IFLA Guide Library Preservation

International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions
Core Programme on Preservation and Conservation

and
Council on Library and Information Resources
IFLA
P RINCIPLES FOR THE
CARE AND HANDLING
OF LIBRARY MATERIAL
Compiled and edited by

Edward P. Adcock
with the assistance of
Marie-Thrse Varlamoff and Virginie Kremp
International Preservation Issues

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A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Experts Group
Laurence Bobis, Direction du Livre et de la Lecture, France

Jeanne-Marie Dureau, Archives de Lyon, France
Lucie Favier, Archives Nationales, France
Franoise Flieder, Centre de Recherche sur la Conservation des Documents Graphiques, France
Virginie Kremp, IFLA-PAC International Centre
George Mackenzie, International Council on Archives
Dominique Morelon, Bibliothque du Muse de lHomme, France
Denis Pallier, Inspection Gnrale des Bibliothques, France
Winston Roberts, IFLA Headquarters
Marie-Lise Tsagouria, Bibliothque nationale de France
Marie-Thrse Varlamoff, IFLA-PAC International Centre
Other individuals and organisations contacted
Paul Conway, Yale University Library, USA

Mirjam Foot, British Library, United Kingdom
Jacques Grimard, National Archives, Canada
Galina Kislovskaya, Library for Foreign Literature, Russia, IFLA-PAC Regional Centre for Eastern Europe and the
Commonwealth of Independent States
Jan Lyall, National Library of Australia, IFLA-PAC Regional Centre for South East Asia and the Pacific
Ralph Manning, National Library of Canada and IFLA Section on Preservation and Conservation
Jan Michaels, National Library of Canada
Sherelyn Ogden, Northeast Document Conservation Center, USA
Ann Russell, Northeast Document Conservation Center, USA
Ramn Snchez, National Library of Venezuela, IFLA-PAC Regional Centre for Latin America and the
Caribbean
Takao Shimamura, National Diet Library, Japan, IFLA-PAC Regional Centre for Central and East Asia
Wendy Smith, University of Canberra, Australia
Christine Ward, New York State Archives and Records Administration, USA
Jean Whiffin, IFLA Section on Preservation and Conservation, Canada
Illustrations
Christopher Clarkson, a Stanley Road, Oxford, Oxon , UK
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C ONTENTS
G LOSSARY 4
P REFACE 6
I NTRODUCTION 8
SECURITY AND D ISASTER P LANNING 13
ENVIRONMENT 21
TRADITIONAL L IBRARY M ATERIAL
35
PHOTOGRAPHIC AND F ILM-BASED M EDIA
47
AUDIOVISUAL C ARRIERS 53
REFORMATTING 59
BIBILIOGRAPHY 66
Appendix I 70
Where to turn for advice
Appendix II 72
Standards
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G LOSSARY
The following list defines words and terms used in the text,
not always as they would be encountered in a standard dictionary.
Acid
In chemistry, a substance capable of forming hydrogen (H+)
ions when dissolved in water. Acids can damage cellulose in
paper, board, and cloth, by catalyzing hydrolysis. Acids may be
introduced during manufacture, or may be present in the raw
material. Acids may also be introduced by migration from
acidic materials or from atmospheric pollution.
Acid-free
Materials that have a pH of (neutral) or higher (alkaline).
Acrylics
A plastic material noted for its transparency, weather
resistance, and colour-fastness. Acrylics are important in
preservation because of their resistance to chemical change.
They are available in sheets, films, and resin adhesives. Some
common trade names for the sheet form are Perspex, Lucite,
and Plexiglas. Ultraviolet-absorbing acrylic sheet is used in
preference to glass for glazing framed materials because it is
less likely to break and the additional ultraviolet absorbers
protect the framed objects from UV damage.
Adhesive tape
Paper, fabric, or other material in sheet form with an adhesive
layer. The adhesive is generally activated by pressure, or by
the application of heat or water. Pressure-sensitive or
sticky tapes should not be used for material intended for
long-term preservation, since the adhesive degrades and
yellows and the adhesive residues can become impossible to
remove.
Alkali
In chemistry, a substance capable of forming hydroxyl (OH)
ions when dissolved in water. Alkaline compounds may be
added to materials to neutralise acids or as an alkaline reserve
or buffer for the purpose of counteracting acids which may
form in the future.
Archival quality
An imprecise term suggesting that a material, product, or
process is durable and/or chemically stable, that it has a long
life, and can therefore be used for preservation purposes. The
phrase is not quantifiable; no standards exist that describe
how long an archival material will last. The word permanent
is sometimes used to mean the same thing.
Brittle
A property or condition that causes failure of a material when
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it is flexed or folded. Paper is said to be brittle when a corner

will not withstand two complete double folds.
Buffer/buffering see alkali
Cellulose
Chemically, a complex carbohydrate. The chief constituent
of the cell walls of plants, and consequently the chief
constituent of many fibrous plant products such as paper,
board, cotton and linen cloth. The traditional Western plants
providing cellulose for paper were cotton and linen. Wood
has been the major source of papermaking fibres since .
Chemical stability
Not easily decomposed or otherwise modified chemically.
This is a desirable characteristic for materials used in
preservation, since it suggests an ability to resist chemical
degradation, such as paper embrittlement, over time and/or
exposure to varying conditions during use or storage.
Sometimes described as chemically inert.
Conservation
Specific practices taken to slow deterioration and prolong
the life of an object by directly intervening in its physical or
chemical make-up. Examples would be repairing damaged
bindings or deacidifying paper.
Encapsulation
A form of protective enclosure for paper and other flat
objects. It involves placing the item between two sheets (or
one folded sheet) of clear plastic film (usually polyester) that
are subsequently sealed along four edges. A sheet of buffered
paper or board is sometimes included to increase support.
Foxing
Random, rust-coloured spots on paper.
HVAC
Short for heating, ventilating, and air conditioning system.
Hydrolysis
The decomposition of organic compounds by interaction with
water. The degradation reaction weakens or breaks molecular
bonds, thereby leading to embrittlement and discolouration.
Interleaving
The practice of using sheets of paper or other material to
separate items. Alkaline-buffered paper is often recommended
to be put between acid materials to prevent acid migration.
Lignin
A component of the cell walls of woody plants, along with
cellulose. Lignin is largely responsible for the strength and
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rigidity of plants, but its presence in paper and board is

believed to contribute to chemical degradation. There can be
large amounts of lignin present in pulp made from wood. It
is not removed in the production of mechanical pulp, but it
can be optimally removed by using chemical processes.
Lux
The unit of measurement for intensity of illumination ( lux
= lumen per square meter). When considering light levels
which are suitable for reading and working, and do not
damage library material, then it is more important to quantify
the light which falls on an object rather than the power
(wattage) generated by a light bulb.
Medium/media
The material on which information is recorded. Sometimes
also refers to the actual material used to record the image.
Mould
The spores of fungi that become mould or mildew (another
type of fungus) are always present in the air and on objects;
they await only proper conditions of moisture and
temperature to germinate, grow, and reproduce. Mould
causes staining and weakening of most library material.
Oxidation
Any reaction involving the loss of electrons from an atom
(oxygen does not have to be present). When cellulose is oxidised
an acid is formed, which catalyses hydrolysis. When polymeric
materials such as adhesives and plastics are oxidised, they
undergo a chemical change which leads to embrittlement and
discolouration. Oxidation may be caused by impurities present
within or adjacent to the material or by atmospheric pollutants.
Paste
An adhesive made from starch or flour such as rice or wheat.
Permanent
See also archival. A permanent paper is one which conforms
to a recognised standard. It must be acid-free and made to
resist chemical and physical changes to a greater degree than
is usual in other papers.
pH
In chemistry, pH is a measure of the concentration of
hydrogen ions in solution, indicating acidity or alkalinity.
Alkaline-buffered storage materials used in libraries and
archives typically have a pH above and below .
Polyester
The common name for the plastic polyethylene terephthalate.
Its characteristics include transparency, lack of colour, high
tensile strength, and chemical stability (when made with no
coatings or additives). Used in sheet or film form to make
folders, encapsulations, book jackets and adhesive tapes. Trade
names include Mylar and Melinex.
Polyethylene
In its pure form, a chemically stable plastic material. Used in
film form to make sleeves for photographic material and other
uses. A cheaper alternative to polyester film.
Polymer
A material built up from a series of smaller units (monomers),
which may be relatively simple, such as ethene (the unit of
polyethylene), or relatively complex, such as acrylic.
Polypropylene
In its pure form, a chemically stable plastic material. Used in
film form to make sleeves for photographic material and other
uses.
Polyvinylchloride
Plastic usually abbreviated as PVC, or sometimes vinyl. Not
as chemically stable as some other plastics. It can emit acidic
components which damage cellulosic material. Added
chemicals called plasticisers are also used to make PVC more
flexible. These also damage library material.
Preservation
Includes all the managerial and financial considerations,
including storage and accommodation provisions, staffing
levels, policies, techniques, and methods involved in
preserving library and archival material and the information
contained in them.
Pressure-sensitive tape see adhesive tape
Thermohygrograph
A mechanical or electronic instrument which records
temperature and relative humidity. Sometimes called a
hygrothermograph.
Ultraviolet (UV)
Magnetic radiation having a shorter wavelength and higher
energy than visible light, of which it usually is a component.
Ultraviolet is damaging to library, archive, and museum
objects. Removing UV can reduce the rate of deterioration.
Certain acrylic sheets include UV-filtering chemicals.
Photochemical degradation
Damage or change caused or increased by exposure to light.
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P REFACE
P REFACE
Background
IFLA has a responsibility to encourage the acceptance and diffusion through its
channels of professional principles of preservation and conservation
administration .
Principles for the Preservation and Conservation of Library Materials was
first published in the IFLA Journal, (), pp. . This was revised and
expanded by J. M. Dureau and D. W. G. Clements, from the IFLA Section on
Conservation, and published by IFLA HQ in as Professional Report no. .
Since the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions
Core Programme on Preservation and Conservation (IFLA-PAC) has undertaken
a survey among preservation specialists from a broad range of institutions and
organisations (librarians, archivists, ICA, IFLA-PAC, IFLA Section on
Conservation) to collect comments with a view to updating the document.
Over the last twelve years, articles and books have been published on a copious
number of diverse themes that the preservation and conservation of library material
now entails. Moreover, preservation and conservation have become established
themselves, to some degree, in the library profession. However, there are still
many libraries throughout the world which need guidance in looking after their
collections. Therefore, while planning the revision of the Principles for the
Preservation and Conservation of Library Materials, IFLA-PAC decided to
produce a concise document, which concentrates on certain key elements of
preservation that libraries can adopt to look after their collections.
The IFLA-PAC International Centre would like to thank the Council on Library
and Information Resources, particularly Deanna Marcum, Hans Rtimann, Maxine
Sitts, and Kathlin Smith for their support and advice, and for entrusting us with
this publication.
IFLA Principles for the Care and Handling of Library Materials is available
on the CLIR website: <http://www.clir.org> and the IFLA website: <http://
nlc-bnc.ca/ifla>. IFLA intends to publish further revisions when needed.
Aims
This document is a general introduction to the care and handling of library material
for individuals and institutions with little or no preservation knowledge. It does
not provide a comprehensive list of detailed methods and practices, but gives
basic information to assist libraries in establishing a responsible attitude to looking
after their collections. The threats to collections are often known, but librarians
frequently do not proclaim sufficiently loudly the consequences of ignoring the
dangers. IFLA Principles for the Care and Handling of Library Materials is
therefore designed to encourage those responsible to face up to these consequences
and, together with scientific and technical experts, to formulate a positive policy
for the future of the material in their collections.
Primarily, this publication sets out to:
expose the vulnerability of library material
advance knowledge about the permanence and durability of library material
encourage proper care and handling of library material

