
as the first step. The formaldehyde is then converted to formate (which can be toxic at high
concentrations) and finally, to carbon dioxide and water. The half-life of methanol elimination
in expired air after oral or dermal exposure is 1.5 hours. Due to their limited capability to
metabolize formate to carbon dioxide, humans accumulate formate in their bodies from highdose methanol exposure. If formate generation continues at a rate that exceeds its rate of
metabolism, methanol toxicity sets in. Background levels of methanol in the human body will
not result in formate accumulation or adverse health effects. Studies have shown that shortterm inhalation exposure to 200 ppm methanol results in blood methanol concentrations of
less than (10 mg/l) with no observed increase in blood formate concentration.
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Human metabolism of methanol:

Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Methanol Formaldehyde Formate CO2 + H2O
4.1.5 Effects of Exposure

Methanol is a poison. This means that it can cause severe and sometimes fatal acute toxic
effects from a single exposure. Therefore, the principal concern is with acute exposure
through any primary route of entry. The signs and symptoms of methanol exposure do not
occur immediately. The time lag between exposure and onset of symptoms may cause
misdiagnosis of the cause, particularly in persons who are unaware they have been exposed,
or who are unaware of the toxic nature of methanol and the differences between methanol,
ethanol, and isopropyl alcohol.
4.1.5.1
General Symptoms
Regardless of the route of exposure, the toxicity of methanol is the same. Signs of systemic
toxic effects may be delayed between 8 and 36 hours after initial exposure. Methanol is
irritating to the eyes, the skin, and the respiratory tract. It also strips the natural oils and fat
from the skin, causing skin to become dry and cracked. It can cause permanent damage to
the optic nerve and central and peripheral nervous system with just a single acute exposure.
Other signs and symptoms of methanol poisoning include headache, dizziness, vomiting,
severe abdominal pain, back pain, difficulty breathing, cold extremities, lethargy, and lack of
coordination. Eye exposure can also cause a burning sensation accompanied by tearing,
redness, and swelling. Direct contact with the liquid may cause conjunctivitis and corneal
burns. High exposures may result in blindness and death.
4.1.5.2
Acute Effects
The effects of acute, high-dose methanol exposure have been well characterized in human
cases of alcohol poisoning and in animal studies. Generally, the affected individual
experiences a short period of intoxication with a mild depression of the central nervous
system, followed by a period in which no symptoms of intoxication or toxicity are noted
(commonly 12 to 14 hours). This is followed by physical symptoms of poisoning, such as
headache, nausea, vomiting, loss of equilibrium, severe abdominal pain, and difficulty in
breathing. These symptoms can be followed by coma and death. Other hallmarks of acute
methanol toxicity are disturbances of the visual system and accumulation of acid in the body.
Methanol exposure results in vision effects that range from excessive sensitivity to light, to
misty or blurred vision, to dramatically reduced visual acuity and total blindness.
The amount of methanol that can cause severe methanol exposure is very small: Assuming
that 100% methanol fuel is swallowed, the lethal dose is less than one teaspoonful (4 ml) for
a one-year old infant, one and one half teaspoons (6 ml) for a 3-year- old child, and less
than two tablespoons (28 ml) for an adult.
4.1.5.3 Chronic Effects
In contrast to the effects of acute, high-concentration exposure, relatively little is known about
the effects of chronic, low-dose methanol exposure. Based on the limited number of case
reports and epidemiologic studies, the effects of prolonged exposures to methanol are similar
to those of acute exposure: visual and central nervous system disorders. Repeated direct
skin contact with methanol can cause dermatitis with dryness and cracking. Other symptoms
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of chronic exposure include eye irritation, headache, giddiness, insomnia, gastrointestinal

problems, and especially visual difficulties.
According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Developments (OECDs)
Screening Information Data Set, methanol is a candidate for further work on human health
effects due to potential hazardous properties, including neurological effects, central nervous
system (CNS) depression, ocular effects, reproductive and developmental effects, and other
organ toxicity. Rapid metabolism and excretion are noted depending on the dose.
Methanol is not currently listed by any international consensus body or government agency
(e.g., IARC, NTP, NIOSH, ACGIH, or OSHA) as being a carcinogen. EPAs Integrated Risk
Information System (IRIS) is conducting a human health hazard and dose-response
assessment of methanol. A draft IRIS Toxicological Review of Methanol released for external
peer review in December 2009 concluded that the weight of evidence is consistent with a
determination that methanol is likely to be carcinogenic to humans. This is defined as an
agent that has tested positive in animal experiments in more than one species, sex, strain,
site, or exposure route, with or without evidence of carcinogenicity in humans. In March
2011, EPA placed the external peer review of the draft IRIS Methanol Toxicological Review
on hold, following a report from the National Toxicology Program (NTP), which recommended
a review to resolve differences of opinion in the diagnoses of certain tumors reported in a
methanol research study completed by a European research institute. EPA and the National
Institute of Environmental Health Sciences plan to jointly sponsor an independent Pathology
Working Group (PWG) review of select studies conducted at the Institute.
According to the draft IRIS Toxicological Review, there is no information available in the
literature regarding the observation of cancer in humans following chronic administration of
methanol. Likewise, there are no human data that demonstrate a link between methanol
exposure and an increased incidence of birth defects or reproductive hazards. However,
available data on mice and rats indicates that inhalation or oral exposure to methanol at high
doses is a developmental hazard. Since mice and rats metabolize methanol differently than
humans, there is uncertainty as to the predictive value of these studies to human health
effects.
There is concern for adverse developmental effects in fetuses if pregnant women are
exposed to methanol at levels that result in high blood methanol concentrations greater than
10 mg/l. Blood methanol levels of 10 mg/l or greater are not expected to result from normal
methanol PEL. However, this value is not intended to represent the highest safe blood
concentration.
4.2 Exposure Control

4.2.1 Engineering Controls
Where possible, automatically pump liquid methanol from drums or other storage containers
to process containers to minimize the potential for exposure. Methanol should always be kept
within closed systems and not left open to the atmosphere. Refer to Sections 3.2 (Methanol
Storage) and Chapter 5 (Managing Methanol Safely: Process Safety) for more information.
4.2.1.1
Ventilation
The building ventilation system should provide fresh air for normal operation and should take
into consideration the possibility of a leak. In some cases, natural ventilation may be
adequate; otherwise, mechanical ventilation systems should be provided. Ventilation
requirements should be determined on a site-specific basis, but the ultimate target is to
ensure that methanol concentrations in air do not reach or exceed 200 ppm.
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When possible, enclose operations and use proper local exhaust ventilation at the site of
methanol transfer, use, or release. The type of ventilation will depend on factors such as
dead air spaces, temperature of the methanol process, convection currents, and wind
direction. These factors must be considered when determining equipment location, type, and
capacity. If mechanical ventilation is installed, spark-proof fans must be used.
4.2.2 Exposure Monitoring

Methanol has a faintly sweet alcohol odor but does not make its presence known until a
concentration of 2000 ppm or above is reached, which is ten times higher than the safe limit
for human exposure of 200 ppm. Because the odor of methanol is a poor indicator of
concentration, it is essential that some quantitative measure of exposure be determined. This
is necessary to ensure that the health of workers is not impaired and to determine
compliance with any applicable regulations.
Methanol vapor concentrations can be measured using direct-reading gas detection tubes,
such as colorimetric detection tubes, or with electronic instruments, such as portable gas
monitors. Gas monitors can provide continuous readings of methanol concentrations, and
alarms can also be set at specified concentrations. TWA personal exposure concentrations
can also be measured using an air sampling pump with silica gel sorbent tubes.
Portable Gas Monitor
Gas detection tubes
(Courtesy of Drgerwerk AG with permission)
Currently, the OSHA PEL and the American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists (ACGIH) Threshold Limit Value (TLV) for methanol are set at 200 ppm [3]. Both
values are based on an 8-hour TWA exposure. The ACGIH short-term exposure limit for
methanol is 250 ppm, and it contains a skin notation. The National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH) has also set the 10-hour TWA recommended exposure limit at
200 ppm. The OSHA PELs are set to protect workers against the health effects of exposure
to hazardous substances, such as methanol. PELs are regulatory limits on the amount or
concentration of a substance in air that is not to be exceeded in the workplace. They may
also contain a skin designation, which serves as a warning that skin absorption should be
prevented in order to avoid exceeding the absorbed dose received by inhalation at the PEL
level. The ACGIH TLVs are guidelines used by industrial hygienists and other health and
safety professionals in making decisions regarding safe levels of exposure to various
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chemicals found in the workplace. Both the PEL and the TLV are maximum levels of
exposure that the typical worker can experience without adverse health effects.
ACGIH also publishes Biological Exposure Indices (BEI) for a number of chemicals. BEI
determinants are an index of an individuals uptake of a chemical. Most BEIs are based on
a direct correlation with the TLV, although some relate directly to an adverse health effect.
The BEI for methanol in urine collected at the end of the shift is 15 mg/l.
4.2.3 Personal Protective Equipment

Exposure to methanol can occur via inhalation, skin absorption, contact with the eyes, or
ingestion, whenever methanol is used or handled. The level of risk of exposure to methanol
will dictate the appropriate level of personal protective equipment required. At a minimum,
safety glasses with side shields or safety goggles and task-appropriate gloves are
recommended. Depending on the situation, additional personal protective equipment may be
required.
4.2.4 Respiratory Protection

Respiratory protection should be selected based on hazards present and the likelihood of
potential exposure. Air purifying respirators with organic vapor (OVA) cartridges are not
appropriate protection against methanol vapors due to the very short service life of the OVA
cartridge. In addition, the odor threshold of methanol can vary between 100 and 1500 ppm,
so the OVA cartridge may not provide an adequate warning of when breakthrough of
methanol vapors occurs and the respirator is no longer providing protection from methanol
exposure. The use of a supplied air respirator with a full face piece operated in a pressuredemand or other positive-pressure mode is the recommended respiratory protection.
Evaluation of the appropriate type of respirator should also factor in the need for eye
protection. Fit testing and regular maintenance programs for respiratory equipment are
required whenever use of respiratory protection is required for a specific job task. The
following table is a guide for whether respiratory protection is required or not, when the air
concentration of methanol is known.
Table 6. Respiratory Protection Guide
Air Concentration of
Methanol
<200 ppm
Respiratory Protection
No protection required. Skin and eye protection
may still be needed.
200 ppm or greater
Protection required if the daily time-weightedaverage (TWA) exposure is exceeded or if there

are additional routes of exposure (skin, eyes,
ingestion). A supplied air system must be used if
protection is needed.
>200 ppm sustained
A supplied air breathing apparatus (SCBA) system

must be used (i.e., positive-pressure SCBA).
4.2.5 Chemical-Resistant Clothing/Materials

Chemical-resistant clothing/materials should be worn if repeated or prolonged skin contact
with methanol is expected. These may include rubber boots, resistant gloves, and other
impervious and resistant clothing. Chemical-resistant materials include butyl rubber and nitrile
rubber. Use chemical goggles when there is a potential for eye contact with methanol,
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including vapor. A full face-shield may be worn over goggles for additional protection, but not
as a substitute for goggles.
Table 7 serves as guidance for proper personal protective equipment, depending on the
situation presented.
Table 7. Personal Protective Equipment Selection
Low risk of vapor/low
risk of volume splash
High risk of vapor/low risk of

volume splash
High risk of vapor/high risk of

volume splash
Fire retardant clothing
Full chemical resistant suit
Full chemical resistant,

impermeable suit
Gloves (Silvershield or
disposable nitrile)
Chemical-resistant rubber gloves
Chemical-resistant rubber gloves
Safety glasses with side

shields
Full face supplied air respirator
SCBA or compressed air

breathing apparatus (CABA)
Full boot cover
Chemical-resistant rubber boots
Chemical-resistant rubber boots
4.3 Safety Precautions

4.3.1 Routine Operations
Due to the flammability of methanol vapor, static electricity may ignite it. Therefore, grounding
and bonding should always be applied when there is a potential for static electricity, and is
required for all equipment. Carbide-tipped clamps (to ensure good contact through paint) and
dip tube filling are generally used to guard against ignition from static electricity.
The following is a recommended list of additional safety precautions to take. Special or highhazard operations may require additional precautions and are addressed in the next section.
38
Smoking must be prohibited.

Vehicle access should be strictly controlled.
Ventilation must be sufficient to cope with the maximum expected vapor levels in
buildings.
Positive pressure may be required for methanol-free areas, such as control, switch,
and smoking rooms.
Storage tank vents to atmosphere should be sized for fire-heated emergency vapor
release.
Electrical equipment must be explosion-proof to meet national electrical code
requirements.
Alcohol-resistant Aqueous Film-forming Foam (AR-AFFF) with 6% foam proportioning
(with water) equipment is advised for use on methanol fires.
Dry chemical extinguishers should be accessible for small fires. An adequate supply
of handheld and wheeled types should be available.
Hydrants should be strategically placed with adequate hoses.
Small spills should be remediated with sand, earth, or other non-combustible
absorbent material, and the area then flushed with water. Larger spills should be
diluted with water and diked for later disposal.
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Lighting should be grounded. Tall vessels and structures should be fitted with lightning
conductors that are securely grounded.
4.3.2 Special or High Hazard Operations

4.3.2.1
Confined Space Entry
Many workplaces contain spaces that are confined because they hinder the activities of
workers who must enter, work in, and exit them. A confined space has limited or restricted
means for entry or exit, and it is not designed for continuous occupancy by workers.
Examples of confined spaces include, but are not limited to, underground vaults, tanks,
storage bins, manholes, pits, silos, process vessels, and pipelines. In addition, confined
spaces often contain an atmosphere that is oxygen-deficient, toxic, or combustible, therefore
requiring them to be classified by OSHA as permit-required for entry. Deaths in confined
spaces have occurred in the workplace because the atmosphere within the confined space
was not tested prior to entry and/or continually monitored. Confined space entry procedures
must comply with all applicable Federal and local codes and regulations.
In addition to the potential for an oxygen-deficient atmosphere, accumulation of methanol
vapors in confined spaces may lead to explosion if ignited. The Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
of methanol is 6% (60000 ppm) by volume, which is 10 times the Immediately Dangerous to
Life or Health (IDLH) concentration, and the Upper Explosive Limit (UEL) is 36% (360000
ppm) by volume. At concentrations in air below the LEL, there is not enough methanol vapor
to spread a flame. At concentrations in air above the UEL, there is too much methanol and
not enough oxygen to spread a flame. The LEL and UEL of methanol correspond to a
temperature range of 54F to 106F (12C to 41C). In this temperature range, methanol will
burn. Since methanol vapor concentrations in the explosive range are toxic, keeping the air
concentration safe for health also makes it safe from fire. However, keeping it safe from fire
does not necessarily make it safe to breathe.
In confined spaces, ventilation systems may be necessary in order to keep airborne
concentrations of methanol below the LEL and below permissible exposure limits. Before
entering a confined space where methanol may be present, check to make sure that an
explosive concentration does not exist.
4.3.2.2
Hot Work
Hot work is any activity that creates heat, flame, sparks, or smoke. Examples of hot work
include, but are not limited to, welding, brazing, soldering, cutting, heat treating, grinding, and
using power-actuated tools. Methanol is extremely flammable and has the potential to catch
fire when hot work is performed near methanol sources.
Methanol is defined by the NFPA and OSHA as a Class 1B flammable liquid, or by the United
Nations as a flammable liquid (UN Hazard Class 3). It releases vapors at or below ambient
temperatures. When mixed with air, methanol can burn in the open. The specific gravity of
unmixed methanol vapor is 1.1 compared to air at 1.0. Methanol vapors are marginally
heavier than air and may travel short distances (yards or meters) along the ground before
reaching a point of ignition and flashing back. The distance of travel depends on
circumstances of release. Turbulent release promotes rapid mixing with air; non-turbulent
release retards mixing with air.
Pure methanol has a low flash point of 54F (12C) and a wide flammability range (6-36
vol%). Flash point is defined as the minimum temperature at which the vapor pressure of a
liquid is sufficient to form an ignitable mixture with air near the surface of the liquid.
Flammability range is the concentration range within which a mixture of air and methanol
vapor is capable of igniting, providing availability of an ignition source. The extent of the
flammability range means that methanol vapor can be ignited throughout a wide range of
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concentrations in air [33]. The minimum ignition energy (MIE) for methanol in air is slightly
lower than that of gasoline. Local hot spots can exceed the flash point and methanol can be
ignited. W hen methanol catches fire, it burns with a clear blue flame that is very difficult to
see in bright sunlight. Methanol may be on fire and you may not be able to discern the hazard
of a fire by looking for a flame.
The hazards associated with hot work can be reduced by implementing an effective hot work
program that includes prior work authorization, safe welding practices, and a fire watch.
4.4 First Aid Measures

First aid is the immediate temporary treatment given to an exposed individual before the
services or recommendations of a medical professional are obtained. Prompt action is
essential. If necessary, medical assistance must be obtained as soon as possible. A Material
Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for methanol or materials containing methanol should be carefully
reviewed for information on first aid measures.
4.4.1 Inhalation
In case of inhalation of methanol vapors, first remove the individual to fresh air if it is safe for
you to do so, and keep him or her warm and at rest. Monitor for respiratory distress. If
difficulty in breathing develops or if breathing has stopped, administer artificial respiration or
cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) immediately and seek medical attention. If trained to do
so, administer supplemental oxygen with assisted ventilation, as required.
4.4.2 Skin Contact

In case of contact with skin, immediately use an emergency eyewash or safety shower, and
flush the exposed area with copious amounts of tepid water for at least 15 minutes.
Contaminated clothing and shoes should be removed under the shower. Wash the area
thoroughly with soap and water. Seek medical attention if irritation or pain persists or if
symptoms of toxicity develop. W ash contaminated clothing and shoes before reuse.
4.4.3 Eye Contact

In case of contact with eyes, immediately irrigate the eyes with copious amounts of tepid
water for at least 15 minutes. The eyelid should be held apart during the flushing to ensure all
accessible tissue of the eyes and the lids are in contact with water. Obtain medical attention.
4.4.4 Accidental Ingestion

Ingestion of methanol may be life threatening. Onset of symptoms may be delayed for 18 to
24 hours after ingestion. Do not induce vomiting. Get medical attention immediately. The
individual should remain under close medical care and observation for several days.
Treatment of methanol poisoning is well established: administer alkali, ethanol, and
hemodialysis. Alkali is administered to combat the accumulation of formate in the blood.
Ethanol is administered because ethanol competes with methanol for the enzyme that
metabolizes methanol to formate. When ethanol and methanol are both present, the enzyme
preferentially metabolizes ethanol. Dialysis is used to enhance the removal of methanol and
its toxic products from blood. An antidote (in the form of an injection) is also available to treat
methanol poisoning.
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Chapter
5
5 Managing Methanol Safely: Process Safety
This chapter summarizes the Process Safety Management system of administering highly
hazardous materials. According to provisions set forth in 49 CFR 1910.119, the so-called
OSHA Process Safety Management Standard [60], methanol is classified as a highly
hazardous material if it is connected to the process and consists of at least 10,000 lbs (1,508
gallons). This is by no means the only system used successfully to manage chemical
hazards; however, it has proven to be effective in the 20 years during which it has been in
effect, provided the principles are applied diligently and intelligently. A copy of the Standard
can be obtained free of charge over the Internet on the U.S. OSHA web site.
The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) provides excellent and detailed
standards regarding functional safety that can be used to supplement the OSHA guidance.
Relevant information can also be obtained from the Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Developments (OECD) Guiding Principles for Chemical Accident Prevention,
Preparedness, and Response [50], the European Directive on the Control of Major-Accident
Hazards Involving Dangerous Substances (Directive 96/82/EC), as well as the Association
Franaise de Normalisation (AFNOR), Deutsches Institut fr Normung E.V. (DIN),
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), American Petroleum Institute (API), and
the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). The OSHA Process Safety
Management Standard was selected as a model for the Methanol Manual because it gives an
overview of the management duties and responsibilities that must necessarily be
implemented in one form or another to maintain a safe and economically robust chemical
processing industry.
Regardless of where you reside in the methanol production and distribution chain, when you
take delivery of methanol, it will have traveled a long distance and been administered to by
many hands. A large number of those hands have focused on the safe production, storage,
and transport of your methanol, from raw well-head methane gas to the packaging facility that
filled and delivered the tank, tote, drum, or container that holds your methanol.
Literally millions of dollars have been expended in preventing accidental release within every
aspect of the manufacturing process and in every step of the distribution chain. This effort
has been made to protect life safety, environmental quality, and capital assets. Harm,
degradation, and damage can result from direct exposure to the hazards inherent to
methanol.
As a user, one aspect of your stewardship is to use this chemical in a safe and responsible
manner. You are expected, and have legal responsibility within most countries, to continue
this chain of custody, applying best engineering and management practice in every aspect of
care and custody.
Process safety management uses a descriptive rather than a prescriptive command and
control approach to regulating hazardous materials. This was chosen in order to give process
operators and chemical handlers maximum autonomy in determining how to best operate and
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maintain their respective uses in a safe, responsible, and efficient manner. From the
perspective of this manual, it is inconsequential whether your facility is or would be regulated
under the provision of the OSHA Standard. The point is not regulation, but responsibility. The
basic structure laid out in the Process Safety Management Standard is time proven to provide
an effective framework for safe manufacture, storage, and use of hazardous chemicals. You
are encouraged to make good use of the principles set down in the Standard.
Process safety is founded on the principle that knowledge is power, power enables control,
and control is a fundamental management function. The intent of Process Safety
Management (PSM) is to know, understand, and control hazards of chemicals, process
technology, and equipment used in chemically based activities, large and small.
PSM consists of 14 management elements. Each element addresses a particular aspect of the
process necessary to safely manage chemical hazards. Each element stands alone, but also
projects into and strengthens every other element. As Table 8 shows, elements can be
arranged into one of seven groupings: knowing, doing, responding, recovering, learning,
verifying, and protecting. Elements are organized within groupings based on the premise that,
in order to safely operate and maintain a chemical processing asset, whether a two-person
laboratory, a water treatment plant, or a large volume synthesis plant, it is necessary to (1)
know what you are doing before you do it, (2) do it, (3) respond to and recover from
contingencies, (4) learn from mistakes, (5) verify that management controls are functioning as
intended, and (6) protect proprietary property.
Table 8. The Organization of Process Safety
Grouping
PSM Element
Know
Employee Participation
Grouping
PSM Element
Respond and Recover
Emergency Planning and
Response
Process Safety Information
Learn
Process Hazards Analysis
Incident Investigation
Operating Procedures
Training
Do
Contractors
Verify
Process Safety Audits
Protect
Trade Secrets
Pre-Startup Safety Review

Mechanical Integrity
Hazardous W ork Permitting
Management of Change
Each element of PSM is applied over and over, through time, in a serial sequence that
operates on five-year cycles. With each successive cycle, facility management and staff
should become more adept at establishing routines and improving facility operations.
The remainder of this chapter summarizes the intent of each element of the Standard.
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5.1 Employee Participation

The guiding principle regarding employee participation is that the employees are the persons
who must have the most detailed knowledge regarding the process in order to operate and
maintain process system equipment safely and efficiently. PSM specifies three actions to
facility management regarding employee participation in managing process safety.
1. Employers are to develop a written plan for employee participation.
2. Employers are to consult with employees regarding implementation of all elements
and aspects of process safety.
3. Employers are to provide open access to all information developed for the purpose of
managing process safety.
In effect, all aspects of a process safety program belong to facility employees; employers have
the responsibility and the duty of creating, supporting, and funding the program and verifying
that the program functions as anticipated and produce the intended result. Employees do not
know what they do not know. It is the employers responsibility to inform all employees of the
hazards and risks associated with methanol and how to effectively control those risks. When
accidents occur, and it is likely that they will, it is usually because the individuals handling the
methanol or performing work near methanol storage and handling areas are unaware of the
risks. Accidents indicate lapses of management control in properly training and supervising
employees.
5.2 Process Safety Information

Having specific, accurate, and detailed information about the process is necessary at all
levels of the organization in order to understand how chemicals behave within the control
limits and abnormal conditions for a process. Three types of information must be collected,
organized, and made available to employees:
1. Information pertaining to the hazards of the chemicals within the process.
2. Information pertaining to the technology of the process (including safe control
parameter limits).
3. Information pertaining to the equipment that is used in the process.
The purpose of insisting that employees become familiar with this information is to ensure
that operators, maintenance personnel, and their supervisors:
Know and understand the properties and behavior of process chemicals in all
potential operating circumstances, including transients, deviations, excursions, upsets,
startups, shutdowns, and emergency shutdowns.
Understand how process technology drives process excursions in abnormal operating
circumstances caused by interruption of utilities, equipment failure, human error, and
external weather and geologic events such as earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, and
hurricanes.
Know and respond to equipment pressure, temperature, and containment limits
during abnormal conditions.
Ensure that equipment design and construction comply with recognized and
generally accepted engineering practices.
Verify that workers are fit for duty and that equipment is fit for continued service.
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5.3 Process Hazard Analysis

Process hazard analyses (PHAs) also variously referred to as hazard evaluations, risk
assessments, or hazard identification techniques are required because circumstances and
perceptions change over time. PHAs are conducted periodically to verify that sufficient
safeguards are in place to protect against abnormal operating conditions and to avoid
accidental release of process materials to the workplace, adjacent communities, and the
environment.
This element of the OSHA Standard stipulates that PHAs are to be performed on all aspects
of the process using an analysis technique that is appropriate to the complexity of the
process. The PHA identifies, evaluates, and verifies that hazards arising from the process,
and from inventories of hazardous chemicals that are connected to the process, are
controlled within the intended operating envelope. It also insures that abnormal
circumstances that arise as a result of equipment breakdown and/or human error do not
jeopardize worker and contractor health or cause harm to the facility or the environment. The
PHA team verifies that each of the potential circumstances is safeguarded in depth by layers
of protection, that accidental release to the environment is mitigated, and that emergency
response in the event of accidental release is prompt, appropriate, and effective. If any of
these is deemed to be inadequate due to absence, unreliability, or inadequate design, then
recommendation is made to correct identified deficiencies. Correction should be made in a
timely manner.
5.4 Operating Procedures

In order to maintain safe operations, operators must know the boundaries between safe and
unsafe operating conditions. Likewise, they must know how and when to perform specific
tasks associated with equipment operation and process control during normal operations, as
well as in the event of abnormal circumstances.
Employers must provide written operating instructions that guide operators through the steps
necessary to startup, operate, shutdown, and emergently shut down the process under
normal and abnormal operating conditions. Procedures should clearly state maximum and
minimum safe operating limits for temperature, pressure, level, fluid flow, heater firing rate,
heater stack gas composition, tank and vessel volume, and other important environmental
conditions.
Operating procedures should be revised whenever a not-in-kind change is made within the
process. Procedures must be updated and verified as accurate on an annual basis.
5.5 Training
Operating personnel must be trained in interpreting and applying the written operating
procedures. As a practical matter, training includes both classroom and one-on-one, on-thejob training. For large complex processes, electronic process control simulators may be used
in the same way as electronic-hydraulic simulators are used for pilot flight training. For small,
simple processes, operator training may include table top exercises.
Training should be repeated when a not-in-kind change is made within the process.
Refresher training must be given every three years.
Employers must maintain a record of each employees training and proof that the employee
not only took, but also understood, the training at a minimum level that demonstrates
understanding and proficiency. Likewise, employers must implement controls that ensure
operators are fit for duty whenever they are on duty within the plant.
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5.6 Contractors
Historically, contractor employees who are at a facility for short periods of time on an irregular
basis to perform specialized services such as turnarounds have anomalously high accident
rates. Some contractor-involved incidents involve only contractors; others also involve
contractors and facility personnel. In a chemical laboratory, this may consist of a craft
workman, such as a plumber or an electrician. During a chemical manufacturing plant
turnaround, this may consist of a crew of several hundreds of contractor-employed workers.
The circumstances are the same in both cases. Workmen who are unfamiliar with the
hazards in their workplace are prone to making mistakes, which cause injury and/or
uncontrolled accidental release of hazardous chemicals.
PSM stipulates that plant management address this situation at several levels. First,
contractors are carefully screened prior to being engaged to perform work at the facility. If a
contractor has a poor safety record on previous jobs, then consideration is given to identifying
a contractor who has a good safety record. Once a contractor has been screened and
selected, contractor employees are safety trained regarding hazards that are specific to the
facility and the chemicals present. The contractor is also required to perform certain safetydirected activities on a daily basis with crew members. These include contractor employee
training, daily safety meetings (so-called tailgate meetings), recordkeeping, notification of
hazardous contract work, preparation of job cards, and incident reporting and investigation.
These measures are particularly important for workers performing hot work or confined space
entry near methanol.
5.7 Pre-Startup Safety Review

If a process unit or equipment item requires repair, and the process unit or equipment item is
out of service while the repair is being made, then process safety management requires that
a review be done to verify that both the equipment item(s) and the organization are in an
operation-ready condition. A pre-startup safety review is conducted whenever a modification
in process chemicals, technology, or equipment requires updating process safety information.
Prior to return-to-service, which is defined as the introduction of highly hazardous
chemicals, the employer is to confirm the following:
Contractors
Construction tasks are complete, and construction activity is terminated.

Equipment is in accordance with design specifications.
Process safety information is updated.
Safety, operating, maintenance, and emergency procedures are in place and are
adequate.
A process hazards review appropriate to the complexity of the process and the
modification has been performed, and resulting recommendations have been
resolved and/or implemented.
Requirements for management of change are satisfied.
Each employee involved in operating and maintaining the process is trained regarding
the change.
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5.8 Mechanical Integrity

The mechanical integrity element of process safety focuses on the maintenance function
(equipment inspection, testing, and repair) as it pertains to fitness for service or fitness for
continued service. Accordingly, this element sets criteria for preparing written maintenance
procedures, training maintenance workers, documenting results of employee training, and
equipment inspection, testing, and deficiency correction.
Provisions within this element include warehousing of spare parts and replacement materials.
The employer must ensure that maintenance materials, spare parts, and equipment are
suitable for the process application in which they will be used. This may include labeling,
positive materials identification, and verification that specifications are satisfied and
consistent with design requirements.
In a chemical manufacturing plant, this element pertains to duties of the purchasing,
warehousing, inspection, and maintenance functions. Provisions within this element apply
generally to all types of equipment: pressure vessels, storage tanks, piping systems, relief
and vent systems, emergency shutdown systems, control systems, pumps, and other
equipment, such as compressors, turbine engines, turbo-generators, etc.
5.9 Hazardous Work Permits

Maintenance, inspection, and testing may require facility and contract employees to perform
work in so-called hazardous circumstances. Within the context of process safety, hazardous
circumstances encompass immediate and proximate hazards associated with the work
environment: confined space entry, lock-out/tag-out of energy sources, elevated work, subgrade work, line breaking, hot-tapping, hot work, overhead lifts, crane relocation, and other
work tasks that require safeguards to prevent injury.
Process safety mandates that employers and employees be informed and aware of the
location and hazards associated with all work tasks pertaining to inspection, testing, and
maintenance of equipment. Therefore, work must be scheduled and permitted prior to taking
place. Both scheduling and permitting are to establish a written record of what is being done,
where it is being done, when it is being done, how it is being done, who is doing the work,
and the hazards associated with the task or the work environment. Hazardous work
permitting assures both employees and employers that all reasonable measures are being
taken to safeguard workers assigned to perform hazardous work.
5.10
Management of Change
Management of change addresses the issue of configuration management. Occasionally, it is
necessary to modify the configuration of a process system in order to improve performance,
reliability, or efficiency. W ithin the context of process safety, maintenance and repair activities
assume one of two states specific to item or component replacement: (1) in-kind
replacement and (2) not-in-kind replacement.
In-kind replacement is any repair that substitutes for an existing item another part,
component, or equipment item that meets or exceeds the design basis and fabrication
specifications of the original part, component, or item. Because this state does not change or
otherwise affect the design basis and performance capability of the system into which it is
placed, it does not constitute a change.
Not-in-kind replacement is any repair or replacement that substitutes a part, component, or
equipment item that does not meet the design basis and fabrication specifications of an
original part, component, or item.
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The procedure for management of change developed to satisfy this element of process safety
addresses the following considerations:
The technical basis for the proposed change.

Impact of the change on safety and health.
Modifications to operating procedures.
Time period during which the change will be in force (temporary or permanent).
Authorization requirements for the proposed change.
The following actions should be taken:
Update process safety information as required.

Update operating, maintenance, inspection, and testing procedures as required.
Inform and train operating, maintenance, inspection, and testing workers and
contractors on the revised procedures.
Maintain a written record of the above.
5.11 Emergency Planning and Response

It is important to plan for, prepare for, train for, and respond to facility emergencies. This
includes accidents, injuries, accidental release of highly hazardous chemicals, subsequent
fires and explosions, and other damage- and exposure-causing spills and incidents. When
you are planning, determine what might happen, and where and how it might occur. Install
appropriate detectors and early warning devices. You will also want to establish evacuation
procedures, rendezvous points, and headcount procedures. It is important to include in your
plan mitigation measures, such as fixed fire monitors, sprinkler systems, deluge systems,
automatic isolation systems, blast walls, and similar measures. These measurements help to
contain, control, and localize damage. Be sure to inspect and test alarms, mitigation
measures, and safety systems regularly, as recommended by suppliers.
Planning and response is made easier when you establish a command and control center, as
well as communication capabilities necessary to assess the situation, coordinate responders,
call for backup, and prioritize emergency medical care and first aid.
It is very helpful to work with local first responders (police, fire, emergency medical care, and
possibly military) so that they are aware of the emergency planning and response procedures
you have put in place, and so that they can provide you with feedback. Local fire departments
are generally interested in participating in fire drills at chemical manufacturing sites to give
the firefighters experience and a better understanding of the facility. If the first time a fire truck
pulls into a facility is to respond to an actual emergency, staff may lose precious time in
driving to the site of the incident and in understanding the situation at hand. Involving your
local first responders in fire drills will help build familiarity with the site and your operations
that could save lives and property.
5.12
Incident Investigation
Despite the best intentions, diligent prevention efforts, appropriate mitigation, and effective
emergency response, accidents will occur. People will be injured; air, soil, and water media
will be contaminated; and capital equipment will be damaged and destroyed. Practices and
procedures advocated by process safety can dramatically reduce the number and severity of
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accidents. However, it is unlikely that these practices will prevent every possible incident
scenario from occurring.
Given this expectation, it is important to learn from past mistakes. Hence, incident
investigation is an essential element of an effective process safety management system.
Employers should have personnel on hand who are trained to investigate accidents (for
example, releases, toxic releases, spills, fires, explosions, and especially minor incidents or
situations that were discovered before an accident occurred, also called near misses).
Accidents should be categorized based on severity and the response that is required. A
structured incident investigation and process of root cause analysis should be implemented
for all but the least damaging accident events. Corrective actions should be developed that
address the root causes and that are aimed at preventing recurrence.
The following guidance is provided for incident investigation:
1. Initiate an investigation as promptly as possible, certainly within 48 hours.
2. Include the following members in the investigation team, as applicable:
persons knowledgeable in the process.
contract employees, if the incident involved a contractor.
persons trained in forensic investigation.
persons trained in interviewing.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
5.13
persons or consultants trained in air dispersion modeling, fire modeling,

explosion modeling, and failure analysis.
Prepare a written investigation report with recommendations.
Establish a team to address findings, and resolve or implement recommendations.
Review the report with employees and contractors whose job tasks are relevant to the
findings.
Inform employees and contractors of lessons learned.
Retain and subsequently archive the report.

At least every three years, if not more frequently, conduct a facility-wide audit to determine
whether procedures, provisions, and practices for process safety are in place. These
practices should not only be known and understood by employees, but should also be
adequate, functional, effective, and efficient. The audit should be scheduled and carried out
by a team of employees, contractors, and consultants with the following qualifications:
Technical knowledge of the process.

Knowledge and familiarity with the facility, management organization, and functional
department tasks and responsibilities.
Expertise and experience in safety auditing.
The audit team should deliver a written audit report to the employer that assesses strengths
and weaknesses in the various program elements. The employer should promptly respond to
each of the audit findings, and correct and document that deficiencies have been corrected.
Audit reports should be retained and archived.
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Trade Secrets
Trade secrets and proprietary information that are considered intellectual property of the
employer are not precluded from inclusion within the process safety program. Neither is such
inclusion a revocation of the rights and privileges to secrecy thereof.
Trade secrets and information that are considered proprietary to the employer must be clearly
identified in writing by the employer. Intellectual property should be protected by
confidentiality agreements between the employer and the employees and contract employees
who must have knowledge of and use that information in their duties for implementing various
elements of a process safety program. Specifically this includes persons responsible for the
following:
Conducting process hazard analyses.

Preparing operating procedures.
Developing maintenance, inspection, and testing procedures.
Conducting incident investigations.
Conducting emergency planning and response.
Performing process safety audits.
As mentioned previously, process safety is founded on the principle that knowledge is power.
As a methanol user, one aspect of product stewardship is to use this chemical in a safe and
responsible manner. Readers are encouraged to make good use of this knowledge.
5.15 Implementing Process Safety

A key step in managing safety is to identify the risks posed by manufacturing, transferring,
transporting, and inventorying methanol. This allows safety to be designed into the process.
The risk assessment can be done as part of a PHA. This section describes the major steps in
conducting a PHA. Additional information for conducting a PHA for methanol is presented in
the glossary and in the appendix.
As an example of a very simple risk assessment, let us compare the hazardous properties of
methanol to gasoline, the most widely used fuel, which is also volatile and flammable.
Methanols physical and chemical properties provide users with several fire safety
advantages compared to gasoline. Methanol has lower volatility, lower vapor density, a lower
heat release rate, and a lower flammability limit than gasoline. The United States Federal
EPA states that: These properties together make methanol inherently more difficult to ignite
than gasoline, and less likely to cause deadly or damaging fires if it does ignite.
Other important differences should be recognized. Methanol can ignite at ambient
temperatures in enclosed spaces, such as fuel tanks. This is in sharp contrast to gasoline,
which produces such a large volume of vapor that the concentration can readily exceed the
upper flammability limit. This particular hazard necessarily would be addressed in fuel tank
design and location to ensure that tanks storing methanol are isolated from all foreseeable
ignition sources. Toxicity is another consideration of methanol. The odor threshold for
methanol is above the allowable exposure limit. This means that methanols concentration
may be at or above toxic levels before most people detect the odor.
5.15.1 What Is a Hazard?

The term hazard is a commonly used word. Within the context of risk assessment, the term
has a specific meaning. As used in this manual, a hazard is a threat that is posed by a
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substance as an inherent physical or chemical characteristic of that substance. Typically,

hazards are classified by type. Chemical hazards are classified by the nature of the threat
posed by presence of the chemical: fire if the chemical is a flammable liquid, toxicity if the
chemical is known to be poisonous, reactivity if there are other chemicals that react violently
with the subject material, chemical or thermal instability if the chemical is known to
decompose spontaneously under certain circumstances, and chemical incompatibility if
mixing the chemical with another chemical increases a known hazard or manifests as an
additional hazard. For example, methanol is classified as flammable and toxic. Persons
handling, using, or storing methanol must take precautions to protect themselves and others
from these hazards. It is also necessary to protect methanol from exposure to ignition
sources and to wear personal protective equipment (PPE) when handling or working near
inventories of methanol.
Because a hazard is a property of a substance that is characteristic of that substance, the
hazard is removed when the substance is no longer present.
5.15.2 What Is a Risk?

The term risk is commonly used and is subject to misinterpretation. As used in this guide,
the term risk has a very specific meaning: the frequency, likelihood, or probability of a
sequence of events that terminate in a negative or damage-inflicting consequence. A
consequence is a manifestation of a chemical hazard. Mathematically, risk is calculated as
the product of event frequency (or probability) multiplied by a measure of consequence
severity.
The risk of a particular consequence, such as an explosion, is the probability of an explosion
(for example 10% in a 10-year period, which is equal to 1% probability per calendar year),
multiplied by the severity of the consequence, for instance, $20 million per occurrence. In this
example the risk burden carried by the facility as an expected loss is $200,000 per year ($20
million x 0.01), less whatever amount is covered by insurance.
If management decides a risk of $200,000 per year is unacceptably high, then the risk can be
lowered by implementing additional protective policies and procedures that reduce the likely
frequency of that particular incident. If the facility performs PHAs and identifies additional
explosion scenarios, the risk of explosion of some number of scenarios must be reduced with
additional safeguards. The choice of which scenarios to safeguard against is based on cost
benefit. The question is, Which scenarios provide the greatest reduction in risk for the least
expenditure?
5.15.3 Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment Methods

The first step in conducting a hazards review is to assemble and review information
pertaining to the materials, their hazards, the technology of the process, and the design basis
and condition of the equipment.
The second step is to determine which hazard review methodology to use. A variety of
hazard identification and risk assessment methods are available, ranging from What If
assessment, involving a group of persons familiar with the circumstance, to a rigorously
structured quantitative Layers of Protection or Fault Tree Analysis.
The third step is to conduct the review, making recommendations to add safeguards as
necessary and appropriate to satisfy management criteria. All aspects of the hazards review
should be documented, including the list of recommendations.
A report is subsequently prepared and the recommendations either are implemented or
discussed further; after possible further discussion, the recommendations either are revised
or rejected. The risk of a particular consequence is assessed before and after implementation
of the recommendation. In general, engineering safeguards are expensive and reliable.
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Administrative safeguards are inexpensive; however, they are subject to much lower
reliability, especially over time.
Appendix B provides detailed information pertaining to the physical, chemical, and
thermodynamic properties of methanol, its reactivity, and associated manifestations (thermal
stability, chemical stability, incompatibility, and corrosivity). It includes a list of the types of
documents that contain important information regarding the technology and equipment of the
process.
Many hazard-labeling systems are used worldwide. Some of the more common systems
include the United Nations system, the NFPA system, the U.S. Department of Transportation
system, and others from the European Community.
5.15.4 Process Hazard Assessment Documentation

Process hazard assessments must be documented. Documentation should be preserved
throughout the life of the facility. In general terms, the documentation should indicate what
information was reviewed, what questions were asked, what hazards were safeguarded
against, how the scenario was developed, what the accident scenario consisted of, what
corrective action was selected, and the effectiveness, reliability, maintainability, availability,
and benefit/cost of the corrective action.
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6
6 Fire Safety
This section provides information about flammability characteristics that are peculiar to
methanol and different from other common fuels, such as gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel
(hydrotreated kerosene).
It is particularly difficult to extinguish fires involving gasoline or diesel when in the presence of
methanol. The focus of this discussion is on controlling and extinguishing methanol fires,
although it also applies to fires involving methanol in the presence of gasoline or diesel.
Additional information on properties of methanol that relate to fire safety is presented in
Appendix B.
The Fire Tetrahedron
The four elements required to have a fire are:

1.
2.
3.
4.
Ignition source (such as heat or sparks).

