Service ceiling:service ceiling is defined as the maximum altitude at which the aircraft can maintain a

specified rate of climb (typically 500 feet/minute for jets). Different aircraft have different
service ceilings depending on the power of their engines, the efficiency of their engines at
high altitude, their weight, and the amount of lift their wings can generate
Absolute ceiling:The absolute ceiling is the highest altitude at which an aircraft can sustain level flight, which
means the altitude at which the thrust of the engines at full power is equal to the total drag at
minimum drag speed. In other words, it is the altitude where maximum thrust available equals
minimum thrust required, so the altitude where the maximum sustained (with no decreasing
airspeed) rate of climb is zero.
Coffin corner (also known as the aerodynamic ceiling[1] or Q corner) is the altitude at or near
which a fast fixed-wing aircraft'sstall speed is equal to the critical Mach number, at a given
gross weight and G-force loading. At this altitude it is very difficult to keep the airplane in stable
flight. Because the stall speed is the minimum speed required to maintain level flight, any
reduction in speed will cause the airplane to stall and lose altitude. Because the critical Mach
number is the maximum speed at which air can travel over the wings without losing lift due to
flow separation and shock waves, any increase in speed will cause the airplane to lose lift, or to
pitch heavily nose-down, and lose altitude. The "corner" refers to the triangular shape at the top
right of a flight envelope chart where the stall speed and critical Mach number lines come
together
Mach tuck is an aerodynamic effect whereby the nose of an aircraft tends to pitch downward as
the airflow around the wing reaches supersonic speeds; the aircraft will first experience this effect
at significantly below Mach 1.[1] This speed is known as the critical Mach number of the wing.
Mach tuck is caused by a rearward movement of the centre of pressure in transonic flight.
A supercritical aerofoil is an aerofoil that, principally, has been designed to delay the onset of wave
drag in the transonic speed range. Typical features of supercritical aerofoils, when compared to traditional
aerofoil shapes, are a flattened upper surface, a highly cambered or curved aft section and greater leading
edge radius. Benefits of a supercritical aerofoil include:

A significant reduction in shock induced boundary layer separation

The production of a smaller, weaker shock wave at a position further aft on the wing than tradition
aerofoils

The potential for more efficient wing design as the supercritical aerofoil allows for a reduction in wing
sweep or an increase in wing thickness without the corresponding increase in wave drag that would be

associated with a typical aerofoil

Induced Drag is an inevitable consequence of lift and is produced by the passage of an aerofoil (e.g. wing
or tailplane) through the air. Air flowing over the top of a wing tends to flow inwards because the decreased
pressure over the top surface is less than the pressure outside the wing tip. Below the wing, the air flows
outwards because the pressure below the wing is greater than that outside the wing tip. The direct
consequence of this, as far as the wing tips are concerned, is that there is a continual spilling of air
upwards around the wing tip a phenomenon called tip effect or end effect. One way to appreciate why a
high aspect ratio for a wing is better than a low one is that with a high aspect ratio, the proportion of air
which moves in this way is reduced and therefore more of it generates lift.

For the wing more generally, the streams of air from above and below the wing are flowing at an angle to
each other as they meet along the trailing edge of the wing. They combine to form vortices which, when
viewed from the rear, rotate clockwise from the left wing and counter clockwise from the right. The
tendency is for these vortices to move outwards towards the wing tip joining together as they do so. By the
time the wing tip is reached, one large wig tip vortex has formed and is shed.
Most of these vortices are of course completely invisible but, in very humid air, the central core of a vortex
may become visible because the air pressure within its centre has reduced - and has therefore cooled sufficiently for condensation to occur. A higher wing loading in a turn will also increase the strength - and
the degree of reduced pressure - so that visible vortex cores are even more likely during turns. If close up
to these vortices, they can also sometimes be audible!
Most of the air flowing off the top of a wing - downwash - continues more or less horizontally towards the
empennage because it is balanced by a corresponding upwash in front of the wing leading edge. In
contrast, the upwards air movement which leads to vortex consolidation at the tip is just outside the tip
whereas the corresponding downward movement is just at the extremity of the wingspan so that the net
direction of airflow past the wing is downwards. The lift created by the wing - which is by definition at right
angles to the airflow, is therefore inclined slightly backwards and thus contributes drag - induced drag.
Although there must always be at least some induced drag because wings have a finite thickness, design
attempts wherever possible to reduce this flow. A required wing area can be achieved using different wing
span-to-chord ratios (aspect ratios). The larger the wing aspect ratio, the less air disturbance is created at
the tip. However, for most aircraft, there are both practical limits to maximum wing span for ground
manoeuvring and structural issues which mean that eventually, the weight penalty to adequately strengthen
a long thin wing becomes excessive. The fact that aircraft carry most of their fuel in the wings is also a
factor in wing design. Typical transport aircraft aspect ratios range between 6:1 and 10:1.
Other ways to reduce induced drag and tip vortex strength in a wing design are also based upon reducing
the quantity air movement upwards at the wing tip by aiming to generate relatively more of the lift away
from tips. Wing taper towards the tip assists this as does wing twist. The Boeing 767 is a example of a
twisted wing. The inner wing is set at a higher Angle of Attack than the outer wing and thus generates
proportionately more lift whereas the tip, at a very small Angle of Attack generates very
little. Winglets (sharklets) have also become popular, both the usual up-turned versions and the Airbus
A320 series two-way wingtip fence versions. Well designed winglets can prevent about 20% of the airflow
spillage at the tip - and therefore 20% of the induced drag.
Induced drag and its wing tip vortices are a direct consequence of the creation of lift by the wing. Since the
Coefficient of Lift is large when the Angle of Attack is large, induced drag is inversely proportional to the
square of the speed whereas all other drag is directly proportional to the square of the speed. The effect of
this is that induced drag is relatively unimportant at high speed in the cruise and descent where it probably
represents less than 10% of total drag. In the climb, it is more important representing at least 20% of total
drag. At slow speeds just after take off and in the initial climb, it is of maximum importance and may
produce as much as 70% of total drag. Finally, when looking at the potential strength of wing tip vortices, all
this theory on induced drag must be moderated by the effect of aircraft weight. Induced drag will always
increase with aircraft weight.

In aerodynamics, the critical Mach number (Mcr) of an aircraft is the lowest Mach number at
which the airflow over some point of the aircraft reaches the speed of sound, but does not
exceed it.[1]

At the lower critical Mach number, airflow around the entire aircraft is subsonic. At the upper
critical Mach number, airflow around the entire aircraft is supersonic.[2]

Downwash is the change in direction of air deflected by the aerodynamic action of

an airfoil, wing or helicopter rotor blade in motion, as part of the process of producing lift.[1]