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aid library staff in their search for solutions to preservation problems
encourage clear lines of communication among library managers, buildings

managers, and preservation and library staff so that all concerned work towards
preserving the librarys holdings.
Editors note
It must be emphasised that this publication cannot be used in isolation. It has

been compiled from many sources, a few of which are listed in the Bibliography.
Such a short document can serve only as an introduction to the many subjects
that the care, and handling, of library material entails. Therefore, it is recommended
that readers proceed to familiarise themselves with the books listed below, which
include comprehensive bibliographies on the topics that this publication briefly
covers.
DePew, John N. A Library, Media, and Archival Preservation Handbook. Santa
Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, .
Fox, Lisa L., Don K. Thompson, and Joan ten Hoor (eds. and comp.) A Core
Collection in Preservation. Chicago: American Library Association, Association for
Library Collections & Technical Services, .
Giovannini, Andrea. De Tutela Librorum. Geneva: Les Editions Institut dEtudes
Sociales, .
Harvey, D. Ross. Preservation in Libraries Principles, Strategies and Practices for
Librarians. London: Bowker-Saur, .
Ogden, Sherelyn (ed.) Preservation of Library and Archival Materials. Andover, MA:
Northeast Document Conservation Center, revised .
Reed-Scott, Jutta, ed. Preservation Planning Program. Washington, DC: Association
of Research Libraries, .
Ritzenthaler, Mary Lynn. Preserving Archives and Manuscripts. Chicago: Society of
American Archivists, .
The word preservation is often defined to include all the managerial,
administrative, financial, and staffing considerations necessary to safeguard the
welfare of library collections. However, in this document, preservation specifically
means the provision of an appropriate level of security, environmental control,
storage, care and handling, that will retard further chemical deterioration and protect
library material from physical damage.
The conservation of library material has been purposely excluded. While many
preservation options can be implemented by non-specialist staff, conservation
can be carried out only by trained professionals with access to appropriate
equipment and materials. Conservation is also an extremely labour-intensive and
costly exercise, which very few institutions world-wide can afford. Therefore, this
document concentrates solely on measures that most libraries can take to prevent
and slow down the rate of deterioration of their collections.
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I NTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
What are the main threats to library material?
w
The nature of the material itself

w Natural and man-made disasters
w The environment in which it is kept
w The way material is handled
Traditional library collections contain a wide range of organic materials, including
paper, cloth, animal skins, and adhesives. Such organic substances undergo a
continual and inevitable natural ageing process. While measures can be taken to
slow this deterioration by careful handling and providing a sympathetic
environment, it is impossible to halt it altogether.
The chemical and physical stability of library material also depends on the quality
and processing of the raw products used in their manufacture together with the
design and construction of the final artefact.
Over the centuries, the pressures of mass production have reduced the material
quality of what is received in libraries. Much of the paper stock manufactured
after is highly acidic, is becoming brittle, and will self-destruct in time. Binding
techniques have been abbreviated for the sake of automation and many textblocks are now held together solely by adhesive. In fact, all books and, in particular,
leather bindings, are far more susceptible to damage than most people appreciate.
Modern media such as microforms, optical and magnetic disks, digital formats,
photographs, and audio and visual media, all have inherent preservation problems
and need to be stored and used carefully if they are not to perish prematurely.
It is commonly difficult to accept is that a large amount of library material is
reaching the end of its natural life, and the few years that it has left can only be
prolonged by careful handling and storage.
Why preserve?
w
The type of library and how it is used reflect the preservation needs of its
collections. The preservation requirements of a local public lending library are
obviously different from those of a national library. However, both are obliged
to maintain and keep accessible their collections, whether for a few years or
indefinitely.
w Economically, libraries cannot afford to let their holdings wear out prematurely.
Replacing library material, even when possible, is expensive. Preservation makes
good economic sense.
w It cannot be easily predicted what will be of interest to researchers in the
future. Preserving current collections is the best way to serve future users.
w Responsible and professional library staff should be committed to caring for
and preserving the material with which they work.
Who is responsible?
Everyone is responsible. While preservation and conservation specialists can advise

and carry out specific activities, it is the duty of all library staff, from the head of
the library downwards, to safeguard the welfare of their holdings. Preservation
measures have to be endorsed, supported, and encouraged from the most senior
level to the most junior in the library.
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Those who are responsible for managing the library and maintaining the external
and internal fabric of the buildings must liaise closely with those who are
responsible for the welfare of the collections. For example, if money has been set
aside to rewire and replace the lighting of a building, then the opportunity should
be used for ensuring not only that energy-saving lighting is used but also that it
meets particular preservation lighting requirements. When plumbing is being
installed or replaced, all concerned should be working towards ensuring that risks
to the collections are reduced, and not increased by having pipes running through
areas where library material is present. In such instances clear communication is
the key.
The preservation needs of a library have to be considered in line with the social
and political climate in which the organisation operates. The organisations purpose,
collecting policies, and available resources also have to be taken into account.
Consequently, preservation policies must be made in consultation with various
departments for the following reasons:
w The acquisitions and collecting sections of a library should be prepared to
purchase additional copies of heavily used material, like reference works, when
the cost of repairing such items is greater than replacing them. It is also
necessary to calculate whether surrogate copies (i.e., microform or electronic
versions, and the machines to read them) are a more economical and effective
way of providing access to heavily used material than hard copy.
w A policy should be agreed with the cataloguing and record-creating activities
of the library together with readers services to direct users to surrogates rather
than originals and to the most appropriate copy.
w Departments should plan for sufficient, good-quality accommodation for
acquisitions.
w Reading room staff should be kept informed of any restrictions concerning
the use of original material and briefed on limitations to photocopying.
w Resources should be provided for training staff on security for themselves and
for library material, on how to handle library material correctly, and on how
best to pass this knowledge on to users.
w An exhibition policy should be drawn up which ensures that items will not
come to harm while on exhibition, whether within the library or on loan to
other institutions. Librarians and conservation staff should agree on whether
items are fit for display. Adequate support and security, and suitable
environmental conditions for material to be exhibited, should be enforced.
w Preservation staff and those responsible for the collections, whatever their
level of experience, should not only have some technical and scientific
knowledge, but should also be familiar with the history of collections, the
material they are made of, and the contents of the documents so as to be able
to understand better the preservation problems. Librarians, library staff at all
levels, and students of librarianship should be acquainted with the importance
of preservation within a librarys overall function and policy.
When purchasing material

which is damaged, the cost of
its repair should be taken
into account and appropriate
resources provided.
Where to begin?
Part of the process of formulating a preservation policy is to define whether, and

to what extent, the library will acquire and retain material. There can be no general
guidance for libraries on what material should be selected for acquisition and
future preservation; this will depend on each individual library and its policy.
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I NTRODUCTION
However, national and regional libraries should cooperate in sharing the
responsibilities of what to preserve and retain.
In order to be able to care for its holdings, a library must make a comprehensive
and honest assessment of the physical state of the institution, the collections, and
their preservation requirements. Moreover, to care for collections with a limited
budget and limited resources, it is important that decisions are made on a clear
and rational basis. Such an assessment can be done internally, by the library itself,
or by independent consultants, whose expertise is established both have
advantages and disadvantages. Consultants are expensive and take up a lot of staff
time. However, the final assessment should reveal the stark truth of the facts. An
internal assessment will probably be cheaper but might be influenced by staff
politics. Unfortunately, it is also usually easier to accept recommendations from a
body outside than from within.
Such an undertaking must be a cooperative effort of all the departments and be
endorsed at the most senior level. An assessment without authority is likely to be
ineffectual. The final report is obviously critical to the success of any needs survey.
It should clearly identify the risks to the collections and be realistic in its proposals.
How to begin?
It is important to have a clear idea of the objectives of the study before

investigations into the state of the institution and its collections begin. Details on
policies, operations and procedures may be found in written documents, the most
likely sources will be through interviews with library staff at all levels, observations
on how material is cared for and handled by staff and users, and risk assesments
on the buildings and collections.
Identifying major and immediate threats to the librarys holdings or particular
collections should be of primary concern. Such threats will vary for different
institutions, from renewing a fire and smoke detection system, through setting up
an integrated pest management programme, to moving an important collection
of photographs to an area with a more stable environment.
Surveys are a fundamental tool for developing a librarys preservation policy.
However, while they should be comprehensive, they do not necessarily have to be
too detailed. Surveys can often result in enormous amounts of information being
accumulated which later become very difficult to put into order and analyse. Short
questions and answers are the key to successful surveys. The purposes of four
surveys which will help to form the basis of the assessment are summarised below.
The ensuing chapters will provide more ideas on what to look out for when
planning the surveys.
Building: to identify any security or environmental threats that are posed by the
location of the institution; to describe the history and use of the buildings; and to
ascertain the condition of the external and internal fabric of the buildings.
Disaster preparedness and response: to describe potential risks man-made
or natural to the buildings and collections; to review present precautions against
these risks; and to examine disaster preparedness and response plans.
Environment: to report on what environmental measures are in place to
preserve the collections; what are the good and bad points of these measures;
and who is reponsible for maintaining them.
Collection: to ascertain the current condition of the collection and identify
potential problems. Describing the type and quantity of items in collections will
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help to create a picture of the librarys holdings (for example: photographs,