Fuel (e.g., methanol).
Oxygen (air is a source of oxygen).
Chemical chain reaction (combustion that provides energy to keep the fire going).
Fire Prevention: Break the tetrahedron by removing one of the elements (especially the
ignition source).
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6.1 Fire Detection and Protection

Broadly speaking, all fires have a common trait: they begin small and grow larger. The
objectives of fire protection are to contain, control, and extinguish fires while they are still
small. Success is best achieved using three aspects of fire response: (1) early detection, (2)
immediate response, and (3) appropriate action.
All fires release heat, and most fuel fires display flames and generate smoke. Fires involving
pure (neat) methanol are not like most commonly encountered fires. Methanol fires produce
less heat (have a low flame temperature); transfer less heat to surroundings (flames are nonluminous); are difficult to see (flames are nearly invisible to the naked eye during daytime,
and there is little or no smoke); can initiate under unexpected circumstances (flammability
limits are between 6 vol% and 36 vol% in air); are difficult to extinguish with water (100%
miscible); and are flammable to 75 vol% water.
Early detection of methanol fires requires different technology from early detection of gasoline
and diesel fires. If methanol ignition occurs in daylight hours, it is unlikely that the fire will be
detected visually until it spreads to adjacent materials that emit a luminous flame or a visible
plume of smoke. Two instrumentation technologies are available for early detection of a
methanol fire. The first is vapor detection. If a methanol source is emitting large quantities of
vapor, it is only a matter of time before ignition and flashback occurs. With luck, the source of
vapor can be isolated and mitigated before the vapors ignite. The second technology is
thermal imaging, which has been used for many years to identify hot spots and loose
connections in electrical systems. It works equally well on methanol fires. A video of a
methanol tanker truck fire and boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE) provides an
excellent demonstration of the usefulness of the thermal imaging technique in protecting life
safety of fire ground personnel. (http://www.firefighternation.com/videos/methanol-tank-truckfire)
Immediate response is the second objective. Methanol has a low flame temperature, which,
when combined with non-luminous flames, substantially reduces the rate of radiant heat flux.
Low flame temperature combined with low heat flux allows fire fighters to approach the fire
more closely than would be possible with a gasoline or diesel fire. This fact provides
advantages and disadvantages.
The advantage is that small fires can be attacked with handheld extinguishers. The
disadvantages are that it can be difficult to determine the location and intensity (burn rate) of
the fire. To make a reasonable determination, it is necessary to use a thermal imaging
device. W hen the location of the fire cannot be determined with a high degree of confidence,
it is possible to locate the first line of defense too close to the fuel source. Uncertainties
associated with locating and characterizing methanol and methanol-gasoline blend fires
require a slow and deliberate approach. This is particularly true if there is any possibility of a
BLEVE, or thermally induced rollover of the contents of a storage tank. It is highly desirable to
determine a plan of attack using a birds eye view of the fire as seen with a thermal imaging
device. Overhead imaging capability will save lives when fighting methanol and methanolgasoline fires.
The third objective, appropriate action, is particularly important when fighting methanol fires.
Methanol fires require special procedures:
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Methanol is 100% miscible in water; a mixture of 75% water and 25% methanol is a
flammable liquid capable of supporting combustion.
Methanol has a greater affinity for water than for gasoline. In the presence of water,
the methanol in methanol-gasoline blended fuels partitions from the gasoline into a
heavy, methanol-water phase, which forms beneath the gasoline. This can be an
extremely treacherous situation in a storage tank. Methanol blends require special
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measures to avoid thermally induced rollover of the contents of the tank and a
subsequent tank explosion. Do not use water as a suppressant on methanol-blended
fuel fires. Use only high temperature, alcohol compatible foam, such as film-forming
fluoroprotein foam specifically alcohol-resistant aqueous film-forming foam (ARFFFP). In addition, allow substantial standoff distance from the fire, and continue
applying foam long after the fire appears to be out. Methanol fires are known to restart
if foam suppression is discontinued too soon.
For small fires involving neat methanol or nearly pure methanol, water may be used
as the suppressant. However, the water must be in the form of a fog or fine droplet
water spray, and there must be sufficient freeboard space to increase the volume of
the methanol-water solution by a factor of four. Otherwise, the volume of firewater
necessary to suppress the fire may cause the fire to spread.
If foam is used as the suppressant, then the foam must be an alcohol-compatible
foam (AR-AFFFP). Otherwise the solvent property of methanol will attack and destroy
the foam.
Methanol is a strong polar solvent. Many plastics and synthetic fabrics soften and
rapidly degrade when in contact with methanol.
Finally, methanol is a toxic poison, which must not be ingested, inhaled, or contacted
with skin. Methanol absorbs through the skin. SCBA breathing equipment worn with
conventional turnouts does not provide sufficient protection against the toxicity of
methanol, methanol water solutions, or methanol vapor. SCBA with a level B
chemical resistant suit to prevent skin absorption may be required in such cases.
In summary, as a methanol transporter, user, or handler, it is necessary to make special

provisions for responding to accidental releases. Methanol hazards are flammability and
toxicity. However, it is the physical characteristics that determine what constitutes an
appropriate response. The physical and chemical properties of methanol and methanolblended fuels are distinct from one another. An appropriate response to a methanol fire will
not be an appropriate response to a methanol-gasoline fire.
6.1.1 Vapor Control

The first measure in early detection of methanol fires relies on the presence of methanol
vapor. If methanol vapor is present in concentrations at or near the lower flammability limit
(6 vol%), then you must assume that ignition is possible. If ignition occurs, then combustion
will ensue as either a fire or an explosion. The route by which ignition is manifested depends
on ambient temperature, the energy of the ignition source, whether the vapor has traveled as
a near-neutrally buoyant dense gas, and whether accumulated vapor is confined or
unconfined. If ambient temperature is above the flash point, and if there is a large amount of
vapor space in a container, tank, room, building, or enclosure, then flashback and explosion
are likely. If ambient temperature is below the flash point, if potential ignition sources are low
energy, and if vapor can readily dissipate to the atmosphere, then explosion is less likely.
In order to control whether the consequence is a fire or an explosion, it is necessary to
control vapor concentration and vapor ventilation. To control the vapor, it is necessary to
control the liquid, or the availability of oxygen in the vapor space above the liquid.
6.1.1.1 Storage Tank Safety Features
Best practice for tank storage of methanol in large volumes uses internal floating roof tanks to
minimize methanol vapor space within the tank and to reduce the amount of air that is
available to mix with the vapor. It is also necessary to control the vapors that are emitted from
the tank. If the vapor space of the tank is not padded with an inert gas, then the tank vents
must be equipped with flame arresters. Verify that the flame arrester components are not
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fabricated from aluminum alloy. Methanol is corrosive to aluminum alloys. There is a reported
instance of a tank fire that occurred as the result of a release of excessive vapor from a tank.
The flame arrester had aluminum alloy components that degraded and failed over a 13-yearperiod. Clearly, facility preventive maintenance was insufficient. Inert gas blanketing or
padding adds an additional level of protection against ignition within the tank vapor space.
Because nitrogen gas (N2 (g)) is an asphyxiate, special precautions should be taken for
accessing the tank roof and for entering purged tanks.
Nitrogen padding has the added advantage of preserving methanol purity. Dry nitrogen is the
preferred gas for blanketing. Blanket gas should be free of carbon dioxide to avoid corrosion
in the presence of moist air and to avoid product contamination that could increase methanol
acidity and corrosivity.
It is further recommended that ignition sources be strictly controlled within the proximity of
methanol storage, regardless of whether containment is in tanks or portable containers. The
outside of methanol tanks should be painted with heat reflecting paint. This measure will
reduce vapor losses from the tanks.
6.1.1.2 Pressure Relief Systems
Tank internal pressure can be controlled using pressure relief/vacuum breaker valves. Vents
may or may not be configured with flame arresters, depending on the specific circumstances;
however, arresters are the preferred configuration.
Pressure relief valves are sized to a fire case and, if possible, should be piped to relieve into
a flare header. If configured to relieve to the atmosphere, then it is strongly recommended
that Process Safety Valves (PSVs) be configured to breathe to the atmosphere through flame
arresters. In addition to fire safety, it is recommended that local regulations for limiting
hydrocarbon emissions be considered when configuring tank vents and pressure relief
devices.
Overflow pipes are not recommended. Methanol liquid is known to collect and drip from
overflow pipes when ambient temperature is below storage temperature. Any accumulation of
condensed liquid methanol in the bermed area creates a fire hazard and may qualify as an
environmental release.
6.1.2 Heat Detection

The second early detection measure for a methanol fire is early detection of heat. When
dealing with methanol, the adage where there is smoke there is fire must be modified to
read where there is heat there is fire. A number of technologies are available that scan for
temperature. Consider investigating and testing these for your specific needs.
6.1.3 Smoking, Vehicle Access, and Miscellaneous Ignition Sources
56
Smoking must be restricted to a designated location that is free of potential methanol

vapor.
Vehicle access must be strictly controlled and enforced.
Use of non-sparking tools is highly recommended.
Radios, telephones, portable instrumentation, computers, calculators, and other
electronic equipment should have explosion-proof ratings for use in a methanol
containment area.
As a rule of thumb, allow at least 20 feet (7 meters) of no ignition source perimeter
around storage areas containing individual, small volume containers of methanol (e.g.,
cans, buckets, barrels, and totes). Allow at least 50 feet (17 meters) of no ignition
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source perimeter around storage and logistics areas containing and/or handling larger
volumes of methanol (e.g., individual tanker trucks, rail cars, and small storage tanks).
Allow a minimum of 200 feet (70 meters) of no ignition source perimeter for logistics
terminals that simultaneously load or unload multiple trucks, multiple rail cars, barges,
ships, and large-volume storage tanks.
In the event that a tanker truck, rail car, or storage tank is involved in a fire, evacuate
to a distance of at least one-half mile (850 meters) in all directions. Methanol is toxic;
therefore, structural fire fighters protective clothing does not offer effective protection
in responding to methanol spills and fires.6 Be aware that the odor threshold of
methanol is well above the toxic exposure limit.
Portable containers, tanker trucks, rail cars, and storage tanks are all subject to
BLEVE. Establish safety precautions that are cognizant of overpressure, radiant heat
flux, and toxic exposure hazards.
6.2 Fire Control

Key elements of protection are immediate and appropriate response and maintaining control
of the fire.
6.2.1 Fire vs. Explosion

Fire events, though undesirable, are preferable to explosion events. Accident scenario
consequence analysis, associated with process hazard analysis and risk assessment, must
consider which is more likely in each circumstance: a fire or an explosion. If the judgment is
explosion, then consideration should be given to changing circumstances, process
conditions, or process configuration so that fire is the most likely consequence of ignition. If
this is not an option, then it is essential that all potential ignition sources be eliminated and
that no mobile ignition sources are allowed to enter the area. Methanol vapor is known to
flashback to the source. Verify that hazard zone perimeters are adequate. In assessing
scenario consequence severity, it is necessary to consider exposure to overpressure and
radiant heat flux.
6.2.2 Extinguishing Materials

If a portion of a facility is engulfed in fire, then streams of water can be used to cool adjacent
process equipment. Normal Aqueous Film-forming Foam (AFFF) fire suppression foam is not
appropriate for alcohol fires. The solvent properties of methanol cause normal firefighting
foam to degrade. Methanol fires must be attacked with AR-AFFF.
For small fires in a contained space, consider automated application of dry powder or carbon
dioxide extinguishing material. If this is not practical, then consider automated application of
fine water spray or fog. Methanol is 100% miscible in water. Methanol-water solutions and
aerosols are flammable up to 75 vol% water. A greater volume of water at least four times
greater than the volume of methanol is required to extinguish a methanol fire. If water is
chosen as the first response fire suppression medium, then provisions must be made to
prevent the resulting methanol-water solution from (1) entering drains and manholes and (2)
spreading and carrying the fire into other parts of the facility.
Fire Control
Refer to 2008 Emergency Response Guidebook for additional guidance.
57
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6.3 Fire Ground Safety

Fire ground command must be vigilant to prevent fire teams from becoming surrounded by or
partially immersed in flammable methanol-water solutions. Because methanol does not
produce a visible flame in daytime hours can be a hidden hazard that may potentially become
a life safety issue.
6.3.1 Confined Space Fires

Flammable methanol-water solutions must be prevented from entering confined spaces, such
as sewers and drains. Non-burning, flammable methanol-water solutions must be prevented
from contacting ignition sources and hot equipment that could cause these solutions to ignite.
Burning and non-burning methanol-water solutions must be kept away from other fuel
sources, such as vehicles.
6.3.2 Fire Brigades

Although the composition and capabilities of a fire brigade are outside the scope of this
manual, this section touches on some of the key issues that fire brigades must keep in mind
when responding to methanol fires.
6.3.2.1 Outside Responders
Most facilities relying on this manual will not have their own fire brigade and must rely on
outside sources for firefighting. This in no way compromises response effectiveness,
provided there is provision for early detection, alarm, rapid callout, and instrumented, as well
as visual fire assessment. Offsite responders must be: aware that they are responding to a
methanol fire and be trained and equipped in the same way as an in-house fire brigade. It is
recommended that facility operators contact their local first responders and set up site visits
and fire drills to increase familiarity with the site.
Responders will benefit from having aerial and fire ground thermal imaging capability.
Responders must either bring their own or be provided access to AR-AFFF alcoholcompatible fire suppression foam.
6.3.2.2 Personal Protection Equipment
Fire responders must wear the following minimum Personal Protection Equipment (PPE):
Methanol compatible turnouts (fire-resistant uniform) with helmet, gloves, and boots.
Full face, positive-pressure SCBA.
Communication equipment.
6.3.2.3 Fire Responder Training

Fire responders must be trained and equipped to fight methanol fires. In order to combat a
methanol fire, it is essential that alcohol-resistant foam be used directly on the fire, that foam
be applied for a substantial period of time after the fire is out, and that water is used
thoughtfully and intelligently. If too much water is used to cool surrounding equipment, and if
water runoff mixes with burning methanol, then the dilution can create a so-called running
fire. Application of water within the interior of a tank will not suppress a methanol fire and
more likely exposes responders to a tank explosion resulting from thermally induced rollover
and expansion of tank contents.
Special provisions may be necessary to accommodate a response by an outside party. This
should be determined and accommodated prior to introducing methanol into the facility.
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Responders should have portable thermal-imaging equipment available for use on the fire
ground and in the air over the fire ground. Responders must be trained in using the
instrumentation, and incident command must be trained to take advantage of thermalimaging capabilities.
6.4 Methanol-Gasoline Blended Fuels Fire Safety

Alcohol (ethanol and methanol) have replaced MTBE as the oxygenated compound in motor
fuels in large metropolitan centers in the United States that are subject to air-quality
restrictions. The state of California is blending between 7 and 10 vol% ethanol. In Europe, the
Renewable Energy Directive calls for B7, E5, and E10 blending requirements for bio-fuels.
Most metropolitan fuel terminals will use inline-blending technology to add methanol to
gasoline. Smaller operations in suburban and rural areas may use splash blending. In view of
this, tanker transport trucks of 10,000-gallon capacity (38,000 liters) are likely the largest
amounts of blended fuel encountered by responders in the United States and Europe at this
time. This is expected to change during the next three to five years if subsidies of ethanol biofuel production are removed.
The following discussion of fire safety of methanol-blended fuels should be reviewed within
this context as it applies primarily to 10,000 gallon batches, and also to larger splash-blended
fuels in tank inventory in rural environments.
6.4.1 Properties of Methanol-Gasoline Blended Fuels

Methanol is miscible in both gasoline and water; however, its affinity for water is greater than
that for gasoline. A solution of methanol and water is not miscible in gasoline. Methanol-water
solutions form a separate phase that sinks to the floor of tanks, tanker trailers, and secondary
spill containment. This has specific implications for how first responders deploy to an
emergency involving methanol-gasoline blended fuels.
Methanol-gasoline fuel blends have two worst-case scenarios. The first is thermally induced
rollover of contents of a tank due to uneven heating of stratified layers. The other is a BLEVE.
Both can manifest pressure waves and may be accompanied by large fireballs that have a
high rate of radiant heat flux.
If fires involving methanol-gasoline blended fuels are suppressed with water (even small fires
with fog, mist, or fine droplet spray), then firewater in contact with the fuel blend will
immediately begin forming a separate phase that extracts methanol from the blended fuel
and concentrates it in a methanol-water phase that sinks to the bottom of the blended fuel
enclosure. The result is stratification of two flammable liquids: gasoline floating on a
methanol-water phase. Stratification can cause unexpected and unwanted results if the
containment is a metal tank subject to heat flux from a fire outside the tank and/or heat from a
gasoline fire within the tank.
The heat capacities of gasoline and a solution of water and methanol are very different.
Therefore, the rate at which temperature rises in each of the stratified layers will be different.
The temperature of the gasoline layer will increase more rapidly than that of the watermethanol layer because water has a very large heat capacity compared to gasoline. If
convection currents within the tank caused by unequal heating of the layers become
sufficiently vigorous, and if water in the lower layer flashes to steam, then the tank essentially
experiences a steam explosion accompanied with a giant fireball consisting of most of the
flammable liquid contained within the tank. Because of the very large amount of water, which
must be added to dilute methanol beyond its flammability range, it is unlikely that this amount
of water will be added prior to rollover. In fact, the addition of water may increase the
likelihood of rollover. Therefore, the entire contents of the tank are flammable liquid. In a
Methanol-Gasoline Blended Fuels Fire Safety
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worst-case scenario, the fireball will abruptly release the heat of combustion of the tanks
contents.
The second worst-case scenario, a BLEVE, would more likely occur in the event of a tanker
truck transportation accident. In this case, the overpressure and the heat flux from the fireball
depend on the amount of fuel remaining in the tanker at the time of BLEVE.
6.4.2 Methanol-Gasoline Blended-Fuel Fires

A more typical blended-fuel scenario may involve overfilling a 15M/85G fuel into a bermed
area. The severity of the consequences depends on how much fuel is spilled, whether the hot
work hazard zone for the tank is rigorously enforced, the speed of the response, and whether
the responders are properly equipped and trained to use thermal imaging and to apply
alcohol-compatible, heat-resistant foam.
Gasoline burns with a luminous flame; therefore, the gasoline portion of the fire is easily
recognized. The 15/85 fuel blend burns with a slightly luminous flame. The methanol-water
phase may be under the gasoline, where it is prevented from burning, or it may begin burning
when the floating gasoline layer is consumed. The methanol-water phase will burn with an
invisible, non-luminous flame. Responders may believe that the application of foam has
suppressed the fire; however, methanol fires are persistent. It is in fact necessary to apply
foam for an extended time after the fire is out. Two to three times as much AR-AFFF foam is
required to maintain fire suppression as is required to initially extinguish the flames. This
means that foam inventory needs to be sufficient to cover a spill to considerable depth.
It is important to remember that a gasoline fire requires conventional AFFF for effective fire
suppression. On the other hand, a methanol or methanol-water fire requires AR-AFFF or filmforming fluoroprotein (FFFP) foam for effective suppression. A 15M/85G blend requires FFFP
to combat the higher temperature of a gasoline fire and resist solvent attack of methanol.
AFFF foams have no alcohol resistance. They immediately break down when exposed to
alcohol. The AR-AFFF foam has low heat and temperature resistance. The AR-AFFF
degrades when exposed to high temperatures associated with a gasoline fire.
If AFFF foam is applied to a methanol fire, and if AR-AFFF foam is applied to a gasoline fire,
then both foams are ineffective, and responders will have to rely on water spray and/or let the
fire burn itself out.
Application of the wrong foam in the wrong place at the wrong time may cause fire intensity to
increase, with the result that tank roll over and/or BLEVE become very real possibilities. At
this point, responders have lost control of the fire ground, and the likelihood increases that
someone may be injured unless a decision is made to increase standoff distance.
6.4.3 Response to Methanol-Gasoline Blended-Fuel Fires

Responding to methanol-gasoline blended-fuel fires is complex. The first thing to understand
is the composition of the fuel. The second is to determine the size of the fire and its likelihood
of spreading. The third criteria is to have a well-trained and practiced team with equipment
suitable to fight both methanol and gasoline fires.
The following is a short list of questions that may be useful in staging practice responses.
60
How does the incident commander decide which monitors and which hose crews get
which foam at what times?
What types of foams are needed, and are foam inventories sufficient?
How is the incident commander going to track fire propagation?
How are hot spots identified?
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How will the commander know if a BLEVE or tank rollover is imminent?

How long should the incident commander continue applying foam after the fire is
initially extinguished?
What is the best strategy: fight the fire, or withdraw and allow the fire to burn itself
out?
At what point in the response must the decision to withdraw be made, what
information is necessary to make it, and who is going to make it?
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Chapter
7
7 Emergency Response
Accidental releases represent one of the major environmental, health, and safety hazards
associated with the use, storage, and distribution of methanol. This chapter addresses the six
major stages of emergency response (ER) to methanol releases: (1) spill prevention, (2) spill
response, (3) release containment, (4) cleanup and remediation, (5) notification and
reporting, and (6) incident investigation recordkeeping.
Effective ER starts by developing an Emergency Response Plan (ERP) that identifies
potential hazards from operations, natural and man-made disasters, sabotage, and
vandalism, which can impact operations, human life, or the environment. Appropriate
response measures are then developed for each scenario, identifying the internal resources,
personnel, equipment, and training needed, as well as the coordination with outside response
agencies, such as the fire department, regulatory agencies, and private contractors.
A good ERP includes regular drills (both planned and surprise) and annual reviews to ensure
that the plan is fully implemented and kept current. In ER, time is an enemy. Time to alarm,
time to respond, time to deploy, and time to control an incident are important benchmarks in
assessing ER effectiveness and efficiency. Within this context, effectiveness is taking the
correct action in the correct place at the correct (earliest possible) time. Efficiency is
performing repeatedly and effectively in a variety of situations and circumstances.
7.1 Spill Prevention

Spill prevention is an integral part of ER planning. The best spill prevention strategy is
incorporated into process safety management at the design stage. Effective spill prevention
programs involve process engineering controls, standard operating procedures, standard
maintenance procedures, spill response planning, and periodic training geared to each
employees degree of involvement in the response actions.
Engineering controls associated with methanol storage tanks include: overfill protection by
means of visible and audible high-level alarms; automatic instrumented trips to terminate flow
prior to overfill; vents equipped with flame arresters; secondary containment systems, such
as dikes, bunds, or berms; vapor detectors and alarms; and explosive gas detectors to detect
and warn of fire and explosion hazards in the event of a release.
Methanol must be stored in an area that is well ventilated and is bermed, diked, or bunded. If
designed in accordance with NFPA 30, the storage area shall be capable of containing at
least 110% of the volume of the largest storage tank in the contained area. In the event of a
leak inside the containment area, pooled liquid methanol should ideally be completely
covered with alcohol-resistant foam. If the containment area is adequately sized, the
methanol spill can be diluted with at least four parts water to one part methanol to reduce the
risk of fire. These precautions are to be taken regardless of whether the methanol is on fire.
The objective is to prevent vapor migration and flashback by reducing the vapor release rate
from the liquid surface.
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Operation and maintenance procedures for preventing and detecting leaks and spills should
include periodic visual inspections (at least once per shift). Nondestructive testing of the
condition of tanks, valves, pipes, hoses, and dikes should be conducted on a regular basis,
as well as preventative maintenance of mechanical, electrical, and structural components.
This includes detection and alarm systems. Consideration should be given to specifying level
control and vapor detection as unclassified or as an SIL 1 instrumentation loop.
Methanol handling, containment, and control systems must be maintained to be fit for
continual service. W ritten procedures for loading and transferring methanol, as well as steps
necessary for emergency shut off, should be developed and reinforced through periodic
training of operating personnel.
Workers must be trained to handle methanol in a safe manner. Systems and procedures that
protect the employees, the plant, and the environment should be implemented.
Spill kits must be available in all areas where methanol is handled, stored, or used. A
complete spill kit must include:
Various types and sizes of sorbent materials (vermiculite or activated carbon, sorbent
pads).
Plastic (non-sparking) shovel to disperse the sorbent materials.
Yellow caution tape or other barrier devices to isolate the area.
Drum or container to hold the collected waste material.
Emergency communication devices, such as explosion-proof mobile phones or twoway radios.
Personal protection equipment for the responders should, at a minimum, include:
Chemical splash goggles and face shields.

Butyl or nitrile gloves.
Rubber boots.
Chemical-resistant coveralls.
Provision for supplied fresh breathing air (air-purifying respirators with organic vapor
cartridges should never be used for protection against methanol vapors).
Multiple fire extinguishers.
Industrial first aid kits.
Full body water showers and eye wash stations capable of supplying 15 minutes of
water should be positioned nearby to decontaminate exposed personnel.
Ample supply of potable water for washing and drinking.
Vehicle suitable for emergency transport.
7.2 Spill Response

Facilities that use, store, or distribute methanol need to be prepared in case of a spill by
developing and implementing spill response plans and conducting scheduled and surprise
drills at least once a year, or more often if possible.
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Steps if a Spill Occurs

The first steps to take if a spill occurs are:
1. Stop or reduce methanol release rate at the point of release, if it can be done
safely.
2. If there are noxious vapors, evacuate, sound a vapor release alarm, and notify
supervisor or emergency coordinator.
3. Eliminate all sources of ignition to a safe standoff distance from the point of release
and nearby methanol pooling.
4. Evacuate all persons not wearing protective equipment from the area of the spill or
leak until cleanup is complete (this requires that cleanup levels be pre-determined).
5. Do not walk through spilled product. Avoid skin contact and inhalation.
6. Stay upwind and keep out of low-lying areas that might accumulate vapor.
7. For large spills and fires, immediately call the fire department.
7.3 Release Containment

Methanol releases can range from large volumes in shipping vessels, tanker trucks, and rail
cars, to large spills from storage tank and pipeline failures, to medium spills during transfer
operations, to small drum, tote, or hose leaks. The spill response plan should take into
account the anticipated location and conditions of the release. Most frequently, methanol
spills are likely to result from tote, drum, or transfer hose-associated accidents.
Whenever possible, spilled methanol should be kept from entering sewers or drains, which
comprise confined spaces subject to explosion, and where liquid can flow to streams, rivers,
lakes, or the ocean. If possible, remove leaking containers to the outdoors or to an isolated,
well-ventilated area, where the spill can be contained and the liquid can be safely transferred
to an appropriate container. Free liquid should only be collected or transferred using
explosion-proof pumps, grounded and bonded containers, and spark-resistant tools.
Spills onto pavement or bare ground should be contained by surrounding the liquid with
mechanical or chemical barriers, such as sand, vermiculite, zeolite, or absorbent dikes. For
small spills, cat litter can be used as an effective absorbent. The spill surface should be
covered with the absorbent materials or activated carbon to capture the pooled methanol.
After use, the saturated sorbent materials or soil-containing methanol should be removed and
packed for recovery, recycling, or disposal.
Methanol vapor is slightly denser than air and should be kept from flowing into confined
spaces, such as sumps, manholes, and utility tunnels, where the vapors may settle and reach
flammable concentrations. These spaces should be checked for explosive atmospheres prior
to re-occupancy.
Water spray can knock down methanol vapors but may not prevent ignition in closed spaces.
AR-AFFF fire suppressing foam may be applied to the spill for vapor suppression and to
diminish the fire hazard.
In order to prevent fires or explosions, vapor releases inside buildings or in confined spaces
should be ventilated to achieve less than 10% of the LEL for methanol, which is equivalent to
0.6% or 6000 ppm. However, at that level, methanol vapors are still considered Immediately
Dangerous to Life and Health. The building must be evacuated until response personnel
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determine that it is safe to re-enter and methanol concentrations in air are less than 200 ppm.
All ignition sources in the immediate area, such as smoking, flares, sparks, or flames, should
be shut off or removed from a radius of 328 to 656 ft (100 to 200 meters) from the spill area.
Outdoor releases of methanol vapors will likely disperse relatively quickly. Isolating the area
328 to 656 ft (100 to 200 meters) from the spill source in all directions and staying upwind of
the release plume are the appropriate response measures. If a tank truck or rail car is
involved, expand the isolation area to one half mile (800 meters) from the release source.
The purpose in expanding the radius of the exclusion limit is to protect personnel against
overpressure, radiant heat flux, and shrapnel in the event of a BLEVE.
Pipeline spills may require setting up diversion channels or pathways to direct methanol
toward natural or engineered collection basins and away from sensitive ecological areas or
waterways. This may be necessary even after closing upstream and downstream valves or
bypassing the flow until the residual content is drained.
It is not practical to recover methanol from spills into natural bodies of water, such as rivers,
lakes, and oceans.
7.3.1 Site Control Zones

Site control is an essential component in ERP implementation. To control the spread of
contamination and employee exposure to chemical and physical hazards, the spill area
should be divided in three concentric circles centered on the Exclusion Zone (EZ) or hot
zone where the spill is contained. This is surrounded by a Contaminant Reduction Zone
(CRZ), which includes a single point of ingress and egress of response personnel and
equipment, as well as the decontamination corridor for cleaning personnel and equipment
exiting the hot zone. The Support Zone (SZ) located in the outermost perimeter is used for
staging response equipment, and for locating the command post and communications center.
Access to the EZ and CRZ will be restricted to authorized personnel only. The Emergency
Response Coordinator (ERC) will identify work areas that personnel are authorized to enter
and will enforce site control measures.
7.4 Spill Cleanup and Remediation

Only properly trained and equipped employees should be allowed to participate in methanol
spill control and cleanup operations. In the United States, emergency responders must have
training according to the OSHA Hazardous W aste Operations and Emergency Response
(HAZWOPER) rules contained in section 1910.120 of Title 29 of the Code of Federal
Regulations [59]. For methanol spills where explosive concentrations are suspected or
possible, Level A fully encapsulating, vapor-protective clothing with supplied air-respiratory
protection must be worn. Smaller spills may require Level B vapor protective clothing and
gloves and supplied-air respiratory protection. Due to the quick saturation of activated
charcoal to methanol vapors, air-purifying respirators with organic vapor cartridges should
never be used.
Once the fire, explosion, and health hazards have been controlled, the goal of a methanol
spill cleanup operation is to recover as much pure material or methanol-water mixture as
possible before it undergoes complete dilution to maximize its recycling or reclamation
potential. Methanol-saturated absorbent materials can also have caloric value as secondary
fuel blending or incineration. Possible treatment processes for recovered methanol mixtures
include reverse osmosis, carbon adsorption, steam stripping, and air stripping. However,
cost-benefit considerations will need to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.
Contaminated absorbent material and affected soil may need to be treated as a hazardous
waste. Treatment and disposal options will depend on the applicable regulations. Depending
on the location and affected medium, it may be necessary to remediate the methanol spill
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site. Methanol is not persistent in the environment, and when released onto surface waters,
soil, and groundwater, it will readily dilute to low concentrations, allowing native soil or
aquatic bacteria to biodegrade it in a relatively short period of time. The relative speed of
methanols biodegradation is expected to result in natural cleanup times that are faster than
the active cleanup times. However, regulatory requirements and potential liability may require
an active remediation process.
7.5 Spill Notification and Reporting

The United States Emergency Planning and Community Right-To-Know Act (EPCRA)
requires immediate notification to the Federal National Response Center, the State
Emergency Response Commissions, and the Local Emergency Planning Committees for
chemical releases above certain thresholds. In addition, state and local government agencies
may also have notification and reporting requirements following a hazardous materials spill.
Methanols Reportable Quantity in the United States Comprehensive Emergency Response
and Liability Act (CERCLA) Hazardous Substances List is 5000 pounds (2.2 tonnes), which is
equivalent to 755 gallons (2858 liters). In Canada, reporting requirements are triggered for
spilled amounts as low as 53 U.S. gallons (200 liters). In the European Union (EU), the public
will be able to access an electronic database on pollutant releases through Regulation
Number 166/2006 (European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register).
Spill notification may trigger requirements to remediate the spill area and restore any damage
to the environment, in addition to penalties and fines.
7.6 Incident Investigation and Recordkeeping

A key component of ER planning is to conduct an incident investigation to identify the causes
of the release and correct any deficiencies in process safety systems and operating
procedures, as well as to improve on the response effort itself.
The facility should have a written incident investigation and follow-up procedure to ensure
that appropriate corrective measures are implemented and that all relevant records and
documentation of the investigation are maintained.
7.7 Incident Command Structure

During a small spill that can be handled within the facility, the onsite Emergency Response
Commander (ERC) has primary responsibility for responding to and correcting emergency
situations and for taking appropriate measures to ensure the safety of site personnel and the
public. The ERC is also responsible for ensuring that corrective measures have been
implemented, appropriate authorities have been notified, and follow-up reports have been
completed. Possible actions may include evacuation of personnel from the release area.
Facility personnel are required to report all spills, fires, injuries, illnesses, and property
damage to the ERC.
In a larger incident that requires outside responders, such as the fire department and/or
Hazardous Materials Response Unit to be called in for assistance, the ERC will pass
command responsibilities to the lead agencys Incident Command (IC), who will direct the
response efforts.
Depending on the size and magnitude of the event, an IC may involve one person or a team.
The IC may be supported by information, safety, and liaison officers, and may also require
support personnel to coordinate operations, logistics, planning, and finance.
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7.7.1 Communications
Successful communication between field teams in the EZ and personnel in the support zone
is essential in an emergency situation. To ensure proper communication and safety, the
buddy system (or two-person team) should always be used during field investigation and
cleanup activities in the EZ. Intrinsically safe (explosive-proof) cellular telephones or two-way
radios (for areas with no cellular phone service) should be available to all ER personnel.
Different response agencies use different radios and call codes. It should be verified that
radios are compatible with those of the responders that a facility may be forced to rely upon.
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Chapter
8
8 Methanol Incidents and Safeguards
This chapter presents a review of the major types and causes of methanol-related incidents
and accidents and describes the most common hazards experienced by various methanol
users. Also discussed are effective safeguards that can help reduce the occurrence and
magnitude of hazardous incidents.
8.1 Overview of Methanol Incidents

Many major incidents of methanol spills, fires, and explosions have been reported in the
international media, and compilations of private reports and some public agencies are
available on the Internet. However, a comprehensive list of incidents and accidents involving
methanol that have occurred throughout the global supply chain is not available in a
centralized database at this time. The widespread uses of methanol from chemical
intermediates and solvents to alternative fuels make this a complex task.
The table below presents incident data compiled from research on the Internet dating from
1998 to 2011 and includes incidents reported in the United States, Canada, Brazil, France,
Italy, Germany, Sweden, China, India, Malaysia, South Africa, and Australia. The complete
list of incidents on which this table is based is included in Appendix D of this manual.
Table 9. Types of Methanol-related Incidents by User Sector (1998-2011)

Sector
Biodiesel
Industrial
Transportation
Home
Pipelines
Schools
Commercial
Water
Treatment
Total
Percentage
Overview of Methanol Incidents
No. of
Incidents
23
23
22
4
4
3
1
% of
Incidents
28%
28%
27%
5%
5%
4%
1%
Fire and/or
Explosion
23
21
12
4
1
3
1
1
81
100%
1%
1
66
81%
100%
Spill
Other
2
6
11
14%
4
5%
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This table is not intended to be a complete or representative statistic of the relative frequency
or magnitude of such incidents. However, it can serve as a point of departure to evaluate the
common types of incidents involving methanol and to assist users in identifying the risks and
developing safety measures to prevent potential disasters.
The industrial sector, which includes biodiesel production, was the top category responsible
for most methanol incidents, accounting for 56% of all cases. Biodiesel manufacturing itself
represents half of the 46 industrial incidents, with 23 fires and/or explosions. Most of the other
industrial cases also involved fires or explosions, plus two reported spills.
Of the 22 incidents in the transportation sector, which accounted for 27% of all cases, almost
one half involved road transport of methanol, and another 36% were railway related. There
were four shipping incidents reported, as well. Twelve of the 22 incidents resulted in a fire or
explosion, six caused spills, and the remaining four resulted in collisions, turnovers,
derailments, and ships running aground with no significant loss of material.
A review of 81 separate incidents involving methanol from 1998 to 2011 indicates that fires
or explosions account for 81% of all incidents, and spills represent 14%.
Table 10 below shows the rates of injuries and fatalities caused by the methanol-related
accidents reported.
Table 10. Methanol Incident Fatalities and Injuries by User Sector (1998-2011)
Sector
Transportation
Industrial
Biodiesel
Water
Treatment
Commercial
Schools
Home
Pipelines
Total
No. of
Incidents
22
23
23
Fatalities
14
5
4
Injuries
9
15
6
% all
Fatalities
54%
19%
15%
% all
Injuries
18%
31%
12%
1
1
3
4
4
81
2
1
0
0
0
26
1
1
12
5
0
49
8%
4%
0%
0%
0%
100%
2%
2%
24%
10%
0%
100%
Transportation-related accidents accounted for the highest number of casualties, with 54% of
all fatalities and 18% of all injuries. Industrial accidents other than biodiesel had the highest
number of non-fatal injuries involving 15 people, as well as five fatalities. The biodiesel
industry accounted for four deaths and six injured workers. Injuries reported for homes and
school incidents were due to burns. No fatalities were reported in home, school, or pipeline
incidents. The single incident reported in a wastewater treatment plant (due to a welding
incident) represents the highest severity rate with two deaths and one injured worker.
Fatalities due to poisonings from the illegal use of methanol in alcoholic beverages are not
included in this analysis. Nonetheless, 61 homeless people died from drinking methanollaced beverages in just one incident reported in Khartoum, Sudan, on June 24, 2011. This
was more than twice the total fatalities from all of the incidents reported in these tables over a
13-year period.
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Industrial methanol users (including biodiesel manufacturers) and the transportation sector
together account for more than four out of every five incidents reported, and 88% of all
fatalities.
8.1.1 Common Causes of Incidents

It is not always possible to determine the root cause of the incidents reported by the media or
in the compiled reports. Almost one-third of the incidents reported have an unknown cause.
Another 10%, or eight cases, can be categorized as non-intended uses involving children
and adults playing with methanol and fire, or school science class experiments gone awry.
8.1.2 Routine Operations and Maintenance

In the industrial and biodiesel sector, maintenance-related issues appear to account for over
half of the incidents with known causes. Hot work involving welding or grinding on methanol
storage tanks or containers represents half of the maintenance incidents, and faulty electrical
installations and equipment, transfer lines, pumps, or safety valves account for the rest.
Routine operations like mixing materials, reactions involving high temperatures or pressures,
and material transfer operations seem to account for 45% of fire or explosion incidents in the
industrial sector, although it is not possible to identify the specific sources of ignition in these
cases.
Biodiesel manufacturing accounts for two-thirds of all industrial incidents reported with known
causes.
8.1.3 Transportation Activities

In the transportation sector, collisions by auto transport, railcars, or ships and barges account
for more than three-quarters of all of the incidents with known causes. Spills make up the rest
of the incident types.
Transportation accidents by and large appear to have occurred during routine operations
while the vehicles or vessels carrying methanol were on the road, on rail, or underway in
marine waters. Only two incidents could be directly attributed to maintenance issues,
although the proximate causes of the other accidents are not known. Interestingly, there are
no reported cases of spills during material transfer operations. All transportation spills
reported are due to collisions or turnovers, with one incident of a minor spill in a storage rail
yard.
8.1.4 Pipeline Incidents

Of the four reported pipeline incidents (three spills and one fire), all were process-related, and
three occurred during routine maintenance activities.
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8.2 Key Findings

The incident statistics above point out that, while fire and explosion often resulting from a
spill or other release are the most common outcomes of methanol incidents, their causes
can vary depending on the activity being conducted. Transportation incidents, whether on
road, rail, or water, seem to occur during routine activities. Pipeline and industrial incidents
are associated with equipment maintenance and, in biodiesel production in particular, with
routine operations.
One thing that they all share is the human element, which is of key importance in evaluating
the consequences of these incidents. This underlines the critical importance of understanding
the hazards of methanol and of learning and practicing the procedures for safe handling and
responding to emergency situations.
While it is not possible to identify the relative contributions of place, people, and process that
resulted in each event, we can benefit from lessons learned in incident analysis and process
safety management of similar industries and processes. Common factors that contributed to
these incidents include the following:
Insufficient understanding of the physical, chemical, and flammable properties of

methanol.
Methanol container, hose, or pipeline integrity not preserved.
Methanol vapors allowed to accumulate or released in flammable concentrations.
Inadequate spill containment capability.
Obvious ignition sources, such as hot work, not recognized or controlled.
Ignition sources such as static electricity, electric arc from non-explosion-proof
equipment or installations, friction and mechanical sparks, or exothermic chemical
reactions not identified or difficult to control.
Inadequate equipment maintenance.
Standard Operating Procedures for routine operations not followed or inadequate.
Process safety measures not in place or not followed.
Fire prevention systems not in place, inadequate, or not operational.
Inadequate Emergency Response planning, training, equipment, and/or supervision.
Failure to recognize the magnitude of the hazard or developing event and to take
appropriate and timely life safety protection measures.
8.3 Conclusions
As the analysis of historical incidents above suggests, the hazards inherent in the use,
storage, and transportation of methanol can result in serious and catastrophic events. Loss of
life, serious injury, and/or significant material losses can occur when this chemical is not
handled properly and with adequate safeguards. The following conclusions are based on
information gathered from these incidents:
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Conditions conducive to catastrophic events exist in all phases of the methanol value
chain, including the manufacture, transportation, distribution, storage, and processing
sectors, as well as in educational, recreational, and residential settings.
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Serious incidents from the use, transportation, or storage of methanol can and do
occur in large and small operations with widely differing levels of technical capability.
Emergency Response and Spill Prevention capabilities, training, and equipment are
essential elements of safe methanol handling, as many spills have resulted in fires
and explosions.
The majority of incidents, and many fatalities, could have been prevented by
implementing proper Hot Work Permit procedures prior to welding or grinding
activities.
Mechanical integrity and proper preventive maintenance of equipment for methanol
service is of key importance for all methanol users.
Understanding the importance of corrosion causes and prevention in methanol
service conveyance systems, pipelines, and storage tanks is essential. This is of
particular importance in marine terminals, tank farms, chemical plants, loading racks,
and for all industrial users.
Recognition, identification, and control of potential ignition sources must be
emphasized in all situations where methanol is present and releases are possible.
This should include sources of heat, fire, friction, electrical arc, static electricity,
sparks, chemical reactions, and physical process conditions, among others.
Industrial methanol users, and the biodiesel manufacturing industry in particular, will
benefit from implementing process safety management practices and procedures for
routine and special operations, as well as emergency conditions.
Operator training in the physical, chemical, and flammable properties of methanol is
an essential element in safe handling, in particular for industrial and transportation
workers.
8.4 Safeguards
To reduce the probability and consequences of a catastrophic incident, methanol users must
have the right tools to help them recognize the particular hazards of the type of operation or
activity they are involved in and to identify the appropriate safeguards to control those
hazards. In the chemical industry, this is best achieved through a safety management system
composed of three elements: people, equipment, and procedures. One key concept of the
systems approach is to realize that if we change anything in the system, we effectively change
the system, and this allows unsafe or hazardous situations to occur.
All good systems require proper planning, operator training, and implementation. In order for
the safety management system to be successful, the procedures must be complete, written,
regularly updated, and rigorously followed. The process must have the right equipment that is
properly maintained and documented, and the people must be properly trained in the
procedures and the equipment and supervised to do their job safely and effectively.
Below are some of the key elements that must form part of an effective safety management
system for methanol users. These elements may be scaled to the appropriate level
depending on the type of operation, storage or throughput volume, and conditions in which
methanol is handled.
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8.4.1 Process Safety Management

PSM is one safety management system that has been in effect in the chemical industry for
more than 20 years. In the United States, most facilities that store, process, or use 10,000 lbs
(1,508 gallons) or more of methanol are required by OSHA to implement PSM. The intent of
PSM is to know, understand, and control hazards of chemicals, process technology, and
equipment used in large and small chemical operations and activities. PSM consists of 14
management elements that work together in a systematic fashion. Each element addresses a
particular aspect of the process necessary to safely manage chemical hazards. However, the
elements of PSM can be scaled to the specific situation of the facility and implemented by all
facilities as needed. There are other models of chemical process safety in use around the
world that can be effectively adopted by methanol users. The PSM process is described in
detail in Chapter 5 of this manual.
8.4.2 Corrosion Prevention

Liquid methanol is electrically conductive compared to natural gas and distilled fuels.
Because of its high conductivity, containers holding methanol are more susceptible to
galvanic corrosion than containers holding hydrocarbons like gasoline. Conductivity increases
corrosion of alloys commonly used to handle natural gas and distillate fuel. This is particularly
true for aluminum and titanium alloys. Additionally, methanol is a solvent and is compatible
with only selected plastics and rubbers. Plastic containers commonly used for gasoline may
lose structural integrity when used to hold methanol and must be replaced with more
corrosion- and solvent-resistant materials. Storage containers and pipeline conveyance
systems should not be used in methanol or methanol vapor service without a rigorous
mechanical integrity program. Corrosion protection is discussed in Appendix B of this Manual.
8.4.3 Hot Work Permit Program

The hazards associated with hot work can be reduced by implementing an effective hot work
permit program. This should include prior work authorization, safe welding practices, and a
fire watch. See Section 4.3, Safety Precautions, in this manual for additional information.
8.4.4 Fire Prevention and Response

The three key aspects of fire response are early detection, immediate response, and
appropriate action. W hile the particular application of these principles may vary, a wellplanned and -developed system depends on training, equipment, and practice. See
Chapter 6 for more information.
8.4.5 Employee Training

It is the employers responsibility to inform all employees of the hazards and risks associated
with methanol and to inform them on how to effectively control those risks. As the incidents
above show, accidents usually occur because the individuals handling methanol or
performing work near methanol storage and handling areas are unaware of the risks.
Accidents are a sign that management has not assigned the appropriate priority to properly
training and supervising employees.
Operating personnel need to be trained in interpreting and applying the written operating
procedures, as well as those for upset conditions and emergency response. As a practical
matter, training includes both classroom and one-on-one, on-the-job training, supplemented
by drills and simulations, which may include complete mock events or simple table-top
exercises.
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Training is a dynamic process that must be refreshed on a regular basis. Effective training
involves:
1. Initial training upon assignment.
2. Periodic refresher training.
3. Update training. This is the most important and should be done whenever a change is
made in the process or when an incident or near-miss occurs.
Effective training and skills development must be conducted in a manner and at a level that is
clearly understood by all workers, and must include evaluation tools that demonstrate a
minimum level of understanding and skills proficiency. A thorough understanding of how the
physical and chemical properties of methanol affect flammability hazards and severity is an
essential training topic for all methanol workers. Consult the Methanol Institutes Technical
Bulletins on Using Physical and Chemical Properties to Manage Flammable Liquid Hazards
for additional information.
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Chapter
9
9 Environmental Protection
This chapter discusses the environmental impacts of methanol.
The most important properties of methanol that define its effects on the environment are its
solubility, volatility, and toxicity. These determine the fate and transport of methanol releases
into air, water, and ground and its effects on living organisms.
Methanol is found naturally in plants, animals, and humans. Environmental methanol can
come from both natural sources and human activities. Based on releases reported in the
United States Toxics Release Inventory (TRI), more methanol is released into the air than to
any other environmental medium, though some methanol is also distributed into water.
Atmospheric methanol comes primarily from industrial sources. Methanol degrades by photooxidation and undergoes aerobic and anaerobic degradation through biological mechanisms.
It has low toxicity to most aquatic organisms and is not known to bio-accumulate significantly
in fish. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Developments (OECDs) Screening
Information Data Set (SIDS) Program [54] has determined that methanol is a low-priority
chemical, whose properties are not considered harmful to the environment under normal
circumstances. The EPA has determined that methanol has a limited persistence in the
environment.
9.1 Environmental Fate and Transport

The main physical and chemical properties of methanol that affect its fate, transport,
distribution, and persistence in surface water and groundwater are its miscibility, its affinity for
other materials (partition coefficients), and biodegradation.
Methanol is 100% miscible in water and has a low water-octanol partition coefficient, meaning
that the two liquids will mix completely in all proportions. Therefore, if spilled onto surface
water, methanol will dissolve and dilute to very low concentrations relatively quickly. Although
pure methanol is highly volatile in air, once it dissolves in water, it becomes very stable and
will not readily come out of solution. This makes it difficult to remediate methanol spills in
water. In an open ocean methanol spill, naturally occurring wave action, quick dissolution
within the water column, and the near-infinite availability of water results in rapid dilution to
nontoxic concentrations.
Dissolved methanol does not have much affinity for mineral surfaces or organic carbon in
soil. However, once methanol reaches low concentrations in soil, it readily biodegrades under
a wide range of geochemical conditions.
In the event of a release to groundwater, methanol will eventually dissolve completely to a
relatively low concentration. The initial dilution concentration will depend on the size of the
spill area, the soil-water moisture content, and the depth to the water table. After the initial
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source zone dilution and mixing, the final concentration of methanol will depend on the
degree of dispersion of the plume in the particular environment.
Biodegradation, the breakdown of methanol into carbon dioxide and water through the action
of bacteria, is the primary mechanism for removing methanol from the environment. Methanol
spills to surface waters can quickly biodegrade under aerobic conditions. However, for
releases where fine soil, low hydraulic conductivity, low nutrient, and anaerobic conditions
prevail, methanol degradation in soil or groundwater can be very slow.
An active microbial community of methanol degraders can become established within a few
days after a surface water release. Dissolved oxygen concentration in water is the limiting
factor for the biodegradation rate. In surface water, a typical degradation rate is 10 mg/l per
day. At concentrations less than 3,000 mg/l, methanol is readily degraded in a wide range of
subsurface conditions. However, methanol concentrations above 10,000 mg/l can inhibit the
microbial population and lower the degradation rate.
9.2 Air Emissions

The relatively high vapor pressure of pure methanol causes it to volatilize readily into the air.
If released below ground, it will concentrate in soil gas within pore spaces, though it is easily
biodegradable. In the atmosphere, methanol vapor reacts with nitrogen oxides (NOx) to
generate methyl nitrate. As a volatile organic compound (VOC), methanol can contribute to
the formation of photochemical smog. Methanol is broken down by sunlight and has a half-life
of 17 to 18 days. After five days, the estimated removal from the environment is 75%-82%;
that rate increases to 95% in 20 days.
According to the United States Toxics Release Inventory (TRI), 116.8 million pounds (53,000
metric tons) of methanol were released on- and off-site from facilities in all industries in the
U.S. in 2009. Approximately 87% of the emissions were released into the air, and less than
2.5% into surface waters. The largest emitter in 2009 was the pulp and paper industry.
Methanol is included in the EPAs list of 188 Air Toxics, pursuant to the United States Clean
Air Act amendments of 1999, as well as in the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS)
database for pollutants with potential adverse health effects.
9.3 Groundwater Effects

The potential for mixing, dispersion, and dilution is a key factor in determining the rate of
degradation of the methanol plume. If the infiltration area is large, biodegradation can result
in concentrations of less than 3 mg/l in one to two years, even for high volume releases. This
period can extend to five or ten years in the case of smaller but continuous releases such as
from a leaking underground pipeline, where the methanol plume reaches stability with a high
concentration core, especially where the water table is shallow (reference Smith, Molson,
Maloney).
This is of particular importance in facilities and fuel transfer terminals with an aging
infrastructure of underground piping. Accelerated corrosion rates can occur in methanol
piping in the presence of even small amounts of water.
Fuel transfer terminals or pipelines that transfer 85/15 gasoline-methanol blends face
potentially greater environmental impacts than those transferring pure methanol. This is
because methanol acts as a solvent, aiding the dispersion of the gasoline in groundwater,
and competes with benzene for aerobic bacteria, causing the release to take considerably
longer to biodegrade. The problem of ensuring underground piping integrity can be
sufficiently severe in fuel transfer terminals that piping is being relocated to above-ground
installations in concrete channels.
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9.4 Impacts to Drinking Water

Methanol is not currently listed as a contaminant on the United States EPAs National
Primary Drinking Water Regulation (NPDW R), the National Secondary Drinking Water
Regulation (NSDW R), or the Drinking Water Health advisories. Methanol is listed as a
candidate on the Contaminant Candidate List 3 (CCL-3) released by EPA in February 2008.
9.5 Biological Effects

The EPA Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics found that methanol is essentially nontoxic
to four aquatic fish species that were tested based on the reported values of median lethal
and effective concentrations. However, biodegradation of methanol from a surface water
release can cause oxygen depletion in the water, which in turn could harm local fish species.
Methanol is toxic to aquatic organisms, such as fish, daphnids, and algae, at levels well
above 1,000 mg/l and especially above 10,000 mg/l. According to the EPA, these values
indicate a low acute toxicity of methanol to freshwater fish. Methanols toxicity to aquatic
plants is variable. It is highly toxic to eel grass and algal mats and has low toxicity to green
algae.
Methanol toxicity for estuarine and marine fish is similar to that for freshwater species.
Methanol is low to moderately toxic to freshwater invertebrates (water fleas, aquatic sow
bugs) and estuarine and marine invertebrates (mussels, brine shrimp). Methanols toxic
effects of short-term exposure to marine life are temporary and reversible. Methanol does not
bioaccumulate significantly in animals higher up in the food chain.
Knowledge of methanols effects on mammals comes primarily from research on laboratory
animals, including mice, rats, cats, dogs, and monkeys. In the wild, the distinctive odor of
methanol would likely warn animals to avoid a release area and prevent exposure. However,
methanol is a component of antifreeze, which can be highly toxic when consumed by
household pets.
Inhalation, oral, and skin exposure studies in laboratories show that rodents, rabbits, and
dogs suffer from loss of muscle coordination, unconsciousness, and coma after high
methanol doses. However, these animals do not exhibit the acidosis and eye changes
typically seen in humans at high lethal and sub-lethal doses. The lethal air concentrations for
animals tends to be lower than for humans, while the oral lethal doses are much higher for
animals than for humans.
9.6 Climate Effects

More methanol is produced from natural gas than from any other feedstock. A well-operated,
existing methanol production plant using natural gas has an efficiency of approximately 68%.
The upper limit of efficiency of methanol production from this fossil feedstock, consisting of up
to 80% of methane and 20% of a higher hydrocarbon like ethane, propane, butane, and
others, is estimated at 75%. Methanol can also be generated from biomass or by using
electrical energy via hydroelectric or wind power with energy efficiencies of only 55%-60%,
compared to the conventional natural gas manufacturing process.
In the 1990s, a typical methanol manufacturing plant would emit approximately 0.9-1.0
tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) for every tonne of methanol produced. In addition to the
environmental concerns, large CO2 emissions represent operational inefficiencies in a
methanol plant because the carbon emitted as CO2 is not available for making methanol
molecules. For these reasons, methanol plants began and continue to focus on efficiency
improvements that reduce CO2 emissions.
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Over the last decade, methanol plants have been able to reduce CO2 emissions by up to
40%. This has been accomplished through the implementation of efficiency improvements
and through replacement of older facilities with newer plants that use more efficient
technology. Some facilities report emissions as low as 0.54 tonnes of CO2 per tonne of
methanol produced. This is equivalent to emitting 3.6 lb of CO2 per gallon (0.43 kg of CO2 per
liter) of methanol.
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), methanol produced
from biomass for use in motor vehicles would reduce the overall greenhouse gas emissions
compared to fossil fuels because CO2from biomass-derived fuels originates from the air, and
the emissions are not counted in an emission inventory or a life cycle analysis.
9.7 Waste Treatment and Disposal

Waste methanol in concentrations equal to or greater than 24% by weight meets the EPAs
definition of an ignitable hazardous waste. Product-grade methanol, when disposed, is a
listed hazardous waste. Waste methanol, or water contaminated with methanol, is considered
a hazardous waste and must never be discharged directly into sewers or surface waters. It
may only be disposed of at a licensed facility permitted to handle Hazardous Waste as
defined in the United States Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA).
Contaminated products, soil, or water with methanol must be moved only by registered
transporters in approved containers. The recommended disposal method for methanol is
incineration for heating value recovery. Concentrated liquid methanol can be used as
secondary fuel in systems compatible with water-soluble waste. W aste methanol is also
amenable to reclaiming by filtration and distillation.
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Chapter
10
10 Product Stewardship and Sustainability
This chapter presents the Methanol Institutes product stewardship and sustainability
philosophy and outlines the major elements of a Product Stewardship Management System.
A Fact Sheet called Implementing Product Stewardship provides additional information.
10.1
Product Stewardship and Responsible Care

For the global methanol industry, product stewardship is the central focus from the input of
raw materials during methanol production to the consumer and ultimately the disposal of
methanol. The Methanol Institute plays an essential role in promoting product stewardship for
the global methanol industry. This role is consistent with the Responsible Care Ethic [14],
which is the guiding principle applied globally, and specifically ascribed to by several
Methanol Institute member companies. It is a voluntary initiative under which companies work
together to continuously improve their health, safety, and environmental performance and to
communicate with their stakeholders about their products and processes.
According to the American Chemistry Council, Responsible Care companies
have reduced environmental releases by 78% and achieved an employee
safety record that is more than five times safer than the average of the
United States manufacturing sector.
Within the global chemical-producing industry, product stewardship is commonly understood
to be the development and management of chemical products throughout their entire life
cycle, from cradle to grave. The goal of product stewardship is to ensure that parties up and
down the product supply chain have active management systems to ensure the safe,
environmentally sound, and socially responsible handling of the product. Each party needs to
assess on an ongoing basis how issues involving research, raw materials, product handling,
use, and final disposition are being addressed. This involves a shared and sustained
commitment of responsibility so that issues are identified and corrective actions are
implemented at any point in the product chain. The ultimate goal of product stewardship is to
improve the responsible management of chemical products throughout their life cycles from
the input of raw materials to ultimate product end-use and disposal.
The Methanol Institute plays its role in product stewardship by communicating safe handling
guidelines for methanol across the global distribution chain and to the downstream
customers. With the increase in global demand for methanol, especially in recent years, it has
been essential for the methanol industry to maintain and observe the highest standards
involving safety, health, and the environment. The Methanol Institute is responsible for
methanol health and safety initiatives, such as product risk evaluation, evaluation of exposure
risks throughout the supply chain, and education and training on proper methanol handling,
storage, and use. In addition, the Methanol Institute has been serving as the voice for the
international methanol industry, especially pertaining to the health effects, safety precautions,
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and environmental impacts of methanol. The Methanol Institute also maintains the worlds
most comprehensive database of methanol health effects and environmental impacts.
10.2
Product Stewardship Management System

Similar to safety and environmental management systems, such as International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) 14001 and Occupational Health and Safety Advisory
Services (OHSAS) 18001, product stewardship requires a management system approach
that follows the plan do check act cycle. This management system should document
the right way to do things, assign responsibilities for implementation, and outline the process
to do the following:
Train, correct, and reward people.

Constantly seek a better way.
Audit to make sure the system is working.
Track and report on performance, and use this feedback to drive improvement.
The expectation is that companies will incorporate the product stewardship culture and
practices into their existing management systems used to manage all aspects of the
companys operations and businesses. A product stewardship culture is a shared belief that
no product bought or sold by the company should cause harm to people or the environment.
10.3
Product Stewardship Practices

As with all aspects of Responsible Care, companies are expected to instill a culture of
product stewardship through the organization and to integrate the practices of product
stewardship into the management systems that are used to develop, manufacture, market,
and further improve the state of profitable, high-quality, and sustainable products.
Ten Product Stewardship Practices (PSPs) need to be implemented across the company by
all levels of management and employees. These ten practices address the fundamental
activities that are necessary to ensure the stewardship of a product over its life cycle, from
product concept to product end of life, and to instill a product stewardship culture within a
company.
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Figure 3. The Product Stewardship Practices

(Courtesy of the Canadian Chemical Producers Association, Product Stewardship Guide,
December 2003, with permission)
10.3.1 PSP #1: Leadership and Accountability

Clearly state the long-term commitment of senior leadership to product stewardship in written
policies. Specifically, leaders should:
Encourage employees across the organization to understand product stewardship

concepts and incorporate these in their own roles and responsibilities.
Ensure that adequate resources are available to establish, review, and attain product
stewardship performance goals for each product.
Demonstrate and reinforce the company commitment to product stewardship by
taking action to address poor product stewardship performance, resolve difficult
issues, modify support resources, or change a product
management/commercialization strategy.
10.3.2 PSP #2: Environmental, Health, and Safety Information

It is important to establish a database to store, update, and access product Environmental,
Health, and Safety (EH&S) information. This information includes product testing data,
regulatory registrations, and workplace exposure/plant emission data. There are many
available sources from which to collect information, including internal research and
development, industry partners, academia, and government sources. It is important to ensure
that information is updated as new information becomes available and on a regular basis.
The Methanol Institutes web site at www.methanol.org can be a useful tool for developing an
EH&S information database.
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10.3.3 PSP #3: Raw Material Selection and Procurement

Prior to changing purchasing practices of raw materials and finished products, assess on a
regular basis any potential impacts and risks that could occur. Incorporate risk management
and use the most efficient materials and components in procurement decision-making
processes; empower employees to cease supply agreements when risks are judged to be too
high. It is best to actively seek input and advice from suppliers on their product and risk
management experiences.
10.3.4 PSP #4: Product Risk Assessment

Designing and reformulating new products or applications presents an ideal opportunity to
reduce risk to people and to create more environmentally friendly products. Take action
wherever possible to lower product energy and material intensities across the life cycle. On a
regular basis or on receipt of new information or changed regulations, reassess the risk to
ensure the interpretation of the data is still appropriate.
10.3.5 PSP #5: Product Security

Companies should establish a security plan that protects against the deliberate misuse of
company products and raw materials as a result of terrorism, activism, vandalism, and
malicious acts. The extent and rigor of actions with respect to terrorism will vary depending
on the degree of potential risk, as determined by guidance from national, provincial, or local
governments.
10.3.6 PSP #6: Risk Management

Assess product risks prior to new sales, and cease sales when risks are judged to be too
high, either on an individual customer basis or in the market as a whole. Take corrective
action to reduce identified high-risk issues, if the assessed risks are not being managed
appropriately or are not considered to be acceptable.
10.3.7 PSP #7: Employee Training and Education

Include product stewardship education into existing employee training and education
programs throughout the company, and provide additional training to employees who have
been assigned product stewardship responsibilities. Promote feedback from employees on
social, EH&S, and ethical concerns they may have.
10.3.8 PSP #8: Selling

Promote two-way communication with downstream second parties, which will enable
companies to understand market expectations for the product, as well as social, EH&S, and
ethical concerns. It is especially important to provide balanced and accurate information on
EH&S issues to second parties. This helps to ensure that customers and downstream users
are aware of the new developments and insights into EH&S information on the products.
Actively seek feedback from downstream second parties on their product end-use
applications and risk management experiences with the product to help develop further
awareness. Involve Research and Development (R&D) early with customers and their
customers to assist in product design, and minimize potential difficulties in the use, handling,
recycling, and disposal of products. Sharing this Methanol Safe Handling Manual with
downstream distributors and customers is a good way to promote product stewardship. If
additional copies are needed, you can contact the Methanol Institute at MI@methanol.org.
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10.3.9 PSP #9: Public Concerns and Issues

Ensure consideration of the relevant concerns of individuals or groups not in the direct flow of
product use. An early discussion of concerns within these groups will help reduce both real
and perceived hazards.
10.3.10 PSP #10: Performance Indicators

Integrate product stewardship performance metrics and goals into employee assessment,
recognition, and reward processes. All employees need to demonstrate commitment to
product stewardship in their daily work activities.
10.4 Responsible Distribution

Responsible Care is the guiding principle, as already discussed. The concept of Responsible
Distribution specifically extends this principle as it relates to all aspects of the distribution of
chemicals, chemical products, and chemical services. Like Responsible Care, some member
companies of the Methanol Institute specifically ascribe and adhere to Responsible
Distribution, as well. Methanol is distributed globally, and awareness of and adherence to the
Codes of Practice for Responsible Distribution is important in terms of managing hazards and
minimizing risks with the use of methanol. As presented by the Canadian Association of
Chemical Distributors [13], Responsible Distribution generally requires the following:
1. Ensure general compliance.
A company shall have written policies, standards, and procedures to govern all
aspects of the responsible distribution of chemicals, chemical products, and chemical
services.
2. Manage risk.
A company shall have an active program to continually improve safety and
environmental performance. Key elements of risk management include (but are not
limited to): regular hazard and risk review of processes; establishing written
standards and procedures for bulk and packaged storage and handling (e.g., spill
containment and cleanup; product segregation; operation and maintenance of onpremise vehicles; selection, labeling, and management of containers and shipping
vehicles, and other procedures); and providing employees and contractors with
information pertaining to the hazards and risk associated with distribution activities
(e.g., handling chemicals, cleaning tanks and drums, transferring goods from one
container to another, packaging, and other distribution activities).
3. Communicate information.
The company shall have a program to communicate information to employees,
customers, contractors, sub-distributors, and suppliers.
4. Comply with legal requirements.
A company shall have a program to comply with legal requirements and to ensure
that employees work in accordance with the law.
5. Interact with interested parties.
A company shall implement a program to assist and work with interested parties
(employees, organizations, and governmental and community bodies) to identify
issues and set standards for the continual improvement of chemical distribution.
6. Manage sub-distributors.
A company may have an oral or written contract outlining the terms and conditions for
the distribution and/or sale of the product where there is no change to the product,
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package, and/or labeling, as originally supplied by the member company. The

member company shall implement a program to educate, assist, and assess all subdistributors.
7. Manage suppliers.
A company shall implement a program to educate, assist, assess, and approve
suppliers of chemicals, chemical products, and chemical services to encourage
compliance with this Code of Practice.
10.5
Sustainability
Methanol users participating in Responsible Care and Responsible Distribution are also
developing and implementing sustainability strategies. One of the biggest drivers for change
in supply and demand chain operations is the pressure to be more environmentally
responsible and sustainable in their product sourcing, logistics, transportation, distribution,
and operational practices.
10.5.1 A Primer on Sustainability

The 1987 United Nations Sustainable Development Conference in Johannesburg, South
Africa defined sustainable developments as those that meet present needs without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. A key concept that places
sustainability in more familiar business terms is the three Es or triple bottom line concept
of economics, environment, and (social) equity. The central point is that most business and
government decisions need to integrate these three dimensions in order to evaluate their full
impacts to the planet and reach the most desirable approach. The term green is often used
as a synonym for sustainability, although its meaning is more broadly applied. These
concepts can be very useful tools in planning a sustainability strategy and setting
performance benchmarks.
Most leading global enterprises have accepted the business case for sustainability.
Companies with extensive supply and demand networks, such as the chemical industry, are
looking for standardized metrics and indicators of sustainability performance that can be
applied across the supply chain.
Many organizations following Responsible Care and Responsible Distribution are also
implementing Lean production methods to improve manufacturing processes, increase
efficiency and reduce costs throughout the value chain. Lean manufacturing seeks to
eliminate all waste from a production system.
Methanol value chain companies can benefit from leveraging their lean production
implementation plans to support their sustainability efforts. The lean to green movement
capitalizes on the similarities between sustainability and lean management. The lean goals of
improving quality, eliminating waste, reducing time to complete a task, and lowering total
costs are compatible with the sustainability goals of eliminating waste and pollution,
improving energy efficiency, increasing utilization of renewable resources, and lowering the
costs to the planet of conventional material sourcing, production, and distribution practices. In
addition, both lean and sustainability emphasize the importance of stakeholder education,
employee teamwork, and application of analytical tools and metrics to drive performance.
Sustainability and lean management are both process-oriented activities. The core principle
of lean production is continual improvement. Not surprisingly, the best Responsible Care,
Responsible Distribution, and Sustainability systems also reflect this principle.
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10.5.2 Alternative Energy

The global recognition of the environmental and social impacts of energy derived from fossil
fuels is also raising concerns that new and alternative energy supplies should meet
recognized standards of sustainability. The acceptance and future success of biofuels as
fossil fuel substitutes will greatly depend on their overall social, economic, and environmental
impacts, the three pillars of sustainability. In that respect, not all renewable fuel sources are
the same. Producing biofuels from food crops, or as part of the process of deforestation
undertaken to grow biofuel crops, will affect their relative carbon footprints and is likely to
meet growing societal resistance.
Methanols use as an alternative fuel source in gasoline blends, in biodiesel production, and
as a key component in hydrogen fuel cells helps to reduce the direct consumption of fossil
fuels. However, 98% of today's commercial methanol is produced in large chemical
manufacturing plants using non-renewable natural gas. Production of methanol from
renewable resources using waste materials as feedstock is a promising alternative.
Currently, several biomethanol production technologies are in development from
demonstration projects to limited production facilities in Europe. One such technology
developed by Chemrec AB, a Swedish company, utilizes black liquor produced as a waste in
paper mills in a gasification process to produce bio-based methanol.
BioMCN, one of the worlds largest biodiesel manufacturers based in the Netherlands, is using
renewably produced glycerin to make biomethanol. Crude glycerine, a byproduct of biodiesel
production, is purified, evaporated, and cracked to obtain synthesis gas (syngas), which is
used to synthesize biomethanol. The biomethanol is purified by distillation and used with
vegetable oils and fats in the standard process to produce biodiesel, again generating
glycerin as a byproduct, thus closing the production cycle in what is termed cradle to cradle.
Syngas can also be obtained from other forms of biomass such as wood or algae derived
from organic waste materials and from crops other than those used for food consumption.
BioMCN operates a biomethanol plant producing 200,000 metric tons per year.
Iceland-based Carbon Recycling International (CRI) is manufacturing renewable methanol
by first using geothermal energy to produce hydrogen from water, then combining it with
captured carbon dioxide emissions from geothermal electricity generation to produce
methanol. CRI has operated a demonstration facility in Iceland since 2007 and is building a
commercial 1.3 million gallon per year production plant in Svartsengi, Iceland.
At the research and development stage, researchers at the University of Southern California
are working on a technology to strip carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to produce
methanol.
A definitive evaluation of the carbon footprints of various alternative fuels is beyond the scope
of this manual. However, the major renewable fuel source, ethanol, faces a number of
challenges as a sustainable alternative. These include a negative energy balance where the
inputs exceed the outputs, environmental impacts on water and soil from being produced
from corn and sugar cane, and the social impacts from competition with food crops and
agricultural land. By contrast, on a number of sustainability criteria, methanol from renewable
sources compares favorably to ethanol. It can be produced from a wide variety of sources,
exclusive of crops intended for human consumption and high commercial value biomass.
Methanol allows re-use of by-products in cradle-to-cradle loops and can utilize carbon
dioxide as an input. [(References 9.5.2-1 to 9.5.2-5) Pimentel, Chemrec, BioMCN, CRI]
Sustainability
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Chapter
11
11 Risk Communication
11.1
What Is Risk Communication?

When we first consider risk communication, it is generally as a means of communicating
information in an emergency response or crisis situation, as the following definition suggests
[15]:
Risk communication is a science-based approach for communicating effectively in situations
that may be characterized as:
High concern, high stress

Emotionally charged, or
Controversial
This is certainly true, and there are situations in the global methanol industry where this
definition applies, such as large methanol spills, fires, and disruptions in the supply, to name
a few. It is also likely safe to presume that when we talk about the risks of methanol, we are
talking about a topic of high concern to many people.
Risk communication also has applications at home, at work, and in the community as the
following definition suggests:
Risk communication is the art of putting science in the hands of people, in a way they can
use (USEPA [64]).
The focus of this chapter is on the use of risk (and hazard) communication in non-crisis
situations. The fundamentals of risk and hazard communication are the same, no matter the
situation, whether it be a routine communication or a high-stress situation. This chapter
introduces the tools and principles for effectively communicating information about risks, as
well as hazards, about the industry in non-crisis situations.
In this context, it is important to keep in mind two other key definitions the concepts of
Hazard and Risk. When we are considering the global use of methanol, hazard and risk
may be considered as follows:
The "hazard" associated with methanol is its intrinsic ability to cause adverse effects.
The "risk" is the probability that such effects will occur in the various applications in
which methanol will be used and discharged (or the exposure scenarios for use of
methanol).
This entire manual focuses on the hazards of methanol and the means used to limit those
hazards and thereby the risk of exposure of methanol to workers, the community, and the
environment.
What Is Risk Communication?
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This chapter emphasizes the application of risk (and hazard) communication pertaining to the
distribution and use of methanol in the context of the second definition above: putting science
in the hands of people in a way they can use.
The need may arise for a more detailed look at risk communication in crisis situations. The
Methanol Institute has a Crisis Communication Guidebook that includes a more detailed
review of risk communication principles for use during crisis situations, including dealing with
the media.
11.2
Why Is Risk Communication Important?

Effective and thoughtful risk and hazard communication can build trust and confidence in the
employee population and the community at large. This is crucial in order to prevent
inaccurate or potentially damaging public response in the event of a crisis.
Also, recall in the Product Stewardship chapter, the concepts of the Responsible Care Ethic
and Responsible Distribution. A key principle of each is sharing information with affected
parties, whether they are employees, nearby communities, political interest groups, subdistributors, or suppliers. Planning your message to be consistent with the principles of
Responsible Care and/or Responsible Distribution, as well as achieving the basic tenets of
risk communication, go hand in hand.
While we are not focused on crisis situations in this chapter, the risks and hazards of
methanol are real. When we are addressing issues of peoples health and safety, it is
important to realize that these are matters of high concern to people.
11.3
Risk Communication Basics

The first definition of risk communication above stated that risk communication is a sciencebased approach of communication. Indeed it is. Effective risk communication requires
planning and preparation. There are four basic steps to effective risk communication:
1. Determine the communication goal.
Communication goals about a particular methanol business, work location, new
technology, or other situation are numerous in non-crisis situations, such as sharing a
new procedure with a supplier, training new employees in a manufacturing process,
informing a neighborhood community about a new alarm procedure at a plant, etc. Is
the goal to inform your audience and/or to persuade them to act? Write down the
purpose of the communication and any desired outcome prior to constructing the
message.
2. Know the audience.
For example, if information is planned to be shared with a neighboring community or
a work crew within a plant, request input from a representative(s) of the community or
work crew, rather than assuming what their concerns may be. This is applicable for
all communications, whether routine (such as information bulletins, training classes,
etc.) or high-stress situations. Getting input from the audience, particularly with
regard to concerns about health and safety, will not only be enlightening for the entity
preparing the message, it can also help build credibility with the audience, which is
crucial in risk communication.
3. Develop the components of the communication the message and the medium.
Always take the time to make a clear and concise message, using the most
appropriate means of delivery for the audience intended to receive the message. It
sounds simple, but the importance of planning the message and understanding the
Why Is Risk Communication Important?
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audience cannot be overstated. W henever possible, get input from representatives of

the key audience to better understand their concerns. Select a medium for
communicating that will reach the most people, and take care not to inadvertently
leave groups out. For example, communicating important information (such as what
to do when a shelter-in-place alarm is activated) via a web bulletin to an economically
disadvantaged community is likely not an effective means of communicating such an
important message. Make sure that language barriers are considered and planned
for in order to reach the most people.
4. Make sure the information provided is accurate and timely.
This is particularly important when communicating in a crisis situation, but applies to
all risk and hazard communication. Ensuring that the person delivering the message
is competent is critical to building and maintaining credibility with the audience.
11.4 Communicating Complex Technical and

Scientific Information
Scientific information will be more useful to the audience, and greater communication
success will be achieved, if the information provided is relevant and easily understood. To
help audiences understand the issues, create well-targeted messages. Also be sure to use
clear, non-technical language to discuss risks and other specific information indicating the
nature, form, severity, or magnitude of the risk.
The following are some ways to clearly communicate complex scientific or technical
information:
Always use consistent names and terms (e.g., switching from parts per million to parts
per billion can result in alarm because the higher numbers may be noticed, but not the
unit of measure).
Avoid acronyms and jargon, and provide careful definitions in advance. Never
assume an audience knows what you are talking about.
Use familiar frames of reference to explain how much, how big, or how small, and try
to create a mental picture of such measures as parts per billion or tons per day.
Numeric analogies, such as the United States produces enough garbage in a day to
fill 100 American football fields 14 feet (4.25 m) deep, are more meaningful to
average listeners than talking about 250,000 tons or tonnes of garbage per day.
However, examples should not be trite or condescending or overly dramatic. Take
the time to develop meaningful examples and calculations.
Acknowledge uncertainty. Recognizing and admitting uncertainty is simply the reality
of most risk communication situations, but especially in a crisis situation. Saying I do
not know is an acceptable response and can build credibility.
If an audience demands 100% certainty, they are more than likely questioning the
underlying values and process, not the science. Try to identify the real concerns
behind the demand for certainty and address them. For example, the statement, If
youre not certain, how can we know were being protected? is not a question about
data but rather about personal and family safety. That is the issue to be addressed.
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Understanding the Publics Perception of Risk

A key barrier is the term risk itself how its measured, described, and ultimately perceived.
Interested parties perceive risk differently, and people do not believe that all risks are of the
same type, size, or importance.
Perceptions of the magnitude of risk are influenced by factors other than numerical data (see
table below from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) [61]).
Understanding these factors will help determine the degree of risk with which a message may
be perceived and assist in crafting an appropriate communications strategy.
Risks Perceived To
11.6
Are More Accepted Than
Be voluntary
Risks perceived as being imposed
Be under an individuals control
Risks perceived to be controlled by others
Have clear benefits
Risks perceived to have little or no benefit
Be distributed fairly
Risks perceived to be unfairly distributed
Be natural
Risks perceived to be manmade
Be generated by a trusted source
Risks perceived to be generated by a less credible

source
Be familiar
Risks perceived to be exotic
Affect adults
Risks perceived to affect children
Earning Trust and Building Credibility

The ability to establish constructive communication will be determined, in large part, by
whether an audience perceives the person delivering the message to be trustworthy and
believable. Consider how people form their judgments and perceptions.
Key elements in trust and credibility, and their relative importance, are depicted as follows:
(Courtesy of the Center for Risk Communication, with permission)
Do not underestimate the absolute requirement that people need to know that you care
before they care what you know!
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11.7 Looking for Opportunities to Get Your Message

Out
Do not wait for a crisis situation to begin the process of risk communication. In fact, the more
thorough and thoughtful an industry, company, government body, etc., can be about the
issues they deal with and how the public may perceive the risks, the better prepared that
entity will be in any crisis situation. Some opportunities to reach out may include, but are not
limited to, the following actions:
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Submit letters to the editors of local newspapers.

Contact your local newspaper to find out how to submit an opinion article.
Call in to local talk radio programs when pertinent topics are being discussed.
Contact local talk radio producers to solicit an invitation to appear on their programs.
Contact local civic groups to solicit speaking opportunities.
If you give a speech, contact local news outlets and ask them to cover your
presentation.
Contact local television news producers to explore ways they can cover your issues.
Looking for Opportunities to Get Your Message Out
Chapter
12
12 Glossary
12.1
Terms, Abbreviations, and Acronyms

-Aaccident An unfortunate incident that happens unexpectedly and unintentionally, typically
resulting in property damage or personal injury.
ACGIH American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. ACGIH publishes
recommended upper limits (Threshold Limit Values TLVs) for worker exposure to chemicals
within the workplace.
acute effect(s) An adverse effect with severe symptoms developing rapidly and coming
quickly to a crisis as a result of exposure to heat, overpressure, or toxic material.
adiabatic flame temperature (see also Peak Flame Temperature) The highest possible
flame temperature presuming there is no loss of heat from the flame to the surroundings. This
is a calculated value that assumes that all of the heat released as heat of combustion is
directed toward raising the temperature of the flame. The actual flame temperature will be
much cooler than the value calculated as the adiabatic flame temperature because a portion
of the heat of combustion is transferred to the surroundings via convective and radiant heat
transfer.
AFFF Aqueous Film-forming Foam.
AFNOR Association Franaise de Normalisation.
alcohol(s) Any of a class of organic compounds characterized by the presence of a hydroxyl
group covalently bonded to a saturated carbon atom.
alkali metal(s) Group 1A elements in the periodic table.
alkane(s) Any of a class of hydrocarbons in which one carbon atom is bonded to four other
atoms. Alkanes are said to be saturated.
API American Petroleum Institute.
AR-AFFF Alcohol-resistant Aqueous Film-forming Foam.
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
atmosphere(s) A measure of atmospheric pressure at mean sea level equal to 14.7 psi.
autoignition point/autoignition temperature The minimum temperature required to initiate
or cause self-sustained combustion independently of the heating source or heated element.
As the temperature of a flammable liquid is increased above the fire point, a minimum
temperature is attained at which self-sustained combustion occurs in the absence of an
ignition source. This temperature is called the autoignition point or autoignition temperature.
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-BBEI Biological Exposure Indices.

bermed Having a mound or bank of earth, used specifically as a barrier or to provide
insulation.
bioaccumulation The increase in concentration of a substance in an individuals tissues due
to uptake from food. It occurs when an organism absorbs a toxic substance at a rate greater
than that at which the substance is metabolized.
biodegradable An organic substance that can decompose or be degraded to its constituents
by the action of living organisms, such as bacteria and fungi.
biodiesel A vegetable oil- or animal fat-based diesel fuel consisting of long-chain alkyl
esters. Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids (e.g., vegetable oil, animal fat)
with an alcohol such as methanol.
BLEVE An acronym for a Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion. A hazardous situation
exists when a storage tank containing highly flammable gases and liquids (e.g., methanol)
under pressure is exposed to direct flames of a fire. Fire making contact with the shell of the
tank causes simultaneous loss of strength in the metal and a rapid development of internal
pressure in the vapor space above the liquid. If the venting mechanism (pressure relief valve)
built into the structure is only sized for normal vapor expansion and not for fire case, then
the inability to vent fumes causes pressure to rapidly accumulate within the tank. The
combination of a weakened shell structure and high internal pressure results in an
instantaneous tank failure and catastrophic release and ignition of vapor. Use of unmanned
firewater monitors is typically recommended in potential BLEVE incidents. BLEVE may occur
within 10 to 30 minutes of initial flame contact unless the tank is cooled. A firewater
application rate of at least 500 U.S. gallons (approximately 1,900 liters) per minute is required
to cool the tank. BLEVEs can cause containers to rocket away from the site of the explosion
due the force of the explosion.
boiling point or boiling point temperature (B.P.) The temperature at which a liquid phase
material changes to a vapor phase. Boiling point is usually expressed in degrees of
temperature (centigrade, Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin, or Rankine).
BTU A commonly used abbreviation for British Thermal Unit, a measure of heat. One BTU is
equivalent to the heat that is necessary to raise 1 pound of water 1 degree Fahrenheit,
specified at the temperature of waters maximum density (39F or 4C). One BTU contains
252 calories or 1,055 Joules.
bunded An enclosure to contain either a reclaimed area, a chemical, or other hazardous
substance if it spills.
-CC or ceiling The concentration value of an airborne substance that is not to be exceeded
during any part of the working exposure.
CABA Compressed Air Breathing Apparatus.
calorie (cal) The amount of heat required to increase the temperature of 1 gram of water
1 degree Celsius from 14.5C to 15.5 C.