, books or as linear metres linear metres of manuscript boxes) and
age range (for example: , books pre-; , books ; ,
books to present). Further points that need to be covered include:
w what is the overall condition of the collections?
w which collections are in particularly poor condition?
w which collections are most valuable/important?
w which collections are most at risk?
w how fast are the collections growing?
w what direction is collecting likely to take?
w is space available or allocated for future or expanding collections?
Knowing which material is heavily used will help to determine the preservation
needs of particular collections. For example, a run of local history journals which
is frequently in demand and in poor condition may become a higher microfilming
priority than another run of journals which is also in poor condition but not
often used.
Other areas, which are highlighted in subsequent chapters, also need to be
documented, such as the security of the collections; how material is stored and
handled; the condition of storage areas; reading room practice; and level of staff
training and expertise.
What to preserve?
Once a preservation needs assessment has been carried out, the next step is to
prioritise the recommendations which have been made. Because of both limited
resources and the potential scale of the problem it is necessary to be selective in
deciding what is to be done in terms of
w securing the fabric of the buildings
w improving environmental control
w improving the storage and handling of the collections.
Such selectivity needs to be an explicit part of a librarys policy if its responsibilities
towards future users are to be properly undertaken. It is important to understand
that selectivity does not preclude adopting an holistic approach to caring for library
collections. All library material may not warrant special attention in the way of
boxing or being stored in specific environmental conditions, but all should be
safeguarded against man-made and natural disasters, theft and mutilation, pest
and mould attack, and poor handling practices.
Generally, selecting material for specific preservation processes such as
reformatting or boxing is based on common sense. Boxing a collection which is
in good condition and not used before attending to a collection which is in poor
condition and heavily used is not common sense; neither is reformatting material
which has been reformatted by an institution elsewhere.
What are the financial implications?
Almost always, the amount of information held in libraries is greater than the
resources available for carrying out their objectives with total success. It is not,
and never has been, possible to save everything. A commitment to indefinite or
permanent retention involves considerable financial expenditure on accommodation, special storage conditions, and possibly reformatting. Therefore,
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11
I NTRODUCTION
decisions have to be made as to what will be collected and preserved.
Every library has a duty to ensure the welfare of its collections for present and
future users. There is no avoiding the fact that the maintenance and retention of
collections costs money. For too long, libraries have spent a large proportion of
their budget on acquisitions. Most libraries have no, or inadequate, funds set aside
for preservation purposes. Spending time and resources on preventing damage to
library material is almost always cheaper than repairing or replacing it.
No library can afford not to take precautionary measures against fire, flood,
theft, and mould and insect infestation, for salvaging material which has suffered
from these disasters is extremely expensive in terms of human and financial
resources. The consequences of such disruptions are manifold. Serious disasters
are often caused by circumstances which could have been avoided at little cost.
Prevention is not only better but, more often than not, cheaper than cure.
Caring for library material does not necessarily mean an excessive expenditure
of library funds. There are many common-sense and economical solutions to
preservation problems. However, all libraries must realise that preserving and
maintaining their collections is as important as acquiring them, and that appropriate
funds should be allocated accordingly.
Why cooperate and with whom?
It is not simply sufficient for librarians to be aware of their responsibility for the
preservation of their collections, although awareness is the first necessity. It is
also important to raise awareness among the general public and those who are in
a position to fund preservation programmes. Governments must play an active
role in ensuring the welfare of a nations heritage. National preservation offices,
financially supported either by government or private funding, are essential if a
countrys written heritage, in whatever format, is to survive. These establishments
should be in a position to encourage all libraries and institutions to adopt sound
preservation policies. Very useful services, such as supplying literature on disaster
planning, photocopying, or security matters on request are not enough. Active
training and education should also be provided.
Furthermore, national preservation offices can sometimes be appropriate bodies
for coordinating retention policies on a national scale. There is also the potential
for them to be the political mouthpiece for libraries on issues like the mandatory
use of permanent paper in publishing. Enlightening the general public through
poster campaigns in schools and public libraries about the respect for and care of
library material is another useful responsibility that can be assumed by national
preservation offices.
If a nations heritage is to survive, then the coordination of national, regional,
consortial, and institutional preservation programmes is essential. It is unrealistic
to expect libraries and archives to address individually and resolve successfully
the technical and financial problems associated with preservation on a national
level. For instance, in IFLA and ICA established the Joint IFLA ICA
Committee for Preservation in Africa (JICPA) to raise awareness of preservation
issues and coordinate activities in the region.
Libraries should cooperate not only with archives but also with museums and
galleries. Considerable savings can be made and duplication of effort avoided by
institutions consulting with each other over areas such as environmental control,
building and collection evaluation, and disaster preparedness and recovery plans.
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SECURITY AND DISASTER P LANNING

SECURITY
Securing perimeters and buildings
14
Preventing criminal and anti-social behaviour
14
Security in reading areas
14
Security of library material
15
Emergency information booklet
15
DISASTER P LANNING
15
Risk assessment
16
Identifying external environmental threats
16
Identifying internal environmental threats
16
Assessing current preventive measures
17
Prevention
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17
Fire alarm systems
17
Manual extinguishing systems
17
Automatic extinguishing systems
18
Routine maintenance
18
Preparedness
18
Response
19
Drying wet material
20
Air drying
20
Recovery
20
13
S ECURITY AND D ISASTER PLANNING
SECURITY
It is the responsibility of the library manager to intitiate, coordinate, and implement
the development of a security policy within the library. When drafting such a
policy other libraries, police, and staff should be consulted.
Securing perimeters and buildings
As part of the building survey,
all areas of security should be
noted and shortcomings addressed as soon as possible.
w
w
w
w
w
w
w
w
Library perimeters and grounds should be kept tidy.

Building exteriors should be assessed for ease of access by criminals. An alarm
and closed-circuit television system should be seriously considered. All areas
should be well-lit.
Close attention should be paid to doors and windows in respect of locks,
security glass, or film.
The interior of the building should be kept tidy. It will present an image of
care and supervision which will deter the potential criminal.
All entry/exit points and routes should be kept separate if possible and staffed
at all times.
Any staff areas should be locked when not in use.
Expensive equipment should be chained or bolted down and marked with
security markings.
All contractors should sign in and out of the library and wear passes at all
times.
The need for an alert attitude should be instilled in staff.

w All storage areas should be kept secure and clear policy guidelines provided on
who has access to what areas.
w Specific measures, like the use of vaults, should be taken for the security of
rare/valuable material.
Preventing criminal and anti-social behaviour
Criminal and anti-social behaviour ranges from the rowdy visitor to the determined
thief. Staff, books, equipment, and personal property are all at risk. Starting-points
in deterring criminal and anti-social behaviour include:
w having a calm and ordered library
w creating an environment which the genuine reader regards as helpful and
efficient, but in which the villain feels anxious and wary
w
having prominent notices which clearly define what is unacceptable behaviour
training staff in how to deal with an awkward or aggressive user or a suspected

book thief.
Security in reading areas
Points to consider:
w how are loose items issued and how are they checked on return?
w how well are reading areas invigilated?
w are security devices in place?
w are bags allowed in these areas and are they checked on exit?
14
Number One
Security of library material
All library material should be stamped in a way that clearly identifies it as belonging
to a particular institution. Library stamps should be fast-drying, non-fading, stable,
and indelible. Security tagging systems, if present, should be regularly inspected.
Emergency information booklet
It is useful for all staff to have easy access to an emergency information booklet
which lists only the immediate steps to be taken, key personnel, and how they can
be contacted in the event of:
w accidents to staff and visitors
w vandalism, theft, and assault
w incidents like power failures, lift failures, loss of security keys
w emergencies which threaten the welfare of people, the collections, and the
fabric of the buildings e.g. bomb threats
w hurricane, earthquake, and flood warnings.
D ISASTER P LANNING
It is vital for any library, no matter what its size, to take every precaution possible
to prevent the occurrence of an avoidable disaster. Of equal importance is having
measures in place to cope with the consequences of disasters, whether they be
natural or man-made.
Natural
Man-made
Hurricanes
Floods
Earthquakes
Volcanic eruptions
Sandstorms
Acts of war and terrorism

Fires
Water (broken pipes, leaking roofs, etc.)
Explosions
Make sure the plan is written

clearly and understood by
everyone likely to be involved.
Update it regularly and store
copies on- and off-site.
Numerous resources have been published to aid institutions in implementing

disaster avoidance measures and formulating a disaster response and salvage plan.
Only the key points are listed here. It should be mandatory for every library to
have a written plan in which all these elements are fully developed.
A phased approach can be used in disaster preparedness (as it can in
preservation activities in general). That is, it is acceptable, as a first phase, to begin
with a few sections (even in outline form), particularly if the institution focuses
first on those issues that are of greatest concern. In a subsequent phase, the
planners can gradually add more detail and other sections as they become better
educated, have time to pursue the plan, and are able to develop consensus on
how the institution should organize its preparedness activities.
Disaster planning usually involves five phases:
w Risk assessment
ascertaining the dangers to the building and its collections
w Prevention
implementing measures which will remove or reduce
any danger
Number One
15

w
w
Preparedness
Response
w Recovery
developing a written preparedness, response, and

recovery plan
procedures to follow when disaster strikes
restoring the disaster site and damaged material to a
stable and usable condition.
Risk assessment
Try to identify any external and internal threats that might cause problems for the
collections and assess any shortcomings of disaster prevention measures which
are already in place. Consulting with fire departments will help to find any potential
hazards which are not immediately obvious.
Identifying external environmental threats
w
Describe the district where the collections are housed (residential, industrial,
shopping centre, rural, recreational).
Are there any major industrial or natural hazards very close to where the
collections are housed (airport, railroad/motorway, natural waterways such as
the ocean, lakes, rivers, natural vegetation or bushland, other buildings)?
What are the immediate surroundings or perimeters to the building (fences

and gates, natural barriers such as rivers, lakes, ocean front, dark corners,
overhangs, areas providing cover)?
Are the surroundings secure (regular patrols, effective lighting, gates secured
and access controlled, separate access for staff and visitors/users)?
Is pollution (dust, gaseous pollutants) from factories, traffic, or the environment

a problem?
How safe is the building from fire and flood are there hazards in the vicinity,
either natural as in woodland and river or man-made, as in petrochemical plants?
Have any major incidents or disasters occurred in the past five years (bomb
threats and bombing, civil disturbances, riots, wars, natural disasters flood,
earthquake, fire, dust storm, vandalism)?
Identifying internal environmental threats
16
What materials are used in the structure of the building?
Is the external and internal fabric of the building fire-resistant?
Are there fire-resistant walls separating parts of the building and are there fireresistant doors?
Are collections stored at a safe distance from plumbing, electrical and

mechanical installations water pipes, radiators, air conditioning, kitchens,
laboratories?
Is the area where collections are stored susceptible to leaks or flooding?
Is smoking allowed in any areas?
Are large amounts of flammable material (like chemicals in laboratories) other

than books stored on site?
Number One
Assessing current preventive measures

w
w
w
w
w
w
w
w
w
w
w
w
Has the building a smoke, fire or water detection system?

Is there an automatic fire extinguishing system in the area?
What sort of manual fire fighting systems are in the area (extinguishers water,
foam, CO, fire hoses etc.)?
Are the fire detection and/or extinguishing systems inspected regularly?
Does the building have lightning conductors?
Are special precautions taken when potentially dangerous activities are
undertaken, such as rewiring and refurbishing of the internal and external
fabric of the building?
Is the building security system (if there is one) connected to fire/police
departments?
Does a written disaster preparedness and response plan exist for the library?
Elements it should contain: description of emergency procedures;
disaster response outline; emergency supplies list; recovery priorities;
conservation experts; supplies stored off-site; list of staff volunteers;
other.
Are staff trained in emergency response procedures (delegated officer-in-charge,
regular training, emergency evacuations)?
Is computer data backed up daily?
Are manually accessed catalogues, registration and accession records duplicated
and stored off-site?
Are electronic catalogues and records duplicated and stored off-site?
Prevention
Once the risks have been assessed, take all the necessary precautions to make the
library buildings and their holdings secure. Consult with the emergency services
(fire, police, and hospital).
Fire alarm systems
All parts of the building should be provided with a fire and smoke detection
system, which simultaneously alerts occupants and the local fire brigade. Smoke
detection equipment can provide early warning of a developing fire, thereby giving
an opportunity of manual suppression prior to the activation of a sprinkler system.
Manually operated fire-alarm call points, which can be used by occupants to
indicate the presence of fire or smoke, should also be present throughout the
building.
Manual extinguishing systems
If an automatic fire extinguishing system is not present, the following should be

installed:
w Hose reels or racks so as to ensure that all parts of the building are within m
of the nozzle of a fully extended hose.
w Hydrant systems or rising mains on all buildings more than m in height or
where a single floor exceeds m.
Number One
17

w
The hydrant or rising mains should be located so as to permit the fire brigade
to pressurise the pipework from outside the building.
Portable fire extinguishers should always be available, even if an automatic fire

suppression system has been installed. There should be a suitable number of
hand-held extinguishers (CO, water, or foam according to the likely cause of
fire, i.e., electrical or chemical) strategically placed.
Automatic extinguishing systems
Consideration should be given to the benefits offered by an automatic fire