CANUTEC Canadian Transportation Emergency Center. A national center in Ottawa that is
operated by the Department of Transportation. On request, CANUTEC relays pertinent
emergency information concerning specific chemicals. CANUTEC has a 24/7 telephone
number (613-996-6666).
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carcinogen A substance that causes cancer; a substance or agent capable of producing

cancer in mammals.
CAS Number Chemical Abstract Service Number. A number assigned by the Chemical
Abstracts Service that identifies a specific chemical. The CAS number provides indexing to
access information about particular substances.
cc (cubic centimeter) A metric measure of volume equal to one milliliter (ml).
CCL-3 United States EPAs Contaminant Candidate List 3, released in February 2008. See
Contaminant Candidate List.
CERCLA Comprehensive Emergency Response and Liability Act.
CFR An acronym for the United States Code of Federal Regulations.
chemical family A group of single elements or compounds with a common general name
(for example, gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, diesel, etc., and blended cuts of the
hydrocarbon family).
chemical feedstock A chemical that is used as the starting point for the manufacture of
other, more complex chemical substances.
chronic effect An adverse effect on a human or animal body with symptoms that develop
slowly over a long period of time.
Class IA The National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) designation for flammable liquids
having flash points temperatures below 73F (22.78C) and boiling point temperatures below
100F (37.78C). An example of a class IA flammable liquid is n-pentane.
Class IB The National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) designation for flammable liquids with
flash point temperatures below 73F (22.78C) and boiling point temperatures greater than or
equal to 100F (37.78C). Examples of Class IB flammable liquids are methanol, benzene,
propane gasoline, and acetone.
Class IC The National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) designation for flammable liquids with
flash point temperature(s) greater than or equal to 73F (22.78C) and less than 100F
(37.78C). Examples of Class IC flammable liquids are turpentine and n-butyl acetate.
Class II The National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) designation for combustible liquids
having flash point temperatures equal to or greater than 100F (37.78C), but less than 140F
(60C). An example of a Class II combustible liquid is kerosene.
Class IIIA The National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) designation for combustible liquids
that have flash point temperatures equal to or greater than 140F (60 C) and less than 200F
(93.33C). Examples of Class IIIA combustible liquids are creosote oils and phenol.
Class IIIB The National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) designation for combustible liquids
with flash point temperature equal to or greater than 200F (93.33C). Ethylene glycol is an
example of a Class IIIB combustible liquid.
CNG Compressed Natural Gas.
coefficient of volumetric thermal expansion The change in the volume of a liquid per
degree of change in temperature.
coma A profound state of unconsciousness from which the subject cannot be awakened.
combustible (adj) A substance, solid, liquid, or gas that will burn; a description of
flammability of a liquid based on flash point; generally refers to liquids with a flash point
greater than or equal to 100F (37.78C)
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combustible liquid(s) A National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) designation for liquids
having flash point temperatures at or above 100F (37.78C). Combustible liquids are
subdivided into three classes as above based on flash point temperature.
combustion A chemical reaction that releases energy as heat and usually light. In everyday
usage, it generally indicates something is burning or on fire. Combustion and burning are
essentially equivalent terms.
confined space A term used in labor safety that refers to an area with enclosed conditions
and limited access.
Contaminant Candidate List (CCL) The primary source of priority contaminants for which
the United States EPA conducts research to make decisions about whether regulations are
needed. The contaminants on the list are known or anticipated to occur in public water
systems; however, they are currently unregulated by existing national primary drinking water
regulations. Listing in the CCL is based on a contaminants potential to occur in public water
systems and the potential for public health concern.
Contaminant Reduction Zone (CRZ) The site control zone surrounding the Exclusion
Zone. The CRZ holds the only access point for entry of response personnel and equipment,
as well as the decontamination corridor for cleaning personnel and equipment exiting the
Exclusion Zone.
corrosive (adj) A gas, liquid, or solid that causes irreversible damage to human tissue or
containers; defined by the United States Department of Transportation (DOT) as a liquid or
solid that causes visible destruction or irreversible alterations in human skin tissue at the site
of contact.
Cradle-to-Grave An environmental assessment of the impact of a product or chemical
through its entire life cycle, from manufacture to eventual disposal.
CRI Carbon Recycling International.
-Ddecomposition The breakdown of a material or substance (by heat, chemical reaction,

electrolysis, decay, or other processes) into parts or elements or simpler compounds.
deflagration (explosive deflagration) A low-velocity explosion that burns furiously and
persistently. Vapor cloud explosions are typically deflagrations, not detonations. Strictly
speaking, most deflagrations are not explosions, but are very fast fires. An explosive
deflagration produces an appreciable blast wave, which has the potential of damaging
equipment and injuring people. Many substances that deflagrate when weakly ignited will
detonate under sufficiently strong ignition. A deflagration wave can, in some circumstances,
accelerate spontaneously to a detonation.
density The property of a substance that measures its compactness; the mass of a
substance divided by the volume it occupies.
dermal toxicity The adverse effects resulting from skin exposure to a substance; toxicity
associated with a substance of chemical that enters the body by absorption of the chemical
through the skin.
detonation (explosive detonation) A detonation is caused by a very rapid chemical
reaction that passes through the exploding material at speeds of 0.6 to 6.2 miles per second
(1 to 10 km/s), well in excess of sonic velocity. High pressures are developed, and the
products of combustion move in the same direction as the pressure wave. A detonation is a
shock wave accompanied by the chemical reaction that sustains it. Explosives that normally
detonate are termed high explosives and have high shattering power, even when
unconfined. Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is an example of a detonating high explosive.
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detonation velocity The velocity at which the shockwave front travels through a detonated
explosive.
dilution The process of making a substance less concentrated by adding a solvent, such as
water.
DIN Deutsches Institut fr Normung E.V.
DMDC Dimethyl dicarbonate.
DME Dimethyl Ether.
DMFC Direct Methanol Fuel Cell.
DMT Dimethyl Teraphthalate.
dose The amount of a poisonous substance that causes adverse health effects.
DOT (USDOT) An acronym for The United States Department of Transportation, a Federal
agency that regulates the transportation of chemicals and hazardous materials.
DOT Guide Number (see also UN and UA Numbers) The four-digit hazard code assigned by
the U.S. DOT. Typically, the DOT Guide Number and the UN Number are the same. If there
is no DOT Guide Number or UN Number, then a NA Number is assigned.
DOT Hazard Class and Division The category of hazard DOT assigns to a hazardous
material such as explosives, compressed gases, flammable and combustible liquids,
flammable solids, oxidizers and organic peroxides, poisonous and toxic materials, infectious
substances, radioactive materials, corrosive materials, and miscellaneous hazardous
materials.
DOT Number Companies that operate commercial vehicles hauling passengers or cargo in
interstate commerce and/or intrastate haulage of hazardous materials must be registered
with the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA) and must have a DOT
Number. The DOT Number serves as a unique identifier for the company when compiling
incident reports and accident history.
DOT Packaging Regulated hazardous materials for export require UN/DOT compliant
packaging.
DOT Packing Group Mitigating the risks associated with shipment of hazardous materials
may require application of safety precautions during shipment, storage, and use. Packing
groups are used to determine the degree of protective packaging required for dangerous
goods during transportation. Group I is great danger, group II is medium danger, and group III
is least danger.
Drinking Water Advisory A non-regulatory document that analyses the currently available
cancer and non-cancer data on a contaminant, as well as studies on its organoleptic (taste
and odor) effects.
-EEH&S Environmental Health and Safety.

electrical conductivity (see also Specific Electrical Conductance) The measure of how well
a material allows movement of an electrical charge. It is the ratio of the current density to the
electric field strength. The SI derived unit of measure is Siemens/meter (S/m). A unit of
Siemens is equivalent to the older unit for the inverse of an ohm, known as mho.
Conductivity (also called specific conductance) of moderately conductive liquids such as
methanol is frequently expressed in units of micro Siemens per centimeter (S/cm).
Conductivity of dielectric liquids such as gasoline and diesel are often expressed in units of
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pico Siemens per centimeter (pS/cm). A unit Siemens is equivalent to 1 x 10 pico Siemens.
6
A unit micro Siemen is equivalent to 1 x 10 pico Siemens.
enthalpy of combustion (see also Heat of Combustion) The exothermic thermal energy
that is released by a combustion reaction.
EPA (USEPA) The United States Environmental Protection Agency, a Federal agency that
regulates environmental hazards.
EPCRA Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act.
ER Emergency Response.
ERC Emergency Response Coordinator.
ERP Emergency Response Plan.
EU European Union.
explosion A rapid increase in volume and release of energy in an extreme manner, usually
with the generation of high temperatures and the release of gases. An explosion creates a
shock wave.
extinguishing materials A substance that prevents the spread of fire and arrests the
chemical reaction that allows sustained fire. Ideal extinguishing materials for methanol fires
include alcohol-resistant foam, dry powder, carbon dioxide (released from automatically
triggered sources), or water in at least a three- to four-fold excess of methanol by volume.
EZ Exclusion Zone; also known as hot zone.
-FFFFP Film-forming fluoroprotein.

fire monitor (firewater monitor) A stationary, typically unmanned firewater nozzle that can
be aimed and left unattended to disperse a stream of water into a predetermined area.
fire point The minimum temperature at which self-sustained combustion occurs.
Fischer-Tropsch process (water gas process) An industrial method of making
hydrocarbon fuels from carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Hydrogen and carbon monoxide are
mixed in the ratio 2:1 (water gas is used with added hydrogen) and passed at 392F (200C)
over a nickel or cobalt catalyst. The resulting hydrocarbon mixture can be separated into a
higher boiling fraction for diesel engines and a lower boiling fraction gasoline fraction. The
process is also used in the manufacture of SNG (Synthetic Natural Gas) from coal.
flame temperature The temperature of a flame. Flame temperature provides a general
indication of the rate of the combustion reaction. Liquids that are characterized as burning
with a high flame temperature have higher reaction rates than those characterized by a low
flame temperature.
flammable A solid, liquid, or gaseous substance that will ignite easily and burn rapidly, as
opposed to a combustible substance that will not ignite as easily or burn as rapidly.
flammable limits Pertaining to ignition of liquids, gases, and vapors in air. Also called the
explosive limits. The lower and upper flammable limits define the concentrations outside of
which ignition will not occur due to the mixture being too concentrated (rich) or too diluted
(lean), respectively. (See flammable range, LEL, UEL.)
flammable liquid(s) Generally, liquids do not actually burn in the liquid state. Liquids
release vapors that ignite when a flammable mixture with air is attained in the presence of an
ignition source.
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flammable material(s) Any solid, liquid, vapor, or gaseous materials that ignite easily and
burn rapidly when exposed to an ignition source. Examples of flammable materials within this
broad definition include certain solvents such as methanol, dusts like flour, certain finely
dispersed powders like aluminum, and gases like hydrogen and methane.
flammable range The numerical difference between the upper and lower explosive limits
measured as the experimentally determined volumetric concentration of a substance in air
above which and below which ignition does not occur.
flash point/flash point temperature The minimum temperature at which a liquid (or solid)
gives off a sufficient volume of vapor at atmospheric or near atmospheric pressure to first
form an ignitable mixture with air near the surface of the liquid or within the test apparatus.
The United States Department of Transportation defines the flash point temperature as the
minimum temperature at which a substance gives off flammable vapor(s) which, in contact
with sparks or flame, will ignite. The term does not ordinarily have meaning or significance
when applied to flammable gases or solids.
freezing point temperature The temperature at which the liquid and solid states of a
substance coexist at one atmosphere (atm) of pressure.
fuel cell An electrochemical cell that converts chemical energy from a fuel (such as
methanol) into electric energy. Electricity is generated from the reaction between the fuel
supply and an oxidizing agent. The reactants flow into the cell, and the reaction products flow
out of it, while the electrolyte remains within it. Fuel cells can operate continuously as long as
the necessary reactant and oxidant flows are maintained.
fuel in vaporized stoichiometric mixture The volume percent of vaporized fuel available to
a combustion reaction which occurs at stoichiometric concentration.
functional groups Structural molecular fragments of organic compounds that are found in
all members of a given class of compounds and that are centrally involved in the chemical
reaction of a chemical class.
-G3
g/cm Grams per cubic centimeter. A metric unit of concentration measure (weight/volume)
expressed in units of grams of weight per cubic centimeter of volume.
3
g/m Grams per cubic meter. A metric unit of concentration measure (weight/volume)
expressed in units of grams of weight per cubic meter volume.
gal Gallon. A commonly used abbreviation for both a U.S. and an English (Imperial) unit of
volume. A U.S. gallon contains 231 cubic inches (3.8 liters). An Imperial gallon is defined as
the volume that contains exactly 10.0 pounds of water at standard temperature and pressure
(which is 277.4 cubic inches or 4.56 liters).
gas(es) The phase of matter in which a substance has no definite shape and a volume that
is defined only by the size of the container in which the gaseous matter resides.
ground (electrical) A common return path for electric current, or a direct physical
connection to the Earth.
GWBB-8 h Grenswaarde beroepsmatige blootstelling (Belgium 1998). A measure of
exposure concentration for an eight-hour workplace exposure.
GWK-15 min Grenswaarde kortstondige blootstelling (Belgium 1998). A measure of
exposure concentration within the workplace for a time duration of 15 minutes.
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-Hhazard A hazard is a situation that poses a level of threat to life, health, property,
or environment. Most hazards are dormant or potential, with only a theoretical risk of harm;
however, once a hazard becomes "active, it can create an emergency situation. Hazard
and vulnerability interact together to create risk.
HAZCHEM Code Also known as Emergency Action Code (EAC), a code designed to be
displayed when hazardous chemicals are transported or stored in bulk. It is used to help the
emergency services take action quickly in any accident. The code consists of a number
followed by one or two letters. The number indicates the type of substance to be used in
treating the accident (e.g., stream of water, fine spray, foam, dry agent). The first letter
indicates the type of protective clothing needed, along with information about the possibility of
violent reaction on whether the substance should be contained or diluted. The second letter,
where it exists, is E, indicating that people have to be evacuated from the proximity of the
incident. In the UK, the code is usually displayed as part of a panel, which includes an
international UN number for the substance, a telephone number for specialist advice, the
company name, and a symbol indicating the danger or hazard posed by the material (e.g.,
skull and crossbones for toxic substances).
HAZOP (HAZOPS, HAZOP Analysis) An acronym for HAZard and OPerability Study. A
safety procedure by which various engineering and administrative safeguards are assessed
to identify accidental release scenarios for hazardous materials.
HAZWOPER An acronym for Hazardous W aste Operations and Emergency Response. It
refers to five types of hazardous waste operations conducted in the United States
under OSHA Standard 1910.120 "Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response.
The standard contains the safety requirements employers must meet in order to conduct
these operations.
heat capacity (see also Specific Heat or Specific Heat Capacity) The amount of heat
needed to raise either 1 gram of a substance 1 degree Celsius or 1 pound of substance 1
degree Fahrenheit.
heat of combustion (see also Enthalpy of Combustion) The heat evolved to the
surroundings when a compound is burned to yield carbon dioxide and water vapor.
heating value The theoretical amount of heat that can be released by a combustion reaction
if the fuel and oxidants are converted with 100% efficiency to CO2 and H2O vapor. Two
values are given heat value: a higher heating value (HHV) and a lower heating value (LHV).
HHV is used for situations in which all of the heat (heat of reaction, the sensible heat of
product gases, and the heat of condensation of water vapor) is recovered and utilized to
perform work. HHV is essentially the same as the thermodynamic heat (enthalpy) of
combustion. The LHV is used if a portion of the sensible heat of the gases and the heat of
condensation of water vapor is not recovered to perform work. The process industries
typically use the lower heating value.
hot work Any process that can be a source of ignition when flammable material is present or
can be a fire hazard regardless of the presence of flammable material in the workplace.
Common hot work processes are welding, soldering, cutting, and brazing. When flammable
[
materials are present, processes such as grinding and drilling become hot work processes.
-IIARC The International Agency for Research on Cancer. A scientific group that classifies
chemicals according to their cancer-causing potential.
IC Incident Command.
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ICC International Code Council.

IDLH Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health. Pertaining to measurement of toxicity, the
maximum concentration from which one could escape within 30 minutes without experiencing
any escape-impairing symptoms or any irreversible adverse health effect. IDLH levels are
published for many substances by NIOSH/OSHA Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, United
States Department of Health and Human Services/United States Department of Labor.
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission.
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
ignition The initiation of combustion.
IMPCA International Methanol Producers and Consumers Association.
incident A hazardous situation that has come to pass.
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate change, a scientific intergovernmental body set
up by the W orld Meteorological Organization (W MO) and by the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP). It assesses the scientific, technical, and socioeconomic information
relevant for the understanding of the risk of human-induced climate change.
IRIS Integrated Risk Information System.
ISA International Society of Automation (formerly Instrument Society of America).
ISO International Organization for Standardization.
-Jjoule(s) Symbol j. The SI unit of measure for energy.
-KK Kelvin. The degrees of temperature relative to thermodynamic absolute zero.

kg(s) kilogram(s). A commonly used abbreviation for a unit of metric measure for the weight
(mass) of a substance: 1,000 g = 1 kg.
kJ kilojoule(s). SI abbreviation for common unit of energy.
kPa kilopascal(s). SI abbreviation of commonly used measure of pressure.
-Llatent heat of vaporization The energy to transform a given quantity of a material into a
gas.
LEL Lower Explosive Limit. Also lower flammability limit. The volumetric concentration of a
flammable material in air at 1 atmosphere of pressure, below which the mixture of fuel and air
is too lean or dispersed to ignite in the presence of an ignition source with a standard and
relative high amount of energy, such as a spark.
Level A Protection Protection used for hazardous work conditions with a high potential for
exposure to very high concentrations of chemical splash, immersion, or exposure to chemical
vapors. It consists of a fully encapsulated chemical suit with supplied air-breathing apparatus
for the highest available level of respiratory protection. It is required for chemical hazards with
a high vapor pressure and toxicity through skin absorption or which are carcinogenic.
Level B Protection Level B has the same level of respiratory protection required as in Level
A protection; however, it allows for certain areas of exposed skin on the wearer and
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encapsulating garments that are not vapor tight. Used in exposure situations at chemical
concentrations below established exposure limits and chemicals that are not vapors or gases
that are toxic by skin absorption or are carcinogenic.
Liquid Flammability Class A system of classification used by NFPA and ICC that groups
liquids into categories based upon boiling point and flash point temperature. Methanol,
ethanol, and gasoline are type IB flammable liquids. By comparison, diesel is a combustible
liquid.
Lower Flammability Limit (see also lower explosive limit) The concentration of a gas or
vapor in air below which a flame will not propagate upon exposure to an ignition source. If the
fuel/air mixture is said to be to lean, there is insufficient fuel to support sustained combustion.
LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas.
-MM.P. Melting point. A commonly used abbreviation for the melting point temperature of a
solid material.
M85 A fuel mixture consisting of 85% methanol and 15% gasoline.
MAC Maximale aanvaarde concentratie (the Netherlands 2002). Maximum Occupational
Exposure Concentration Limits.
MAC-TGG 8 h Maximale aanvaarde concentratie. Maximum Occupational Exposure
Concentration Limits for an eight-hour exposure.
MAK Maximal Arbeitsplatzkonzentrationen (Germany 2001). Maximum Concentrations of
Chemical Substances in the W orkplace: Occupational exposure concentration limits.
mass burning rate The loss in mass per unit time by materials burning under specified
conditions.
methanol (methyl alcohol, wood alcohol) Methanol (CH3OH) is a colorless, poisonous
liquid with essentially no odor and very little taste. Chemically, it is the simplest alcohol and is
derived by replacing a hydrogen atom of the methyl group with a hydroxide atom. Methanol is
a liquid at room temperature and pressure that is miscible in all proportions with water and
with gasoline. Methanol is a polar solvent that disperses readily within the surface
environment and is quickly rendered nontoxic by the combined processes of dilution and
degradation. Because of its solubility, methanol can be difficult to remove from potable
ground water.
3
mg/m A metric unit of concentration measure (weight/volume) expressed in units of

milligrams of weight per cubic meter of volume.
MI Methanol Institute.
Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE) The smallest amount of energy of a piloted ignition source
that can ignite a mixture of fuel in air when the concentration of the fuel is between the lower
and upper flammable limits. Four sources of heat energy are: (1) chemical, (2) electrical, (3)
mechanical, and (4) nuclear.
miscible A liquid that will evenly dissolve in another liquid; 100% miscibility is when two
liquids will mix completely in all proportions.
mm Hg Millimeters of mercury. A measure of pressure.
mol(s) A commonly used abbreviation for mole, as in a mole weight of a particular element,
chemical, compound, or substance.
MSDS Material Safety Data Sheet.
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MSHA Mine Safety and Health Agency (see OSHA).

MTBE Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether.
mutagen A substance that causes mutations within humans or animals. A mutation is a
change in the genetic material in a body cell. Mutations can lead to birth defects,
miscarriages, and cancer in humans.
-NNACE National Association of Corrosion Engineers.

NAERG The North American Emergency Response Guidebook, a paperback publication
developed jointly by Transport Canada, the United States Department of Transportation, and
the Secretariat of Communications and Transportation of Mexico. A free electronic version
can be downloaded from the Transport Canada web site at
http://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/canutec/guide-ergo-221.htm. The ER Guidebook is a guide for first
responders to quickly identify the specific or generic hazards of material involved in a
transportation incident. The information assists first responders in protecting themselves and
the public from chemical exposure during the initial response phase of the incident.
NEC Acronym for National Electrical Code of the United States (NFPA 70).
NFPA An acronym for the National Fire Protections Association. This group classifies
substances according to their fire and explosion hazard.
NFPA #30 A National Fire Protection Association code called the Flammable and
Combustible Liquid Code.
NFPA #30A A National Fire Protection Association called the Code for Motor Fuel
Dispensing Facilities and Repair Garages.
NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. This United States government
agency tests equipment, evaluates and approves respirators, and conducts studies of
workplace hazards. NIOSH also proposes workplace exposure standards to OSHA.
NPDWRs National Primary Drinking Water Regulations. Also called primary standards.
Legally enforceable standards that apply to public water systems in the United States.
Primary standards protect public health by limiting the levels of contaminants in drinking
water.
NSDWR National Secondary Drinking Water Regulation.
NTP National Toxicology Program. An entity that tests chemicals and reviews evidence for
cancer in the United States.
-OOECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.

OES The Occupational Exposure Standards (United Kingdom 2001).
OHSAS Occupational Health and Safety Advisory Services.
organic Of, relating to, or denoting compounds containing carbon (other than simple binary
compounds and salts) and chiefly or ultimately of biological origin.
OSHA The Occupational Safety and Health Administration, a United States Federal agency
that adopts and enforces health and safety standards within industrial workplaces other than
mines and mills (e.g., chemical manufacturing plants, petroleum refineries, oil production
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fields, merchant liquid air plants, etc.). MSHA (the Mine Safety and Health Agency) is
responsible for health and safety standards in mines and mills.
OVA Organic Vapor Analyzer.
-Ppartition coefficient The ratio of concentrations of a compound in the two phases of a

mixture of two immiscible solvents at equilibrium. Partition coefficients are a measure of
differential solubility of the compound between these two solvents.
peak flame temperature (see also Adiabatic Flame Temperature) The theoretical maximum
temperature a flame can reach assuming no heat is transferred to the surroundings.
PEL The Permissible Exposure Limit for a chemical within the workplace. PELs are enforced
by OSHA in the United States.
PHA Process Hazard Analysis.
PLC Programmable Logic Controller.
poison A substance that, when introduced into or absorbed by a living organism, causes
death or injury, especially one that kills by rapid action even in a small quantity.
PPE Personal Protection Equipment. An ensemble worn by a worker to protect against
physical and chemical hazards. It can include head, eye, and hearing protection equipment,
gloves, safety shoes, and additional specialized equipment for specific hazardous conditions.
ppm Parts per million. A volumetric unit of measure for the concentration of a substance in
air or in a solution.
process safety Refers to the prevention of unintentional releases of chemicals, energy, or
other potentially dangerous materials during the course of chemical processes that can have
a serious effect to the plant and environment. Process safety involves the prevention of leaks,
spills, equipment malfunction, over pressures, over temperatures, corrosion, metal fatigue,
and other similar conditions. Process safety programs focus on design and engineering of
facilities, maintenance of equipment, effective alarms, effective control points, procedures
and training. It is sometimes useful to consider process safety as the outcome or result of a
wide range of technical, management, and operational disciplines coming together in an
organized way.
producer gas (air gas) A mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen (N2) made by
passing air over very hot carbon. Usually some steam is added to the air, and the mixture
contains hydrogen (H2). Producer gas is used as a fuel in some industrial processes.
Product Stewardship A principle where environmental protection centers around the
product itself, and everyone involved in the lifespan of the product is called upon to take
responsibility to reduce its environmental impact. For manufacturers, this includes planning
for, and if necessary, paying for the recycling or disposal of the product at the end of its
useful life. This may be achieved by redesigning products to use fewer harmful substances;
to be more durable, re-useable, and recyclable; and to make products from recycled
materials. For retailers and consumers, this means taking an active role in ensuring the
proper disposal or recycling of an end-of-life product.
psi (also psig) Pounds per square inch. A measure of pressure; the pounds of force per
square inch of surface area, or pounds per square inch of gauge.
psia Pounds per square inch absolute. A measure of pressure in pounds of force exerted
per square inch of surface area that includes 14.7 psi of atmospheric pressure experienced at
mean sea level; psia = (psi + 14.7).
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PSM Process Safety Management.

PSP Product Stewardship Practice.
PSV Process Safety Valve.
-RR&D Research and Development.

RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, a United States Federal law that regulates
hazardous waste from generation to final disposal, also referred to as cradle to grave.
reactive A solid, liquid, or gas substance that releases energy under certain conditions.
Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) A commonly used measure of vapor pressure for gasoline and
other liquid fuels, defined as the pressure exerted by a liquid at 100F as determined by the
test method ASTM D-323. The test method does not apply to liquefied petroleum gases such
as propane.
Responsible Care Ethic An initiative under which companies work together to continuously
improve their health, safety, and environmental performance and to communicate with their
stakeholders about their products and processes.
Responsible Distribution Ethic An initiative where the principles of the Responsible Care
Ethic are extended to all aspects of the distribution of chemicals, chemical products, and
chemical services.
risk A situation involving exposure to danger (i.e., when a vulnerability is exposed to a
hazard).
Risk Assessment The determination of quantitative or qualitative value of risk related to a
concrete situation and a recognized hazard.
Risk Communication The interactive exchange of information and opinions throughout the
risk-analysis process concerning hazards and risks, risk-related factors, and risk perceptions
among risk assessors, risk managers, consumers, industry, the academic community and
other interested parties, including the explanation of risk-assessment findings and the basis
of risk-management decisions.
running fire (running liquid fire) A burning liquid that flows away from the point of release
and ignition. Running fires are particularly hazardous if allowed to enter sewers, drains, manways, or sub-grade structures, such as electrical or pipeline vaults where the burning material
can pool and block evacuation routes.
-SSCBA Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus. A supplied air tank with a pressure-demand

regulator used in high-hazard environments as part of Level A and B protection.
SCC Stress Corrosion Cracking.
SDWR Secondary Drinking W ater Regulations. Non-enforceable United States Federal
guidelines regarding cosmetic effects (such as tooth or skin discoloration) or aesthetic effects
(such as taste, odor, or color) of drinking water.
SIDS Screening Information Data Set.
SNG Synthetic Natural Gas.
solubility The maximum amount of material that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent at
a specified temperature to produce a stable solution.
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solvent A liquid capable of dissolving other substances. In industrial use, commonly used to
mean a chemical capable of dissolving petroleum-based products.
specific electrical conductance (see Electrical Conductivity).
specific gravity The mass of a given volume of matter compared to the mass of an equal
volume of water.
specific heat (also Specific Heat Capacity or Heat Capacity) The ratio of the heat capacity
of a substance to the heat capacity of water at the same temperature.
STCC Number (Standard Transportation Commodity Code) The unique seven-digit code
assigned to commodities transported by rail. The STCC number must be shown on all bills of
lading.
STEL Short-Term Exposure Limit. Pertains to inhalation exposure of a toxic aerosol.
stewardship See Product Stewardship.
stoichiometric air to fuel ratio The ratio of the theoretical amount of air (expressed as
moles or mass) to the amount of fuel expressed in the same units which contains sufficient
oxygen to allow full and complete combustion of 100% of the hydrogen and carbon contained
within the fuel. Oxygen-to-fuel ratio: oxygen/Fuel = (1 + x/4) where x = H/C of the fuel
Air-to-fuel ratio: A/F = (100/21)(O/F)
stoichiometric flame speed The speed of the flame front at the stoichiometric air-to-fuel
ratio.
stoichiometric mixture A mixture of air and fuel which has a chemical composition
equivalent to the stoichiometric air to fuel ratio.
Support Zone The outermost of the site control zones, the SZ is the perimeter used for
staging response equipment and the location of the command post and communications
center.
Sustainability Practices and processes developed with the intent of improving the quality of
human life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems. A commonly
used definition is to "meet present needs without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their needs. A key concept that places sustainability in more familiar
business terms is the three Es or triple bottom line concept of economic, environmental,
and (social) equity sustainability.
-TTDG Transportation of Dangerous Goods. Canadian regulations with equivalency to the

United States 49 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR).
teratogen A substance that causes birth defects by damaging the fetus.
thermal conductivity The ability of a material to conduct heat. Liquids with high thermal
conductivity conduct heat more readily than liquids with low thermal conductivity.
TLV Threshold Limit Value. Airborne concentrations of chemical substances that represent
conditions under which it is believed that nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed, day
after day, over a working lifetime, without adverse health effects. In the United States, values
of the TLV are set by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
(ACGIH). TLV is usually expressed as parts per million (ppm) or milligrams per cubic meter
3
(mg/m ). TLVs are published annually in Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances
and Physical Agents.
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TLV-STEL Threshold Limit Value-Short Term Exposure Limit. A 15 minute, time-weighted

average exposure that should not be exceeded at any time during a workday, even if the
eight-hour TWA is within the TLV-TWA. It is the concentration to which it is believed that
workers can be exposed continuously for a short period of time without suffering from (1)
irritation, (2) chronic or irreversible tissue damage, (3) dose-rate dependent toxic effects, or
(4) narcosis of sufficient degree to increase the likelihood of accidental injury, impaired selfrescue, or materially reduced work efficiency.
TLV-TWA Threshold Limit Value-Time Weighted Average. The TWA concentration for a
conventional eight-hour workday and a 40-hour workweek, to which it is believed that nearly
all workers may be repeatedly exposed, day after day, over a working lifetime, without
adverse health effects.
ton In the United States and Canada, a unit of weight (mass) equal to 2,000 pounds.
tonne The metric unit of weight (mass) equal to 1,000 kilograms (2,204.62 pounds).
tote A portable vessel widely used for containment during shipping and storage of relatively
small amounts of bulk liquid chemicals. The so-called JumboBin Tote is a sealed metal box
fabricated of 304 stainless steel. The tote is fitted with lifting lugs on the four top corners and
short legs on the four bottom corners.
toxic/toxicity The degree to which a substance can damage an organism. Toxicity can refer
to the effect on a whole organism, as well as the effect on a substructure of the organism. A
central concept of toxicology is that effects are dose-dependent.
TPA Terephthalic acid.
TRI Toxics Release Inventory. A publicly available EPA database that contains information
on toxic chemical releases and waste management activities reported annually by certain
industries, as well as federal facilities, in the United States.
turnout Also called turnout gear or bunker gear, it is a firefighters uniform consisting of
overall pants, boots, gloves, a hat or helmet, and often a jacket. The components of turnout
gear may vary with agency and geographic zone.
TWA Time Weighted Average.
-UUA Numbers North American Numbers are identical to UN Numbers. If a material does not
have a UN Number, it may be assigned an UA Number; these are usually four-digit numbers
starting with 8 or 9.
UEL Upper Explosive Limit (see also upper flammability limit, flammable range, LEL). The
maximum molar or volumetric concentration of a vapor in air above which ignition does not
occur. Fuel concentrations above the upper explosive limit are said to be too rich to burn.
UFC An acronym for Uniform Fire Code of the United States (NFPA 1).
UFL Upper Flammability Limit (see also upper explosive limit). The maximum molar or
volumetric concentration of a vapor in air above which ignition does not occur. Fuel
concentrations above the upper explosive limit are said to be too rich to burn.
UN Number or UN IDs Four-digit numbers that identify hazardous substances and articles
such as explosives, flammable liquids, and toxic substances for the purpose of international
transport.
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme.
USDHHS U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
107
M E T H A N O L
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
-Vvapor The gaseous form of a substance that is normally a liquid or solid at ordinary
temperature and pressures.
vapor pressure The pressure exerted by a vapor that is in equilibrium with the liquid at a
given temperature. A measure of how readily a liquid or solid releases a vapor that mixes
with air at the surface of the liquid or solid. A higher vapor pressure indicates a higher
concentration of vaporized substance in air and, therefore, increases the likelihood of a
persons breathing the vapor into his or her lungs while breathing toxic-laden air.
viscosity The quality of resistance to flow.
VLE-15 min Valeurs limites dExposition a court terme. (France 1999). Limit value for a
short-term exposure of 15-minute duration.
VME-8 h Valeurs limites de Moyenne dExposition. Limit value of average exposure for an
eight-hour workplace exposure.
VOC Volatile Organic Compound.
vol% or v/v% Volume percent. A measure of concentration that relies on relative volume
rather than relative weight (mass).
volatility The tendency of the molecules of a substance to escape from the liquid phase and
enter the gas phase. Liquids that have high volatility have high vapor pressure.
-Wwaste stream The complete flow of waste from domestic or industrial areas through to final
disposal.
WMO World Meteorological Organization.
108
Chapter
13
13 References
13.1
List of References
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6.
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M A N U A L
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nd
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21. Goodwin, Robert D., 1987. Methanol Thermodynamic Properties from 176 to 673 K at
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th
22. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 44 Edition, CRC Press.

23. Health Effects Institute (HEI). 1999. Reproductive and Offspring Developmental Effects
Following Maternal Inhalation Exposure of Methanol in Nonhuman Primates. Research
Report Number 89. October.
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Programs Administration. November.
25. International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 60050-426. 2008. Equipment for
Explosive Atmospheres.
26. International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 60079-4.1975. Method of Test for
Ignition Temperature. 60079-4A: Addendum.
27. International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 801-2. 1991. Electromagnetic
Compatibility for Industrial Process Measurement and Control Equipment.
28. International Fire Code (IFC). 2006. Flammable and Combustible Liquids. Chapter 34.
International Code Council.
29. International Methanol Producers and Consumers Association (IMPCA). 2008. IMPCA
Methanol Reference Specifications. January Update.
30. Jacobson, D., McMartin, K. 1986. Methanol and Ethylene Glycol Poisonings:
Mechanisms of toxicity, clinical course, diagnosis and treatment. Medical Toxicology I:
309-334.
31. Jim Jordan & Assoc., LLP. 2004. U.S. Methanol Overview 2003 Demand and
Production. Prepared for the Methanol Institute. June 2.
32. Kavet, R., Nauss, K. 1990. The Toxicity of Inhaled Methanol Vapors. Toxicology. 21 (1):
21-50.
110
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H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
33. Kuchta, Joseph M. Investigation of Fire and Explosion Accidents in the Chemical, Mining,
and Fuel-Related Industries - A Manual. U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Mines
Bulletin 680.
34. Malcolm-Pirnie, Inc. 1999. Evaluation of the Fate and Transport of Methanol in the
Environment. Prepared for the American Methanol Institute. January.
35. Marchetti, C. 1980. On Energy Systems in Historical Perspective, International Institute
for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria, Prepared for the 1980 Bernard
Gregory Lecture, CERN, Geneva, Switzerland, November 13.
36. Methanex Corporation. 2003. Corporate Manual. Container Filling Best Practice.
Document #CR3RC250.
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www.methanex.com/products/documents/MSDS_USenglish.pdf
38. Methanex Corporation. 2006. Technical Information and Safe Handling Guide for
Methanol. Version 3.0. September.
39. Methanol Fuel Cell Alliance. 2002. Joint Position Document. September.
40. Motorola Corporation, Cell Phone Usage At Gasoline Stations, 1999. Doc. No.
SF27489.000 BOTO 1299 CMO3. by Exponent Failure Analysis Associates, 149
Commonwealth Drive, Menlo Park, CA 94025, December.
41. National Advisory Committee (NAC) for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for
Hazardous Substances. 2004. Final Meeting-32 Highlights. U.S. Department of Labor.
Washington, D.C. April 19-21.
42. National Electrical Code (NEC). 2008. NFPA 70. Chapter 5, Special Occupancies.
Hazardous Locations, Classes I, II, and III Divisions 1 and 2. National Fire Protection
Association.
43. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), 2008. U. S. Vehicle Fire Trends and
Patterns. Ahrens, Marty, July.
44. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). 1994. No. 325, Guide to Fire Hazard
Properties of Flammable Liquids, Gases and Volatile Solids.
45. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). 2008. NFPA 30, Flammable and
Combustible Liquids Code.
46. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). 2008. NFPA 30A, Code for Motor Fuel
Dispensing Facilities and Repair Garages.
47. National Toxicology Program Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human
Reproduction (NTP-CERHR, 2003). NTP-CERHR Monograph on the Potential Human
Reproductive and Developmental Effects of Methanol. NIH Publication No. 04-4478.
September.
48. New Jersey Dept. of Health and Senior Services. 2002. Hazardous Substances Fact
Sheet Methyl Alcohol. Revision. April.
49. Olah, G.A., Goeppert, A., Prakash, G.K.S. 2006. Beyond Oil and Gas: The Methanol
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50. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Developments (OECD). 2003. Guiding
Principles for Chemical Accident Prevention, Preparedness, and Response..
th
51. Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 6 Edition, 1984. McGraw-Hill Book Company,
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List of References
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H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
52. SAE Cooperative Research Program. 1991. A Discussion of M85 (85% Methanol) Fuel
Specifications and Their Significance. September.
53. SAE International. 1990. Summary of the Fire Safety Impacts of Methanol as a
Transportation Fuel. May.
54. SIDS-OECD. 2004. SIDS Initial Assessment Report -- Methanol. Draft. Prepared by
BASF AG. Reviewed by USEPA. October.
55. Stegink, L.D., et. al. 1981. Blood Methanol Concentrations in Normal Adult Subjects
Administered Abuse Doses of Aspartame. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental
Health. 7: 281-290.
56. 3M Respirator Selection Guide. 2008.
57. U.S. Department of Defense. (DOD). Standard Practice DOD-HDBK-263, Electrostatic
Discharge Control Handbook for Protection of Electrical and Electronic Parts,
Assemblies, and Equipment (excluding Electrically Initiated Explosive Devices).
58. U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Chemistry W ebBook.
http://webbook.nist.gov/chemistry/.
59. U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Hazardous Waste
Operations and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER). Code of Federal Regulations
(CFR) Title 29 section 1910.120.
60. U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Process safety
management of highly hazardous materials. Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 29
Section 1910.119.
61. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS). 2002. Communicating in a
Crisis: Risk Communication Guidelines for Public Officials. Washington, D.C.
62. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1994. Chemical Summary for Methanol,
prepared by Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics. EPA 749-F-94-013a, August.
63. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1994. Methanol Fuels and Fire Safety.
Fact Sheet OMS-8. Office of Mobile Sources. August.
64. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 2003. Considerations in Risk
Communication: A Digest of Risk Communication as a Risk Management Tool.
Technology Transfer and Support Division, National Risk Management Research
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65. Underwriters Laboratories (UL), 1604 - Electrical Equipment for Use in Class I and II,
Division 2, and Class III Hazardous (Classified) Locations.
66. Uniform Fire Code, 1997. Article 52, Motor Vehicle Fuel-Dispensing Stations.
67. Vermillion, B.; Nguyen, P.; Tsan, E.; Herz, R. (Project Advisor). 2001. Feasibility Study of
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68. XCellsis, Inc. 2002. Methanol Fuel Quality Specification Study for Proton Exchange
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th
70. 5 Methanol Markets & Technology Conference. 2010. Muscat, Oman. February 23.
112
List of References
M E T H A N O L
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
71. ICIS News. 2010., January 4. (www.icis.com)

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76. FCTec. Fuel Cell Basics: Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFC).
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M A N U A L
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114
List of References
Appendix
A
A Process Safety Information
A.1 Technology of the Process
The following information and documentation items should be collected and reviewed as
process safety information that pertains to the technology of the process.
Process Description
Operating Parameter Limits
Feed materials
Pressure, temperature, flow rate
Chemistry
Maximum and minimum safe operating limits
Chemical kinetics (if relevant)
Maximum time at maximum and minimum

limits
Intermediate products
Specialized Maintenance Requirements
Reactants/catalysts
Utility requirements (steam, natural gas,
merchant gases, special heat transfer
media, etc.)
Special circumstances (very high pressure,
very high temperature, cryogenic
temperatures, etc.)
Potential runaway reactions
Process Flow Diagram
Major equipment items (name and item
number)
Heat and material balance
Typical operating parameters
Special alloys
Utility requirements
Piping specifications
Pressure vessel specifications
Technology of the Process
115
M E T H A N O L
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
A.2 Equipment
The following information and documentation items should be collected and reviewed as
process safety information that pertains to system equipment.
Process Unit Description
116
Car-Sealed/Chain-Locked Valve List
Name of process unit
Valve number
Block diagram of unit operations
Valve description
Feed material, intermediates, products &

intermediate product storage volume
Scenario safe-guarded against
Process Chemistry
Normal position
Strategy for recycling & processing off-spec

material
Circumstances for changing position
Piping and instrument diagrams (P&IDs)
Scenario protected against
Piping specifications
Consequences of opening or closing
List of item-numbered equipment (including

instrumentation)
Special operating conditions or regulatory

restrictions
Equipment name
Piping inspection data
Equipment tag number
Pressure vessel inspection data
Equipment nameplate capacity (vol, wt,

processing rate)
Plot plan with hazard classification zones
Equipment operating conditions
Electrical single line diagrams
Maximum/minimum safe operating limits
Programmable logic controller (PLC) logic
Manufacturer
PSV inspection/test/rebuild records
Date placed in service
Area electrical classification
Anticipated life
Location of electrical substations
Control parameter safe operating limits
Location of electrical switch gear
Equipment design/fabrication codes
Utility requirements
Maintenance, testing, and inspection records
Operating procedures
Maintenance procedures
Safety systems (firewater, detectors, etc.)
Equipment
Appendix
B
B Properties of Methanol/Methyl
Alcohol
B.1 Physical Properties
CH3OH
Color
Opacity
Odor
Odor Threshold
Conversion factors
B.1.1
Solid
CH3OH(solid)
B.1.2
Colorless
Clear
Faintly sweet, pungent odor like ethyl alcohol
Odor threshold is highly variable in air and ranges over
several orders of magnitude; 10 ppm to 20000 ppm. [12]
100 ppm to 1500 ppm reported [3]
141 ppm [56]
160 ppm The range of accepted odor threshold values is
quite broad. Caution should be used in relying on odor
alone as a warning of potentially hazardous exposures. [48]
3
3
1 ppm = 1.33 mg/m ; 1 mg/m = 0.76 ppm
T < -98C (-144F); P = 1 atm (14.7 psia)
Liquid
CH3OH(liquid)
Specific gravity of liquid relative to water

(water = 1.0):
Density
Physical Properties
-98C (-144F) < T < 65C (149 F); P = 1 atm (14.7 psia)
0.7866 @ 25/4C
0.7915 @ 20/4C
0.7960 @ 15/4C
0.8 @ 20C (68F)
6.63 lb/ U.S. gal @ 60F
117
M E T H A N O L
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
Viscosity [37], [16]
1.258 mPa s @ -25C (-13F)

0.793 mPa s @ 0C (32F)
0.808 mPa s @ 0C (32F)
0.690 mPa s @ 10C (50F)
0.593 mPa s @ 20C (68F)
0.544 mPa s @ 25C (77F)
0.449 mPa s @ 40C (104F)
0.349 mPa s @ 60C (140F)
Note: 1 mPa s = 1 cP (Centipoise)
118
Coefficient of Cubic Thermal Expansion
Thermal conductivity
Saturation Concentration (vapor in air)

Vapor pressure @ PTotal=(14.7 psia)
Vapor pressure @ PTotal=(760 mm Hg)

Vapor pressure @ PTotal=(14.7 psia)
Reid vapor pressure
Volatility
Evaporation Rate (Butyl Acetate = 1)

Evaporation Rate (Ether = 1)
Surface tension
Electrical conductivity
Vapor Pressure of Liquid:
0.00149 per C @ 20C

0.00159 per C @ 40C
207 mW/m K @ 0C (32F)
200 mW/m K @ 25C (77F)
3
166 g/m
12.3 kPa (96 mm Hg) 1.86 psia
@ 20C (68F)
126 mm Hg @ 25C (77F)
4.63 psi @ 38C (100F)
32 kPa (4.6 psi) @ 15.6C (60F)
100 vol%
99.9 wt%
4.6
5.2
22.5 dyn/cm
7
4.4 x 10 pS/m
P in mmHg
T in C (F)
P in mmHg
T in C (F)
-44.0 (-47)
1520
84.0 (183)
10
-16.2 (3)
3800
112.5 (234)
40
5.0 (41)
7600
138.0 (280)
100
21.2 (70)
15200
167.8 (334)
400
49.9 (122)
30400
203.5 (398)
760
64.7 (148)
45600
224.0 (435)
Physical Properties
M E T H A N O L
B.1.3
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
Vapor
CH3OH(vapor)
S A F E
65C (149F) < T; P = 1 atm (14.7 psia)
Relative density of vapor saturated air

(air = 1)
1.01 @ 20C (68F)