extinguishing system.
w A CO gas system is only suitable for smaller compartments, i.e., spaces which
can be made airtight and which are not normally occupied by people.
w
Halon gas systems are no longer produced as they are environmentally

damaging, particularly toward the earths protective ozone layer.
Wet-pipe sprinkler systems are a reliable and safe extinguishing method and
are relatively easy to maintain. Contrary to popular belief, the activation of
one sprinkler does not cause all sprinklers to operate; and so danger of accidental
discharge should not be over-estimated. The average sprinkler discharges
gallons per minute ( litres per minute) while typical fire hoses release
gallons per minute ( litres per minute). It is important to
remember that the environmental and human safety aspects of water are known,
unlike the possible impact from various chemical agents. Furthermore, the
recovery techniques for water-damaged material are also known.
Dry-pipe sprinkler systems are essentially the same as wet-pipe systems except
that the pipes in the protected area contain pressurized air. When the sprinkler
is activated a valve opens allowing water to flow into the pipes. This lessens
any threat of water leaking into collection areas.
Micromist systems are being developed which discharge limited quantities of

water at very high pressures, resulting in exceptionally efficient cooling and
rapid fire control with significantly little water. Tests have proved that water
saturation, often associated with standard firefighting procedures, is avoided.
Other anticipated benefits include: lower installation costs, minimal aesthetic
impact, and known environmental safety.
If water-based fire protection

systems, such as sprinklers,
are to be installed, provision
should be made for rapid
drainage.
Routine maintenance
Fire alarms and suppression systems, the building fabric, plumbing, electric, and
gas supplies and fittings, etc., should be maintained and routinely tested. All reports
should be kept and any maintenance work documented.
Preparedness
The following should be prepared, reviewed, and updated regularly:
w Building floor plans which indicate storage areas, windows, entrances, and
exits; fire extinguishers; fire alarms; sprinklers; smoke/fire detectors; water,
gas, and heating pipes; elevator controls; electrical and water supply and cutoff points.
18
Number One
Priority rescue lists made by departments, stating which items are to be salvaged
from individual rooms. The fire services may allow entry into a building for
salvage purposes for a limited time, and it is essential to know what items are
to be saved and where they are located.
Selecting and training an emergency response team comprising voluntary

members of staff who live near the library. The team should be rehearsed in
removing material and confident in making decisions about salvage techniques.
It is essential for them to have participated in disaster workshops, where a
disaster site is simulated and techniques can be practised.
Detailed, step-by-step instructions on all phases of salvage operation, covering

a range of incidents that are possible (e.g., roof/plumbing leaks, flooding, and
fire) and the various media included in the collections, such as books and
journals, manuscripts/records, coated vs. uncoated stock, sound recordings,
photographic media, computer/electronic media, etc.
Instructions for long-term rehabilitation: procedures for activities including

identification and labelling, smoke/soot removal, cleaning, sorting and
rehousing, repair and rebinding, etc.
A list of external contacts and names, addresses, and home and work telephone
numbers of personnel with emergency responsibilities.
Areas which could be used for recording and packing material.
Locations for temporarily rehousing staff and material.
Contracts with local freezer services.
Contracts with vacuum-drying services.
Arrangements with transportation services.
Supplies for transporting, cleaning, and sorting material.
Record-keeping forms: multiple copies of all forms that may be needed in the
salvage operation, including inventory forms, packing lists, requisitions, and
purchase orders, etc.
Accounting information: description of institutional funds available in a

recovery effort and procedures/authorization for access to them.
Insurance information: explanations of coverage, claim procedures, recordkeeping requirements, restrictions on staff/volunteers entering a disaster area,
and information on state/federal disaster relief procedures.
Response
w
Follow established emergency procedures for raising the alarm, evacuating

personnel, and making the disaster site safe.
Contact the leader of the disaster response team to brief and direct the
emergency response team.
When permission is given to re-enter the site, make a preliminary assessment

of the extent of the damage, the equipment, supplies, and services required.
Correct the environment, if necessary, to prevent mould growth.
Photograph damaged material for insurance claim purposes.
Number One
19

w
Set up an area for recording and packing material which requires freezing, and
an area for air-drying slightly wet material and other minor treatments.
Transport water-damaged items to the nearest available freezing facility.
Drying wet material
As part of the preparation for a disaster plan it is essential to be familiar with the
various procedures for drying different types of library material. The following
drying methods all have advantages and disadvantages:
w
Air-drying
Dehumidification
Freeze-drying
w Vacuum thermal-drying
w
Vacuum freeze-drying
If time must be taken to make critical decisions, books and records should be
frozen to reduce physical distortion and biological contamination.
Air-drying
Air-drying is the simplest technique for drying damp not totally wet material.
A damp book can be stood on its end and its pages fanned out or interleaved with
blotting paper. Although this is an effective technique which does not require
expensive equipment or materials (fans and interleaving paper), it is labourintensive, time-consuming, and generally results in some dimensional distortion.
Recover y
w
Determine priorites for conservation work. Consult with conservators as to

the most appropriate methods for cleaning and repairing material. Obtain cost
estimates.
Develop a phased conservation programme when large quantities of material

are involved.
Select items to be discarded, replaced, or rebound from those justifying

special conservation treatment.
Clean and rehabilitate the disaster site.
Replace treated material in the refurbished site.

w Analyse the disaster and improve the plan in light of the experience.
It is worth liaising with local and district authorities/councils about the availability of temporary storage facilities and other services they may be able to provide.
Cooperating with other libraries, museums, and galleries in the area can save time,
money, and resources.
20
Number One
E NVIRONMENT
Relative humidity (RH)
Temperature and relative humidity
22
23
The effects of temperature
24
The effects of relative humidity
24
The effects of fluctuating temperature and relative humidity
24
Measuring and recording temperature and relative humidity
24
Recommended levels of temperatures and relative humidity 25

The influence of local climatic conditions on relative humidity 25
Atmospheric and particulate pollution

Gaseous pollutants
26
Particulate pollutants
26
Light
27
Measuring light and UV levels
27
Recommended light levels
28
Light levels for material on display
28
28
Attending to an infestation
28
Cleaning infested material
29
Treating an infested area
30
Preventing mould outbreaks
30
Insects and pests
31
Insects
31
Pests
31
Treating infested material
31
Preventing insect and pest infestations
32
Improving the environment
Number One
27
Types of lighting
Mould
26
32
Practical measures to improve the environment
33
HVAC systems
34
Housekeeping
34
21
E NVIRONMENT
The environmental factors of temperature, humidity, light, and atmospheric and
particulate pollutants can all cause degradation reactions. The chemical, mechanical,
and biological nature of these reactions may vary for different materials.
Relative humidity (RH)
Relative humidity (RH) can be expressed as the ratio (in percent) of vapour pressure
in a sample of moist air to the saturation vapour pressure at the same temperature.
Relative humidity is a difficult concept to comprehend and therefore warrants
explanation.
If the water vapour in one cubic metre of air, at normal atmospheric pressure,
was extracted and weighed, the absolute humidity of the sample of air would be
known and expressed as grams of water per cubic metre of air (g/m).
The hygrometric chart below shows the maximum amount of water vapour a
cubic metre of air can hold at certain temperatures. As air temperature increases,
the amount of water vapour air can hold increases as well.
At C ( F) air can hold no more than grams of water vapour. The air is at
its maximum absolute humidity and is said to be saturated. At C ( F) the
saturation point is g/m.
Therefore, if a cubic metre of air in a closed container at C ( F) contains
grams of water vapour, the absolute humidity is g/m . If grams of water is
added to the container, it will evaporate and increase the absolute humidity to
g/m . If another grams of water is added, grams will evaporate and grams
will remain as a puddle on the bottom of the container because air at C
( F) can only hold g/m.
The relative humidity of the air in the container when only grams of water
vapour was present would have been:
absolute humidity of sample air
=
= ., or %
absolute humidity of saturated air

RH is temperature-dependent. If no additional moisture is added to the
air, as the temperature increases, the RH decreases.
So, if the air in the container is warmed to C ( F) the hygrometric chart
shows that at this temperature one cubic metre of air can hold grams of water
vapour the RH would decrease.
= ., or %
Conversely, if the air in the container is cooled to C, the RH will rise, even if
no more water is added. At C the air can only hold . g/m of water vapour:
. = ., or %
If the air were cooled to C ( F), it would become saturated with water
vapour, and the RH would rise to %. If the air were cooled any further, droplets
would form on the side of the container because the air must give up some of its
22
Number One
moisture as condensation. The temperature at which condensation first occurs

(the temperature at which the air reaches saturation) is called the dew point.
(sa
tu
io
at
n)
Absolute humidity (g/m )
Indoors, in winter, the room air circulates to window panes, which are often cold
enough to cool the air below its dew point. Drops of water then appear on the
windows.
Dry bulb temperature (C)
Temperature and relative humidity

The following statements need to be kept in mind whenever temperature and
relative humidity are an issue.
w
The first point that needs to be understood about temperature and relative
humidity is that there is no one ideal level for all types of library material
only values and ranges that minimize specific types of change in materials and
objects. A temperature or humidity that is acceptable for one object may be
disastrous for another. For example, photographic film, magnetic recordings,
and digital carriers require low storage temperatures and relative humidity levels
if their longevity is to be ensured; whereas parchment and vellum items require
an RH higher than % if they are to retain their flexibility.
There is extensive scientific evidence to suggest that paper will retain its chemical
stability and physical appearance for longer at a constant, low storage
temperature (below C / F) ) and relative humidity (%).
However, while the paper text-block in a leather or vellum binding may benefit
from being kept at a low RH, the binding itself will inevitably suffer. Leather
and vellum need an RH of at least % if they are to continue to operate
mechanically. The argument of
There is no one ideal level for

all types of librar y material
only values and ranges that
minimize specific types
of change in materials and
objects.
chemical versus mechanical damage

or
content versus artefact
has to be carefully considered when deciding what temperature and relative
humidity ranges will have the most benefit for particular collections.
Number One
23
E NVIRONMENT
The effects of temperature
Chemical reactions increase
in organic materials when
humidity and temperature
rise. W hile moisture can
catalyse chemical reactions,
increases in temperature will
accelerate the rate of these
reactions.
It has been frequently stated that for every C ( F) rise in temperature,

the rate of chemical degradation reactions in traditional library and archive
material, such as paper and books, is doubled. Conversely for every C
( F) drop the rate is halved.
Heat coupled with low relative humidity will eventually lead to desiccation and
embrittlement of certain materials leather, parchment/vellum, paper,
adhesives, the adhesive binders on audio and video cassettes, etc.
Heat together with high relative humidity encourages mould growth and creates
an environment conducive to pests and insects.
Cold (less than C / F) together with high relative humidity and poor air
circulation will lead to dampness and eventually mould growth.
The effects of relative humidity
Organic matter is hygroscopic. It gains and loses water with increases and decreases
in RH. Consequently, materials expand and contract as moisture levels rise and
fall.
w
An RH of % minimizes mechanical damage as materials retain their

flexibility.
A sustained RH above % can eventually cause adhesives in both modern

and traditional library material to soften and lose their adhesive strength.
Above % RH, biological attack is a serious probability even if temperatures

are low. In areas of poor air circulation RH should not exceed %; and even
when air circulation is good RH should not exceed % in order to avoid
mould growth.
A low RH (less than %) minimizes chemical change but can cause materials
to shrink, stiffen, crack, and become brittle.
The effects of fluctuating temperature and relative humidity

Severe fluctuations or cycling
of temperature and relative
humidity will cause more
damage than constantly high
readings and so must be
avoided.
As has been stated, if the water content of a room is fixed, a sudden lowering
of temperature will cause a rapid rise in the relative humidity, leading to
condensation and possibly resulting in mould and other problems excess
moisture causes.
Moderate changes over a long period of time produce minimal stress in materials
that are free to expand and contract.
Fluctuations of temperature and relative humidity affect the dimensions and

mechanical properties of organic materials and can lead to damage if they
occur over a short period of time.
Visible damage can take the form of flaking inks, warped covers on books,
and cracked emulsion on photographs.
Measuring and recording temperature and relative humidity
Environmental conditions in all areas should be adequately monitored and recorded

with reliable and regularly maintained thermohygrographic or electronic recording
equipment. Monitoring is very important because it documents existing
environmental conditions; supports requests to install environmental controls;
24
Number One
and indicates whether any climate-control equipment present is operating properly

and producing the desired conditions.
When monitoring equipment indicates notable changes in environmental
conditions, reports should be given to authorities so that appropriate measures
are taken immediately.
Recommended levels of temperature and relative humidity
w
In general, library material should be stored and used in stable conditions

which are not too hot, not too dry, and not too damp.
Many attempts have been made to provide ideal figures for temperature and
relative humidity levels. However, it is now recognised that it is probably
impractical and unrealistic to maintain a building or stack temperature at one
setting throughout the year, especially in areas with extreme temperature
variations, without incurring huge costs.
If temperatures do rise above C ( F) it is vital that relative humidity

levels do not rise or fall beyond acceptable levels.
In institutions, temperatures are often dictated by what is deemed suitable for

human comfort, around C ( F) for sedentary activities. Human
beings are sensitive to changes in temperature but relatively insensitive to
changes in humidity, while the opposite is true for most library material.
Setting relative humidity levels is always a compromise and is largely influenced

by several factors:
w
the nature of the collections
local climatic conditions
resources available to control the environment.
Taking into account these factors the following parameters should be observed:
w
a level of moisture high enough to maintain flexibility
a level low enough to slow deterioration of materials and control insects and
mould
a level that will do no structural harm to library buildings due to condensation

in cold weather.
The influence of local climatic conditions on relative humidity

w
In humid parts of the world, where relative humidity does not fall below %
all year round and is much higher for long periods, it is unrealistic to expect a
level much below %, unless the institution is air-conditioned day and night
all the year round at great cost. In these regions good air circulation is imperative
if mould is to be discouraged.
In arid areas, where RH rarely rises above %, maintaining a level between

% is all that can really be expected, unless great expense is incurred.
Once again the key is to avoid fluctuations, to cool the air, and to keep certain
materials like parchment and leather in an area where RH can ideally be
maintained at no lower than %.
Temperate regions with warm summers and cold winters often fare far worse
Number One
If the temperature in storage

areas is considerably lower
than rooms where material is
used, then it is essential to
allow the material to acclimatize in an inter mediary space
to prevent any possibility of
condensation or distortion.
25
E NVIRONMENT
than arid or humid areas. The RH in summer may be acceptable, but in winter,
when central heating is used, it is often hot and dry during the day, and at
night, if the heating goes off, it becomes cold and damp. Such fluctuations do
far more damage than a constant high or low RH all the year round.
w
In northern parts of America, Canada, and northeast Europe, maintaining

% RH in winter without condensation is extremely difficult. Some institutions
acclimatize their collections seasonally by gradually reducing levels of RH
towards winter and increasing them towards summer.
Atmospheric and particulate pollution

Air pollution is to a large extent associated with towns and industry and is another
cause of damage to paper and other organic materials. Air pollutants vary greatly
in nature, from gases to particulates such as dirt and dust.
Gaseous pollutants
Gaseous pollution is caused overwhelmingly by the burning of fuels. Pollutants

such as sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, and nitrogen dioxide combine with
moisture in the air to form acids that attack and damage library material. Ozone is
a powerful oxidant which severely damages all organic materials. It is a product of
the combination of sunlight and nitrogen dioxide from automobile exhaust; it
may also be produced by electrostatic filtering systems used in some air
conditioners, as well as by electrostatic photocopy machines.
Smoking, cooking, and off-gassing from unstable materials (cellulose nitrate
film, paint finishes, fire-retardant coatings, and adhesives) may also produce
harmful gaseous pollutants. Wood, particularly oak, birch and beech, emit acetic
and other acids, and vulcanized rubber releases volatile sulphides that are especially
damaging to photographs.
The composition of all equipment, materials, and finishes used for the storage,
transport, and display of objects should be tested by recognised methods to
ascertain whether they are likely to produce harmful emissions.
Particulate pollutants
Particulate pollutants, such as soot, dirt, and dust abrade, soil, and disfigure
materials. Dust and dirt that have absorbed gaseous pollutants from the air become
sites for harmful chemical reactions when they settle on library material. Particulate
pollutants can also aid mould growth. Modern library material, such as magnetic
and optical media, are very sensitive to dust and dirt.
Dust is commonly a mixture of fragments of human skin, minute particles of
mineral or plant material, textile fibres, industrial smoke, grease from fingerprints,
and other organic and inorganic materials. There are often salts such as sodium
chloride (carried in from sea spray or on skin fragments) and sharp gritty silica
crystals. In this chemical mixture are the spores of countless moulds, fungi, and
micro-organisms which live on the organic material in the dust (fingerprints, for
example, serve as good culture media). Much of the dirt is hygroscopic (waterattracting), and this tendency can encourage the growth of moulds, as well as
increase the corrosiveness of salts, hydrolysis, and the release of acids.
26
Number One
Light
Light is energy and energy is required for chemical reactions to take place. All
wavelengths of light visible, infrared, and ultraviolet (UV) promote the chemical
decomposition of organic materials through oxidation. Higher-energy ultraviolet
is the most harmful. However, light in all its forms, especially in the presence of
atmospheric pollutants, leads to a weakening and embrittlement of cellulose,
adhesives, cloth, and skin materials. Light can cause some papers to bleach and
others to yellow or darken; it can also cause media and dyes to fade or change
colour, altering the legibility and appearance of documents, photographs, art works,
and bindings. The following factors concerning light should be known by all those
responsible for preserving library material:
w Chemical reactions initiated by exposure to light continue even after the light
source is removed and materials are put into dark storage.
w Light damage is irreversible.
w The effect of light is cumulative. The same amount of damage will result from
exposure to a strong light for a short time as to a weak light for a long time.
lux (the unit of measure of illuminance) on a picture for hours gives it an
exposure of lux-hours, equivalent to lux for hours.
w Visible and infrared light sources, such as the sun and incandescent light bulbs,
generate heat. An increase in temperature accelerates chemical reactions and
affects relative humidity.
w Daylight has the highest proportion of UV radiation and therefore must be
filtered.
Light levels must be kept as

low as practically possible in
storage, reading, and display
areas.
Types of lighting
w
Incandescent lamps are the most familiar type of electric light source. Light
is produced by passing an electric current through a thin tungsten wire filament.
Incandescent lamps usually have less harmful UV radiation output than
fluorescent lighting, but they generate more heat through infrared radiation.
Tungsten incandescent lights also burn less efficiently and must be replaced
more often than fluorescent lights.
Tungsten-halogen lamps (also known as quartz halogen or just halogen lamps)

also produce light by passing an electric current through a thin tungsten wire
filament but with the addition of a halogen gas in the bulb, which enables the
filament to operate at higher temperatures yielding a whiter, more efficient
light source. Halogen lamps have three to five times the life and UV output of
tungsten incandescent lights.
Fluorescent lamps are low-pressure mercury discharge lamps which produce

UV radiation which in turn excites a phosphor coating that emits visible light.
The use of different phosphors is responsible for the various colour
characteristics these lamps exhibit. Although fluorescent lighting is high in
ultraviolet content, it is usually installed in libraries because it generates less
heat and is more economical to operate.
Fluorescent light tubes should

be fitted with UV filter sleeves;
these sleeves are effective only
for a few years and so should
be checked periodically.
Measuring light and UV levels
It is necessary to measure and record light and UV levels at different times of the
year, as readings will change with the seasons.
Number One
27
E NVIRONMENT
A light meter or lux meter measures the intensity of visible light in lux (lumens
per square metre). A camera with a built-in light meter can also be used to measure
light levels indirectly.
A UV meter measures the amount of UV radiation (wavelengths less than
nanometers) in units of microwatts of UV radiation per lumen.
Recommended light levels
When storage areas are not in
use it should be mandatory to
switch off lights.
Lighting in museums, galleries, and exhibition rooms is usually left to specialists.

This should also be the case for library reading rooms and storage areas. While
lux are acceptable levels for reading rooms, attaining such levels with a
combination of natural and artificial light, which satisfy staff and researchers, is
difficult.
In stack and storage areas lux is sufficient. However, to achieve these
levels it would be necessary to exclude all natural light and rely entirely on artificial
lighting.
Light sources with ultraviolet radiation emissions above microwatts per lumen
require filtering.
Light levels for material on display
In exhibition situations, the light level falling on the surface of objects on display
must be kept low. No more than lux during an eight-hour day for a maximum
of days, is often recommended for light-sensitive materials like coloured
paper, newsprint, and certain bindings (e.g. textile bindings), and media like
manuscript ink and watercolours.
Mould
The spores of fungi that become mould are always present in the air and on
objects and will grow wherever conditions are favourable. In general, moisture
(above % RH), darkness, and poor air circulation are ideal conditions. Warmth
is a factor, but certain moulds and bacteria will thrive in cold temperatures too
(think of what can happen in a refrigerator).
Mould can weaken, stain, and disfigure paper and photographic material. It is
generaly recognised that foxing may be attributable to mould reacting with trace
elements in paper. Cloth, leather, vellum, and certain adhesives are also affected
by mould.
Attending to an infestation
28
Mould can be checked to see whether it is active or inactive. Generally, active

mould is damp, slimy, and smears if touched. Inactive mould is dry and powdery
and can be brushed off with a soft brush.
If mould is discovered in large portions of a collection, isolate the area

immediately and do not attempt to clean up without first consulting a mycologist
to determine if toxic moulds are present. Certain moulds commonly found in
libraries can pose serious health risks, causing headaches, nausea, eye and skin
irritation, and respiratory problems.
Number One
A conservator may have to be employed or at least consulted on the treatment

of infested items and on the return of the affected area to a suitable condition
for housing material.
If only a few items are affected, place them in a dry paper-based box until
treatment. If possible, include a desiccant, such as conditioned silica gel packets.
This enclosure will prevent spores from circulating, but will not encourage the
growth potentially created by the tightly sealed microclimate of a plastic bag.
Alternatively, move the affected material to a clean area with relative humidity
below %, separate from the rest of the collection, and allow them to dry.
If immediate drying is not possible, or if many objects are wet, freeze them;
later they can be thawed, dried, and cleaned in small batches.
Material may also be freeze-dried and then cleaned.
When dry, the items should be cleaned and stored under suitable environmental
conditions. The storage environment is critical since even after
cleaning, fungal residue will be present.
Cleaning infested material