1.02 @ 30C (86F)
1.1
9.68 Pa s @ 25C (77F)
13.2 Pa s @ 127C (261F)
14.07 mW/m K @ 100C (212F)
26.2 mW/m K @ 127C (261F)
240C (464F) 512.5K
1,142 psia (8.084 MPa) 78.5 atm
3
0.117 m /kg-mol
3
0.2715 g/cm
0.224
0.556
-6
3
4.55 x 10 atm-m /g-mol
3
166 g/m
Density of vapor relative to air (air = 1.0)

Viscosity
Thermal conductivity
Critical temperature
Critical pressure
Critical volume
Critical density
Critical compressibility factor
Accentric factor
Henrys Law Constant
Airborne Saturation Concentration
Airborne Concentration Conversion:
1 mg/ml = 764 ppm @ 25C (77F) at 1 atm, 14.7 psia, 760 mm Hg
3
1 ppm = 1.31 mg/m @ 25C (77F) at 1 atm, 14.7 psia, 760 mm Hg
B.2 Chemical Properties
Chemical Name
Chemical family
Chemical formula
Molecular weight
Elemental composition by weight
o Oxygen
o Carbon
o Hydrogen
Solubility CH3OH (liquid) in Water:
Solvents:
pH
Biological Oxygen Demand:
B.2.1
50.0 wt%
37.5 wt%
12.5 wt%
100%; miscible in all proportions
ethanol, ether, benzene, acetone, alcohol,
chloroform
7.2
0.6 to 1.12 lbs/lb in 5 days
Reactivity
Flammable
Stability
Hazardous polymerization
Chemical Properties
Methanol
Aliphatic Alcohol
CH3OH
32.04 grams/mole
May explode when exposed to flame

Stable material
Will not occur
119
M E T H A N O L
B.2.2
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
Decomposition
Excessive heating and/or incomplete combustion will generate carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, formaldehyde, and possibly unburned methanol.
B.2.3
Incompatibilities
Methanol-water solutions at 40:60 concentration and methanol:water, 30:70 mixtures can

be ignited by a static discharge. [93].
Air, methanol-air mixtures at 1.81 bar (26.25 psia) and 120C (248F) may explode with
or without the addition oxygen and water. [8]
Explosive reaction with chloroform + sodium methoxide and diethyl zinc.
Reacts violently and uncontrollably with strong reducing agents and dilute solutions of
alkyl aluminum salts, diethyl zinc, acetyl bromide, cyanuric chloride.
Incompatible with beryllium dihydride. Reaction with the ether-containing hydride is
violent, even at -196C (-321F). [8].
Reaction with alkali metals (sodium, potassium, magnesium) is vigorous, and often
subject to a lengthy induction period. Mixtures with powdered MG or Al are capable of
powerful detonation. Reaction with K may lead to an explosion.
Methanol reacts violently with strong oxidizers (calcium hypochlorite, barium,
perchlorates, peroxides, permanganates, chlorates); strong acids (nitric, hydrochloric,
sulfuric); and halogen gases (bromine, chlorine, fluorine, and iodine).
Reacts vigorously and dangerously with oxidizing materials.
Methylene chloride may become flammable in the presence of small amounts of
methanol.
Reacts violently with liquid phosphorus (III) oxide above 24C (75F).
Reaction of liquid methanol with solid potassium tert-Butoxide causes ignition after 2
minutes.
B.3 Corrosivity to Metals, Alloys, Gaskets and

Plastic
Corrosivity points immediately to the issue of materials selection, which in turn points directly
to application. What type of equipment is in question: pumps, piping, vessels, heat
exchangers distillation towers, accumulators, reformer furnaces, strippers, etc.? What are the
normal, abnormal, and emergency process conditions? What are maximum, minimum, and
typical control parameters: flow, temperature, pressure, composition, impurities, etc.?
Is it a batch process or a continuous process? W hat is the anticipated inspection and testing
schedule, the anticipated maintenance program, the intended service life? Given a particular
selection, what are the anticipated failure modes and mechanisms?
All of these considerations enter into materials selection. The process is technically complex
and organizationally difficult. The vast array of conditions and circumstances that fall within
the purview of materials selection for methanol service means that the most appropriate
material is based on the particular details of the specific application.
While issues pertaining to materials selection are fundamental and likely among the most
often asked questions, there are no standard or universal answers. Recognizing this, the
following guidance is provided as very general in nature. It is the responsibility of those
asking the questions to search out the best answers for their particular circumstance.
120
Corrosivity to Metals, Alloys, Gaskets and Plastic
M E T H A N O L
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
Pure anhydrous methanol is mildly corrosive to lead and aluminum alloys and more so to
magnesium, and platinum. That is not to say that aluminum alloys are unfit for methanol
service, but rather to alert users to the necessity of periodic inspection and
nondestructive testing. Positive materials identification, inspection, and nondestructive
testing are essential for fitness for continued service. This applies to all pressure
boundary materials in all chemical services, including methanol. Rate of attack on
aluminum alloys is typically a slow pitting form of corrosion; however, it can be
accelerated to the point of compromising integrity of structural components if not
anticipated and monitored.
Methanol-water solutions can be corrosive to some non-ferrous alloys depending on
application and environmental circumstances. This caution applies to equipment built with
copper alloy, galvanized steel, titanium, aluminum alloy components, and some plastics
and composites. Coatings of copper (and copper alloys), zinc (including galvanized
steel), and aluminum exhibit corrosive degradation of various types and at various rates
depending on circumstances accompanying application. In general, corrosive attack of
structural components such as aluminum alloy floating roofs on storage tanks is slow; it
requires periodic visual inspection and nondestructive testing to verify fitness for
continued service. The same can be said for heat exchanger tube materials, pump
components, valve trim, and sensing elements in direct contact with methanol.
Mild steel is usually selected as the construction material, provided moisture is excluded
from the system. If moisture and trace amounts of inorganic salts are expected to exist
within the system from time to time, then one should consider upgrading from carbon
steel to 316 L stainless steel or a titanium or molybdenum stabilized grade of 316 L
stainless steel. The issue in the presence of moisture and inorganic salts is corrosion
within weld-heat-affected zones. Weld integrity can become an issue.
Best practice uses molybdenum-stabilized low carbon 300 series stainless steel. Though
expensive, this material protects against generalized corrosion, pitting corrosion, stress
corrosion cracking, hydrogen induced cracking, and product contamination. Mild steel is
widely used for piping. Piping connections are made with welded flanges and methanol
compatible gaskets. Threaded connections are not considered suitable in methanol
service. Non-ferrous materials should not be used for the construction of permanent
pipework. It is recommended that underground storage, buried pipelines, and
underground piping be protected with a cathodic protection system and be inspected on a
regular basis.
Many resins, nylons, and rubbers, such as neoprene, nitrile (Buna-N), and ethylene
propylene (EPDM), are suitable, though some are more suitable in flowing applications
than others. Buna-N is NOT recommended by its manufacturers for dynamic applications
(i.e., service in flowing methanol). Buna-N is satisfactory for fluid-static applications;
however, it is not considered to be a superior material for methanol service.
Fluorinated materials such as Teflon are used satisfactorily as equipment components in

methanol service. Of these, Teflon offers good dimensional stability and is resistant to
attack and degradation.
Rubber hoses should have an internal wire coil for strength and electrical continuity. Use
of hoses should be restricted to temporary applications, such as loading and unloading.
Hose material must be compatible with methanol service. All hoses should be clearly
labeled for methanol service only. Hose ends must be capped or otherwise protected to
avoid contamination during storage. Hoses should be periodically replaced with new
hoses, rather than kept in service to the point of failure.
First-time hose and piping must be washed with water and then methanol to ensure
that contaminants are removed before being placed in service.
121
M E T H A N O L
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
Methanex ranks compatibility of gasket and O-ring materials in methanol-fueled truck

service in the following table.
Compatibility of Gasket and O-Ring Materials with Methanol
Gasket/O-Ring Material
Rating
(Compatibility with
Methanol Fuel in Truck
Service)
9 10
Recommended ,
Natural Rubber
Good
No Recommendation
Given
EPDM (ethylene-propylene
Good
Yes, Recommended
Neoprene
Good
Yes, Recommended
Silicone
Good
Yes, Recommended
Kalrez
Good
Yes, Recommended
Teflon
Good
No Recommendation
Given
Fluorosilicone
Good
No Recommendation
Given
Buna-N
Fair
Not Recommended
Nitrile
Fair
Not Recommended
Polyurethane
Sometimes OK
No Recommendation
Given
Butyl Rubber
Poor
No Recommendation
Given
Butadiene
No Data
No Recommendation
Given
Fluorocarbon
No Data
No Recommendation
Given
VITON (most types)
No Ranking Given
Not Recommended
REFERENCE: efunda- engineering fundamentals; efunda.com; ORing Compatibility Guide
Cautionary note regarding Buna-N & Ntrile: These materials may be adequate for static situations
such as gloves to protect against methanol contact.These materials are generally not recommended for
dynamic situations involving flowing methanol, such as gaskets on pumps and fittings.
9
Note regarding VITON F: Most VITON types are not recommended for methanol service due to
swelling of the material when exposed to methanol. However, VITON F shows only small changes
when exposed to methanol. Manufacturers recommend use of VITON F for methanol service.
10
122
REFERENCE: Daemar Inc. (daemar.com); Chemical Compatibility Chart
M E T H A N O L
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
Methanol is one of the few specialized environments that may cause stress corrosion
cracking (SCC) in titanium alloys. SCC failures have occurred in dry methanol,
methanol/acid, and methanol/halide mixtures. Water is an effective inhibitor and will
maintain the passivity of titanium in many environments if present in weight %
concentrations. General guidance is provided in the following table.
Titanium Alloy Grade
wt % water
a
Intermittent Exposure
wt % Water
b
Sustained Exposure
1,2,7,11,16,17
1.5
2.0
9, 12
2.0
2.0
28
2.5
3.0
5, 23
3.0
3.0
19, 29, 6-2-4-6
5.0
10.0
a
b
Intermittent exposure = short-term, noncontinuous exposure

Sustained exposure = long-term, continuous exposure
B.4 Structure and Properties
Index of refraction, nD
Dielectric constant, r
Bond angle
Magnetic susceptibility
Surface tension
Viscosity
1.328 @ 20C (68F)

32.66 @ 20C (68F)
all 109.5o
5.3 x 10-7 cm3/g
22.5 dyn/cm @ 20C (68F)
0.808 mPas @ 0C (32F)
0.690 mPas @ 10C (50F)
0.593 mPas @ 20C (68F)
0.449 mPas @ 40C (104F)
0.349 mPas @ 60C (140F)
B.5 Combustion and Ignition Properties
Flash Point T at P = 1 atm (14.7 psia)

Auto-ignition T at P = 1 atm (14.7 psia)
Explosive Limits in air at ambient T and P
12C (54F) closed cup TCC method

15.6C (60.1F) open cup TOC method
385C (725C) 11
6-36 vol% 12, 13
11
Methanex Corporation & Terra Industries among others indicate auto-ignition temperature as 464C
o
(867 F).
12
The Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) of 6 vol% and the flash point for methanol (12C, 54F) are closely
linked. Equilibrium vapor pressure at the flash point temperature is 46 mm Hg.
13
The Upper Explosive Limit (UEL) of 36 vol% corresponds to a temperature of 41C (106F) and a
vapor pressure of 274 mm Hg. The explosive range extends over a relatively wide range of
temperatures and to a vapor pressure that is over a third of an atmosphere of pressure. Methanol
produces an explosive mixture of vapor in air within the explosive range of 6 to 36 vol%. Precautions
must be taken to insure that methanol vapors do not come in contact with a potential ignition source at
vapor concentrations between 6 and 36 vol %.
Structure and Properties
123
M E T H A N O L
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
Explosive Range
Flame
Flammable Methanol-Water Mixtures:
Stoichiometric air/fuel weight ratio
CH3OH(vapor) in stoichiometric
air/vapor mixture
B.5.1
S A F E
30 vol%
Non-luminous blue flame
Not visible to naked eye in daylight
Down to 21 vol% (25 wt%) methanol
6.45
12.3 vol%
Fire Extinguishing Media
Carbon dioxide
Dry chemical
Alcohol-resistant foam AR-AFFF with 6% proportioning with water
Water mist or fog 14
B.6 Thermodynamic Properties
15
Latent Heat of Vaporization (LG) 37.43 kJ/mol (279.0 cal/g @ 25C, 298.15 K, (77F))
35.21 kJ/mol (262.5 cal/g @ 64.6C, 337.3 K, 48F))
o
-205. 10. kJ/mol
Standard Enthalpy of Formation Vapor (fH gas)
o
Standard Enthalpy of Combustion Vapor (cH gas)
-763.68 0.20 kJ/mol
o
Standard Enthalpy of Formation Liquid ( H
)
-238.4 kJ/mol
f
liquid
Standard Enthalpy of Combustion Liquid (cH o liquid)
-725.7 0.1 kJ/mol
o
127.19 J/mol K
Standard Entropy of Liquid Phase (S liquid )
S
Standard Entropy of Solid Phase ( osolid, 1 bar )
1.117 J/mol K
Heat Capacity of Gas at Constant Pressure (Cp gas)
44.06 J/mol K @ 298.15 K
Heat Capacity of Liquid at Constant Pressure (Cp liquid)
79.5 J/mol K @
298.15 K
Heat Capacity of Solid at Constant Pressure (Cp solid)
68.39 J/mol K @ 120 K
5.40 J/mol K @ 20.5 K
105.00 J/mol K @ 173 K
Enthalpy of Fusion (fusH)
2.196 kJ/mol @ 176 K
Entropy of Fusion (fus S)
12.5 J/mol K @ 176 K
Enthalpy of Phase Transition (Htrs XtlineL)
3.159 kJ/mol @ 175.4 K
o
Specific heat
2.51 kJ/kg K; 0.6 Btu/lb- F
Heat Capacity Ratio, = Cp/Cv
1.203 @ 77C (171F)
High Heating Value (HHV)
22.7 MJ/kg, 9800 Btu/lb,
726 kJ/mole
Low Heating Value (LHV)
19.937 MJ/kg @ 25 C
14
Because methanol is miscible in water, application of water will spread the fire until the dilution ratio
reaches at least 3/1. Water-methanol solutions are flammable to a composition of 76 vol% water.
15
Methanex Corporation Web site: www.methanex.com/methanol/techsafetydata.htm; Langes

th
th
Handbook of Chemistry, 10 Edition, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 44 Edition; CRC
th
th
Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 68 Edition; Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 6 Edition;
James A. Plambeck, University Chemistry: Molar Thermodynamic Properties of Pure Substances,
1995; Robert D. Goodwin, Methanol Thermodynamic Properties from 176 to 673 K at Pressures to
700 bar, Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data, October 1987, Vol. 16, Issue 4, pp. 799892.
124
Thermodynamic Properties14F
Appendix
C
C Regulatory, Health, and Safety
Information for Methanol
C.1 U.S. Regulations and Codes
This table lists the primary United States Federal OSHA, EPA, and DOT regulations that
affect the production, storage, packaging, distribution, or use of methanol. This listing is not
necessarily inclusive of all relevant regulations and codes. Relevant and applicable state and
local codes and regulations for the particular facility should also be consulted.
Regulation/Code
Occupational Safety and Health, Code of
Federal Regulations 29 CFR
Relevant Section or Part

Part 1904 Recordkeeping
Section 1910.20 Access to Exposure and
Medical Records
Section 1910.38 Employee Emergency
Plans and Fire Protection Plans
Section 1910.119 Process Safety
Management of Highly Hazardous Chemicals
Section 1910.120 Hazardous W aste
Operations and Emergency Response
Section 1910.132 to 139 Personal
Protective Equipment
Section 1910.146 Confined Space Entry
Section 1910.147 Control of Hazardous
Energy (Lockout/Tagout)
Section 1910.151 First Aid/Medical Service
Section 1910.331 to 335 Electrical Safety
Section 1910.1000 Air Contaminants
(exposure limits)
Section 1910.1200 Hazard Communication
U.S. Regulations and Codes
125
M E T H A N O L
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
Regulation/Code
Environmental Regulations 40 CFR

Part 61 National Emissions Standards for
Hazardous Air Pollutants
Part 68 Clean Air Act/Accidental Releases
Part 141 Safe Drinking Water
Part 260 to 269 Hazardous Waste
Management System
Parts 302 and 355 Release of Hazardous
Substances, Emergency Planning and
Notification
Parts 370 and 372 Hazardous Chemicals
Reporting: Community Right to Know
Part 373 SARA Title III Reporting
Subchapter R, Parts 700 to 799 Toxic
Substances Control Act
Transportation Regulations 49 CFR
Part 106 Rulemaking Procedures

Part 107 Hazardous Materials Program
Procedures
Part 171 General Information, Regulations,
Definition
Part 172 Hazardous Materials Table,
Special Provisions, Hazardous Materials
Communications, Emergency Response
Information, and Training Requirements
Part 173 Shippers, General Requirements
for Shipments and Packaging
Part 174 Carriage by Rail
Part 176 Carriage by Vessel
Part 177 Carriage by Public Highway
Part 178 Specifications for Packaging
Part 179 Specifications for Tank Cars
Part 180 Continuing Qualifications and
Maintenance of Packaging
Part 190 Pipeline Safety Program
Procedures
Part 191 Transportation of Natural and
Other Gas by Pipeline: Annual Reports,
Incident Reports and Safety Related
Condition Reports
126
U.S. Regulations and Codes
M E T H A N O L
Regulation/Code
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L

Part 192 Transportation of Natural and
Other Gas by Pipeline: Minimum Federal
Safety Standards
Part 195 Transportation of Hazardous
Liquids by Pipeline
Navigable and Navigable Water Regulations,

33 CFR
Part 1 to 26, Subchapter A General

delegation of authority, rulemaking
procedures and enforcement regulations
Part 126 Handling Explosives or Other
Dangerous Cargoes within or Contiguous to
Waterfront Facilities
Part 130 Financial Responsibility for W ater
Pollution
Part 153 Control of Pollution by Oil and
Hazardous Substances; Discharge Removal
Part 154 Facilities Transferring Oil or
Hazardous Materials in Bulk
Part 155 Oil or Hazardous Material
Pollution Prevention Regulations for Vessels
Part 156 Oil and Hazardous Material
Transfer Operations
Parts 160 to 167, Subchapter P Ports and
Waterways Safety
Shipping Regulations 46 CFR (Water

Transportation)
Part 2 Vessel Inspections

Part 10 to 12 Licensing and Certification of
Maritime Personnel
Part 15 Manning Requirements
Part 30 to 40, Subchapter D Tank Vessels
Part 151 Barges Carrying Bulk Liquid
Hazardous Materials Cargoes
C.2 International Regulations, Standards, and

Guidelines
This table lists the international regulations, standards, and guidance that affect the
production, storage, packaging, distribution, or use of methanol. This listing is not necessarily
inclusive of all relevant international regulations, standards, and guidelines; however, it is
noteworthy that there is a growing consensus that hazards identification, risk assessment,
and management of risk to tolerable levels is a fundamental requisite to worker safety. If your
organization is not already applying principles of risk management, then you may want to
make plans to do so in the near future.
International Regulations, Standards, and Guidelines
127
M E T H A N O L
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
Authority
128
Topic
European Union (EU)/European Commission

(EC)
Control of Major-Accident Hazards Involving

Dangerous Substances (Directive 96/82/EC)
Organization for Economic Cooperation and

Development (OECD)
OECD Guiding Principles for Chemical

Accident Prevention, Preparedness, and
Response
EU/EC
Personal Protective Equipment Directive

(Directive 89/686/EEC)
EU/EC
Health & Safety at W ork (Directive

89/391/EEC)
EU/EC
Directive on Indicative Occupational

Exposure Limit Values (DIR 2006/15/EC) &
Chemical Agents at W ork Directive (DIR
98/24/EC)
EU/EC
Dangerous Substances Directive (Directive

67/548/EEC)
EU/EC
Directive on Pollutant Release and Transfer

Register (EC/166/2006); Integrated Pollution
Prevention and Control (IPPC Directive:
96/61/EC); Management of Quality of
Ambient Air (96/62/EC)
EU/EC
Water Framework Directive (Directive

2000/60/EC); Quality of Drinking Water
(98/83/EC)
EU/EC
Directive on W aste (2006/12/EC); Controlled

Management of Hazardous Waste
(91/689/EEC)
EU/EC
Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and

Restriction of Chemicals (REACH)
(EC/2006/1907)
United Nations (UN)
Recommendations on the Transport of

Dangerous Goods
International Air Transport Association (IATA)
Dangerous Good Regulations
International Maritime Organization (IMO)
International Maritime Dangerous Goods

(IMDG) Codes
ICAO (Agency of UN)
International Civil Aviation Organization

Codes and Standards
UN
European Agreement Concerning the

International Carriage of Dangerous Goods
by Road (ADR)
UN
International Regulations Concerning the

Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Rail (RID)
M E T H A N O L
S A F E
Authority
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
Topic
EU/EC
Transport of Dangerous Goods by Road

(Directive 94/55/EC)
EU/EC
Transport of Dangerous Goods by Rail

(Directive 96/49/EC)
EU/EC
Accidental Marine Pollution (2850/2000/EC);

Maritime Safety: Prevention of Pollution from
Ships (2002/84/EC); Protection of
Groundwater Against Pollution
(2006/118/EC)
International Standards Organization (ISO)
ISO 9001:2000 Quality Management

Systems
International Electrotechnical Commissions

(IEC)
Functional Safety Safety Instrumented

Systems for the Process Industry Sector IEC
61511-1
Part 1: Framework, definitions, system,

hardware and software requirements
Part 2: Guidelines for the application of

IEC 61511-1
Part 3: Guidance for the determination of

the required safety integrity levels
ANSI/AIHA Occupational Health and Safety

Management Systems: Z10-2005
Sets a benchmark provision requiring that

processes be in place to identify and take
steps to prevent or otherwise control hazards
and reduce risks associated with new
processes or operations at the design stage.
Australian Safety and Compensation Council,

Australian Government, 2006
Guidance on the Principles of Safe Design

for Work
National Institute for Occupational Safety and

Health (NIOSH), 2006
Announced an initiative on prevention

through design.
American National Standards Institute

(ANSI/PMMI) B155.1-2006
Safety Requirements for Packaging

Machinery and Packaging-Related
Converting Machinery
Society of Fire Protection Engineers (SFPE),

2006
Engineering Guide to Application of Risk

Assessment in Fire Protection Design
Introduction to Fire Risk Assessment
Occupational Health and Safety

Management Systems standard issued by
the Canadian Standards Association
CSA Z1000-2006
Industrial Safety and Health Act of Japan,

rev. April 2006
Stipulates, without penalty, that employers

should make an effort to implement risk
assessment.
International Standardization Organization

(ISO 14121-1)
Safety of Machinery Principles for Risk

Assessment, 2007
129
M E T H A N O L
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
Authority
130
Topic
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA),

2007
Guidance Document for Incorporating Risk

Concepts Into NFPA Codes and Standards
British Standards Institute BS-OHSAS

18001, 2007
Guidelines now read: The organization shall

establish, implement and maintain a
procedure(s) for the ongoing hazard
identification, risk assessment and
determination of necessary controls. The
term tolerable risk was replaced by
acceptable risk.
Chinas State Administration of Work Safety,

2008
Published provisional regulations on risk

assessment.
U..K. Health and Safety Executive, 2008
Issued five steps to risk assessment: The

law does not expect you to eliminate all risk,
but you are required to protect people as far
as is reasonably practical.
Industry Committee for Emergency Lighting

Ltd.
ICEL 1008: Emergency Lighting Risk

Assessment
Institute for Research for Safety and Security

at W ork (Quebec, Canada), 2009
Machine Safety: Prevention of Mechanical

Hazards
American Society of Safety Engineers

(ASSE), 2009 Technical Report Z790.001
Prevention Through Design: Guidelines for

Addressing Occupational Risks in the Design
and Redesign Processes
Singapore Standard SS506, 2009
Occupational Safety and Health

Management Systems, Part 1:
Requirements
ANSI-ITAA GEIA-STD-0010, 2009
Standard Best Practices for System Safety

Program Development and Execution
ISO/IEC 31010, 2009
Risk Assessment Techniques
EN ISO 12100-2010
Safety of Machinery: General Principles for

Design Risk Assessment and Risk Reduction
explicitly requires risk assessments
ANSI B11.0, 2010
Safety of Machinery: General Safety

Requirements and Risk Assessments
M E T H A N O L
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
C.3 Hazardous Material and Health & Safety

Information
Hazardous Material Information
Health & Safety Information
European Inventory of
Existing Commercial
Substances (EINECS) No.
(EU)
UN Number
Dangerous Goods
Classification
200-6596
Exposure Limits
UN 1230
TLV-TWA
o Primary Classification
o Subsidiary Classification
o Packing Group
ADR Classification
(transport by road)
3
6.1
PG II
o Class
o Packing
o Danger Label Tanks
o Danger Label Packages
RID Classification
(transport by rail)
3
II
3+6.1
3+6.1
o Class
o Packing
ADNR Classification
(transport by inland
waterways)
o Class
o Packing
IMDG Classification
(maritime transport)
3
II
3+6.1
3+6.1
o Class
o Sub Risks
o Packing
o MFAG
ICAO Classification
(air transport)
3
6.1
II
19
Class
Sub Risks
Packing
3
6.1
II
TLV-STEL
OES-LTEL
OES-STEL
MAK
MAC-TGG 8 h
VME-8 h
VLE-15
GWBB-8 h
GWK-15 min.
3
II
3+6.1
3+6.1
Hazardous Material and Health & Safety Information
262 mg/m
(200 ppm)
3
328 mg/m
(250 ppm)
3
266 mg/m
(200 ppm)
3
333 mg/m
(250 ppm)
3
270 mg/m
(200 ppm)
3
260 mg/m
3
260 mg/m
(200 ppm)
3
1,300 mg/m
(1000 ppm)
3
266 mg/m
(200 ppm)
3
333 mg/m
250 ppm
3
EC
260 mg/m
(200 ppm)
NFPA Classification
1B
Flammable
Liquid
NFPA Hazard Rating

o Health
o Flammability
o Reactivity
1
3
0
131
Appendix
D
D Database of Methanol-Related Incidents (1998-2011)
D.1 Methanol Incidents by Sector, Location, and Cause
{Compiled for the Methanol Institute by Alliance Consulting International (8/12/2011)}
Sector
Location
Date
Type of
Disaster
Cause
Activity
Damage/Injury/Fatality
Biodiesel
Staten Island,
NY
6/3/2005
Fire
Hot work
Maintenance
Explosion, 1 fatality
Biodiesel
Bakersfield, CA
2/17/2006
Fire
Electrical
Maintenance
Burned 9,600 sq. ft. bldg
Biodiesel
Parker, CO
5/7/2006
Fire
Process
Operations
House fire, no injuries
Biodiesel
Canby, OR
6/23/2006
Fire
Spill
Operations
Large fire
Methanol Incidents by Sector, Location, and Cause
133
M E T H A N O L
Sector
Biodiesel
134
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
Location
M A N U A L
Date
Type of
Disaster
Cause
Activity
7/7/2006
Explosion, Fire
Hot work
Maintenance
Large fire, one fatality
Biodiesel
New Plymouth,
ID
Dayton, TX
7/14/2007
Fire
Unknown
Operations
Fire
Biodiesel
Augusta, GA
8/21/2007
Explosion
Hot work
Maintenance
Explosion, one fatality
Biodiesel
Lenoir, NC
8/25/2007
Fire
Unknown
Operations
Large fire no injuries
Biodiesel
5/18/2008
Explosion
hot work
maintenance
Explosion, one fatality
Biodiesel
Princess Ann,
MD
Decatur, TN
8/15/2008
Fire
Unknown
Unknown
Destroyed idled plant
Biodiesel
York, ND
8/27/2008
Fire
Unknown
Unknown
Processing building and

equipment destroyed
Biodiesel
Gasdten, AL
9/15/2008
Explosion
Process
Maintenance
Top of tank blew off
Biodiesel
Clinton, IA
9/30/2008
Fire
Process
Operations
Biodiesel
Houston, TX
2/9/2009
Fire
Process
Maintenance
Small fire, one firefighter

steam burn
Fire
Biodiesel
Brewster, MN
5/24/2009
Explosion, fire
Unknown
Unknown
Several tanks burned
Biodiesel
Toledo, OH
6/15/2009
Implosion, fire
Process
Maintenance
Destroyed one production line
Biodiesel
Chicago, IL
7/19/2009
Explosion
Process
Operations
Two workers burned
Biodiesel
St. Cloud, FL
9/24/2009
Explosion, fire
Unknown
Unknown
Biodiesel
Savannah, GA
10/15/2009
Explosion
Process
Operations
Destroyed one building and

several tanks
One injury
M E T H A N O L
Sector
Location
Date
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
Type of
Disaster
M A N U A L
Cause
Activity
Biodiesel
Hoquiam, WA
12/2/2009
Explosion
Process
Operations
Tank split open
Biodiesel
Spanish Fork,
UT
7/25/2010
Fire
Process
Maintenance
Small fire
Biodiesel
Melbourne,
Australia
10/6/2010
Explosion
Hot work
Maintenance
One man seriously burned,

tank exploded
Biodiesel
Summitville, TN
7/30/2011
Fire
Electrical
Operations
Biofuel plant destroyed, one

minor burn
Commercial
Seattle, W A
7/21/2010
Explosion
Not intended
Not intended
One dead, one hospitalized
Home
Belleville, MO
4/13/2006
Fire
Not intended
Not intended
One juvenile seriously burned
Home
6/19/2007
Explosion, fire
Not intended
Not intended
Home
Brisbane,
Australia
Syracuse, NY
9/19/2007
Fire
Not intended
Not intended
Home
Troy, OH
2/14/2011
Fire
Unknown
Unknown
Two juveniles seriously

burned
Two juveniles seriously
burned
House fire, no injuries
Industrial
Sydney,
Australia
7/12/1998
Explosion, fire
Unknown
Unknown
Property damage
Industrial
Southbridge,
MA
12/14/1998
Fire
Unknown
Unknown
One worker injured
Industrial
Green River,
WY
1/29/2003
Fire
Unknown
Unknown
One injured with burns
Industrial
Buffalo , NY
10/13/2004
Spill
Unknown
Operations
Six employees were

hospitalized.
Industrial
Sydney,
Australia
5/2/2005
Fire
Unknown
Unknown
Extensive damage, no injuries

135
M E T H A N O L
Sector
Industrial
H A N D L I N G
Location
M A N U A L
Date
Type of
Disaster
Cause
Activity
Angarsk,
Russia
Songmaping
Town, China
Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
Cleveland, OH
10/24/2005
Explosion, fire
Process
Operations
Damage to plant, one fatality
11/10/2005
Explosion
Unknown
Unknown
Two fatalities
2/28/2006
Explosion, fire
Unknown
Maintenance
Three killed, one hospitalized
4/20/2006
Explosion
hot work
Maintenance
Five hospitalized
Quebec,
Canada
Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
8/30/2006
Explosion
Unknown
Unknown
Chemical plant part. destroyed
8/27/2007
Explosion
Unknown
Unknown
Two workers burned
Industrial
Defiance, OH
1/4/2008
Explosion
Electrical
Maintenance
Four injured, plant shut down
Industrial
Kandla, India
2/8/2008
Fire
Unknown
Unknown
Prevented catastrophic fire
Industrial
10/3/2008
Fire
Unknown
Operations
Unknown
Industrial
North County,
CA
Lafayette, LA
6/15/2009
Explosion, fire
Hot work
Maintenance
Industrial
Longview, NC
1/24/2010
Explosion, fire
Unknown
Unknown
One injured with burns, $500

damage to platform
Damage to plant, no injuries
Industrial
Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
2/22/2010
Explosion
Unknown
Unknown
Damage to plant no injuries
Industrial
Belle, W V
9/21/2010
Spill
Spill
Maintenance
>160,000 lbs MeOH spilled in

Kanawha River
Industrial
Erie, PA
10/14/2010
Fire
Unknown
Operations
Unknown
Industrial
Industrial
Industrial
Industrial
Industrial
136
S A F E
M E T H A N O L
Sector
Location
Date
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
Type of
Disaster
M A N U A L
Cause
Activity
Industrial
Sterling, CO
2/3/2011
Fire
Hot work
Maintenance
Industrial
New Iberia, LA
6/14/2011
Explosion, fire
Unknown
Unknown
1.5 ton truck caught fire no

injured
Plant destroyed, no injuries
Industrial
Bernay, France
7/5/2011
Explosion
Unknown
Unknown
No injuries
Industrial
Pearland, TX
7/18/2011
Fire
Unknown
Unknown
Pipeline
Jal, N.M.
12/7/2000
Fire
Process
Maintenance
Chemical plant tanks no

injuries
Unknown
Pipeline
Prudhoe Bay,
AK
Deadhorse, AK
2/7/2005
Spill
Process
Maintenance
10/15/2007
Spill
Process
Operations
7/16/2011
Spill
Process
Maintenance
School
Lisburne,
Alaska
Akron, OH
1/25/2006
Fire
Not intended
Not intended
School
Huntsville, TN
10/8/2007
Explosion, fire
Not intended
Not intended
School
Hudson, OH
1/18/2008
Fire
Not intended
Not intended
1,092 gallon methanol-water

spill
1,932 gallon methanol (630 gll
neat); water, oil
4,200 gallon methanol-oil spill
on tundra
Six students, one teacher
seriously injured
Teacher, two students
hospitalized
Two students seriously burned
Transportation
Kiel, W I
1/17/2000
Spill
Collision
Operations
No injuries
Transportation
Toledo, OH
3/15/2001
Spill
Spill
Operations
Unknown
Transportation
Hoganas,
Sweden
Vercelli, Italy
10/12/2011
Ship ran
aground
Fire
Collision
Operations
Hull damaged, but no spill
Collision
Operations
Property damage
Pipeline
Pipeline
Transportation
8/22/2002

137
M E T H A N O L
S A F E
Sector
Transportation
Location
M A N U A L
Date
Type of
Disaster
Cause
Activity
2/13/2003
Spill
Collision
Operations
Unknown
Transportation
Ontario,
Canada
Leghorn, Italy
3/22/2003
Explosion, fire
Collision
Operations
Nine people injured
Transportation
Red Wing, Mn
4/5/2003
Spill
Collision
Operations
Derailment with minor spill
Transportation
Uberaba, Brazil
6/13/2003
Fire, Spill
Operations
Property damage
Transportation
Jiangshan City,
China
Edmonton,
Canada
Schwerte,
Germany
Shenyang,
China
Butler Township
, MI
Jingjiang City,
China
Devon, Africa
7/13/2003
Explosion, fire
Operations
Property damage
10/8/2005
Spill
Collision
Operations
Unknown
10/22/2005
Derailment
Collision
Operations
No spills or damage
1/27/2006
Fire
Hot work
Maintenance
Unknown
7/30/2006
Explosion
Process
Operations
One fatality
8/15/2006
Explosion, fire
Unknown
Unknown
Damage to barges
10/9/2006
Collision
Collision
Operations
Five fatalities
Transportation
Johannesburg,
South Africa
10/10/2006
Collision, fire
Collision
Operations
Five people incinerated, one

burned
Transportation
Albany, NY
1/5/2007
Collision, fire
Collision
Operations
50 home evacuated
Transportation
Wuhan, China
9/2/2007
Fire
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Transportation
Transportation
Transportation
Transportation
Transportation
Transportation
138
H A N D L I N G
M E T H A N O L
Sector
Location
Date
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
Type of
Disaster
M A N U A L
Cause
Activity
Transportation
Bloomfield Hills,
MI
12/27/2007
Spill
Collision
Operations
Minor spill
Transportation
Stamford, CT
11/12/2009
Fire
Collision
Maintenance
Tanker burned with 6,800 gll

MeOH-no injuries
Transportation
Stamford, CT
6/13/2011
Turnover
Collision
Operations
No spills or damage
Transportation
Beijing-Xinjiang,
China
7/4/2011
Fire
Collision
Operations
Two trucks burned-Two

fatalities (drivers)
Wastewater
Treatment
Daytona Beach,
FL
1/11/2006
Explosion
Hot work
Maintenance
Two dead, one severely

burned
D.2 Incident Description and Reference or Source

Sector
Location
Date
Incident Description
Reference or Source
Biodiesel
Staten Island,
NY
6/2/2001
Grinding on glycerin
tank at
Environmental
Alternatives
http://www.rebelwolf.com/essn/ESSN-Jul2005.pdf
Biodiesel
Bakersfield,
CA
2/16/2002
MeOH tote ignited by

electricity, fire
http://biodieselmagazine.com/articles/830/fire-destroysamerican-biofuels-facility-in-bakersfield-calif.
Biodiesel
Parker, CO
5/6/2002
Home biodiesel
maker left heating
element on tank
http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5545a3.htm
Incident Description and Reference or Source

139
M E T H A N O L
Sector
140
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
Location
M A N U A L
Date
Biodiesel
Canby, OR
6/22/2002
Biodiesel
New
Plymouth, ID
7/6/2002
Biodiesel
Dayton, TX
Biodiesel
Reference or Source
Spill ignited and

melted plastic MeOH
tanks
Welding sparks
explosion
Biodiesel Safety W hite Paper
7/13/2003
MeOH spill, ignition
Augusta, GA
8/20/2003
Welding on top of
tank
Biodiesel
Lenoir, NC
8/24/2003
Tanks destroyed
after shut down
Biodiesel
Princess Ann,
MD
5/17/2004
Welding
Biodiesel
Decatur, TN
8/14/2004
Unknown
Biodiesel
York, ND
8/26/2004
Unknown
Biodiesel
Gasdten, AL
9/14/2004
Faulty heating
element of biodiesel
equipment
Biodiesel
Clinton, IA
9/29/2004
Small fire in primary

biodiesel recovery
column
Biodiesel
Houston, TX
2/8/2005
Circulation pump
mechanical seal
failure
Biodiesel
Brewster, MN
5/23/2005
Unknown
http://www.fox12idaho.com/Global/story.asp?S=5162251&nav
=menu439_2
M E T H A N O L
Sector
Location
Date
Biodiesel
Toledo, OH
6/14/2005
Biodiesel
Chicago, IL
7/18/2005
Biodiesel
St. Cloud, FL
Biodiesel
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
Reference or Source
Faulty vacuum
control safety valve
ignited biodiesel
Mixing glycerin and
sulfuric acidColumbus Food Co.
9/23/2005
Unknown, possibly
lightning
Savannah, GA
10/14/2005
Reactor used to store

biodiesel
Biodiesel
Hoquiam, WA
12/1/2005
Glycerin tank
overpressurization
Biodiesel
Spanish Fork,
UT
7/24/2006
MeOh transfer line

failure
Biodiesel
Melbourne,
Australia
10/5/2006
Welding on top of
tank
http://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/victoria/man-critical-afterfactory-explosion/story-e6frf7kx-1225934873475
Biodiesel
Summitville,
TN
7/29/2007
Motor sparked
methanol tank
http://www.wkrn.com/story/15181803/bio-diesel-plantdestroyed-in-fire?clienttype=printable
Commercial
Seattle, W A
7/20/2006
Intentional ignition
while riding a barrel
with MeOH
http://www.komonews.com/news/local/98960929.html
Home
Belleville, MO
4/12/2002
MeOH fuel for toy

caused fire
http://www.evesun.com/printedition/pdfs/2007-09-19.pdf
Home
Brisbane,
Australia
6/18/2003
Playing with MeOH

and fire; explosion
Eos Environmental
Home
Syracuse, NY
9/18/2003
MeOH mixture
caught fire, traced
back to fuel
Eos Environmental
http://www.chitowndailynews.org/Chicago_news/OSHA_launc
hes_investigation_at_plant_that_exploded,30103

141
M E T H A N O L
Sector
142
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
Location
M A N U A L
Date
Reference or Source
Unknown-150 gll
MeOH for racecars in
garage
Chemicals involved
included ethanol,
methanol and white
spirits unknown
Methanol fire at a
plant specializing in
fiber optics
unknown
http://www.whiotv.com/news/26854632/detail.html
Home
Troy, OH
2/13/2007
Industrial
Sydney,
Australia
7/11/1994
Industrial
Southbridge,
MA
12/13/1994
Industrial
Green River,
WY
1/28/1999
Unknown Flash fire

on well site
http://www.fireworld.com/incident_logs/incident_log2.php?tabl
e=incidents&cmd=search&mode=normal&month=08&year=20
11&submit=List
Industrial
Buffalo , NY
10/12/2000
A mixture of
acetonitrile and
methanol spilled at a
medical supply
manufacturing
company
11&submit=List
Industrial
Sydney,
Australia
5/1/2001
Unknown - gas
furnace with
methanol
http://ctifhazmat.gasilci.org/modules/news/article.php?storyid=36
Industrial
Angarsk,
Russia
10/23/2001
http://www.icis.com/Articles/2005/10/24/1015565/russiasangarsk-methanol-plant-hit-by-explosion.html
Industrial
Songmaping
Town, China
11/9/2001
Angarsk
Petrochemicalprocess upset
Unknown
Industrial
Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
2/27/2002
MeOH tank exploded

during maintenance
Eos Environmental
11&submit=List
11&submit=List
11&submit=List
M E T H A N O L
Sector
Location
Date
Industrial
Cleveland, OH
4/19/2002
Industrial
Quebec,
Canada
8/29/2002
Industrial
Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
Industrial
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
Reference or Source
Hot work on catwalk

over MeOH tank
sparked explosion
Spark caused
explosion, fire
unknown
Eos Environmental
8/26/2003
Unknown-Petronas
Methanol plant
http://www.koreanpress.net/news/view.asp?msection=1&ssect
ion=2&idx=598
Defiance, OH
1/3/2004
MeOH vapors ignited

in warehouse from
garage opener
Eos Environmental
Industrial
Kandla, India
2/7/2004
Unknown methanol
tank caught firedowsed with
seawater
Eos Environmental
Industrial
North County,
CA
10/2/2004
Small quantity of
methanol caught fire
in an oven at medical
diagnostic equipment
facility unknown
11&submit=List
Industrial
Lafayette, LA
6/14/2005
http://blog.chron.com/newswatchenergy/2010/09/marinerinvolved-in-13-gulf-accidents-since-06-seven-with-violations/
Industrial
Longview, NC
1/23/2006
Welding on offshore
platform tank-Mariner
Energy
Tailored Chemicals
unknown origin
stores MeOH and
ethanol
Industrial
Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
2/21/2006
Unknown Petronas
Methanol plant
http://uk.reuters.com/article/2010/02/22/petronas-fireidUKSGE61L0E520100222
Eos Environmental
http://firenews.net/index.php/news/news_article/20100126_ne
ws_four_alarm_fire_at_local_catawba_plant/