w
If the outbreak is small, and equipment limited, take the items outside well
away from the building on a calm, mild day and brush them off with a soft
white brush, away from you and downwind.
Remove mould only with a vacuum cleaner that contains an HEPA (high
efficiency particulate air) filter capable of retaining .% of all particles down
to . microns. Conventional vacuum cleaners have drawbacks: often the
suction is too strong; as the bag fills up the efficiency decreases; the exhaust
can be contaminated with fine particles not trapped by the bag, therefore
redistributing them around the room. An HEPA vacuum cleaner is an effective
way to remove mould because it does not spread the spores around. Vacuum
cleaners designed to filter air through water are unsuitable for capturing moulds
small particles. Even if a fungicide is present in the water, this will not prevent
particles of mould from being discharged back into the air.
While certain treatments can kill mould that is active, they are far less effective
with dormant spores, which are protected by relatively impervious cell walls. Proper
conditions will insure that dormant fungi remain inactive and will prevent
germination of accidentally introduced active spores. If the environment is
favorable to fungal activity, mould will grow. Even if complete eradication were
possible, it would not be a permanent solution in storage spaces without climate
controls. More spores are always being introduced and would sooner or later
become a problem.
w
Always wear disposable gloves,

a respirator, and protective
clothing when handling mouldaffected items.
The most important thing in

mould control is controlling
the environment.
If it is not possible to remove mould outdoors, work in front of a fan, with the
fan blowing contaminated air out a window, or work in a ventilation hood.
Make sure the ventilation hood uses a filter that traps mould. Be sure to remove
the mould in an area well away from collection storage and other people. Close
off the room. If the building has central/mechanical air circulation, block the
uptake vents so that spores are not spread through the building via the airhandling system. Take care when disposing of solid cleaning materials such as
vacuum cleaner bags or filters. These should be sealed in plastic bags and
Number One
29
E NVIRONMENT
removed from the building.
To remove inactive mould from paper or books, use a multiple-filter vacuum
cleaner (see above). Small brushes and nozzles used for cleaning computers
are useful for this purpose. Papers can be vacuum cleaned through a plastic
screen held down with weights. A brush attachment should be used for books.
Covering the nozzle or brush with cheesecloth or screening will guard against
loss of detached pieces. Remember active mould is soft and subject to smearing,
and is easily rubbed into porous materials such as paper or cloth.
w Active mould is best removed from valuable artifacts with a small low-pressure
vacuum cleaner. This delicate work is best done by a conservator.
w When fungal growth is visible on art objects or valuable items, it should be
removed by a conservator. Staining caused by mould can often be removed or
at least lightened. This is an expensive procedure and therefore most suitable
for objects of significant value.
w
Treating an infested area

w
Fumigation is no longer recommended for mould because
fumigants are toxic to people,
the residue remains on the
object, and it does not prevent
the mould from returning.
It is important to find out what caused the mould outbreak in the first place.
The room where a mould outbreak occurrs must be dried and thoroughly
cleaned before the affected material can be returned to it. For moderate to
large mould outbreaks contact a professional service that provides dehumidification or cleaning of the premises.
If the RH is above %, it must be lowered before the collection is returned to
the area. Adjusting the HVAC system or adding a portable dehumidifier may
be all that is necessary. Also check for leaks or water condensation on outside
walls. Inspect the heat-exchange coils in the heating/air-conditioning system,
a notorious breeding ground for fungi, and clean them with a household
disinfectant.
Vacuum clean the shelves and floor with an HEPA vacuum cleaner, then clean
them with a household disinfectant. Before returning the cleaned material to
the area, monitor the RH for several weeks to make certain it does not exceed
%.
After the items are returned, check daily for new mould outbreaks.
Preventing mould outbreaks

w
w
w
w
w
w
w
w
30
Check new collections or shipments for the presence of mould.

Maintain moderate temperature and relative humidity (below C / F
and % RH).
Circulate air.
Vacuum clean regularly.
Do not shelve books directly against an outside wall. Owing to temperature
and humidity differences between inside and outside environments, moisture
may develop along walls. Allowing air to circulate against the walls will enable
the moisture to evaporate.
Do not allow plants into the building.
Waterproof basements and walls below ground level.
Place or adjust outside gutters and drains so that water does not collect near
the outside walls. Check gutters and drains regularly to avoid obstructions.
Number One
Place lawn sprinkler systems so that they do not soak outside walls.
w Regularly inspect collections for mould so that any infestation is detected before
it becomes serious.
Insects and pests

Insects
Insects which most commonly cause damage in libraries and archives throughout
the world are cockroaches, silverfish, book-lice, beetles and termites.
w They feed on organic substances such as paper, pastes, glues, gelatine sizing,
leather, and bookcloth; birds nests are also a major source of food for insects,
and bird droppings are corrosive.
w They prefer warm, dark, damp, dirty, and poorly ventilated conditions.
w Their damage is usually irreversible text and images lost by insects eating
and boring through paper and photographs cannot be replaced.
w Termites can devastate buildings and collections.
Pests
Rodents such as rats and mice can devastate collections:

w They will destroy books in order to obtain paper for their nests.
w They can cause fires by gnawing through electrical insulation.
w They will pare their teeth on library furniture and fittings.
w Their droppings are corrosive and can leave permanent stains.
Treating infested material
w
Always look for the least toxic alternative. For example, when faced with a
box of books with silverfish, avoid chemical treatments and simply hand-clean
the volumes using a vacuum cleaner and a soft brush. When uncertain if pests
are active, clean the item, bag it, and examine it later for signs of fresh activity.
Be sure to segregate collections from new accessions or items with possible
pest problems.
w The least toxic approach is not only the environmentally friendly approach,
but for many collections it is the only responsible approach:
Most fumigants will likely affect the long-term preservation of at least some
materials.
There is no one fumigant which is known to be safe for all collections.
Collections may be damaged through contact with the water- or oil-based
spray.
Fumigation offers collections no resistance to future pest attack.
w It is essential that after treatment, steps are taken to prevent any new infestation
from being introduced. This will probably mean segregating new (and possibly
infested) collections, strictly isolating collections with any signs of pest activity,
cleaning, and improving storage conditions.
Some institutions have selected freezing as an alternative to chemical fumigation.
By rapidly lowering the temperature to at least C and holding it at this level
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31
E NVIRONMENT
for up to several days, most life stages of most insects can be killed. While some
commercial freezers are adequate for pest control, others are not able to lower the
temperature quickly enough. A slow reduction in the temperature allows some
insects to go into a state resembling suspended animation and survive the
treatment. Naturally, it is also important to ensure that the objects are not damaged
by the low temperatures and that condensation is controlled.
Preventing insect and pest infestations
It is now accepted that an integrated pest management (IPM) approach should

form part of every preservation programme. IPM involves:
w
monitoring the building regularly for the presence of insects and pests
ensuring all staff, from cleaners to librarians, are vigilant and report any signs
of fresh damage and activity
checking all material which is to be accessioned before it enters the library
using sticky traps. Traps have the advantage of catching insects before they
can be found visually; they catch a wide range of species; they can be placed in
areas which are difficult to inspect; trapped insects can be identified and counted;
traps are good indicators of an increase in insect numbers in one area; they
also highlight any failure of control treatment
understanding the biology and life cycles of insects and pests, which helps to
know when and where they are likely to breed, what they are likely to eat,
where they are likely to live
eliminating or containing all sources of likely infestation ideally food and

drink should not be consumed on the premises; flowers and plants should not
be allowed in the building
maintaining an environment not conducive to pests and insects, which is clean,

cool, dry, and well-ventilated
preventing pests and insects from entering the building making sure doors
close properly, installing mesh screens for windows and doors, etc.
using appropriate exterior lighting, such as sodium vapor, which is less attractive
to insects
implementing a cleaning and hygiene programme rubbish should be safely

and properly disposed of; attics and basements regularly checked and cleaned.
Improving the environment

If the objective is to retain a collection or specific individual items indefinitely,
then very close attention needs to be paid to the environment in which the items
are stored. The ideal environment includes controlled temperature and relative
humidity, clean air with good circulation, controlled light sources, and freedom
from biological infestation. Good housekeeping practices, security controls, and
measures to protect collections against fire, water, and other hazards complete
the range of environmental concerns.
Library buildings should be designed as far as possible to meet preservation
32
Number One
requirements. These requirements affect many aspects of planning: design and

orientation of buildings; building materials (which can, under some circumstances,
be used to produce satisfactory internal climatic conditions in preference to
mechanical air control systems); internal building and furbishing materials; and
materials used for furniture, including shelving as well as lighting, both natural
and artificial.
Indigenous and traditional building methods and materials in subtropical and
tropical areas often provide better storage conditions for library material than
those that are imported.
It is always worth considering constructing a sealed area within a building for
material which needs tight temperature and relative humidity control.
Practical measures to improve the environment
In many places heating, ventilating, and air conditioning systems (HVAC) may be
too costly to install and maintain or may have to be restricted to specific collections.
Nevertheless, there are many rudimentary measures and precautions that can
improve a librarys environment and protect collections.
A first step in all efforts to improve the environment should be sealing the
structure. This step alone will improve the physical condition of the building by
reducing air infiltration, pest access, heating loss or heat gain, and air and particulate
pollution. Making the building watertight will also reduce the sources of moisture
within the structure and may significantly reduce relative humidity levels.
w
Use draft excluders and weatherstripping to make the building weathertight.
Ensure windows and doors fit securely.
Ensure good air circulation by appropriate use of fans and windows.
Use dehumidifiers and humidifiers to reduce or increase relative humidity.
Use insulation methods to reduce heat gain or loss.
Use UV-filters on windows and fluorescent lighting.
Use screens, blinds, shutters (preferably outside the windows, as this

reduces solar heat gain), and heavy curtains to keep out direct sunlight.
Ensure storage facilities are dark.
Ensure buildings are properly maintained to keep out dampness during

rainy periods.
Use close-fitting enclosures (boxes and envelopes) wherever possible to

protect important and valuable library material. These can create a
microclimate around the object, which delays the effects of changes in
temperature and relative humidity. They also shield the item from light, and
can act as a buffer against atmospheric pollutants and prevent particulate
deposits.
Paint the outside of the building with a pale-coloured light-reflecting paint

in hot climates.
Be aware that while trees and vegetation near buildings can reduce heat gain,
they can also encourage insect and pest activity.
Locate plumbing and heating pipes outside storage areas.
Locate sanitary premises and sinks outside storage areas.
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33
E NVIRONMENT
HVAC sytems
If the institution has a heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) plant,
then the following questions should be answered as part of any environmental
survey:
w
Does the air conditioning provide constant climate control throughout the
year?
Is the air conditioning system kept at a constant level hours a day?
Is the air conditioning turned down or shut off at any time?

w At what temperature and humidity levels is the air conditioning set?
w
Are monitoring devices for temperature and RH regularly used in the facility?
w If there is no air conditioning system or, areas not covered by the system, how
are rooms heated and/or cooled?
w
If there is no air conditioning system or, areas not covered by the system, how
is humidity controlled?
What sort of air filtration system is used?

w To what standard does it operate?
w
w
Who maintains the air conditioning systems and how often?
Housekeeping
To ensure the protection of the collections against particulate pollutants, a regular

and sustained programme of cleaning should be maintained, undertaken with care
and under supervision. Clean surroundings also discourage fungi, insects, and
pests. The cleaning programme should include the examination of collections not
only to provide early warning of biological or chemical damage but also to observe
conditions throughout the area.
Cleaning the floors of storage accommodation and book stacks may be left to
non-specialized staff under instructions to respect the collections and not to touch
library material or shelves. Directions should be given to retrieve pieces of bindings,
record slips, etc., from the floor (noting where they were found). Library material
on the shelves should only be cleaned by properly trained members of staff.
It is important to provide appropriate materials and equipment which remove
rather than redistribute dirt and dust. Cleaning cloths to which particulates
adhere rather than dusters which merely spread them around in different places
should be used to clean library fittings. Floors should be vacuum cleaned (not
swept) and damp-mopped once a week. Cleaning agents must be nontoxic and
pose no threat to the collections from solvent fumes or abrasives. Products
containing oil, chlorine, alum, peroxides, and ammonia should be avoided.
34
Number One
TRADITIONAL LIBRARY MATERIAL