143
M E T H A N O L
Sector
144
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
Location
M A N U A L
Date
Reference or Source
Industrial
Belle, W V
9/20/2006
Leaking equipment
http://www.newsandsentinel.com/page/content.detail/id/11872
0/W-Va--DEP-investigates-methanol-spill-in-river.html?isap=1&nav=5071
Industrial
Erie, PA
10/13/2006
Methanol fumes
ignited and flared out
a vent stack at a
foundry
11&submit=List
Industrial
Sterling, CO
2/2/2007
http://www.journal-advocate.com/sterlinglocal_news/ci_17283330
Industrial
New Iberia, LA
6/13/2007
Using torch to
remove bolts from
water-methanol tank
Multichem plant with
MeOH, xylene,
toluene unknown
Industrial
Bernay,
France
7/4/2007
Unknown cause for

methanol solvent
tank at Ceisa
Packaging
http://www.saunalahti.fi/ility/PI1127.htm
Industrial
Pearland, TX
7/17/2007
Unknown tanks
with methanolmineral oil
http://www.yourhoustonnews.com/pearland/news/article_c2b4f
932-615c-5066-92d5-56efd0921d0b.html
Pipeline
Jal, N.M.
12/6/1996
NG pipeline ruptured
and burst into flames,
igniting two tanks
filled with methanol
and glycol at a
gasoline refinery
11&submit=List
Pipeline
Prudhoe Bay,
AK
2/6/2001
Corrosion of DS 11
injection line, lack of
isolation
http://www.dec.state.ak.us/spar/perp/response/sum_fy05/0502
17301/050217301_index.htm
Pipeline
Deadhorse,
AK
10/14/2003
Strike punctured DS16 flowline D
http://www.dec.state.ak.us/spar/perp/response/sum_fy08/0710
15301/071015301_index.htm
http://www.nola.com/business/index.ssf/2011/06/firefighting_cr
ews_enter_new_i.html
M E T H A N O L
Sector
Location
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
Date
Reference or Source
BP pipeline failed
during valve pressure
test for maintenance
MeOH vapor ignition
http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/43795063/ns/us_newsenvironment/t/methanol-spill-reported-bp-alaska-oil-field/
Pipeline
Lisburne,
Alaska
7/15/2007
School
Akron, OH
1/24/2002
School
Huntsville, TN
10/7/2003
MeOH demonstration
caused beaker
explosion, fire
Eos Environmental
School
Hudson, OH
1/17/2004
HS Chemistry expt;
fire
Eos Environmental
Transportation
Kiel, W I
1/16/1996
11&submit=List
Transportation
Toledo, OH
3/14/1997
Spill after railroad

tanker car derailed
and overturned
Small amount of
methanol leaking into
rail yard from a tank
car
Transportation
Hoganas,
Sweden
10/11/1997
Transportation
Vercelli, Italy
8/21/1998
Ship with 3,000 T

MeOH ran aground in
heavy fog
Freight train
containing methanol
derailed, ruptured
and burned
http://info.tse.fi/dagob/documents/Dangerous%20Goods%20R
elated%20Incidents%20and%20Accidents%20in%20the%20B
altic%20Sea%20Region%20PDF%20final.pdf
11&submit=List
Transportation
Ontario,
Canada
2/12/1999
Freight cars carrying

methanol gas and
styrene derailed and
leaked
11&submit=List
http://www.ohio.com/news/students-burned-in-lab-fire-settle1.87719
11&submit=List

145
M E T H A N O L
S A F E
Sector
146
H A N D L I N G
Location
M A N U A L
Date
Transportation
Leghorn, Italy
3/21/1999
Transportation
Red Wing, Mn
4/4/1999
Transportation
Uberaba,
Brazil
6/12/1999
Transportation
Jiangshan
City, China
7/12/1999
Transportation
Edmonton,
Canada
Transportation
Reference or Source
Ship bumped up
against the dock
while being towed
Train carrying
methanol derailed
11&submit=List
Train derailment into

a river and igniting a
large fire. Methanol
leaked into the river
Collision involving a
truck loaded with coal
and a train carrying
methanol
11&submit=List
10/7/2001
A tanker truck
making u-turn and
punctured a tank,
releasing methanol
11&submit=List
Schwerte,
Germany
10/21/2001
Three methanol rail

tank cars derailed
http://info.tse.fi/dagob/documents/Dangerous%20Goods%20R
elated%20Incidents%20and%20Accidents%20in%20the%20B
altic%20Sea%20Region%20PDF%20final.pdf
Transportation
Shenyang,
China
1/26/2002
Methanol truck
caught fire after the
driver was heating a
frozen valve at a
warehouse
11&submit=List
Transportation
Butler
Township , MI
7/29/2002
A worker pouring
methanol sparked
caused an explosion
11&submit=List
11&submit=List
11&submit=List
M E T H A N O L
Sector
Location
Date
S A F E
H A N D L I N G
M A N U A L
Reference or Source
Unknown two
barges loaded with
methanol caught fire
Car collided with
methanol truck
11&submit=List
Transportation
Jingjiang City,
China
8/14/2002
Transportation
Devon, Africa
10/8/2002
Transportation
Johannesburg
, South Africa
10/9/2002
MeOH tanker collides

w/vehicle and
catches fire
Eos Environmental
Transportation
Albany, NY
1/4/2003
Eos Environmental
Transportation
Wuhan, China
9/1/2003
CSX MeOH railcar

caught fire
Unknown fire
spread through four
vessels carrying
methanol at a pier
Transportation
Bloomfield
Hills, MI
12/26/2003
11&submit=List
Transportation
Stamford, CT
11/11/2005
A tanker carrying
methanol overturned,
causing a small spill
Tanker truck caught
fire from tire
malfunction
Transportation
Stamford, CT
6/12/2007
Tanker truck
overturned with 8,000
gll MeOH
http://www.wtnh.com/dpp/news/fairfield_cty/tanker-carryingmethanol-closes-i-95-northbound-in-stamford
Transportation
BeijingXinjiang,
China
7/3/2007
Truck collision with

30-ton MeOH truck
http://www.globaltimes.cn/NEW S/tabid/99/articleType/ArticleVi
ew/articleId/664422/2-truckers-killed-in-fiery-crash.aspx
Wastewater
Treatment
Daytona
Beach, FL
1/10/2002
Hot-work ignited
MeOH vapors
Eos Environmental
11&submit=List
11&submit=List
http://www.local830.org/index.cfm?zone=/unionactive/view_art
icle.cfm&HomeID=144049&page=200920Incident20Archive

147
Appendix
E
E Technical Bulletins
Technical Bulletins
149
Precautions for Loading, Unloading, Transport

and Storage of Methanol
Methanol requires that handlers pay particular attention
to two specific hazards in order to avoid accidental release
and ignition of methanol and methanol mixtures: 1.)
accidental combustion hazard, and 2.) accelerated
corrosion of common containment alloys.
Hazards associated with loading, unloading, rail and road
transport, and tank storage of methanol are essentially the
same regardless of intended use. The severity of the
hazards varies depending on circumstances and ambient
conditions. For example, accidental release of methanol
from pressurized piping causes immediate liquid flashing
and vapor generation. Accidental release of methanol
from a gravity transfer system results in liquid pooling
and substantially less vapor generation. Combustion and
corrosion hazards are always present to a greater or lesser
extent when handling methanol.
BEST PRACTICE
Best practice for loading, unloading, transporting, and storing methanol is determined by inherent hazards of
methanol, and by circumstances associated with blending and handling, and by considerations whih accompany
potential accidental release. In order to prevent fire, practices for loading, unloading, transporting, and storing
methanol should consider taking the following precautions:
1) Avoid accumulation and subsequent discharge of static electricity within low methanol concentration blends
which may result from turbulence:
a) Control flow rate into and out of containers to minimize turbulence and avoid accumulation of static
1
electricity within the flowing liquid;
b) Discharge through a liquid seal dip leg pipe rather by free-falling through air to prevent air entrainment,
1
Methanol is not a static accumulator. This is recognized by the American Petroleum Institute (API) in recommended Practice 2003 (API-RP-2003)
Protection Against Ignitions Arising out of Static, Lightning and Stray Currents which states in part that in most situations when water-soluble liquids
(such as alcohols) are handled in grounded conductive equipment they do not accumulate electrostatic charges because of their relatively high
electrical conductivity (greater than 50 picosiemens per meter). API-RP-2003 also states that the necessary precautions for prevent build-up of
static charge do not apply to the loading of water-soluble products such as alcohols. These materials do not accumulate hazardous static charge.
The APRP-2003 stipulates that the accumulation of electric charge is likely if the electrical conductivity of the liquid is below 50 picosiemens per
meter. However, the electrical conductivity of methanol is considerably greater than 50 picosiemens per meter. A value for pure methanol has been
reported as 150,000 picosiemens per meter (Commercial Solvents Corporation). Values measured for commercial grade methanol have been in the
range of 2 X 106 to 2 X 107 picosiemens per meter (Methanex).
methanol.org 1
Precautions for Loading, Unloading, Transport and Storage of Methanol (Continued)
absorption of moisture, and accumulation of static electricity in the falling liquid;, Bond and ground tanks,
vessels, containers, and associated piping,
c) Avoid switch loading with gasoline, diesel, and other petroleum products that have bulk electrical
conductivities less than 50 picosiemens per meter.
2) Isolate liquid and vapors from recognizable ignition sources (electrically-caused sparking, electrically-generated
hot spots, welding, brazing, grinding, oxy-acetylene cutting, air-arc gouging, internal combustion engines, space
heaters, etc.) to a radial distance of 50 feet.
OR
3) Prevent contact with air (oxygen) by padding free board in vessels tanks and containers with inert gas (e.g.,
nitrogen). International Maritime Organization (IMO) regulations make padding a requirement for individual
vessel tanks 3000 m3 or larger. Consider using a combination of gravity and pressure transfer using nitrogen
rather than pump transfer.
4) Cordon the area surrounding transfer to a radial distance of 50 feet and use caution tape and signage indicating
presence of a flammable hazard.
5) Seal drains and sewers to a distance of 50 feet or more as appropriate. Methanol spills may create flammable
mixtures of vapor in air as they run down hill and pool.
6) Use appropriate personal protection equipment.
Physical properties of methanol are available in Appendix B of the Methanol Institutes Methanol Safe Handling
Manual.
COMBUSTION
Combustion is the most widely recognized hazard associated with methanol. Ignition and sustained combustion
occur in the vapor phase immediately above a liquid surface: vapors burn; liquids do not. Conditions capable of
supporting combustion are determined by the partial pressure of methanol vapor above a liquid, and the relative
molar concentration of methanol vapor in surrounding air. Methanol vapor/air mixtures with concentrations
between the flammability limits will burn in a sustained manner if ignited. Ignition energy of methanol is similar to
that for gasoline boiling-range fuels.
A uniform mixture of methanol and air at ambient temperature and pressure, and above the upper flammability
limit is too rich to burn because there is insufficient oxygen to support combustion. Similarly, if the methanol vapor
in air is below the lower flammability limit, then combustion cannot be sustained because there is insufficient fuel.
In this case the mixture is too lean to burn. If the concentration of methanol vapor in air is within the flammability
range, then ignition and sustained combustion are expected to occur in the presence of a sufficiently energetic
ignition source.
It is particularly important to understand the principles of hazard control for methanol because methanol, a weakly
polar flammable chemical, is 100% miscible in water. The attraction between water vapor and methanol liquid is so
great that methanol is an effective desiccant for removing moisture from air.
methanol.org 2
Precautions for Loading, Unloading, Transport and Storage of Methanol (Continued)
The affinity between water and methanol requires special fire fighting techniques when responding to methanol fires.
Because the partial pressure of methanol vapor is high compared to that of water vapor in methanol/water solutions ,
these solutions will burn at concentrations which are 70% water. Water may or may not act as an effective
extinguishing medium for methanol fires, depending on circumstances. For example, a mist or fine spray generated
by a loading rack spray curtain may knock methanol molecules out of the air above a pool fire, reducing the further
spread of flames. Application of water as a pressurized stream from a nozzle or water cannon may create running
fires in methanol gasoline blends, which may be doubly hazardous because methanol flames are difficult to see in
bright sunlight, and because uncontrolled addition of water may cause a fire to spread rapidly and unpredictably.
CORROSION
Corrosion is a second hazard resulting from the affinity between methanol and water. Air-absorbed moisture in the
presence of inorganic salts causes methanol to be unexpectedly corrosive to carbon steel alloys which are commonly
used for containment. Methanol containment systems require special provisions for corrosion monitoring, crack
detection around high stress welded joints, and nondestructive inspection of anomalous conditions which are
subject to crevice and pitting-types of corrosion. This is true for storage, transport and piping systems. Pipelines may
also be subject to accelerated localized corrosion if used to transport methanol or methanol/gasoline blends.
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Atmospheric Above Ground Tank Storage of Methanol

INTRODUCTION
Guidelines for designing, fabricating, constructing,
repairing, and safeguarding above-ground methanol
storage tanks is essentially the same as that for liquid
transportation fuels such as ethanol and gasoline, and
flammable liquid feed stocks such as benzene, acetone,
and toluene. However, physical and chemical properties of
methanol are unique to methanol and are not the same as
those of other bulk-stored flammable liquids. Some
considerations of tank storage are unique to methanol.
One important consideration is flammability range.
Because the upper flammability limit of methanol is 36
percent by volume (vol%) compared to that of gasoline
which is 6-7 vol%, methanol vapor can ignite and burn
inside tank vapor space.
Corrosion is another consideration. Methanol is a
conductive polar solvent; gasoline is a non-conductive, non-polar solvent. Galvanic and dissimilar metal corrosion
in methanol service may be high if incompatible materials are placed in electrical contact with one another. Cathodic
protection, and regulator inspection of methanol storage tanks and trim hardware is vitally important to avoid
corrosion failure.
Principal considerations of tank storage of methanol are siting, liquid and vapor containment, electrical grounding,
cathodic protection, protection from stray currents, in-tank vapor control, vapor space fire suppression, and
management of inhalation, ingestion, and dermal contact.
Methanol Institute recommends that users familiarize themselves with relevant codes and standards, and devise and
implement a disciplined layers of protection program to prevent spills, accidental release, overpressure, ignition, and
fire suppression. It is essential that fire detection, alarm, response, and suppression be rapid and effective.
Guidance for design, fabrication, construction, and tank safety are available in American Petroleum Institute (API)
publications:
API Standard 620, Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks
API Standard 653, Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Reconstruction.
Provisions for siting, electrical grounding, berming, and safeguarding above ground storage tanks containing
flammable liquids are given by the International Code Council (ICC) and the National Fire Protection Agency
(NFPA). Guidelines are available in:
NFPA 1 Uniform Fire Code
NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code.
methanol.org 1
Atmospheric Above Ground Tank Storage of Methanol (Continued)
Considerations not addressed in the above-sited references are specific to methanol storage, namely,
Materials selection
Purity protection
Fire prevention, suppression and spill containment.
TANK MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION & TRIM MATERIALS COMPATIBILITY

Methanol is classified by the International Code Council and the National Fire Protection Agency as a class IB
flammable liquid. Other IB liquids are ethanol, hydrocarbon fuels such as gasoline and kerosene, and reactants such
as benzene, acetone, and toluene. No. 1 diesel, No. 2 diesel, and biodiesel are classified as combustible motor fuels,
and are also handled and stored in above ground atmospheric storage tanks.
Methanol gasoline fuel blends are subject to phase separation in the presence of water. Methanol and water, two
polar compounds, form a mixture which separates from gasoline, a non-polar mixture of C4 thru C 12 hydrocarbons.
Methanol boils at 149 F; gasoline boils over a range of temperatures extending from < 140 to 390 F.
Methanol tanks can be constructed of either carbon steel or 300 series austenitic stainless steel. Carbon steel has the
advantage of lower capital cost, but the disadvantage of higher life cycle cost due to increased maintenance and costs
associated with corrosion protection. Because methanol is a polar solvent, galvanic corrosion is more prevalent with
methanol than with other commonly-used motor fuels.
Because of its very high affinity to form mixtures with water, methanol is hygroscopic and extracts moisture from
ambient air that enters tank vapor space during normal liquid level cycling. In the presence of neat or technical
grade methanol, the small amount of water added by desiccation of atmospheric air does not substantially increase
the rate of general corrosion. Never-the-less, because of the relatively high conductivity of liquid methanol,
corrosion induced failures of carbon steel tanks have been reported. Efforts to coat interior tank surfaces with epoxy
resin have met with limited success. Typical coating life is less than seven years, and the coatings tend to form an
electrically non-conductive barrier between the methanol and the tank, thereby complicating bonding and
grounding. Recent reports indicate progress is being made in developing more suitable electrically conductive sprayon tank liner coatings.
Galvanic corrosion of dissimilar trim materials may be accelerated in methanol service, particularly trim materials of
aluminum, lead, magnesium, copper, zinc and platinum alloys. An example of this resulted in a methanol tank fire
when the aluminum alloy flame_arrester corroded to the point of being non-functional. The Chemical Safety Board
concluded that the flame arrester did not prevent the fire outside the tank from igniting the tank contents. Routine
inspections would have detected the corrosion in the flame_arrester that occurred over 12 years. The use of an
aluminum flame arrester in methanol service coupled with the lack of inspection and maintenance allowed the flame
arrester to corrode to the point that it no longer functioned.
Galvanized steel is not suitable for methanol service.
If the methanol-water mixture forms within a gasoline-methanol blend and separates from the gasoline as a separate
phase, then localized corrosion may be accelerated. If the water phase accumulates chloride salts due to proximity to a
coastal environment, then under-deposit corrosion, localized pitting corrosion, and crevice corrosion may be
accelerated. In extreme cases, stress corrosion cracking (SCC) of high carbon, non-molybdenum stabilized austenitic
stainless steel weld heat- affected zones may result due to localized exposure to water containing high concentrations
of chlorides.
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Methanol is one of the few specialized environments, which may cause SCC in titanium alloys. SCC failures have
occurred in dry methanol, methanol/acid and methanol/halide mixtures. Water is an effective inhibitor and will
maintain the passivity of titanium alloys in some environments.
Titanium Alloy Grade
%water- Intermittent exposure1
% water - Sustained exposure
1,2,7,11,16,17
1.5
2.0
9, 12
2.0
2.0
28
2.5
3.0
5,23
3.0
3.0
19, 29, 6-2-4-6
5.0
10.0
1 Intermittent exposure is short term non-continuous contact; sustained exposure is long term continuous contact.
Where-as, SCC has been observed in ethanol tanks, this phenomenon has not been reported for methanol service.
Never-the-less, good practice for analysis of failed components should include consideration of phenomena
observed in ethanol service.
Plastics are generally not recommended for storage purposes due to long-term deterioration of plasticizers, loss of
mechanical integrity, and risk of methanol contamination. Many resins, nylons and rubbers, particularly nitrile
(Buna-N), ethylene-propylene, Teflon and neoprene are used satisfactorily as components of equipment in
methanol service.
METHANOL PURITY PROTECTION

Carbon steel is more likely to corrode and cause methanol contamination than stainless steel, particularly in the
presence of moist air and/or water in coastal environments. This can be mitigated by padding tank free-board space
with dry inert gas such as nitrogen.
Stainless steel has higher capital cost than carbon steel, but offers the advantage of lower life cycle maintenance cost,
and reduced likelihood of methanol contamination. Three-hundred series stainless steel alloys are recommended.
Alloy selection and welding procedures should avoid sensitization of weld heat-affected zones. The American
Welding Society (AWS) and the American Society of Metals (ASM) offer guidelines for preventing heat-affected
zone sensitization.
The National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) offers guidance for cathodic protection of above ground
storage tanks.
Methanol absorbs moisture from air. If tank liquid level cycles through large volumes on frequent intervals, then
moisture-laden ambient air may be pulled into the tank. This may be particularly harmful in a coastal environment
where moisture laden air carries dissolved chloride salts. If the facility is in a region that has characteristically high
relative humidity, then methanol will dry the air in the vapor space of the tank and thereby self-contaminate the
contained methanol.
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If purity is an important consideration, then inert gas padding and stainless steel tanks may be economically
justified as product quality and risk reduction measures. Be certain to pay equal attention to selecting compatible
trim materials.
Water absorption can be eliminated by padding tank vapor space with an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen, or by
padding the vapor space with dry natural gas. If natural gas is used, then measures to eliminate ignition must be
thorough, consistent, and rigorously enforced. Methane is a lighter-than-air gas and is expected to float up and away
from the tank vent when expelled. Never-the-less, precaution should be taken to avoid accidental ignition of expelled
methane by controlling potential ignition sources near and above the tank. Hot work above unpadded and methanepadded methanol tanks must be managed and controlled.
Inert gas padding reduces the need for controlling ignition sources, providing methanol vapor and/or condensed
vapors do not leave the tank by way of a gravity drain that discharges alongside the tank. Inert padding protects
against contamination, accidental ignition, and exposure to airborne toxic vapor.
Incidentally, tank vapor space inerting may be required in order to obtain a variance regarding setback distances.
Refer to International Fire Code (IFC) -2000 Sections 911.1 and 3404.2.9.5.1 for guidelines regarding variances in
setback distance.
FIRE PREVENTION
The U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) classifies methanol as a Primary Class 3.2 flammable liquid and a
Secondary Class 6.1 toxic substance. Protective safeguards should be developed for both hazards which may be
present near tanks and within spill impoundment areas. This includes protection of workers during normal
operation and maintenance, and safeguarding fire fighters and first responders during accidental releases.
The International Code Council (ICC) and the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) designate methanol as
a Class IB flammable liquid. Class IB liquids are characterized by flash points below 73 F and boiling points at or
above 100 F. Gasoline is another example of a commonly-used Class IB liquid, but with important differences due
to the polarity of methanol, and the non-polarity of gasoline.
Practically speaking, the vapor pressure of Class IB liquids under commonly-expected conditions of outside tank
storage is high during warm portions of the year. The vapor phase is the most hazardous physical state of methanol;
airborne methanol vapors are mobile, and are readily ignited and readily enter the body by way of the lungs. Hazard
management is especially important when the temperature of the liquid phase rises above flash point temperature.
The fact that flash point temperature of methanol is low indicates substantial amounts of vapor are present
immediately above the liquid surface and within the vapor space of the tank. Liquids with vapor pressure greater
than 10 mm Hg are considered flammability-explosion hazards. The vapor pressure of methanol is several times this
value at commonly encountered ambient storage temperatures. Ignition may occur both within and outside the tank,
and may be accompanied by tank liquid contents roll-over due to external heating and subsequent Boiling Liquid
Expanding Vapor Explosion (BLEVE).
Depending on liquid temperature, vapor may be capable of supporting combustion if the vapor-air composition is
within the flammable range, and if vapors are exposed to a sufficiently energetic ignition source. The flammable
range of methanol is much broader (6 vol% to 36 vol %) than that of gasoline (1.4 v% to 7 v%). Ignition energy of
methanol is 0.14 millijoules (mJ) compared to that of gasoline at 0.20 mJ. These values are essentially the same as
those for most motor fuels, and therefore not a major factor in assessing ease of ignition. Flash point temperature,
vapor pressure (or Reid vapor pressure), upper and lower flammability limits, autoignition temperature, and heat of
methanol.org 4
combustion are more important parameters when assessing the relative ease of ignition and hazard severity of
methanol and gasoline.
Methanol fires are more likely to occur than gasoline fires within tank freeboard space when liquid temperature is
near or above the methanol flash point temperature (52 F). The vapor pressure of methanol is 90 mm Hg at 68 F
and that of gasoline is 190 mm Hg at 68 F. The volumetric concentration of gasoline vapor is much higher at a given
temperature than that of methanol. This may cause vapor concentration of gasoline to exceed the 7 v% upper
flammable limit, but not the concentration of 36 v% of the upper flammability limit of methanol. Safeguards for
gasoline tank fires are not necessarily sufficient to prevent methanol tank fires.
During tank filling, methanol vapor is displaced through tank vents to atmosphere thereby creating potential
flammability and toxicity hazards in the ambient air which surrounds the tank. These hazards can be controlled
using either of two strategies:
Eliminating ignition sources and recognizing toxicity hazards in the proximity of the tank by classifying the area
surrounding the tank as a hazardous location.
Excluding air from tank vapor space by inerting or gas blanketing.
Tank storage of methanol requires strict and rigorously-enforced provisions to prevent over filling and tank
overflow. Tank maximum allowable working volume must always allow additional volume for liquid expansion. The
volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion for methanol (0.00066 /F) is greater than that of gasoline (0.00056 /F).
A general rule of thumb is to allow 20% of tank working volume for liquid expansion.
Guidelines for sizing the volume of a methanol tank containment dike are not the same as for fuels such as gasoline
and diesel. Spill containment must allow extra capacity for the substantial volume of fire water (greater than 5 parts
water to 1 part methanol) necessary to dilute methanol to a non-flammable concentration. This consideration is
discussed in detail under the heading of Spill Containment.
Provisions for controlling potential ignition sources near methanol liquid storage tanks are more or less the same as
those for gasoline. The lower flammable limit of gasoline vapor is 1.4 v% compared to 7 v% for methanol. The
relative density of gasoline vapor is 3 to 4, compared to that of methanol which is 1.1. Gasoline vapor will travel
further along the ground without being diluted below the lower flammability limit and will ignite at much lower
concentration than methanol vapor. Generally speaking, the hazard zone for ignition of methanol vapor is less
restrictive than that of gasoline. The perimeter of hazard zones for methanol must consider both the toxicity and the
flammability of methanol. Refer to the following for information on classifying, designating, and safeguarding
hazardous locations:
A.W. Cox, F.P. Lees, and M.L. Ang: Classification of Hazardous Locations, Published by Institution of Chemical
Engineers, Davis Building, 165-171 Railway Terrace, Rugby, Warwickshire, CV21 3HQ, England, 1990,
ISBN 0 85295 258 9
NFPA 70E, Standard for Electrical Safety Requirements for Employee Work Places.
NFPA 70, National Electrical Code.
The United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) among others, provides guidance for
permitting, testing, entering, and safeguarding employees during performance of hot work within hazardous
locations and confined spaces. The applicable sections of Title 29 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) are:
29CFR1910.106, Flammable and Combustible Liquids
methanol.org 5
29CFR1910.146, Confined Space Entry

29CFR1910.252, Fire Protection and Prevention
29CFR1910.253, Oxygen Fuel Gas Welding and Cutting
29CFR1910.254, Arch Welding and Cutting
29CFR1910.255, Resistance Welding
29CFR1917.152, Marine Terminals Welding, Cutting, and Hot Work
29CFR1910.301, Electrical Safety
Other applicable references include:
API Publication 2201, Procedures for Welding or Hot Tapping on Equipment Containing Flammables
NFPA 51-B, Fire Prevention During Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work
Association of Energy Services Companies (AESC) Hot Work
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Z49.1-67, Safety in Welding and Cutting
American Welding Society (AWS) Z49.1-88, Safety in Welding and Cutting and Applied Processes.
FIRE SUPPRESSION
Fire suppression may use any of several media:
alcohol resistant fire-fighting, fire-extinguishing foam (AR-AFFF)
dry chemical extinguishers (for small fires)
CO2
Water mist spray.
Guidelines for foam extinguishing systems with optimum application rates are provided in NFPA 11.
Fixed fire monitors may be used to cool tank walls and to extinguish flames provided at least five parts water is
added for every one part of methanol: i.e., methanol concentration is diluted to less than 15%. Water-methanol
solutions are flammable to compositions of about 80 v% water.
Some facilities equip methanol tanks with an internal foam delivery system combined with an internal floating roof.
Care must be taken to coat the internal floating roof if it is constructed of aluminum or aluminum/magnesium alloy.
Methanol is mildly corrosive to aluminum-magnesium, aluminum-copper, and copper-zinc alloys.
TANK SPILL CONTAINMENT

General guidance for liquid hydrocarbon (gasoline, kerosene, and diesel) spill containment is to size the
containment volume to at least 110% of the working volume of the largest tank within a tank battery. This volume
accommodates a worst case, full tank breech when precipitated moisture is present within the containment without
overflowing containment dikes. Guidelines for spill containment are provided in NFPA 1, NFPA 30, and federal
regulations for spill prevention: 40CFR110 and 112.
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Because methanol is highly soluble in water, and because flammability of water-methanol solutions is persistent to
high proportions of water, it is suggested that the containment volume for methanol tank spills be enlarged
accordingly if water is to be used as an extinguishing medium. The additional containment volume must be
sufficient to allow responders to use water as a suppressant without overflowing the tank impoundment dike. If
alcohol resistant foam is used, then less volume is required for spill containment. Provisions must insure that a
sufficient amount of AR-AFFF suppressant is onsite and available to extinguish worst case fire scenarios.
methanol.org 7
Methanol Drum Transport, Handling, and Storage

INTRODUCTION
Totes, drums (55 gallon), and cans (5 gallon, and 1 gallon)
are used to transport, store, and dispense methanol in a
wide variety of circumstances by low volume users. Nonbulk transport and storage of hazardous material are
regulated activities in the U.S. and some other countries.
Failure to adhere to applicable regulations may be
punishable by fines and imprisonment. Requirements are
specific to the country and the circumstances; however
requirements will generally consist of the following;
shipping papers, container labeling, transport vehicle
placarding, driver training and licensing, and availability
of emergency repines equipment. If you are not a
designated hazardous materials carrier, then it may be
against the law to transport methanol in totes, drums, and cans.
Do not transport methanol in your personal vehicle. Do not store methanol totes, drums, or cans indoors or in your
home. Storage requires precautions for flammable loading, fire-safe storage, ventilation, spill containment, spill
cleanup, and fire suppression.
Never use mouth suction to siphon-transfer methanol. Methanol liquid and vapor are toxic to humans. Exposure is
cumulative and may result in harm if vapor or liquid are inhaled, ingested, or contacted with skin for extended
periods of time.
Methanol (CAS: 67-56-1, NIOSH: PC-1400000, DOT: 1230, UN-1230, NA-1230) is classified by the International
Code Council (ICC) and the National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) under the Uniform Fire Code as a IB
Flammable Liquid and by the United Nations as a 1993 Class 3 Flammable Liquid. NFPA and Department of
Transportation (DOT) rank Flammability as a 3 primary hazard, and toxicity, as a 6.1 ranked secondary hazard.
Guidelines for handling IB flammable liquids are provided by codes and standards published by ICC, NFPA, and the
International Fire Code.
ICC and NFPA guidelines are recommended as best practices, but are not mandatory unless deemed so by national,
or local authority. Within the United States, local authority generally rests with the local Fire Marshal. Mandatory
regulations have been developed within the United States by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA), an agency of the federal government. Specific safe handling practices are given under three separate
regulations for various industries, circumstances, and work environments:
General Industry: 29 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 1910.106
Construction Industry: 29CFR1926.152
Shipyard Industry: 29CFR1915.36).
methanol.org 1
Methanol Drum Transport, Handling, and Storage (Continued)
Guidelines for international transportation of flammable liquids are available from the following bodies:
International Maritime Organization, International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code (volumes, 1, 2,
and Supplement)
International Air Transport Association (IATA), Dangerous Goods Regulations
Intergovernmental Organization for International Carriage by Rail, Regulations concerning the International
Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Rail.
Transportation within the United States is governed by the Department of Transportation (DOT), an agency of the
federal government. DOT regulations are available in 49CFR which can be accessed on the internet or purchased in
book format at a nominal cost over the internet.
Drums, totes, and cans are transported, stored, and handled by the vast majority of methanol users. This discussion
focuses on 5-gallon and 55-gallon quantities packaged in metal containers.
Plastic containers are not recommended for long-time storage or shipment of methanol because the solvent
properties of methanol may degrade the plastic, causing the containers to lose structural integrity.
STORAGE OF METHANOL-CONTAINING TOTES, DRUMS, AND CANS

Guidance for safe storage of methanol is provided by ICC, NFPA, and the International Fire Code. ICC and NFPA
guidelines are available in:
NFPA 1, Uniform Fire Code.
NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code.
Methanol storage areas should be curbed with a compatible material such as concrete, ventilated to prevent
accumulation of vapors, and drained to a safe location which is remote from the storage area. Storage areas should
be equipped with vapor, and heat detector/alarms. Because methanol burns with a transparent, non-luminous blue
flame, combustion will likely not be detected by standard smoke detectors, and luminous-type flame detectors.
Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide detectors may serve in place of smoke detectors and luminous flame
detectors. First responders use infra-red detection methods to determine if combustion is occurring. It is
recommended that this type of detector be installed and alarmed to monitor methanol tote, drum, and can storage
areas. Detection should be redundant with detectors positioned at right angles to one another.
If more than several drums are stored, then consideration should be given to automatic fire suppression using either
fine water mist spray, or alcohol resistant fire-fighting foam (AR-FFF). Storage of multiple containers is subject to
limitations on stacking height, and container density loading. Refer to the listed codes to obtain guidance, which is
specific to your circumstance.
Tote and drum containers must be stored outside, not within a structure, unless placed in a liquid storage room or
warehouse meeting the requirements for flammable liquids storage buildings. Five-gallon and 1-gallon containers
may be stored within a building provided they are contained in a fire-safe cabinet which is grounded, and vented to
an outside safe location which includes an explosion suppression devise.
methanol.org 2
SHIPMENT OF TOTES, DRUMS, 5-GALLON CANS, AND 1-GALLON CONTAINERS

Guidance for shipment of methanol via the U.S. Postal Service is contained in United States Postal Service
Publication 52, 343 Flammable and Combustible Liquids (Hazard Class 3).
Transportation of drum quantities (8 to 119 gallon quantities of methanol) is regulated by multiple agencies and
organizations. The regulatory authority depends on:
Method of transport (truck, rail, air, or sea-going vessel).
Capacity of individual containers, the number of containers which comprise a single shipment.
Whether shipment is domestic within U.S.-controlled territory or outside of U.S. controlled territory.
Shipping oversight is the responsibility of the following regulatory bodies:
Within the United States, the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT), Hazardous Material Regulations 49
CFR 100-199 and Emergency Response Guide Book
United Nations Location Codes (UN/LOCODES), UN Recommendations on Transport of Dangerous Goods

(i.e., the so-called UN-Orange Book)
International Maritime Organization (IMO), International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG),
Volumes 1 and 2, plus a supplement
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO): Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous
Goods by Air
International Air Transportation Association (IATA), Dangerous Goods Regulations (DGR) 3.3.
Road, rail, airborne, and water transport of hazardous materials is controlled by DOT for goods shipped within the
United States. Regulatory revisions are made almost continuously; verify that you are using current versions of the
regulations.
DOT restricts aircraft transportation of Class 3 flammables (e.g., methanol) to a maximum of 1 liter on passenger
aircraft and 60 liters on cargo aircraft, irrespective of the shipping company: Fed-X, UPS, etc. Drum quantities are not
considered to be air transportable. Refer to 49CFR172.101, Hazardous Materials Table for specific information
regarding shipment of methanol. Refer to 49CFR173.202 for non-bulk packaging requirements on passenger and
cargo aircraft.
CONTAINER SPECIFICATIONS FOR TRANSPORTING AND STORING METHANOL

Class IB Flammable Liquids are equivalent to DOT-designated PG II Flammable Liquids. Non-bulk volumes of PG
II Flammable Liquids between 8 and 119 gallons are required to be packaged in DOT performance-oriented
packaging identified using the United Nations identification system. Specifications for drums are established and
published by Oak Ridge National Laboratory. A copy of these specifications can be obtained by contacting Oak
Ridge National Laboratory, Packaging Operations Manager, Bldg. 7001, MS 6288 P.O. Box 2008, 1 Bethel Valley
Road Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831-6288. Totes, drums, and cans are available which just meet, and which exceed
published specifications. Those which exceed specifications offer the potential cost-benefit of testing and re-using
the containers.
methanol.org 3
Standards for DOT designated packaging requirements for drum drop, stacking, and vibration testing are as follows:
Drop
o
American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) D-5276, Standard Test Method for Drop Test of Loaded
Containers by Free Fall
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 2248, Packaging Complete, Filled Transport Packages
Vertical Impact Test By Dropping
Stacking
o
ASTM D-4577, Standard Test Method for Compression Resistance of a Container Under Constant Load
ISO 2234, Packaging Complete, Filled Transport Packages Stacking Tests using Static Load
Vibration
o
ASTM D-999, Standard Test Method for Vibration Testing of Shipping Containers
ISO 2247, Packaging Complete, Filled transport Packages Vibration Test at Fixed Low Frequency
Packaging may be re-used provided it is cleaned, refurbished, re-tested, and found to be compliant.
SHIPPING REGULATIONS
Shipping requirements for hazardous materials are rigorous and complex. Failure to comply with DOT regulations
can result in civil penalties consisting of monetary fines of $50,000 per occurrence and criminal penalties of 5-years
imprisonment.
If you are not comfortable interpreting regulations for identifying, labeling, packaging, and shipping hazardous
materials, then consider obtaining professional guidance from a qualified professional who is knowledgeable about
your specific circumstances.
It is unsafe to transport drum or even 5-gallon cans of methanol in the trunk of a car, even if the trunk remains
open. Transportation of methanol requires special hazard and incident response training. Transporting vehicles
must be placarded, and drivers must have government required papers authorizing transport.
CONTROLLING STATIC ACCUMULATION AND SPARK DISCHARGE

Liquids which have conductivity less than 50 picosiemens per meter are charge accumulators; that is, these liquids
tend to accumulate static charge as a result of fluid handling in un-bonded and un-grounded fuel containment
systems. Liquids which have electrical conductivity greater than 50 picosiemens per meter are not considered to be
charge accumulators. The conductivity of gasoline is less than 500 picosiemens; the conductivity of methanol is
substantially greater than 50 picosiemens.
Methanol is a polar material; gasoline, and most other common transportation fuels are non-polar materials. The
flash temperature, ignition energy, and lower flammability limit of methanol compared to gasoline cause methanol
to be less easily ignited than gasoline in many commonly-encountered circumstances. This is also true for ignition
resulting from accumulation and subsequent discharge of static electricity. Charge accumulation and discharge is
less likely for methanol than for gasoline, Jet, kerosene, low sulfur diesel, and other low sulfur distillates. Electrical
methanol.org 4
conductivity of gasoline is 25 picosiemens per meter, which is typical for petroleum derived distillate fuels. Gasoline
accumulates static electricity.
By comparison, the electrical conductivity of methanol is 7 x 106 picosiemens per meter, and that of good quality
drinking water (also a polar compound) is 5 x 108 picosiemens per meter. Neither methanol nor water are charge
accumulators. However, methanol may accumulate static charge under abnormal circumstances. Always make
provisions to bond and ground methanol containers with electrical resistance less than 10 ohms (R bond or ground 10
ohms). Neat (pure) methanol does not normally have a high risk of charge accumulation, static discharge, and static
spark ignition. Possible exceptions to this occur when large transient ground currents are present due to lightning
strikes, nearby high voltage power lines, and other sources of ground current.
As a matter of good practice, bonding, grounding and turbulence quelling, and liquid stilling during handling
procedures should be followed in the event the methanol is a blended fuel, or is contaminated with hydrocarbon and
therefore has an unexpectedly low electrical conductivity. Methanol burns with a non-luminous flame which may be
difficult to detect during daytime hours, and methanol vapor has a very wide flammability range (7 v% to 36 v%).
DRUM HANDLING AND LIQUID TRANSFER

The difficulty of drum handling increases proportionally to the size and weight of the drum. Five gallon cans are
relatively easy to handle without mechanical assistance, provided the cans are moved and handled one-at-a-time.
Fifty-five gallon drums contain less than 55 gallons of liquid in order to allow space for fluid volume expansion. A 55
gallon drum filled to 80% capacity with methanol weights approximately 300 lbs. In order to move a full drum, it is
necessary to use a mechanical means such as a barrel hoist or fork lift. If no mechanical means is available, then
individual drums can be moved by tipping the drum on its side, and rolling it to a designated curbed storage area.
If it is necessary to remove a measured quantity of methanol from the drum without using mechanical means such
as low pressure inerting, or a siphon, then it is possible to lay the drum on its side, and roll the drum into a slanted
position with some form of a prop such as a short section of board under the bunged end of the drum. Position the
drum with the small bung in a 12 oclock position, and verify that the drum is chocked in a stable position. The
drum and the receiving container must be bonded and grounded.
In the 12 oclock position, the small bung is now in the vapor space of the drum. Replace the bung with a threaded,
alcohol compatible hose. Be careful not to breathe the escaping vapors, which are toxic, and may be flammable.
Methanol can be removed from the drum in a controlled manner by carefully rolling the drum to the side so the
small bung is in the 1 oclock position, slightly below the liquid level within the drum. Methanol will now flow out of
the drum in a controlled manner. Flow can be terminated by returning the drum to the 12 oclock position. Replace
the transfer hose with the bung, and return the drum to an upright position. Extreme care must be taken to not drop
or otherwise damage totes, drums, cans, and 1-gallon containers during handling.
Methanol is toxic, especially when breathed or ingested. Siphon transfer of methanol must never be started by
mouth-suction. Ingestion of tea-spoon-sized quantities are known to cause blindness. Inhalation of methanol vapor,
even in small amounts over short periods of time, is known to produce acute health effects in some individuals.
Methanol is toxic. Do not breathe the vapor, ingest the liquid, or allow bare skin to contact the liquid.
methanol.org 5
Using Physical and Chemical Properties to Manage

Flammable Liquid Hazards
Part 1-A: How to Use the Technical Bulletin
1
INTRODUCTION
This is part one of a three-part Technical Bulletin on how to use physical and chemical properties to identify, assess,
and control hazards associated with commonly used flammable liquid and gaseous fuels. The three parts
complement each other, but can also be used independently, according to the level of information needed by the
user.
Part 1 of this Bulletin provides information for eight fuels ranging from gaseous hydrogen to biodiesel, and is
divided into two sections. Section 1-A serves as the introduction to the table and contains the glossary of terms and
acronyms. Section 1-B is the actual fuel properties data table.
The table in Section 1-B listing fuel properties is divided into five sections, as follows:
1) General Information
2) Liquid Properties
3) Vapor properties
4) Flammable Properties
5) Sources of Information
The first section of this document contains information that is generally useful for handling, shipping, and
responding to releases and spills. Sections 2 through 4 compare selected properties of one fuel with another by listing
parameters in tabular format. The information source for each item of data is listed in Section 5.
Parts Two and Three of the Technical Bulletin develop a foundation for using selected physical and chemical
properties to determine the character, and severity of methanol hazards compared to those of other commonly used
gaseous and liquid fuels.
Virtually all methanol users have experience handling gasoline and or diesel, so the properties of methanol are
compared to those of gasoline and diesel. Users will see that hazard severity is determined by two factors: 1.)
properties of the chemical or substance, and 2.) the circumstances under which the chemical or substance is being
transported, stored and used.
This three-part Technical Bulletin was written by Mr. Robert R. Roberts of Roberts & Roberts Risk & Reliability Engineering and edited by Alliance Consulting
International, San Diego, California under contract to the Methanol Institute..
methanol.org 1
Using Physical and Chemical Properties to Manage Flammable Liquid Hazards

SELECTED FUELS
The fuels include Hydrogen gas (H2), compressed natural gas, propane (a liquefied gas), three Class IB Flammable
Liquids (methanol, ethanol, and gasoline), and two Class 2 combustible liquids (No. 2 diesel, and biodiesel).
Parameters listed for methanol and ethanol are for neat (i.e., pure) materials, not for fuel blends. Parameters for fuel
blends must be determined for each specific blend.
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Information in the tables was derived from a combination of copyright-protected publications, and from various
internet sources available as of March 31, 2011. Information beyond that included in the tables can be obtained by
accessing the listed web pages and/or by conducting expanded internet searches using your own guidewords. The
authors and the Methanol Institute make no representation as to the accuracy, quality or completeness of
information obtained from the sources cited and take no responsibility for its use. Users are encouraged to use the
internet; however, data should be verified by a second source when possible.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND ACRONYMS

(Sources of the indexed definitions are tabulated at the end of the glossary.)
Adiabatic Flame Temperature (see also Peak Flame Temperature) - the highest possible flame temperature presuming
there is no loss of heat from the flame to the surroundings. This is a calculated value that assumes that all of the heat
released as heat of combustion is directed toward raising the temperature of the flame. The actual flame temperature
will be much cooler than the value calculated as the adiabatic flame temperature, because in reality a portion of the
heat of combustion is transferred to the surroundings via convective and radiant heat transfer.(1)
API- American Petroleum Institute
ASME- American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Autoignition Temperature- the minimum temperature of a liquid necessary to initiate the self-sustained combustion
of its vapor in the absence of an ignition source.(2)
BLEVE or Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion- The phenomena in which the rapid buildup of internal
pressure within a container, tank, or pressure vessel which is relieved by explosion and bursting of the container.
BLEVEs can cause containers to rocket away from the site of the explosion due the force of the explosion. (2)
Boiling Point Temperature- The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid substance equals the average
atmospheric pressure: i.e., 14.7 psia or 760 mmHg.(2)
CAS Number- The American Chemical Societys Chemical Abstract Service number. Each chemical compound is
assigned a unique number.(3)
Coefficient of Volumetric Thermal Expansion- The change in the volume of a liquid per degree of change in
temperature.(2)
Density- The property of a substance that measures its compactness; the mass of a substance divided by the volume it
occupies.(2)
methanol.org 2

DOT- U.S. Department of Transportation
DOT Guide Number (see also UN and UA Numbers)- The four-digit hazard code assigned by the U.S. DOT.(3)
Typically, the DOT Guide Number and the UN Number are the same. If there is no DOT Guide Number or UN
Number, then a NA Number is assigned.
DOT Hazard Class and Division- The category of hazard DOT assigns to a hazardous material such as explosives,
compressed gases, flammable and combustible liquids, flammable solids, oxidizers and organic peroxides, poisonous
and toxic materials, infectious substances, radioactive materials, corrosive materials, and miscellaneous hazardous
materials.(11)
DOT Number- Companies that operate commercial vehicles hauling passengers or cargo in interstate commerce
and/or intrastate haulage of hazardous materials must be registered with the Federal Motor Carrier Safety
Administration (FMCSA) and must have a DOT Number. The DOT Number serves as a unique identifier for the
company when compiling incident reports and accident history.(5)
DOT Packaging- regulated hazardous materials for export require UN/DOT compliant packaging.
DOT Packing Group- Mitigating the risks associated with shipment of hazardous materials may require application
of safety precautions during shipment, storage and use. Packing groups are used to determine the degree of
protective packaging required for dangerous goods during transportation. Group I is great danger; group II is
medium danger; and group III is least danger.(6)
Electrical Conductivity (see also Specific Electrical Conductance)- The measure of how well a material allows
movement of an electrical charge. It is the ratio of the current density to the electric field strength. The SI derived unit
of measure is Siemens/meter (S/m). A unit of Siemens is equivalent to the older unit for the inverse of an ohm,
known as mho. Conductivity (also called specific conductance) of moderately conductive liquids such as methanol
is frequently expressed in units of micro Siemens per centimeter (S/cm). Conductivity of dielectric liquids such as
gasoline and diesel are often expressed in units of pico Siemens per centimeter (pS/cm). A unit Siemens is equivalent
to 1 x 1012 pico Siemens. A unit micro Siemen is equivalent to 1 x 106 pico Siemens.(12)
Enthalpy of Combustion (see also Heat of Combustion)- The exothermic thermal energy that is released by a
combustion reaction.(2)
Flame Temperature- The temperature of a flame. Flame provides a general indication of the rate of the combustion
reaction. Liquids which are characterized as burning with a high flame temperature have higher reaction rates than
those characterized by a low flame temperature.(7)
Flammability Limits- The volume or mole percent concentration of a gaseous fuel in air at which combustion can
occur. Flammability limits are both an upper and a lower bound.
Flammability Range- The numerical difference between a flammable substances lower and upper explosive limits in
air.(2)
Flash Point Temperature- The minimum temperature at which the vapor of a liquid or solid ignites when exposed to
sparks, flames, or other ignition sources.(2)
Freezing Point Temperature- The temperature at which the liquid and solid states of a substance coexist at one
atmosphere (atm) of pressure.(2)
methanol.org 3

Fuel in Vaporized Stoichiometric Mixture- The volume percent of vaporized fuel available to a combustion reaction
which occurs at stoichiometric concentration.
Hazard- A characteristic of a compound, chemical, or material which has the potential of causing harm and damage
if not controlled and appropriately managed.
Heat Capacity (see also Specific Heat or Specific Heat Capacity)- The amount of heat needed to raise either one gram
of a substance one degree Celsius or one pound of substance one degree Fahrenheit.(2)
Heat of Combustion (see also Enthalpy of Combustion)- The heat evolved to the surroundings when a compound is
burned to yield carbon dioxide and water vapor.(2)
Heating Value- The theoretical amount of heat that can be released by a combustion reaction if the fuel and oxidants
are converted with 100% efficiency to CO2 and H2O vapor. Two values are given heat value: a higher heating value
(HHV) and a lower heating value (LHV). HHV is used for situations in which all of the heat (heat of reaction, the
sensible heat of product gases, and the heat of condensation of water vapor) is recovered and utilized to perform
work. HHV is essentially the same as the thermodynamic heat (enthalpy) of combustion. The LHV is used if a
portion of the sensible heat of the gases and the heat of condensation of water vapor is not recovered to perform
work. The process industries typically use the lower heating value.(1,8)
ICC- International Code Council
IEEE- Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
ISA- International Society of Automation (formerly Instrument Society of America)
Latent Heat of Vaporization- The energy to transform a given quantity of a material into a gas.
Liquid Flammability Class- A system of classification used by NFPA and ICC which groups liquids into categories
based upon boiling point and flash point temperature. Methanol, ethanol, and gasoline are type IB flammable
liquids. By comparison, diesel is a combustible liquid.
Lower Flammability Limit (see also lower explosive limit)- The concentration of a gas or vapor in air below which a
flame will not propagate upon exposure to an ignition source. If the fuel/air mixture is said to be to lean, there is
insufficient fuel to support sustained combustion.(2)
Mass Burning Rate- The loss in mass per unit time by materials burning under specified conditions.(9)
Minimum Ignition Energy- The smallest amount of energy of a piloted ignition source which can ignite a mixture of
fuel in air when the concentration of the fuel is between the lower and upper flammable limits. Four sources of heat
energy are: (1) chemical, (2) electrical, (3) mechanical, (4) nuclear.(7)
NACE- National Association of Corrosion Engineers
NEC- National Electrical Code
NFPA- National Fire Protection Association
OSHA- U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration
methanol.org 4

Peak Flame Temperature (see also Adiabatic Flame Temperature)- the theoretical maximum temperature a flame can
reach assuming no heat is transferred to the surroundings.
Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP)- A commonly used measure of vapor pressure for gasoline, defined as the absolute vapor
pressure exerted by a liquid at 100oF as determined by the test method ASTM D-323. The test method does not apply
to liquefied petroleum gases such as propane. RVP is the absolute vapor pressure. True Vapor Pressure (TVP) is the
partial vapor pressure.(10)
Specific Electrical Conductance (see Electrical Conductivity)
Specific Gravity- The mass of a given volume of matter compared to the mass of an equal volume of water.(2)
Specific Heat (see also Specific Heat Capacity or Heat Capacity)- The ratio of the heat capacity of a substance to the
heat capacity of water at the same temperature.(2)
Specific Heat Capacity (see Specific Heat or Heat Capacity)
STCC Number (Standard Transportation Commodity Code) - The unique 7-digit code assigned to commodities
transported by rail. The STCC number must be shown on all bills of lading.(13)
Stoichiometric Air to Fuel Ratio- The ratio of the theoretical amount of air (expressed as moles or mass) to the
amount of fuel expressed in the same units which contains sufficient oxygen to allow full and complete combustion
of 100% of the hydrogen and carbon contained within the fuel.(1)
Oxygen-to-fuel ratio: oxygen/Fuel = (1 + x/4) where x = H/C of the fuel
Air-to-fuel ratio A/F = )100/21)(O/F)
Stoichiometric Flame Speed- The speed of the flame front at the stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio.
Stoichiometric Mixture- A mixture of air and fuel which has a chemical composition equivalent to the stoichiometric
air to fuel ratio.
Thermal Conductivity- The ability of a material to conduct heat. Liquids with high thermal conductivity conduct
heat more readily than liquids with low thermal conductivity.(1)
UA Numbers- North American Numbers are identical to UN Numbers. If a material does not have a UN Number, it
may be assigned an UA Number; these are usually four-digit numbers starting with 8 or 9.(4)
UN Numbers- United Nations Numbers are four-digit numbers used worldwide in international commerce and
transportation to identify hazardous chemicals, or classes of hazardous materials.(4)
Upper Flammability Limit (see also upper explosive limit)- The concentration of a gas or vapor in the air above which
it cannot burn when exposed to an ignition source. If the fuel is said to be too rich to burn above the UFL, the
number of moles of air is insufficient to support combustion.
Vapor Pressure (see also True Vapor Pressure TVP)- The pressure exerted within a confinement vessel by the vapor
of a substance in equilibrium with its liquid; a measure of a substances propensity to evaporate.(2)
Viscosity- The quality of resistance to flow.(2)
methanol.org 5

REFERENCES CITED
Citation Number
Cited Reference
(1)
Charles E. Baukal, Jr,, PH.D., P.E., Editor, and Robert E. Schwartz, P.E. Associate Editor: The
John Zink Combustion Handbook, 2001 by John Zink Co., LLC, Published by CRC Press,
ISBN 0-8493-2337-1
(2)
Eugene Meyer: Chemistry of Hazardous Materials, 4th edition, 2005 by Pearson Education,
Inc., Published by Pearson Prentice Hall LTD, ISBN 0-13-112760-8
(3)
N. Irving Sax and Richard J. Lewis, Sr.: Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 1989 by
Van Nostrand Reinhold, Published by Van Nostrand Reinhold, ISBN 0-442-28020-3
(4)
http://www.ilpi.com/msds/ref/unna.html
(5)
http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/registration-licensing/registration-usdot.htm
(6)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dangerous_goods#Packing_groups/
(7)
Arthur E. Cote Editor in Chief, Jim L. Linville Managing Editor, Kathleen Robinson and Deborah
Shaw Associate Editors: Fire Protection Handbook, 17 th edition, 1991 by The National Fire
Protection Association, Published by National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, Massachusetts,
ISBN 0-87765-378-X
(8)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_of_combustion#Heat_of_combustion_tables
(9)
http://www.answers.com/topic/mass-burning-rate/
(10)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reid_Vapor_Pressure
(11)
http://www.drs.illinois.edu/transportationandshipping/Definitions.html
(12)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity (13)
http://www.a-orailroad.com/glossary.htm
methanol.org 6

Part 1-B: Physical & Chemical Properties of Selected Fuels
SECTION 1: GENERAL INFORMATION

Hydrogen
CNG
Propane
Methanol
Ethanol
Gasoline
H2
(gas)
CH4 83-99%; C2H6

1-13%
(gas)
C3 (liquid)
CH3OH
(liquid)
C2H5OH
(liquid)
C4-C12
(liquid)
UN 1049 UN
1966
UN 1971
UN 1075
UN 1978
UN 1230
UN 1170
2.1
flammable
gas
2.1
flammable
gas
2.1
flammable gas
3.6.1
flammable
liquid
22
17
22
CAS Number
1333-74-0
74-82-8
STCC Number
4905746
4905755
Property/Information
DOT Number
DOT Hazard Class or Division
DOT Guide Number
No. 2
Diesel
B100
Biodiesel
C8-C25
(liquid)
C12-C22
(liquid)
UN 1203
UN 1202
NA 1993
3
flammable
liquid
3
flammable
liquid
3
flammable
liquid
3
flammable
liquid
28
26
27
128
74-98-6
65-56-1
64-17-5
8006-61-9
68476-34-6
67784-809
4905781
4909230
4908178
IB
flammable
liquid
IB
flammable
liquid
2
combustible
liquid
2
combustible
liquid
ICC, OSHA, NFPA

Liquid Flammability Class
IB
flammable
liquid
DOT Packing Group
PG II
PG II
PG II
PG III
PG III
302/302
302/302
304/314
202/242
202/242
202/242
203/242
203/242
Pressurized
cylinders
&
tank cars
Pressurized
cylinders
pressurized
cylinders, tank
trucks, tank cars,
NON-BULK:
1-119 gal DOT
PG-II
performanceoriented
containers
BULK:
tank cars,
tank trucks
NON-BULK:
1-119 gal DOT
PG-II
performanceoriented
containers
BULK:
tank cars,
tank trucks
BULK:
pipelines, tank
cars, tank
trucks
BULK:
pipelines, tank
cars, tank
trucks
BULK:
pipelines,
tank cars,
tank trucks
DOT Packaging (non-bulk/bulk)

Types of Shipping Containers
methanol.org 1

SECTION 1: GENERAL INFORMATION (CONT.)

Hydrogen
CNG
Propane
Methanol
Ethanol
Gasoline
H2
(gas)
CH4 83-99%; C2H6

1-13%
(gas)
C3 (liquid)
CH3OH
(liquid)
C2H5OH
(liquid)
C4-C12
(liquid)
Shipping Container Hazards
rupture,
BLEVE:
containers
may fragment
&
rocket in fire
rupture,
BLEVE:
containers may
fragment &
rocket in fire
rupture, BLEVE:
containers may
fragment
&
rocket in fire
rupture, BLEVE:
containers may
fragment
&
rocket in fire
rupture, BLEVE:
containers may
fragment &
rocket in fire
Special Fire Hazards
blue flame
invisible in
daylight;
flame flashes
back from
ignition
source to leak
point;
accumulated
vapor may
explode if
ignited in
confined or in
unconfined
area
yellow luminous
flame visible in
daylight; flame
flashes back from
ignition source to
leak point;
accumulated vapor
may
explode if ignited
in confined area or
deflagrate as a
buoyant radiant
fireball in
unconfined area
yellow luminous
flame visible in
daylight; flame
flashes back
from ignition
source to leak
point;
accumulated
vapor may
explode if ignited
in confined area
or deflagrate as a
non-buoyant
radiant fire ball
in unconfined
area
blue flame
invisible in
daylight; flame
flashes back
from ignition
source to leak
point;
accumulated
vapor may
explode if
ignited in
confined area or
deflagrate as a
near- neutralbuoyancy
radiant fire ball
in unconfined
poorly
ventilated area
blue flame
invisible in
daylight; flame
flashes back
from ignition
source to leak
point;
accumulated
vapor may
explode if
ignited in
confined area,
or deflagrate as
a near-neutralbuoyancy fire
ball in
unconfined
poorly
ventilated area
No. 2
Diesel
B100
Biodiesel
C8-C25
(liquid)
C12-C22
(liquid)
rupture,
BLEVE:
containers may
fragment
&
rocket in fire
rupture,
BLEVE:
containers
may fragment
&
rocket in fire
rupture,
BLEVE:
containers
may
fragment
&
rocket in fire
yellow
luminous
flame visible in
daylight; flame
flashes back
from ignition
source to leak
point;
accumulated
vapor may
explode if
ignited in
confined area
or deflagrate
as a nonbuoyant
radiant fire ball
in unconfined
area
yellow
luminous
flame visible in
daylight;
dense black
smoke
yellow
luminous
flame visible
in daylight;
dense black
smoke
methanol.org 2

SECTION 1: GENERAL INFORMATION (CONT.)

Hydrogen
CNG
Propane
Methanol
Ethanol
Gasoline
H2
(gas)
CH4 83-99%; C2H6

1-13%
(gas)
C3 (liquid)
CH3OH
(liquid)
C2H5OH
(liquid)
C4-C12
(liquid)
Other Information
H2 gas release
is very
buoyant and
invisible
CNG gas release is

buoyant and
invisible, natural
gas has
characteristic odor
liquid floats &

boils on water;
heavier-than-air
visible vapor
cloud
liquid floats &

mixes with
water; near
neutral vapor
buoyancy
liquid floats &

mixes with
water; near
neutral vapor
buoyancy
Molecular Weight
2.02 (2)
16.04 (2)
44.1 (2)
32.04 (1,2)
0 (2)
75 (2)
82 (2)
100 (2)
25 (2)
0 (2)
No. 2
Diesel
B100
Biodiesel
C8-C25
(liquid)
C12-C22
(liquid)
liquid floats on
water; high
vapor
pressure,
expected to
form negative
buoyancy
vapor cloud
liquid floats
on water; low
vapor
pressure,
formation of
vapor cloud
not expected
liquid floats
on water;
low vapor
pressure,
formation of
vapor cloud
not
expected
46.07 (1,2)
100-105 (1,2)
~200 (1,2)
~292 (2)
37.5 (2)
52.2 (2)
85-88 (2)
87 (2)
77 (2)
18 (2)
12.6 (2)
13.1 (2)
12-15 (2)
13 (2)
12 (2)
49.9 (2)
34.7 (2)
0 (2)
11 (2)
Chemical Composition
Carbon (w/w%)
Hydrogen (w/w%)
Oxygen (w/w%)
methanol.org 3

SECTION 2: LIQUID PROPERTIES

Hydrogen
CNG
Propane
Methanol
Ethanol
Gasoline
H2
(gas)
CH4 83-99%; C2H6

1-13%
(gas)
C3 (liquid)
CH3OH
(liquid)
C2H5OH
(liquid)
C4-C12
(liquid)
Freezing Point Temp. (oF)
-435 (2)
-296 (2)
-305.8 (2)
-143.5 (1,2)
-173.2 (1,2)
-40 (1,2)
Specific Gravity (@ 60 oF/60 oF)
0.07 (2)
0.424 (2)
0.508 (2)
0.796 (1)
0.794 (1)
0.72-0.78
1.07 (2)
4.22 (2)
6.63 (1,2)
6.61 (1,2)
@ -4 oF
(centipoises / mm2/s)
1.15 (1)
1.345 (2)
@ 68 oF
@ 104 oF
Specific Heat (Cp, Btu/lb-oF)
0.097 (4)
Density (lb/gal @ 60 oF)
No. 2
Diesel
B100
Biodiesel
C8-C25
(liquid)
C12-C22
(liquid)
-40 to -30
(2)
(1,2)
26-66 (2)
0.85 (2)
0.88 (2)
6.0 6.5 (1,2)
6.7 7.4 (1)

7.079 (2)
7.328 (2)
2.84 (1)
3.435 (2)
0.6-.77 (1)
0.8 - 1.0 (2)
9.7-17.6 (1)
9.0 - 24.0 (2)
0.59 (1)
0.74 (2)
1.19 (1)
1.50 (2)
0.370.44 (1)
0.5 0.6 (2)
2.6-4.1 (1) 2.8

5.0 (2)
1.3 4.1 (2)
4.0 6.0 (2)
0.60 (1,2)
0.57 (1,2)
0.48 (1,2)
0.43 (1,2)
0.17 (4)
0.075 (6)
0.12 (3)
0.099 (3)
0.087 (4)
0.081-0.087
Viscosity
Thermal Conductivity
(Btu/hr-ft-oF)
Coefficient of Thermal Volume
Expansion (@ 60 oF & 1 atm)
0.09-0.12
(7)
(5,6)
0.00067 (1)
0.00062 (1)
0.00067 (1)
0.00046 (1)
4.4 x 107 pS/m
1.35 x 105
pS/m (1,26, 32)
25 pS/m (7)
5 pS/m (7)
Electrical Conductivity
Neat or without additives
(1,26, 32)
methanol.org 4

SECTION 2: LIQUID PROPERTIES (CONT.)

Hydrogen
CNG
Propane
Methanol
Ethanol
Gasoline
H2
(gas)
CH4 83-99%; C2H6

1-13%
(gas)
C3 (liquid)
CH3OH
(liquid)
C2H5OH
(liquid)
C4-C12
(liquid)
Industrial use
30 S/m (28)
Fuel specification
< 1000 S/m (32)
(Btu/gal @ 60 oF)
775 (2)
(Btu/lb @ 60 oF)
192.1 (2)
219 (2)
No. 2
Diesel
B100
Biodiesel
C8-C25
(liquid)
C12-C22
(liquid)
< 500 S/m(27)
< 250 pS/m(28)
3,340 (1,2)
2,378 (1,2)
900 (1,2)
710 (1,2)
193.1 (2)
506 (1,2)
396 (1,2)
150 (1,2)
100 (1,2)
56800 (1)
76000 (1)
57250 (2)
76330 (2)
126000130800 (1)
128450 (2)
84250 (2)
109000119000 (1)
116090 (2)
Electrical Conductivity Cont.
Latent Heat of Vaporization
Heating Value
(a)
Lower [liquid fuel

combusted to water as vapor]
(Btu/gal @ 60 oF)(1)
Lower [liquid fuel combusted

to water as vapor] (Btu/lb)
52217 (2)
20263 (2)
19900 (2)
8570 (1)
8637 (2)
11500 (1)
11585 (2)
Higher [liquid fuel combusted

to liquid water] (Btu/gal)
91420 (2)
65200 (2)
84530 (2)
124340 (2)
137380 (2)
127960 (2)
Higher [liquid fuel combusted

to liquid water] (Btu/lb)
59806 (2)
22449 (2)
12800 (1)
12830 (2)
18800-20400
21594 (2)
9750 (1)
9837 (2)
19200-20000 (1)
19673 (2)
17266 (2)
18000-19000 (1) 18000-19000 (1)

18676 (2)
18394 (2)
(1)
119,550 (2)
16,131 (2)
20004 (2)
The higher heating value (HHV) and heat of combustion are cited for completeness only. No vehicles currently in use or under development for future use have engines capable of recovering heat of
condensation from water of combustion. Use the lower heating value (LHV) for practical comparison between fuels which combust accidentally as a result of a spill or containment failure.
methanol.org 5


Hydrogen
Heat of Combustion [Hc0]

[liquid fuel combusted to
liquid water] (Btu/lb)
CNG
Propane
Methanol
Ethanol
Gasoline
H2
(gas)
CH4 83-99%; C2H6

1-13%
(gas)
C3 (liquid)
CH3OH
(liquid)
C2H5OH
(liquid)
C4-C12
(liquid)
60000 (30,31)
61000 (34)
23000 (30,31)
21500 (30,31)
21000 (34)
9900 (30,31)
9378 (35)
12900 (30,31)
12000 (34)
12764 (36)
20000 (30,31, 34)
4.6 (1,2)
2.3 (1,2)
8 15 (1,2)
No. 2
Diesel
B100
Biodiesel
C8-C25
(liquid)
C12-C22
(liquid)
20700 (30,31)
19300 (34)
18,145
(30,31)
Equilibrium Vapor Pressure

Reid [RVP]
(psi @ 100 oF)
True Vapor Pressure [TVP]

(mm Hg @ 68 oF)
6257.7 (13)
92 (10)
104 (11)
43 (9)
258-775 (15)
(@ 100 o F)
0.4 (14)
-423 (2)
-263.2 126.4 (2)
-44 (2)
149 (1,2)
172 (1,2)
80 437 (2)
356644 (2)
599 662 (2)
Fuel in Water (v/v %)
Negligible (2)
Negligible (2)
100 (1,2)
100 (1,2)
Negligible (1,2)
Negligible (1,2)
Water in Fuel (v/v %)
100 (1,2)
100 (1,2)
Negligible (1,2)
Negligible (1,2)
3.42 (16)
0.59 (16)
0.39 (16)
0.38 (18)
0.45 (19)
0.38 (33) (b)
Boiling Pt. Temperature (oF)
2400
(2)
208
<0.2 (1,2)
(2)
<0.04 (2)
Water Solubility @ 70 oF
Vapor Specific Heat (Btu/lb/oF)
This value of Cp for an ideal gas at STP (60 oF and 1 atm of pressure) uses the heat capacity of heptane (C7H16) as a surrogate for gasoline vapor.
methanol.org 6


Hydrogen
CNG
Propane
Methanol
Ethanol
Gasoline
H2
(gas)
CH4 83-99%; C2H6

1-13%
(gas)
C3 (liquid)
CH3OH
(liquid)
C2H5OH
(liquid)
C4-C12
(liquid)
Reid (psi @ 100 oF)
2400 (2)
208 (2)
4.6 (1,2)
2.3 (1,2)
True Vapor Pressure

(mm Hg @ 68 oF)
6257.7 (13)
92 (10)
104 (11)
1.5 (12)
Equilibrium Vapor Pressure
No. 2
Diesel
B100
Biodiesel
C8-C25
(liquid)
C12-C22
(liquid)
8 15 (1,2)
<0.2 (1,2)
<0.04 (2)
43 (9)
258-775 (15)
(@ 100 o F)
0.4 (14)
1.1 (23)
1.6 (11)
3 4 (15)
>3(14)
9080 (1)
11900 (1)
19000-19300
(c)
Vapor Density (air=1)
0.07 (24, c alc d)
0.55-0.69
(25, c alc d)
Vapor Heat of Combustion

Lower [gaseous fuel combusted to
water as vapor] (Btu/lb @ 60 oF)
(1)
True Vapor Pressure is the partial pressure of fuel vapor in air, compared to Reid Vapor Pressure which is the total pressure of fuel vapor, and air contained in the small volume of laboratory test
apparatus. Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) is determined experimentally, and is typically used in reference to hydrocarbon mixtures such as natural gas, Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG), propane, butane,
gasoline, kerosene, diesel, and fuel oil. RVP is expressed as differential pressure in pounds per square inch (psi); true vapor pressure is expressed as absolute pressure in millimeters of mercury
(mmHg) or pounds per square inch absolute (psia). One atmosphere of pressure is equivalent to 0.0 psi of differential pressure, and 14.7 psia or 760 mmHg of absolute pressure.
methanol.org 7

SECTION 4: FLAMMABILITY PROPERTIES

Hydrogen
CNG
Propane
Methanol
Ethanol
Gasoline
H2
(gas)
CH4 83-99%; C2H6

1-13%
(gas)
C3 (liquid)
CH3OH
(liquid)
C2H5OH
(liquid)
C4-C12
(liquid)
No. 2
Diesel
B100
Biodiesel
C8-C25
(liquid)
C12-C22
(liquid)
-300 (2)
-156 (1)
52 (1)
55 (1)
-45 (2)
140 - 176 (2)
212 - 338 (2)
Flash Point Temperature

Closed Cup (oF)
Open Cup (oF)
o
Autoignition Temperature ( F)
867
932 (2)
900 1170 (2)
842 (2)
4.1 (2)
5.3 (2)
2.2 (2)
(1,2)
793
(1,2)
495
(1,2)
600 (1,2)
Flammability Limits
Lower (v/v %)
Upper (v/v%)
Flammability Range
(v/v %)
Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio
(w/w)
74
69.9
(2)
(c alc by dif f )
15.0
9.7
(2)
(c alc by dif f )
9.5
7.3
(2)
(c alc by dif f )
7.3 (1,2)
36.0
(1,2)
28.7
4.3 (1,2)
19.0
14.7
(1,2)
(c alc by dif f )
1.4 (1,2)
1.0 (1,2)
(1,2)
(1,2)
7.6
6.2
(c alc by dif f )
6.0
5 (c alc by dif f )
(c alc by dif f )
34.3 (2)
17.2 (2)
15.7 (2)
6.45 (1,2)
9.00 (1,2)
14.7 (1,2)
14.7 (1,2)
13.8 (2)
Fuel in Vaporized
Stoichiometric Mixture (v/v%)
12.3 (2)
6.5 (2)
2.0 (2)
Stoichiometric Flame Speed

(ft/s)
10.63 14.44
1.48 (20)
1.48 (20)
1.41 (20)
1.12 (20)
Minimum Ignition Energy (mJ)
0.017 (20)
0.30 (20)
0.26 (20)
0.14 (20)
0.29 (20)
0.23 (21)
Adiabatic Flame Temperature (oF)
3807 (21)
3542 (21)
3610 (21)
3470 (21)
3281 (21)
3525 (21)
Flame Temperature (oF)
3722 (20)
3542 (20)
3497 (20)
3,398 (20)
3,488 (20)
3,686 (20)
0.083 (29)
0.27 (29)
0.22 (29)
Mass Burning Rate (lb/ft2)
(20)
methanol.org 8

SECTION 5: SOURCES OF INFORMATION
(1) Rene M. Tshiteya, Ph.D., Ezio N. Vermiglio, and Steven Tice: Properties of Alcohol Transportation Fuels, Alcohol Fuels Reference Work #1, Prepared by Fuels and Transportation Division,
Meridian Corporation, 4300 King Street, Alexandria, VA 22302; Prepared for Biofuels Systems Division, Office of Alternative Fuels, U.S. Department of Energy, July 1991.
(2) Internet web page as of March 2011:: http://eerc.ra.utk.edu/etcfc/docs/altfueltable.pdf
(3) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/thermal-conductivity-liquids-d_1260.html
(4) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/thermal-conductivity-d_429.html
(5) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://eng-tips.com/viewthread.cfm?qid=245443&page=5
(6) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://webserver.dmt.upm.es/~isidoro/dat1/eLIQ.htm
(7) Johnathan P. McCrady, Valerie L. Stringer, Alan C. Hansen, Chia-fon F. Lee: Computer Analysis of Biodiesel Combustion in a Low Temperature Combustion Engine using Well-Defined
Fuel Properties, 2007 SAE International, 07PFL-655, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
(8) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://www3.ntsb.gov/recs/letters/1987/M87_23_25.pdf
(9) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://www.distill.com/materialsafety/msds-usa.html
(10) Methanex: Technical Information & Safe Handling Guide for Methanol, version 3.0, September 2006
(11) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanol_(data_page)#Material_Safety_Data_Sheet
(12) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://www.campora.com/msds.htm
(13) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/propane-d_1423.html
(14) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://www.petrocard.com/products/MSDS-ULS.pdf
(15) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://www.albina.com/fuel/chevronrugasmsds.htm
(16) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/hydrogen-d_976.html
(17) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/specific-gravities-gases-d_334.html
methanol.org 9

(18) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/methanol-properties-d_1209.html
(19) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20080403121038AAnMf9y
(20) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://www.faqs.org/faqs/autos/gasoline-faq/part4/preamble.html
(21) Charles E. Baukal, and Robert E. Schwartz: The John Zink Combustion Handbook , John Zink Company, LLC, 2001, CRC Press LLC, p. 64.
(22) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/nuregs/staff/sr1805/ch3-6.pdf
(23) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://oehha.ca.gov/oublic_info/pdf/TSD&20Methanol%20Meth%20Labs%2010803.pdf
(24) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_the_density_of_hydrogen_gas_using_the_ideal_gas_law
(25) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/gas-density-d_158.html
(26) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://www.scribd.com/doc/22568364/Liq-Handbook-51-6009-Conductance-Data-for-Commonly-Used-Chemicals-199408
(27) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://www.itecref.com/pdf/fuel_alcohol_specifications_Comparison.pdf
(28) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://baltchemtrade.com/site/files/metanol-en.pdf; and http://n-azot.ru/download/product/product_337.pdf
(29) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/nuregs/staff/sr1805/ch3-6.pdf
(30) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_of_combustion - Heat_of_combustion_tables
(31) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://www.gexcon.com//handbook/GEXHBchap4.htm
(32) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://www.pccmorava-chem.cz/ttw/mch.nsf/id/EN_Methanol
(33) William D. McCain, Jr.: The Properties of Petroleum Fluids, 2nd edition, 1990 by PennWell Publishing Company, p. 492-493, ISBN 0 87814 335 1
(34) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://www.enotes.com/topic/Heat_of_combustion#Heat_of_combustion_tables
(35) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?Name=methanol&Units=SI&cTC=on
(36) Internet web page as of March 2011: http://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?Name=ethanol&Units=SI&cTC=on
methanol.org
10

Flammable Liquid Hazards Part Two of a Three Part Series
INTRODUCTION
This is part two of the three-part Technical Bulletin, which provides guidance for using physical, chemical, thermal,
and electrical properties to identify and control hazards of flammable liquids. Properties and characteristic
parameters of eight fuels [hydrogen, compressed natural gas (CNG), propane, methanol, ethanol, gasoline, No. 2
2
diesel, and biodiesel] are listed in part 1B of the Technical Bulletin. This bulletin compares various properties for
gasoline and methanol.
Chemical and physical properties data may be difficult to locate and even more difficult to interpret and verify.
Flame speed is an example of this difficulty. Some sources indicate the flame speed of methanol is greater than that
for unleaded gasoline; others sources state the reverse. Still others report that small additions of methanol increase
the flame speed of gasoline. All may be correct, depending on the temperature, pressure, mixing, and stoichiometry
at which combustion occurs and how flame temperature is determined.
Flame speeds of methanol and gasoline have similar values (1.12 and 1.41 feet per second [ft/s] for gasoline and
methanol, respectively). Therefore, there may be overlap of flame speed parameters depending on whether
measurements were made at lean, rich, or stoichiometric fuel/air ratios. Flame speed data used in this three-part
bulletin series are characteristic of stoichiometric combustion of a vapor at NTP (Normal Temperature = 68oF and
Normal Pressure = 14.7 psia or 760 mmHg).
Differences between the published values of flame speed for methanol and gasoline do not have a large effect on first
order estimates for explosive overpressure and fire radiant heat flux, and are not of major concern. The
3
approximately tenfold difference between the flame speed of hydrogen (12 ft/s) and those of gasoline and
methanol have a very large difference on overpressure and heat flux.
The purpose of collecting and comparing data for different fuels is to determine and compare the severity of
4
potential consequences: fires, explosions, and toxic plumes for particular circumstances. Consequence analysis has
been in widespread use for about 25 years, but remains an inexact mixture of science and art borne of experience.
Results of modeling may be generally correct, but are typically inexact and non-specific. Nevertheless, modeling
5
results are highly useful in estimating order-of-magnitude consequence severity.
This three-part Technical Bulletin was written by Mr. Robert R. Roberts of Roberts & Roberts Risk & Reliability Engineering and edited by Alliance
Consulting International, San Diego, California under contract to the Methanol Institute.
Information and data are collected from a variety of published and internet sources, though different sources may contain conflicting data regarding
the same information. Effort has been made to use reliable sources; however, no responsibility is taken for correctness, accuracy, or errors in
information.
Refer to Part 1B of Methanol Institute Technical Bulletin on Using Physical and Chemical Properties to Manage Flammable Liquid Hazards.
Center for Chemical Process Safety: Guidelines for Chemical Process Quantitative Risk Analysis, 2nd edition, 2000, American Institute of
Chemical Engineers, ISBN 0-8169-0720-X
A.J. Roos, The Director-General of Labour, Committee for the Prevention of Disasters caused by Dangerous Substances, and The Netherlands
Organisation of Applied Scientific Research (TNO): The Green Book, CPR 16E, Methods for the Determination of Possible Damage to People and
objects Resulting from Releases of Hazardous Materials, December 1989, 1st edition 1992, ISBN 90 5307 052 4.
methanol.org 1

Part Two of a Three Part Series
Gasoline and methanol are NFPA class IB flammable liquids. Both are known to BLEVE in non-bulk and bulk
transport containers, in pressure vessels, and storage tanks in roll-over situations. Vapors of both fuels form plumes
and may accumulate in unventilated areas, and both are considered to present an explosion hazard in confined
spaces. Beyond this point, the behavior of gasoline and methanol begin to diverge.
The vapor density and equilibrium of gasoline and methanol vapors show marked differences. Gasoline vapor is
heavier than air, while methanol vapor is near neutral in buoyancy. Gasoline has an equilibrium true vapor pressure
(TVP) two to three times greater than that of methanol. The flammability range of gasoline is 1.4 to 7.6 v/v % versus
7.3 to 36 v/v % for methanol; flash point temperature of gasoline is minus (-) 45 oF versus 52 oF for methanol.
Finally, the lower heating value of gasoline is over twice that of methanol; the mass burn rate of gasoline is over
three times that of methanol; minimum ignition energy and stoichiometric flame velocity are approximately the
same for both.
When comparing the hazardous characteristics of these vapors, it is apparent that gasoline vapor accumulates in lowlying areas and is capable of traveling long distances. Gasoline is also more easily ignited, ignites at lower
concentrations, burns faster, and releases more radiant heat than methanol. As a result, gasoline vapor is more likely
to concentrate and explode. Gasoline fires produce a much greater radiant heat flux hazard, and as much or more
shock wave over pressure. The sum of these characteristics has caused gasoline to be replaced with methanol in high
performance race cars where collision, tank rupture, fuel spillage, ignition, fire and explosion are expected to occur.
If consequence severity must be determined beyond a first order level, then users should verify that data contained in
the Technical Bulletins Part 1-B Physical and Chemical Properties tables is appropriate for the desired level of
precision in determining the radius of overpressure and radiant heat flux hazard zones. Second order consequences
can be readily determined using proprietary consequence modeling software (a variety of software packages can
either be purchased or leased). Each software package uses parameter values and calculation techniques, which are
judged by the software providers to be appropriate for the algorithms used in their particular model. Therefore,
parameter values in the Physical and Chemical Properties tables in Part 1-B of this Technical Bulletin may not
correspond to the values used by third-party software.
In order to establish whether the software is appropriate for your specific needs, it is recommended to compare
software modeling results to results of actual fire and explosion incidents. Additionally, it is good practice to confirm
6789
software modeling results with hand calculations to verify that results provided by the software are reasonable. , , ,
A word of caution regarding the use of chemical and physical properties parameters is appropriate. Values of
parameters presented in the Physical and Chemical Properties tables are determined in a laboratory environment,
and therefore characterize a narrow range of standardized, controlled, and repeatable conditions. Test results for
pure materials are not representative of fuel blends, contaminated materials, complications associated with switch
loading, and substance property parameters at elevated temperature and pressure. Values presented in the Physical
and Chemical Properties tables may or may not typify your conditions of usage or process environments.
6
Institution of Chemical Engineers: Explosions in the Process Industries, 2nd edition, 1994 by Institution of Chemical Engineers, pp. 74, ISBN 0
85295 315 1
Institution of Chemical Engineers: Calculation of the Intensity of Thermal Radiation from Large Fires, Thermal Radiation Monograph, First Report of
the Major Hazards Assessment Panel Thermal Radiation Working Group, 1989 by The Institution of Chemical Engineers, 22pp., ISBN 0 85295
236 8
Institution of Chemical Engineers: The Effects of Explosions in the Process Industries, Overpressure Monograph, First Paper of the Major Hazards
Assessment Panel Overpressure working party, 1989 by The institution of Chemical Engineers, 26 pp., ISBN 0 85295 235 X
Sdu Uitgevers, and Committee for the Prevention of Disasters: Yellow Book, CPR 14E Parts 1 & 2, Methods for the Calculation of Physical Effects,
3rd edition 1997, ISBN 9012084970
methanol.org 2

FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS
ICC, NFPA, and OSHA classify liquids as flammable or combustible. Each of these designations is divided into subclasses based on values of selected physical and chemical parameters. These parameters indicate conditions at which
vaporization, piloted ignition, and combustion are likely to occur. Liquids are assigned to classes based on the values
of identifiable and measurable properties (boiling point temperature and flash point temperature); each flammability
class contains materials whose properties fall within a specified range of values. For example, class IA flammable
liquids have flash point temperatures below 73oF and boiling point temperatures below 100oF (e.g., n-pentane). Class
IA substances have substantial equilibrium vapor pressure at NTP, and are known to ignite in air at temperatures
below normal ambient temperature in the presence of a sufficiently energetic ignition source. Class IB flammable
liquids are defined as having flash point temperatures less than 73oF and boiling point temperatures at or above
100oF (e.g., methanol, ethanol, and unleaded gasoline). Class IC flammable liquids have flash point temperatures at
or above 73 oF, and boiling point temperatures below 100oF (e.g., turpentine). Guidance provided in this Technical
Bulletin series focuses on IB flammable liquids. This flammability class contains three widely-used motor fuels which
are transported, handled, and stored in large volumes by persons and organizations highly experienced in safe
handling, as well as in small volumes by users who are less familiar with and practiced in safe handling requirements
and procedures.
To an extent, fire hazards that characterize a particular flammability class are common to all of the materials within
that class. Class IB flammable liquids include motor fuels, solvents, reactants, and feed stocks. Benzene, toluene,
acetone and alcohols are examples of class IB solvents and feed stocks. Notice from the General Information,
Section 1, of the Physical and Chemical Properties tables that NFPA uses a different classification system than that
used by the United Nations (UN) and the United States Department of Transportation (DOT). The latter do not
distinguish between Class IA, IB, and IC flammable liquids, and class 2 combustible liquids. Substances in all four of
these classifications are grouped together as class 3 flammable liquids by the UN and DOT.
Knowing that a liquid is labeled by UN and DOT as flammable for purposes of transportation and shipping, or falls
within a particular NFPA flammability class for storage and handling is useful. However, it is insufficient
information to adequately control material hazards and implement effective safe handling programs, though NFPA
10
has published guidance specific to handling each class of flammable and combustible liquids.
In order to implement an effective program, it is necessary to recognize and appreciate differences in the hazards
11
posed by specific hydrocarbons and chemical compounds within each flammability class. Hazards of one material
may be different from hazards of another material even though both materials are categorized within the same
NFPA flammability class.
Hazard severity is assessed within the context of the properties of the liquid, the circumstances in which the liquid is
being used, and the manner in which the chemical is packaged, transported, stored, and handled (blended and
processed).
Generalized statements such as handle and store methanol in a manner similar to the way in which gasoline is
handled and stored are useful only to the extent they establish general expectations of what sorts of safety issues
must be addressed. However, guidance based solely on flammability class seldom goes far enough or is specific
enough to allow selection of a suite of overlapping safety measures which provide multiple independent layers of
protection. Depending on the circumstances, between three and eight levels of protection should be established for
10
NFPA 30, 2008 edition
11
Hydrocarbons are understood to be liquids that boil over a range of temperatures; chemical compounds are understood to boil at a single
characteristic boiling temperature.
methanol.org 3

each hazard. Some levels of protection will safeguard multiple hazards while additional provisions may be necessary
to adequately control and protect against a particular hazard in a particular set of circumstances.
Electrical conductivity is an example. Specific electrical conductance, or the electrical conductivity of gasoline is so
low that gasoline and other similar hydrocarbons such as kerosene, jet, diesel, and fuel oil are considered to be
dielectrics (non-conductors or insulators). By comparison, specific conductance of methanol is several orders of
magnitude greater than that of gasoline. Depending on the circumstances, precautions for bonding and grounding
may be the same for gasoline and methanol. However, precautions for methanol may necessarily exceed those for
gasoline if, for example, methanol containers are coated with a non-conducting spray-on material for corrosion
protection. Because of its high conductivity, containers holding methanol are more susceptible to galvanic corrosion
than containers holding gasoline. Additionally, methanol is a solvent, and is compatible with only selected plastics
and rubbers. Plastic containers commonly used for gasoline may lose structural integrity when used to hold
12
methanol.
No two hydrocarbons, fuels, or chemicals have identical properties. It is essential that users implement safeguards
based on properties specific to their materials, to their specific circumstances, and to their particular use. Guidance
provided by NFPA, ASME, API, NEC, NACE, ISA, IEEE, and other groups are generally-accepted good engineering
practices. Protective measures provided by these organizations stipulate a minimum standard of care. Depending on
users circumstances and aversion to the consequences of fire and explosion, additional measures beyond those
indicated in codes, standards, recommended practices, and regulations may be deemed appropriate, necessary, and
cost effective over the long term.
Despite the existence of commercial and industrial guidance, it must be emphasized that little or no specific
guidance has been published for the personal use of methanol for backyard batch-type manufacture of biodiesel.
Guidance must be extracted from more generalized information published by organizations such as NFPA. First
time or relatively inexperienced methanol users are advised to thoroughly research and become familiar with the
hazards associated with the material and the use of that material prior to bringing it home. This is true for those
manufacturing fuel for personal consumption or making a fuel blend.
Within the context of hazardous materials transport, storage and use, it is important to consider what might happen
in addition to what one expects to happen. For example, there are very good reasons why transporting five-gallon
cans of methanol in the trunk of a car or even in the bed of a pickup truck, is considered a dangerous activity.
What if the can leaks?
What if you are rear-ended by another vehicle?
What if you suffer a seizure or heart attack while driving from the supplier to your home?
Not all of these events are likely, but all do have a chance of occurring. Guidance and regulations such as those for
vehicular transport and storage of five- and 55-gallon containers of methanol, ethanol, gasoline, diesel, and biodiesel
may be obtained from local fire authorities. Be certain that you have assessed the potential consequences of actions
which may jeopardize your safety and the safety of those around you.
The necessity of using material-specific parameters to assess and control hazards is illustrated by three examples.
The examples are selected to characterize the range of methanol users from private individuals making biodiesel in
25- to 50-gallon batches to those who transport, store and use large quantities of methanol (e.g., oil refineries,
chemical manufacturers, shipping companies, terminal operators, and transport companies).
12
Refer to Methanol Institute Technical Bulletins Above Ground Tank Storage of Methanol, and Methanol Drum Transport, Storage and Handling.
methanol.org 4