Processing librar y material
Written notations
36
Shelfmarks (call numbers)
36
Bookplates
36
Inserts
36
Fasteners
36
Reading room practice
37
Supporting books when in use
37
Notice to readers
37
Assistance for readers
38
Photocopying
38
Storage methods and handling
39
Shelving and the shelving of books
39
Carrying and transporting books
40
Book trollies and books on trollies
41
Enclosures for books and paper material
Number One
41
Types of enclosures for books
41
Selecting material to be boxed
42
Shrink-wrapping and vacuum-packing
42
Newsprint
42
Periodicals and pamphlets
43
Scrapbooks and ephemera
43
Single-sheet material
43
Fascicules
44
Oversize single-sheet material
44
Handling and transporting oversize single-sheet material
45
Exhibitions
36
45
35
T RADITIONAL L IBRARY M ATERIAL
Processing librar y material

Written notations
Written notations such as cataloguing and foliation inscriptions should be made

as neatly and unobtrusively as possible with a soft (B) pencil, applying light
pressure to prevent indentations. It is worth considering enclosing notations within
brackets [ ] to indicate that the information was added by the institution.
Inked notations (and accidental markings) are often permanent and cannot be
removed. Many inks are acidic; others are water-soluble and will bleed and run
when exposed to moisture, such as that encountered in a water-related disaster.
Shelfmarks should not be painted on books, nor should they be typed onto labels
which are attached to books with pressure-sensitive tape or adhesive. Paint is
unattractive and disfiguring; tape and adhesive may discolour, stain or otherwise
damage the binding. For antiquarian material, shelfmarks should be written on
the first fly-leaf with soft pencil.
When using self-adhesive labels, care should be taken to ensure that the adhesive
will remain effective over time. It is especially important that the adhesive does
not desiccate, causing labels to come loose or fall off, and does not ooze, causing
stickiness on the book, which will attract dirt and may damage other materials
that come into contact with it. Ideally, labels should be on permanent paper.
Bookplates
If bookplates must be used in books, they should be made of low-lignin, alkaline

paper, and should be attached with a stable, reversible adhesive, preferably riceor wheat-starch paste, or methyl cellulose; or polyester film jackets should be
made and the bookplates attached to them. Circulation card pockets should be
treated the same way, although books of special value usually should not circulate.
Inserts
All acidic inserts, such as loose bookmarks, scraps of paper, and pressed flowers,
should be removed from books, assessed, documented, photocopied, and, if to
be saved, then encapsulated in polyester. This is to prevent staining and acidity in
the inserts from migrating into book pages and damaging them.
Fasteners
Adhesive tapes, staples, pins,
paper clips, and rubber bands
should never be used on any
type of library material. Items
should be boxed, wrapped in
acid-free paper, or tied with a
flat undyed cotton, linen, or
polyester tape. Tape should be
tied with knots at the top or
fore-edge of the text- block.
36
No attempt should be made to separate documents that are attached with lines or
dots of paste or glue. If such items must be separated to allow for the safe handling,
use, or filming of the records, a conservator should be contacted.
Great care must be exercised when removing old fasteners such as staples,
paperclips, etc. Fasteners that have rusted or become strongly adhered to paper
surfaces must be gently lifted; before removal, the line of contact between the
paper and any encrusted rust must be broken. When removing fasteners, the
document should be fully supported on a table, and one hand should be placed
on the document to hold it in position and support the paper while the fastener is
being removed. If the procedure is conducted in mid-air, documents are likely to
be torn and damaged.
Staple removers should not be used on fragile or brittle documents, as they can
easily remove an entire weak or brittle corner along with the intended staple.
Number One

Reading rooms should have sufficient numbers of staff to ensure security against
theft, mutilation, and vandalism.
In tight-backs the cover

adheres firmly to the spine.
Books are complex composite objects which open in a variety of ways and require
different methods of support when opened. Very few books can be opened at
without being damaged. It is strongly recommended that no book is opened
more than , and tightly bound volumes no more than . Bindings are far
more vulnerable and fragile than is presumed and need to be handled with great
care. Board attachments are often precarious, with extremely thin leather over the
joints. Such books should always be supported when in use and boards should
never be flipped back from the text-block.
The traditional wooden lectern or reading stand has caused many volumes to
be damaged by presenting the book at a steep angle which strains the sewing and
does not support the joints, which will soon weaken and eventually split. Moreover,
such steep lecterns are not comfortable for readers to use.
For fragile and rare material, the foam book supports designed by Christopher
Clarkson provide the most suitable way of supporting both tight- and hollowback volumes. A book can be set up at a comfortable reading angle of , with
an opening not greater than , the joints fully supported, and the leaves
restrained with strips of weighted fabric. As the reader progresses through the
volume, the blocks can be adjusted to retain optimum support for the books
vulnerable joints. With a thicker book, the reader should add or remove one or
more of the flat pads to fit the volumes changing profile as it is opened in different
places. A larger wedge may be placed beneath the two side-supports, to form the
base of the book-rest and provide a more comfortable reading angle.
In hollow-backs the cover is

not attached to the spine.
Never open a hollow-back
volume flat on a table surface,
as the hollow will eventually
split along the joints or in the
middle of the spine.
Book opened at the front
Book opened near the middle
Book opened at the back
Notices to readers
Reading rooms should have notices clearly directing readers NOT to :

w drink, eat, or smoke in the library except in designated areas
w
handle library material with unwashed hands
use ink of any kind

w use correction fluid or highlighters
w
annotate texts, or write on paper placed on top of the pages of an open book
lean on library material

w touch illuminations, painted images, manuscript or printed text areas
w
insert slips or notes in the gutter of a book
leave items in direct sunlight
leave out items not in use

w have more than a limited number of items out at a time for consultation
w
pile items on top of each other
shuffle loose items to fit them in an enclosure, but to handle them individually
(in order to prevent hidden edge tears from interlocking and causing further
damage).
Number One
37

Assistance for readers
Reading rooms should provide readers with:

w information to encourage a regard for the welfare of library material
w guidelines on how to handle library material
w book supports and guidelines on how to use them
w guidelines on how to remove and replace books on shelves
w adequate space for the viewing of large items
w cotton gloves for handling valuable material and photographs
w clean work surfaces
w polyester sheets for tracing maps
w assistance with handling large items
w clean, smooth weights to restrain unrolled plans.
Photocopying
Adequate ventilation should
be provided which reduces
exposure of staff and library
material to ozone.
Never leave material on photocopy machines.
If a book is too brittle to

photocopy safely, it should be
microfilmed instead and a
photocopy made from the film
copy.
38
Photocopying raises serious preservation issues. Flat-bed photocopiers and poor

handling can cause severe damage to the structure of books and documents.
Photocopy machines specifically designed for bound material and not office
photocopiers should be provided. Overhead photocopiers, which allow a book to
be copied face-up, are ideal but expensive. Ideally, photocopying should be carried
out by the librarys own fully trained staff, with each item being examined for its
suitability. The criteria for restricting certain material and copyright regulations
must be thoroughly understood by all staff members. Training sessions in good
handling practice and good copying practice should be mandatory for all new
staff, with refresher sessions for existing staff at frequent periods. If it is not possible
to allocate staff to carry out copying, there are some factors which can help to
reduce wear and tear:
w Position the machines where they are within clear sight of staff.
w Post clear and concise guidelines on careful handling prominently by the
machines. It is worth considering posters illustrating that the spine of a book
should never be pressed down with the hand or the cover of the copier to
ensure a good quality image.
w Make criteria for restricting material clear to users and discourage practices
such as photocopying an item for the sake of a few sentences.
w Keep a record of what has been photocopied so that items which are frequently
requested can be microfilmed.
The following material should not be photocopied:
w fragile or damaged items
w tightly-bound volumes
w rare books and photographs
w books stapled or stitched through the sides
w fine bindings
w vellum and parchment
w items with seals attached
w perfect bindings (books which rely on adhesive to keep the pages together and
are not sewn)
w oversize items that would have to be excessively manipulated to obtain a
complete image.
Number One

Storage methods have a direct effect on the useful life of material. While proper
storage can extend life, slovenly, haphazard, overcrowded conditions soon result
in damage to collections. Moreover, poor-quality storage enclosures can accelerate
the deterioration of the material they are intended to protect.
Handling by staff and users also directly affects the useful life of library
collections. Damage to books is cumulative. Repeated poor handling can quickly
transform a new book into a worn one, and a worn book into an unusable book
that requires costly repair, rebinding, or replacement. By following the guidelines
presented here, the library can make significant strides toward improving the
welfare of the collection.
Storage areas should always

be clean and regularly checked
for signs of insect or biological infestation.
Shelving and the shelving of books

w
Shelving should be designed to provide smooth, secure, clean, and convenient

support. Any protrusions and sharp edges should be attended to. Ideally, book
cases should be constructed of steel with a baked enamel finish.
Volumes should be shelved a minimum of cm off the floor to reduce the

risk of damage from flooding or passers-by. When possible, use shelving units
that have a canopy on top, as this will deflect water, dust, and some damaging
light.
Good air circulation should be maintained in storage areas and around

shelving.
Book cases should be at least cm away from walls and the books another
cm away from the back of the book case. This is especially important when
book cases are positioned against the outside walls of a building.
When books are stored in steel cabinets, ensure the cabinets are adequately
ventilated. Holes should be in the sides and not on the top of the cabinets to
avoid dust and debris falling on the books.
Books kept on mobile shelving must be shelved carefully to avoid any possibility
of them falling off or being crushed when the shelves are moved.
For the maximum protection of books, the following rules should be enforced:
w
Shelve books so that they are not difficult to remove or replace. Books which
are tightly shelved will soon be damaged when they are removed or replaced.
Use bookends to support books when shelves are not full. Allowing books to
lean will distort and strain the structures and eventually cause their breakdown.
Bookends should have smooth surfaces and broad edges to prevent covers
from being abraded and leaves torn or creased.
Do not let books extend beyond the edges of shelves into aisles because they
can be damaged by passers-by and trollies.
Shelve books by size whenever possible. Avoid keeping large books next to
small ones because the large book will be inadequately supported.
Box, or at least separate with a piece of card or board, bindings with metal
furniture (clasps, bosses, studs, etc.), which are shelved next to unprotected
books.
Number One
39

w
Separate paper and cloth bindings from leather bindings. Acidity and oils in
the leather migrate into paper and cloth and hasten their deterioration.
Furthermore, degraded powdery leather will soil paper and cloth.
Shelve small, structurally sound books upright.
Move the books or rearrange the shelves if books are too tall to stand upright.
Do not store books on their fore-edges as this will damage the structure of a
book and loosen the binding.
Store oversize, heavy, structurally weak, or damaged books horizontally to

give them the overall support they require. Additional shelves may need to be
inserted at narrow intervals to avoid having to stack these books.
When oversize books that are stored flat are removed, the upper volumes
should be transferred to an empty shelf or book trolley. The desired volume
should be removed by lifting it with both hands, and the removed volumes
should then be transferred back to the shelf. Replacing the book on the shelf
is done in the same way.
Avoid stacking books in piles on shelves or tables as the books can easily
topple over. Ensure the stacks contain no more than two to three books.
Take special care to ensure that shelfmark flags or titles of books that are
stored flat are visible so the books can be identified without moving them.
Do not place a large book on a small book.
When the binding must remain on view, such as in a period room in a historic
house, the use of book-shoes (supports that cover the sides but leave the
spines of books visible) or placement of a piece of polyester film between the
books.
text-block support in book-shoe
Poor handling procedures can cause irreparable damage to books.