1. BOUTIQUE-USERS: HANDLING AND TRANSFER OF GASOLINE/METHANOL

IN NON-BULK CONTAINERS:
Gasoline is classified as an irritant; methanol is classified as a toxic material. The consequences of inhaling gasoline
vapor when mouth-siphoning liquid from one container to another are unpleasant and may cause acute health
effects; however, these are mild compared to consequences of swallowing liquid methanol or inhaling methanol
vapor.
Methanol may be toxic to some individuals in teaspoon-sized amounts. Toxic effects of methanol vapor are
cumulative within the body. An exposure that does not result in a health effect after the first instance may cause
serious health effects on the second or third occasion. Avoid ingesting, inhaling, and contacting methanol and
methanol-containing fuel blends. If siphoning transfer of methanol is warranted, then use a siphon pump
constructed of a methanol-compatible material, wear personal protection equipment (PPE), bond and ground the
siphon, and provide containment in the event of a spill. NEVER transfer methanol by sucking on an improvised
siphon hose to start liquid flow.
Static accumulation is another situation to consider when siphoning, pouring, and performing other forms of
container-to-container transfer of flammable liquids. The electrical conductivity of gasoline is 25 pS/m (pico
13
Siemens per meter), and that of low sulfur diesel fuel is 5 pS/m. Conductivity of gasoline and diesel are so low that
these fuels can accumulate static charge during pumping, filtering, and splash transfer operations. Grounding and
bonding during liquid transfer is a necessary protection against static discharge when handling all flammable liquids.
This is especially true for liquids that have conductivities less than 50 pS/m, and for practical purposes, 100 pS/m.
14
Liquids with conductivity less than 50 pS/m accumulate static charge. Low conductivity hydrocarbon fuels such as
gasoline, kerosene, and low sulfur No. 2 diesel are liquid dielectrics (i.e., insulators).
15,16
Transfer rate must be
17
carefully controlled, and containers, hoses, and piping must be bonded and grounded so that electrical resistance
of the connection to ground is no greater than 106 ohm for static dissipation and 1-2 ohms for lightning and stray
18
current protection.
13
Refer to the Physical and Chemical Properties Tables of this Technical Bulletin
14
http://www.ntsb.gov/recs/letters/1987/M87_23_25.pdf; Marine Accident Report Explosion Aboard Tank Barge TTT 103, Pascagoula, Mississippi,
July 31, 1986 (NTSB/MAR-87/06)
15
Fuel oils (kerosene, diesel, fuel oil, and residual fuel oil in the USA; fuel oil and residual fuel oil in Europe) and gasoline are dielectric liquids.
Dielectric liquids are defined as having electrical conductivity < 10-6 S/m or 1 S/m. [http://www.mbhes.com/conductivity_measurement.htm;
http://www.dispersion.com/non-aqueous-conductivity.html]
16
A.I. Belousov, I.V. Rozhkov, and E.M. Bushueva: Measurement of Bulk Conductivity of Hydrocarbon Liquids, 1983 Plenum Publishing
Corporation, UDC 665.7:543, p. 474.
17
Pipe maximum velocity = 23 ft/s and maximum air drop velocity = 3 ft/s until fill pipe is submerged at which time velocity may be increased to
between 15 and 20 ft/s. [American Petroleum Institute: Precautions Against Electrostatic Ignition During Loading of Tank Motor Vehicles, 1975,
NFPA 70, and http://resource.invensys.com/instrumentation/documentation/eib/ti/ti_027-072.pdf]
18
API Recommended Practice 2003, 6th edition, September 1998, Protection Against Ignitions Arising Out of Static, Lightning, and Stray Currents
methanol.org 5

19
By comparison, the electrical conductivity of neat methanol is 44 x106 pS/m (44 S/m) and that of industrial grade
20
methanol is 30 S/m . The specification for electrical conductance of fuel grade methanol varies by manufacturer,
but it is given by PCC Morava Chemicals as less than 1000 S/m.
21
Like water, methanol is a polar material and has a relatively high conductivity compared to non-polar hydrocarbon
dielectrics such as gasoline and diesel fuel (conductivities less than 1 x 104 pS/m). Liquid fuels which have specific
conductivity greater than 50 pS/m are not exempt from the necessity of bonding and grounding. The relatively high
conductivity of methanol indicates that accumulation of static charge within the liquid is less likely and is not
expected under normal circumstances. However, static accumulation, static discharge, and vapor ignition are known
to occur in abnormal circumstances more often than might be supposed. The risk of not taking appropriate bonding
and grounding measures is that an abnormal circumstance may exist, but can go unrecognized.
Two examples of the consequences of failing to adequately bond and ground when unrecognized abnormal
circumstances existed during methanol transfer are described below.
2006, California. Green Star Products, Inc., of Bakersfield, California reported a serious "fire incident" late last
month at the site of ABF's biodiesel plant. According to GSPI, the accident occurred outside of the plant
building when, during a transfer of methanol, a small spill ignited. While the ignition source remains
unknown, GSPI expects it was likely caused by static electricity. ABF suffered a total loss of the building and
22
equipment. No plant personnel were injured during the blaze.
2008, Canada. During abnormal transfer of methanol from one tanker truck to a second tanker truck, the
methanol ignited causing one fatality, destroying the trucks, and damaging a load out facility. Investigators
suggested the source of ignition was static discharge resulting from a damaged transfer hose which interfered
23
with grounding and bonding.
Never transport methanol or gasoline in the trunk of a car, even if the trunk lid is open. Vehicular transport must be
placarded, and transport within the US must comply with other DOT requirements including provisions for
manifest papers, driver emergency response training, emergency response equipment, and emergency notification
capability. Always store gasoline and methanol outside, under cover, and in a well-ventilated location. It is not
normal practice to store and use 55-gallon quantities or even five-gallon quantities of methanol in urban and
suburban housing environments. Contact your local fire marshal before bringing 55-gallon and even five-gallon
quantities of flammable liquid to your residence. DO NOT store flammable liquids of any kind, including gasoline
and methanol, in your house, garage, patio, or basement, or immediately adjacent to your house, garage, or car port.
19
Laurence G. Britton: Avoiding Static Ignition Hazards in Chemical Operations: 1999 by American Institute of Chemical Engineers, ISBN 0-81690800-1, pp. 282
20 http://baltchemtrade.com/site/files/metanol-en.pdf and http://n-azot.ru/download/product/product_337.pdf
21 http://www.pccmorava-chem.cz/ttw/mch.nsf/id/EN_Methanol
22 Joseph LaStella, GSPI: Methanol Spill at CA Biodiesel Plant Ignites Devastating Fire, Alternate Transportation Fuels Today, March 3, 2006;
http://www.allbusiness.com/operations/shipping/870584-1.html as of March 2011.
23 Fires & Explosions in the Canadian Upstream Oil & Gas Industry: Incident #23-Methanol Spill Ignited While Preparing to Repair Tank Truck Leak;
http://www.firesandexplosions.ca/case_studies/case_details.php?id=27.
methanol.org 6

2. REFINERIES AND BIODIESEL MANUFACTURERS: HOT WORK AND

FLAMMABLE LIQUID VAPOR CONTROL
Gasoline floats on water while methanol is fully miscible with water, though methanol floats during methanol-water
24
mixing. Methanol-water mixtures burn at high water concentrations (ratios of 3:1 to 4:1 water:methanol v/v). If
floating methanol is ignited, it continues to burn as it mixes with water and the methanol-water solution burns when
mixing has occurred. In this situation, addition of water may increase the volume of flammable liquid.
Gasoline TVP is 190 mmHg and the TVP of methanol is 90 mmHg. The partial pressure of gasoline vapor over
liquid gasoline is twice that of methanol vapor over methanol liquid, which is to say that, volume for volume,
gasoline emits twice as much vapor as does methanol. The amount of heat required to vaporize a pound of gasoline
is about a third of that necessary to generate a pound of methanol vapor. The flammability range for gasoline is 1.4
to 7.6 v/v %, compared to 6.0 to 36.5 v/v % for methanol. Gasoline vapor is within its flammable range at 30% of the
concentration of methanol under identical circumstances, but passes out of the flammability range much more
quickly than methanol as liquid temperature increases.
Ignition energies of gasoline and methanol are similar (0.2 mJ and 0.14 mJ respectively). An ignition source with
sufficient energy to ignite gasoline will also ignite methanol and vice versa. Gasoline vapor is heavier than air and
tends to flow along the ground and accumulate in low-lying areas. Methanol vapor is near neutral buoyancy and
responds more readily to dilution and dissipation caused by natural convection currents and forced ventilation.
Non-bulk and bulk storage of both gasoline and methanol must be grounded, bonded, and well ventilated. Storage
areas should be equipped with vapor detectors. Detectors for gasoline must be positioned to detect gasoline as a
dense vapor, while positioning of methanol vapor detectors may be different from that of gasoline vapor detectors
because of the difference in relative density of gasoline and methanol vapors. The sensitivity of methanol detectors
may need to be greater than that for gasoline.
Vapor density of methanol is 1.1 relative to that of air while the vapor density of gasoline is 3 to 4. Vapors of both
gasoline and methanol may be explosive in confined spaces. It is recommended that storage areas be ventilated, that
storage containers be clearly labeled, bonded and grounded, that protective restricted-access hazard zones be
declared around storage areas, and that sources of ignition be eliminated within designated zones.
A shipping terminal may decide to use inert gas to pad storage tanks for both gasoline and methanol, but for different
reasons. The purpose in padding gasoline storage may be for fire protection because of the relatively low
concentration of the lower flammability limit. If ambient temperature of the liquid is sufficiently low that vapor
pressure causes concentration within the freeboard volume of the tank to be within the flammable range, then it may
be desirable to use inert gas padding to avoid piloted ignition within the tank.
The purpose of padding methanol may serve multiple purposes:
1) Fire protection due to the wide flammability range of methanol
2) To maintain methanol purity. Facilities which are located in areas that have characteristically high humidity,
and/or which have airborne salts, run the risk of contaminating neat methanol as ambient air is sucked into
and out of tanks during tank level fluctuations during normal operations.
At normal liquid storage temperatures, the concentration of gasoline vapor within the vapor space for gasoline
storage quickly exceeds the upper flammability limit of 7.6 v/v %. The upper flammability limit of methanol is 36%,
24 Methanex: Technical Information & Safe Handling Guide for Methanol, version 3.0, September 2006.
methanol.org 7

and methanol has a much lower equilibrium vapor pressure than gasoline. Vapor concentration within methanol
storage tanks may be in the flammable range when vapor concentration in a gasoline storage tank is outside the
flammable range and vice versa.
3. ALL USERS: NON-BULK AND BULK STORAGE FIRE PROTECTION AND

RESPONSE:
Fire response for a methanol fire is different than that for a gasoline fire.
Gasoline fires produce copious amounts of luminous combustion products that make gasoline flames readily
visible during daytime and bright sunlight. Methanol flames are non-luminous and are difficult to detect
visually in daytime, particularly in bright sunlight. In order to effectively fight a liquid fire, it is necessary to
identify the location of the fire. Hand held infrared sensors are available to assist fire fighters responding to
methanol fires. As good practice, methanol users should have at least one sensor on site and available to first
responders. Sensors should be calibrated and functional. Local fire response should also have infrared sensors.
Gasoline floats on water and application of water spray, particularly as a cohesive stream from a fire monitor
may cause the fire to spread. By comparison, methanol floats on and rapidly mixes with water. Methanol-water
mixtures will burn at very high water concentrations. Water is most effective as a suppressant when applied as
a spray mist or as a fog. Both gasoline and methanol may form running fires if fire-suppressive water is not
physically contained by dikes, berms, and curbs. Propagation of methanol fires may not be immediately
noticed by responders.
Methanol is more toxic than gasoline, even to skin contact. Responders to a methanol fire must wear PPE that
protects against chemical exposure as well as exposure to radiant heat. Turnouts provide heat protection but
not chemical protection. Inhalation protection is also required.
Given identical circumstances, vapor cloud explosions may be more likely to occur from spilled gasoline than
from a methanol spill. This is especially true in confined areas. The specific gravity of gasoline vapor is 3-4
times heavier than that of methanol vapor. Gasoline vapor has higher tendency to accumulate in low lying and
poorly ventilated areas than does methanol vapor, and will flow along ground surface in a downhill or
downwind direction over long distances. Gasoline has a lower flammability range, lower flash point
temperature, and lower autoignition temperature than methanol. Ignition of vapor within a confined space
may cause an explosion with either gasoline or methanol.
Non-bulk and bulk shipping containers holding gasoline are marginally more likely to BLEVE in a fire than
those containing methanol. Gasoline has higher vapor pressure, lower specific heat, and lower latent heat of
vaporization than methanol (i.e., less heat is required to cause evaporation of gasoline than of methanol).
Pressures within gasoline containers will increase more rapidly than within methanol containers when exposed
to the same radiant heat flux. The lower heating value of methanol is 9,080 Btu/lb compared to 19,000 Btu/lb
for gasoline. Radiant heat released by a gasoline BLEVE will be twice that of methanol. The stoichiometric
laminar flame speed of methanol is only marginally higher than that of gasoline, so differences in overpressure
due to differences in flame speed is not a consideration. Flame temperature of gasoline is marginally greater
than that of methanol. Differences in flame speed and explosive overpressure are likely offset by the much
higher heat release of gasoline.
Fire suppression foam used to fight gasoline fires is not suitable for use on methanol fires, as methanol fires
require alcohol-resistant foam. Good practice consists of inventorying alcohol-resistant foam both on a users
property and at the location of first responders. It is also good practice to periodically perform response
exercises for various scenarios. Table-top exercises may also be useful. Verify that fire suppression foam is of
the correct type and that its suppression capability does not degrade as a result of time in storage, or storage
temperature variability if the facility is in a hot or cold climate. Verify that fire suppression effectiveness is not
compromised by freezing, or exposure to temperatures over 100oF.
methanol.org 8

In summary, gasoline may be more or less hazardous than methanol depending on the particular set of
circumstances.
A tragic example of this involving a race car driver and his chief mechanic occurred in 2010. The driver and
mechanic were celebrating winning an important race in the parking lot of their automobile repair shop. In their
excitement they decided to ride a lighted drum of methanol across the parking lot of their garage facility. They
poured four gallons of methanol racing fuel into an empty drum, tipped the drum over, positioned the bung in an
easy-to-reach position, sat atop the drum like it were a horse, and lit the drum. Their expectation was that the drum
would slide across the parking lot like a rocket. Instead, the drum exploded. One man died and the other was
25
critically injured.
Methanol, which had increased their survivability in the high stakes sport of automobile racing hours earlier, caused
serious injury and death under a different set of circumstances. Though it is unlikely, this may have been a near miss
incident had the drum in this instance contained gasoline instead of methanol because of differences between the
properties of the two materials. The high vapor pressure, heavier-than-air vapor, small flammability range, and low
value of the upper flammability limit for gasoline may have created a fuel-rich atmosphere within the drum that was
incapable of igniting. Had this in fact been the case, the men would have been unsuccessful at lighting the drum and
the catastrophe would have been avoided. Whereas the men would have possibly recognized the hazards had they
used gasoline, it is likely they did not appreciate a potentially greater hazard posed by methanol in this highly
abnormal situation.
This tragic example illustrates the importance of understanding the physical and chemical properties of the specific
material with which you work and how they apply to your specific circumstances, in order to be able to recognize
unique hazardous conditions and establish appropriate measures to manage flammable liquids safely.
25
Internet web page as of March 2011: http://www.komonews.com/news/local/98960929.html
methanol.org 9

Flammable Liquid Hazards Part Three of a Three Part Series
INTRODUCTION
This is the last section of the three-part Technical Bulletin, which provides guidance for using physical, chemical,
thermal, and electrical properties to identify and control hazards of flammable liquids. Eight fuels [hydrogen,
compressed natural gas, propane (a compressed gas), methanol, ethanol, gasoline, No. 2 diesel, and biodiesel] are
2
used as examples. The table in Part 1-B lists the physical and chemical properties of these materials.
PRINCIPLES OF IGNITION AND COMBUSTION

Combustion is a chemical oxidation process that requires formation of chemical radicals by transfer of electrons
between an oxidizing agent (21 v% oxygen in air) and reducing agents (flammable liquids). Three conditions are
necessary for ignition to occur. A fourth condition is necessary for combustion to occur, and a fifth condition is
necessary for fire propagation.
1) A fuel must be present (e.g., methanol)
2) An oxidizer must be present (21 v% oxygen as air)
3) A source of ignition must be present with sufficient energy to initiate formation of chemical radicals
4) A chemical chain reaction must occur which generates an exponentially increasing number of chemical
radicals which sustain the combustion process and cause the fire to release increasing amounts of heat.
5) Heat released by the exothermic combustion reaction must be sufficient to pre-heat and ignite surrounding
material.
Vapors burn, while liquids do not. Flammable and combustible liquids must be heated to a temperature at which
sufficient vapor is generated at the liquid surface to enable ignition and then support combustion. The temperature
at which ignition occurs is the flash point temperature. Flash point temperature is determined in the laboratory by
standardized experimental testing. Fuels ignite but do not combust at their flash point temperature.
1) Flammable liquids must have sufficient energy (measured as temperature) to release a sufficient amount of
vaporized fuel (vapor in equilibrium with the liquid) to support combustion. This temperature is termed the
flame point temperature of the liquid. In practical terms, flash point temperature is used instead of flame point
temperature to assess likelihood of ignition. Flame point temperature is typically 1015 oF higher than the
flash temperature for most flammable liquids. The flash point temperature is the minimum temperature at
which ignition can occur, but does not generate sufficient vapor to support combustion
This three-part Technical Bulletin was written by Mr. Robert R. Roberts of Roberts & Roberts Risk & Reliability Engineering and edited by Alliance
Consulting International, San Diego, California under contract to the Methanol Institute.
Information and data are collected from a variety of published and internet sources, though different sources may contain conflicting data regarding
the same information. Effort has been made to use reliable sources; however, no responsibility is taken for correctness, accuracy, or errors in
information.
methanol.org 1

Part Three of a Three Part Series
2) The molar or volumetric concentration of flammable vapor in air must be within the flammable range of that
specific liquid
3) Fuel molecules must be mixed and have intimate contact with oxygen molecules within the surrounding air
4) An ignition source must be active and transfer sufficient energy to the vapor/air mixture to initiate a chain
reaction. Alternately, the fuel/air mixture must be in contact with a surface above the autoignition temperature
of the fuel
5) The exothermic combustion chain reaction must release sufficient heat to propagate ignition, thereby
sustaining combustion
The energy source that causes ignition can be auto-ignition (e.g., a hot surface or hot air), or induced or piloted
ignition (e.g., a spark, an electric arc, or an open flame). Regardless of whether ignition is auto- or induced, the
ignition source must be sufficiently energetic to raise the temperature of an infinitesimally small mixture of fuel and
air to the fuels ignition temperature. The ignition temperature is the temperature at which covalently-bonded
molecules of fuel and oxygen begin to spontaneously transform into positively and negatively charged radicals which
then recombine as combustion products (e.g., CO, CO2 and H2O), thereby releasing heat.
If an ignition source is sufficiently energetic to drive the rate of formation of free chemical radicals to the point at
which the exothermic heat of reaction of combustion products generates a sustainable, exponentially accelerating
number of positively and negatively-charged radicals, then combustion has occurred, flames and heat are generated,
and a fire begins to burn. If the chain reaction continues unchecked, then combustion occurs and the fire gets larger.
Once combustion occurs, flames spread and grow in size as a kinetic process characteristic of exponential chain
reactions. Fire propagation will continue as long as there is unburned fuel, or until the fire is extinguished by
external intervention. The rate at which fuel is converted (burned) is termed the mass burning rate. If the mass
burning rate, the surface area of the pool, and the lower heating value (LHV) of the fuel are known, then it is possible
to estimate the rate of radiant heat flux from the fire.
TYPES OF FIRES AND FIRE HAZARDS

Fires are generally classified as belonging to one of four categories:
1) Pool fires- resulting from spills, leaks, and condensation of vapor from pressure flashing liquids
2) Jet fires- resulting from a pressurized containment vessel or pipe into free air
3) Flash fires- occurs when a cloud of flammable gas is ignited
4) Fireball- fireballs occur when a quantity of flammable liquid or gas suddenly releases from pressurized
containment and is immediately ignited as in boiling liquid expanding vapor explosions (BLEVEs)
Behavior of pool fire flames is entirely under the influence of their own buoyancy; flames are easily displaced by wind
and can change shape rapidly and unexpectedly. Jet fires typically have a long flame which is unaffected by wind. Fire
duration is dependent on release rate and pressure of the exiting fluid at the point of release. The shape of flash fires
is determined by the shape of the flammable cloud and the position of the cloud relative to the location of the
ignition source. Flash fires are usually short in duration and are known to flash back to the source of fuel vapor, be
that a pool, or a jet release. When flame speed and fire propagation are slow then deflagration occurs and
methanol.org 2

overpressure is small. When flame speed is high, approaching sonic velocity (1,126 ft/s @ NTP) the deflagration
transitions to an explosion, and overpressure becomes an additional consideration for life safety and damage.
Overpressure estimation should be performed by someone who is trained in that subject matter. The hazard of pool,
jet, flash, and fireball fires is primarily exposure to radiant heat flux. Exposure to 37.5 kW/m2 will result in
instantaneous death. Safe exposure levels are typically around 5 kw/m2. Phani K. Raj provides a summary of radiant
3
heat exposure criteria in a 2007 article in Journal of Hazardous Materials. A brief summary of overpressure effects
on humans is summarized by The Institution of Chemical Engineers.
POINT SOURCE MODEL FOR ESTIMATING RADIANT HEAT FLUX

A point source model can be used as a quick and simple method of estimating thermal radiation. The point source
model assumes heat of combustion radiates in all directions equally from a single point. The total heat available for
transfer by radiation is calculated as the product of the fuel mass burn rate (a characteristic parameter of each
particular fuel), the surface area of burning fuel (not the surface area of the flames), and the LHV for the fuel
(preferably the heat release rate of vapor reacting to form non-condensable gaseous combustion products and water
vapor).
Incident radiant heat flux (I) at any distance from a pool fire is determined as
I = _f (LHV as Btu/lb)
4d2
where f is the fraction of the heat which is released (use f = 1 to determine an upper bound), LHV is the heat released
when a pound of fuel vapor is converted to gas and vapor combustion products, and d (in feet) is the radius at which
one wishes to estimate incident heat flux. A disadvantage of the point source model is that it underestimates incident
5
radiation levels for distances within two diameters of the fire. More refined point source methods are also available.
Behavior of liquid pool fires can be useful in first order estimation of heat flux from large fireballs since both pool
fires and fireballs are buoyancy dominated. Fireballs with maximum diameter of 30 to 35 feet have measured surface
emissive power of 185 to 224 kW/m2. Larger fireballs can be approximated using values of surface emissive power
between 250 and 300 kW/m2. Calculating incident radiation levels for fireballs is complicated and depends heavily
on the value selected for the emissive power of the fireball. It is recommended that users enlist the assistance of a
qualified consultant if second order results are required for radiant heat flux from fireballs.
In small fires, heat is released by conduction, convection, and radiant heat transfer processes. Heat release in large
fires (> 1-2 feet diameter) is primarily by radiant heat transfer. Radiant heat flux determines the radius of the hazard
zone for a fire. The radius of the hazard zone for overpressure must be determined separately.
Article by Pani K. Raj, A Review of Criteria for People Exposure to Radian Heat Flux from Fires, available on
http://cms.totalsafety.nl/uploads/Criteria%20for%20people%20exposure%20to%20radiant%20heat%20flux.pdf
as of March 2011
4
Institution of Chemical Engineers: The Effects of Explosions in the Process Industries, Overpressure Monograph, First paper of the Major Hazards
Assessment Panel Overpressure working party, 1989 by The Institution of Chemical Engineers, p. 8, ISBN 0 85295 235 X.
Institution of Chemical Engineers: Calculation of the Intensity of Thermal Radiation from Large Fires, Thermal Radiation Monograph, First Report of
the Major Hazards Assessment Panel Thermal Radiation Working Group, 1989, by The Institution of Chemical Engineers, 22pp., ISBN 0 85295
236 8.
methanol.org 3

HEAT OF COMBUSTION
The exothermic combustion reactions of fuel in air release heat and are typically characterized by four parameters:
two for the liquid to gaseous-plus-liquid phase and two for the liquid to gaseous-plus-vapor phase:
Gross or High Heating Value (HHV) of a unit volume of liquid
Net or LHV of a unit volume of liquid
Gross or HHV of a unit weight of flammable vapor
Net or LHV of a unit weight of flammable vapor
An additional value, which is more useful for first order consequent modeling, can be determined which takes fuel
from the vapor state to combustion products in the gaseous-plus-vapor state. This value is also a LHV, but is more
representative of conditions for consequence modeling in that released heat is determined as the heat of combustion
of fuel vapor-to-gaseous products plus water vapor. This parameter appears in the table for flammability parameters
in Part 1-B of this Technical Bulletin.
Gross or HHV is the amount of heat produced by complete combustion of a unit quantity of fuel (measured either as
units of volume or weight) determined as energy released by an exothermic combustion reaction when all
combustion products are cooled to the temperature which existed before combustion (e.g., 60 oF), including the
energy released as heat by cooling and condensing combustion-derived water vapor. The HHV is essentially the heat
of combustion. This is a thermodynamic parameter, which represents theoretically available heat when a pound or
gallon of fuel is burned.
Net or LHV is the amount of energy released as heat when all combustion products are cooled to the temperature
which existed before combustion, excluding heat associated with cooling and condensing combustion-derived water
vapor.
When assessing consequences of fire events, it is appropriate to use the heat of combustion or HHV to determine the
theoretical upper limit of radiant heat flux. The LHV should be used if a more realistic value for heat flux is desired.
It is preferable to use the LHV of fuel vapor to combustion product vapor when this value is available.
IGNITION
Ignition is a time-dependent process of starting a fire that begins with reactants and evolves over time to
6
combustion: i.e., a steadily burning flame, combustion products, and heat release. Induced ignition is initiated by a
spark or flame; autoignition is a result of temperature. Generally speaking, fuels which ignite easily also grow quickly
with rapid flame propagation. Fuels with high heat capacity (the ability to absorb large amounts of heat without
increasing liquid temperature) and high thermal conductivity (the ability to readily transfer heat) may be more
difficult to ignite than fuels with low heat capacity and low thermal conductivity. Temperature near the source of
heat rises rapidly in the latter.
Ignition processes are always time dependent.
methanol.org 4

A list of commonly encountered ignition sources and their respective energy is shown in the table below.
Theoretical/Ideal/Approximate Temperatures of Potential Ignition Sources7

Potential Ignition
Source Item
Environmental Conditions
Approximate
Temperature (oF)
Fluorescent Light
ambient air @ room temperature
140 - 176
Incandescent Light
212 - 572
Lighted Cigarette
unventilated ambient air @ room temperature
550
Lighted Cigarette
ventilated ambient air @ room temperature
752 - 1,436
Lighted Cigarette
insulated & smoldering in ambient air @ room temperature
950 - 1,150
Hot Electric Stove Element
> 1,026
Burning Match Flame
1,112 - 1,472
Tungsten Halogen Light
1,112 - 1,652
Burning Candle Flame
1,112 - 2,552
Electrical Spark
2,400
Electrical Arcing
< 6,782
Lighted Bunsen Burner Flame
2,858
Methanol Flame
3,470
Methane Flame
3,488 - 3,540
Plasma Torch
8,492
Lightning Strike
54,032
FIRE PREVENTION
Fires can be prevented using several strategies:
1) Declare areas surrounding fuel storage and handling as hazardous locations. Remove potential ignition
sources to a safe distance (i.e., a distance beyond the farthest expected concentration of the lower flammability
limit) from the area in which fuel vapor may be present
2) Suppress formation of fuel vapor below the lower flammability limit (e.g., reduce liquid temperature, or
prevent liquid temperature from rising above a predetermined set point
3) Isolate the fuel from contact with air using natural gas or inert gas padding and/or internal and external
floating roof tanks as appropriate
Approximate Temperatures of Potential Ignition Sources; http://www.derose.net/steve/resources/engtables/flametemp.html
methanol.org 5

FIRE SUPPRESSION
Fires can be extinguished using several combinations of strategies and tactics:
1) Allow the fire to consume all available fuel and burn itself out
2) Remove the heat of combustion by spraying the fire with water fog and fine water droplets. The heat of
vaporization of the water droplets removes heat from the fire and slows the rate of the combustion reaction,
thereby reducing the amount of heat available for fire propagation
3) Exclude air from contact with the fuel (CO2 deluge at loading racks, solid fire extinguishers for small isolated
fires, and fire suppressing foam for large fires)
4) Interrupt the chain reaction with fire suppressant extinguishing media (i.e., foam)
FUEL PROPERTIES
The severity of a liquid flammability hazard is determined by the following properties:
Availability of vapor which is determined by the following properties:
o
Liquid temperature determines the partial pressure of a vapor in equilibrium with its
liquid
Flash point temperature and flame point temperature determine the minimum
temperature at which ignition can occur
Boiling point temperature is the temperature at which the partial pressure of the vapor
equals atmospheric pressure
Availability of air (air is 21 v% oxygen)

Ignition source with sufficient energy or temperature to start an oxidation reaction determined by:
o
Minimum ignition energy
Autoignition temperature
A fuel/air mixture that is capable of burning which is determined by:

o
Upper and lower flammability limits
Stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio
Sufficient exothermic heat of reaction to sustain combustion which is determined by:

o
Exothermic heat of reaction or net heating value
Rate at which energy in the form of heat is conducted away from the fuel
Combustion of fuels with higher heats of combustion release more heat, propagate more quickly, and may be more
difficult to extinguish than fuels with lower heats of combustion.
Liquid vapor pressure and therefore evaporation rate increase as temperature of the liquid increases. Typically, if
flammable liquid evaporation rate 0.047 lb/ft2 (2 g/m2), then sufficient vapor is available to support combustion.
methanol.org 6

If the lower flammability limit is comparatively small, such as that for gasoline, then combustion can occur at a
relatively low vapor pressure and therefore at relatively low temperature. If the upper flammability limit is close to
the lower flammability limit, then the temperature range capable of supporting combustion is relatively small.
Conversely, if the difference between the flammability limits is large, such as the upper and lower limits of methanol,
then the temperature range capable of supporting combustion is large, and ignition can occur at high vapor
concentrations. The upper flammability limit of gasoline is the same as the lower flammability limit for methanol.
This has implications for the flammability limits of gas/methanol blends.
Boiling point is another consideration. Gasoline boils over a range of temperatures, and methanol boils at a single
temperature. Depending on the composition of the gasoline, substantial amounts of vapor may be released at
relatively low temperature. Typically Reid vapor pressure is used as an indication of initial boiling point and boiling
point range. If Reid vapor pressure is high, then true vapor pressure is high at low temperatures. If Reid vapor
pressure is low, then true vapor pressure is low at high temperatures.
If a liquid has a low flash point temperature, low minimum ignition energy, and large LHV, then ignition occurs
more easily, and fire propagation is rapid. If a large amount of energy is required for ignition, then the vapor is less
likely to contact a sufficiently energetic ignition source and ignition is less likely to occur. If LHV is low, then fire
propagation is slower. Flame speed and heat release rate should also be considered when assessing flame flash back,
and the rate of flame front propagation.
LIQUID PROPERTIES, SOURCE TERMS, AND WORST-CASE CONSEQUENCES

8
First order worst-case consequences of spills and accidental releases can be estimated using parameters listed in the
table in Part 1-B of this Technical Bulletin.
Confined space explosions, BLEVEs, and unconfined vapor cloud explosions (deflagrations) present two hazards:
overpressure and radiant heat flux. Severity of fire/explosion damage is greater for fuels with higher flame speed
such as hydrogen, higher flame temperature, and higher specific energy than for materials with lower flame speed,
lower flame temperature, and lower specific energy. Over-pressure hazard severity increases as flame speed
increases. Pressure and temperature also increase flame speed. Within the perimeter of the blast zone, people are
subject to serious injury, and the range and severity of damage to plant equipment is greater.
Worst-case process accidents are those involving large amounts of flammable liquid with high vapor pressure, high
flame speed, high flame temperature, high specific energy, high heating value, and large mobile vapor plumes. When
liquid flammability hazards are combined with process safety hazards (e.g., operating temperature and pressure),
consequences may be catastrophic, involving multiple fatalities, extensive destruction and damage to equipment,
and forced outage for extended periods of time.
An elevated process temperature creates high vapor pressure and a high rate of vaporization; large and abrupt
pressure letdown promotes vapor flashing and conversion of large amounts of escaping liquid to vapor and aerosol.
Initial release rate for letdown pressures 110 psig occurs at speeds approaching sonic velocity. Vapor flashing causes
turbulence at the point of release, which increases air entrainment and mixing within the vapor cloud. Kinetic energy
supplied by an escaping jet may launch the vapor cloud, causing the plume to travel further than a plume released
from a pool fire.
injuries, fatalities, physical damage and destruction of equipment, business interruption, and environmental remediation costs attributable to
accidental release events: toxics, flammable liquids, and explosive vapors and aerosols
methanol.org 7

Once formed, vapor clouds may float upward, remain more or less stationary, flow down slope, or move downwind
away from the breech point. Moving vapor clouds are more likely to encounter an ignition source than non-moving
clouds. Combustion may flash back to the point of breach and forward to the outside edge of the vapor cloud. Vapor
concentrations at the surface of the vapor cloud form a steep concentration gradient with ambient air and are almost
certain to form a zone that is within the flammable limits.
According to an article on the causes of industrial fires, Fire and explosion accidents are of major concern to the
owners and operators of refineries and petrochemical plants, gas processing plants, terminals, and offshore facilities.
Statistics have shown that the majority of monetary loss in these types of complexes is due to fire and explosion.
According to recent statistics, 77 percent of the monetary loss in refinery and petrochemical complexes is due to fire
and explosion. The breakout of accidents due to fire and explosion is 65 percent vessel failure and vapor cloud
explosion and 35 percent fire. The causes of these accidents are mostly attributed to mechanical issues, process upset,
9
and operator error.
Unconfined and confined vapor cloud explosions (UVCEs and VCEs) pose the greatest hazard. BLEVEs, UVCEs,
and VCEs, jet fires, and pool fires are credible worst-case scenarios when handling flammable liquids.
PREVENTING FIRES AND EXPLOSIONS

Avoiding worst-case accidents involving flammable liquids requires diligence in establishing and maintaining
multiple levels of protection. A facilitys levels of protection strategy evolves directly from fundamental operational
practices. A list of suggested objectives may be to:
1.
Establish a clear understanding of the design intent and performance expectations of

o
The plant
Process units that comprise the facility
Equipment items that comprise the process units
2. Preserve the engineering design basis (documentation, equipment configuration) through a rigorous
management of change program
3. Identify and control hazards
4. Seek out and apply best practices, and generally accepted good engineering practices (be familiar with
applicable codes, standards, regulations, and recommended practices and the underlying rational)
5. Preserve equipment mechanical integrity and fitness for purpose
6. Develop job skills and establish standards and responsibilities for job performance of operations and
maintenance functions
7. Recognize and learn from mistakes (your own and those of others)
8. Anticipate, prepare for, and practice recovery from abnormal operations and hazardous material release
events
Reza Pourdarvish, Shahryar Khajehnajafi, and Chris Cowles: The Many Faces of Fire Hazards in Industrial Settings OH&S Magazine, Dec 01,
2010. http://ohsonline.com/Articles/2010/12/01/The-Many-Faces-of-Fire-Hazards-in-Industrial-Settings.aspx
methanol.org 8

Ever-occurring incidents involving flammable and combustible liquids at facilities worldwide are testimony to the
difficulty of transforming the above objectives into an effective and disciplined management system. The following
lists a few of the many reported flammable and combustible liquid accidents during 2010:
Three hurt in fire and explosion at Sparks, Nevada biodiesel clean fuels plant
Fire and explosion at Khark, Iran petrochemical complex
Taiwan's biggest oil refinery complex catches fire for the third time in six months, second time in July
More trouble for one of Taiwan's largest companies. Formosa Petrochemicals Corp has had another fire in one
of its factories
One person critically injured in an explosion and fire at a refinery in San Antonio, Texas. "Immediate cause of
the fire appears to have been an explosion on one of the trucks loading a light hydrocarbon from the AGE
loading rack." AGE facility is a refiner of jet fuel and diesel products that refines 13,500 barrels a day and has
tank farm storage capacity of 208,000 barrels. The explosion/fire is the second that has occurred since 2008
TESORO (Anacortes, Washington) Anacortes refinery fire. The blast was the largest fatal refinery accident
since a 2005 explosion at a BP American refinery in Texas killed 15 people and injured 170.
Burning taxi pulled into a gas station in Baltimore, Maryland
Car Fire explosion in Detroit, Michigan broke firefighters legs
CONCLUSIONS
Flammable liquids can be handled safely if they are handled properly. Flammable liquids are dangerous when
mishandled.
Each of the hundreds of OSHA and NFPA IA, IB, and IC flammable liquids has characteristic physical, chemical,
thermal and electrical properties which are useful in identifying and judging the severity of specific hazards. Use
these properties to identify hazards and to devise strategies for controlling those hazards.
Consider using at least three, and in high hazard situations, as many as eight independent protective control
measures. Learn to anticipate, prevent, recognize, and respond to abnormal operating conditions.
Users do not deliberately cause fires and explosions. On most occasions, users are unaware of the severity of the
hazards. Mishandling is typically the result of a lack of knowledge, not willful destructive intent.
It is users responsibility to continuously strive to be better informed, and more adept at identifying and controlling
hazards
methanol.org 9

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METHANOL INSTITUTE

Methanol Safe Handling Manual

10 Anson Road #32-10 International Plaza, Singapore 079903

124 South West Street, Suite 203, Alexandria, VA 22314

Avenue Jules Bordet, 142, 1140 Brussels, Belgium

Introduction to the Manual .......................................................... 1

Purpose of the Manual ......................................................................................... 1

The Methanol Value Chain ................................................................................... 1

Methanol Institute Product Stewardship Policy .................................................... 2

Methanol Institute Contact Information................................................................. 3

About the Authors ................................................................................................. 3

Methanol General Information .................................................... 5

The Methanol Life Cycle (Value Chain)................................................................ 7

Methanol Manufacture .................................................................................... 7

Sustainable Production ................................................................................. 10

Waste Management ............................................................................ 11

Chemical Intermediates ................................................................................ 11

Biodiesel Fuel Production ............................................................................. 14

Emerging Uses of Methanol ............................................................................... 15

Wastewater Denitrification ............................................................................ 16

Direct Methanol Fuel Cells ............................................................................ 17

Turbine Engines ............................................................................................ 19

Offshore Platforms ........................................................................................ 20

Methanol Specifications ................................................................................ 21

Transportation and Storage of Methanol .................................. 23

Ocean-Going Transport ................................................................................ 23

Tanker Truck Transport ................................................................................ 24

Methanol Storage ............................................................................................... 24

Docks and Marine Terminals ........................................................................ 25

Tank Farms ................................................................................................... 25

Portable Containers (Totes and Drums) ....................................................... 25

Electrical Classification ................................................................................. 27

Grounding and Bonding ................................................................................ 27

Health and Safety...................................................................... 31

Routine Sources of Exposure ....................................................................... 31

Accidental Sources of Exposure ................................................................... 32

Routes of Exposure ...................................................................................... 33

Methanol Metabolism .................................................................................... 33

Effects of Exposure ....................................................................................... 34

Acute Effects ....................................................................................... 34

Chronic Effects .................................................................................... 34

Exposure Control ................................................................................................ 35

Engineering Controls .................................................................................... 35

Exposure Monitoring ..................................................................................... 36

Personal Protective Equipment..................................................................... 37

Respiratory Protection .................................................................................. 37

Chemical-Resistant Clothing/Materials ......................................................... 37

Safety Precautions ............................................................................................. 38

Routine Operations ....................................................................................... 38

Special or High Hazard Operations .............................................................. 39

Confined Space Entry ......................................................................... 39

First Aid Measures.............................................................................................. 40

Accidental Ingestion ...................................................................................... 40

Managing Methanol Safely: Process Safety............................. 41

Employee Participation ....................................................................................... 43

Process Safety Information ................................................................................ 43

Process Hazard Analysis.................................................................................... 44

Operating Procedures ........................................................................................ 44

Pre-Startup Safety Review ................................................................................. 45