w
They should not be pulled off the shelves by the headcap, a practice that causes
the headcap to fail, tearing the spine of the binding.
If there is room above the book, reach over the top of the book to the foreedge and then pull it out.
If there is no room, push back the books on either side of the one to be
retrieved, to expose enough of the spine to allow for a firm grip on either side
of the spine with the thumb and fingers.
The book should be removed, and the remaining books on the shelf and the
bookends readjusted.
Carrying and transporting books

All staff involved in the constant handling and moving
of books should receive
authorised instruction in the
correct ways in which to lift
and handle heavy loads for
health and safety reasons.
40
Do not carry more books than can be comfortably held firmly in both hands.
Pack books flat in tough boxes when moving them out of a room.
If necessary, pad the box with polystyrene or foam so that the books do not
slide around.
Transport individual books in card boxes. Carry the box in a polythene bag
when going outside.
Number One
Use water-resistant polypropylene containers with securely fitting lids when

moving books out of a building.
Whenever possible use two people to move containers.
Avoid leaving library material in vehicles.
Book trollies and books on trollies
Use book trollies that:

w
have large rubber wheels, for this helps stability, and manoeuvrability, and
reduces vibration
have wide shelves or protective rails to secure the items in transit
have bumpers on corners to minimize damage from inadvertent bumps.
When putting books on trollies ensure that:

w
they are shelved upright on the trolley and are properly supported as in the
stacks
volumes do not protrude beyond the edges of the trolley
the trolley is loaded so that it has a low centre of gravity.

Enclosures should be lignin-free, sulphur-free, alkaline buffered, and have a high
cellulosic content (above %). Enclosures include boxes, envelopes, and folders
and are available commercially in a range of shapes and sizes.
Enclosures for photographic

media require different specifications.
Enclosures are crucial to library preservation, for they:

provide protection from over-handling
w
w
provide protection in transit
provide protection on the shelves
provide protection against fire, smoke, and flood damage
keep out light
keep out dust
act as a buffer against fluctuations in the ambient environment
act as a buffer against atmospheric pollution.
Types of enclosures for books

w
Tailor-made boxes of bookboard and cloth are ideal but are expensive and
require time and skill to make. They can be justified only for extremely rare,
unique, and valuable material. They have the advantage of being able to provide
all round support and are more robust than other types of enclosures.
Phase-boxes are a cheaper alternative, which provide adequate short-term (

years) protection, and are much quicker and simpler to construct. They can
be made in-house or commercially.
Commercially made, archival-quality boxes and four-flap folders come in a

wide range of sizes and can be purchased in small and large quantities.
Number One
phase-box
41

w
Book-shoes are appropriate for books that require structural support while
being displayed on shelves.
Slipcases should be avoided because they often abrade the surface of the binding
and damage the text-block when the book is slid in and out.
Envelopes are sometimes used for the storage of books. These generally do
not provide the support books need and should be replaced with boxes.
Wrappers of a permanent durable paper or card can be used to protect books

that are infrequently used, if enclosures are too expensive or take up too much
space on shelves.
Selecting material to be boxed
When prioritising books for boxing the following should be considered:

w
Books with fragile and important bindings.
Vulnerable and damaged books books with loose or torn leaves, and books
with loose covers.
Books bound in vellum or with vellum text-blocks. Vellum responds readily to

changes in relative humidity by expanding and contracting. This can result in
warped covers and cracked joints. Boxing helps restrain vellum bindings and
thereby minimizes warping.
Shrink-wrapping and vacuum-packing
Shrink-wrapping and vacuum-packing, adapted from the food and packaging

industry, are economical ways of protecting material. Both processes involve
placing an item between sheets, or into pouches, of polyester/polyethylene film.
The film is either shrunk using heat, as in shrink-wrapping, or a vacuum is created
around the item and all air expelled, as in vacuum-packing. While they seem to be
stable in the short term, further tests have yet to be carried out on the effects of
long-term storage. Material which is to be moved and fragile items, in particular
those with brittle paper, can be placed between boards and protected in one of
the above ways; the result is a rigid and strong enclosure. Shrink-wrapping and
vacuum-packing are also being used as means of combatting insect and fungal
attack and creating a stable micro-environment. Space can be saved as the process
expels most of the air, thereby reducing the thickness of the item.
Newsprint
While it is possible to alkalize

(deacidify) newsprint to retard its deterioration, this is
often not practical because it
will still continue to deteriorate at a relatively rapid rate.
Also, alkalization after newsprint has become yellow and
brittle will not make it white
and flexible again.
42
Commercially made, archival-quality boxes and vacuum-packing are both ways of

preserving newspapers. However, because much of the newsprint produced after
is made of short-fibred paper that contains lignin and other impurities, its
long-term preservation is difficult at best and, consequently, microfilming has
become the most common method of dealing with newspapers.
Collections of newsclippings are usually important because of the information
they contain and not because of the value of the clippings themselves. For this
reason, again, photocopying and microfilming are the most practical preservation
options. All photocopying should be done on low-lignin, buffered paper using an
electrostatic copier with heat-fused images. Newsclippings that must be retained
should be treated and then physically separated from better-quality papers in a
folder or in an enclosure made of polyester film.
Number One
Periodicals and pamphlets
Periodicals and pamphlets can be stored in boxes, folders, or card envelopes

(meeting the specifications mentioned for enclosures). Several items of the same
cover size can be stored together in commercially made boxes. Items that differ in
size can be placed in card envelopes and then boxed. If a single periodical or
pamphlet must be shelved between books, it should be placed in a card envelope.
Scrapbooks and ephemera
Many historical collections include scrapbooks and ephemera (e.g., trade cards,
valentines, patterns, paper dolls, etc.). These items pose challenging preservation
problems because they often contain a variety of components and media. They
may have raised surfaces, three-dimensional decoration, or moving parts. They
are frequently unique, fragile, damaged, and of significant associational value. They
should never be interfiled with other categories of library and archival material
because damage may result from the different sizes, shapes, weights, and materials
represented.
Scrapbooks that are of special historic value in their original form should be
individually boxed. Unbound ephemera should be grouped by size and type (e.g.,
photographs, printed material, manuscripts, etc.), individually enclosed to protect
items from acid migration and mechanical damage, if needed, and stored in a way
that will support them structurally.
Single-sheet material
w
For paper collections, only objects of the same size and category should be
stored together.
Differences in bulk and weight are potentially damaging, so it is not advisable

to store single sheets in the same box with books or pamphlets.
Generally speaking, heavy objects should be stored separately from lighter

ones, as should bulky objects (which cause uneven pressure inside boxes).
As acid migrates from paper of inferior quality to any other paper with which
it comes into direct contact, it is important to separate poor-quality papers
from those that are better. Newsclippings and other obviously inferior-quality
papers must be removed from direct contact with historical documents and
manuscripts on better-quality paper.
Documents and manuscripts should be unfolded for storage, if this can be

done without splitting, breaking, or otherwise damaging them. If unfolding
may result in damage, a conservator should be consulted before proceeding.
Documents should be stored in file folders. Ideally, no more than ten to fifteen
sheets should be placed in each folder.
Folders should be placed in document-storage boxes.
All folders inside a box should be the same size and should conform to the
size of the box.
Boxes should not be overfilled because this can cause damage when items are
removed, replaced, or reviewed.
w Boxes can be stored flat or upright. Flat storage will give the documents overall
support and will prevent crumbling edges, slumping, and other mechanical
Number One
43

damage to which upright storage might subject them. Flat storage, however,
causes documents on the bottom of the box to suffer from the weight of
those above. If boxes are stored flat, they should be stacked only two high in
order to facilitate their removal from, and replacement onto the shelves.
w
Upright storage is acceptable when documents and folders are well-supported

to prevent slumping and edge damage. Spacer boards made out of stable
materials can be used to fill out boxes that are not quite full.
Vellum documents and maps, etc., are highly susceptible to fluctuations in

temperature and relative humidity and should be placed in an enclosure. Suitable
enclosures include encapsulation, folders, mats, and boxes, or a combination
of these.
Fascicules
Rare and unique single-sheet items, such as letters, have been traditionally bound
into guard books. These are satisfactory if they are kept fairly thin and allow a
support sheet for each manuscript page to ensure that the support and not the
manuscript is handled. A simpler method is to make up fascicules.
A fascicule is a single-section, pamphlet-sewn binding comprising support sheets
of bifolia and hooked leaves (acting as compensation guards) with an acid-free
stiff paper cover. Sizes are made to fit commercial boxes. All items are foliated
and placed loosely in the fascicules by librarians. The leaves on which the items
are to be attached are also foliated. A Japanese paper hinge is pasted onto the edge
of the item. The hinges are then pasted and the items attached to the recto of the
support sheets. The fascicules are then boxed. Fascicules have several advantages:
Each item is kept flat and supported.
w Items can be easily removed and replaced if necessary (e.g., for exhibition).
w
w
Flexing of the object is reduced.

w Abrasion between items is reduced.
w
Handling is reduced.
w A variety of materials within a standard format can be accommodated.
w
The contents are protected from light and airborne pollutants.
Oversize single-sheet material

Blueprints should not be
stored in alkaline folders
because they may fade or turn
brown when they are in
contact with high alkalinity
for an extended period of
time. Lignin-free, neutral
folders should be used for
these.
44
Oversize material includes architectural drawings, blueprints, maps, large prints,

posters, and wallpaper samples. These items are best stored flat in plan chests.
They should be placed individually in folders cut to fit the size of the drawer. If
several items are placed in one folder, interleaving with acid-free tissue paper is
desirable, especially if the items have colours or are of special value.
There should be sufficient space between chests to facilitate the safe removal
and replacement of oversize material. There should also be an adequate surface
on which to place items once they are removed or prior to replacement.
If they are not brittle or fragile, oversize material can be rolled when flat storage
is not possible.
Some items need to be rolled individually; others can be rolled in groups of
four to six similar-sized items, the exact number depending on the size and weight
of the paper. A tube several inches longer than the largest item being rolled and at
least four inches in diameter (larger diameters are preferable) should be used. If
Number One
the tube is not made of low-lignin, pH-neutral materials, it should be wrapped in

neutral or buffered paper or polyester film.
Alternatively, place the items between two sheets of polyester film or acid-free
tissue cut several inches larger in both dimensions than the largest item being
rolled. Roll the item or items onto the tube. Wrap the assembly with neutral or
buffered paper or polyester film to protect it from abrasions. Using flat linen,
cotton, or polyester tape, loosely tie up the wrapped roll. This assembly can be
stored inside a larger rectangular box for added protection if desired. Tubes should
be stored horizontally.
Handling and transporting oversize single-sheet material
w
Use both hands when handling large items.
Take care that large pendant seals are supported and turned with the document.
Consider the route and destination before setting out, even if simply moving
items from one room to another.
Place maps, plans, and large single-sheet material in a portfolio or purposemade folder.
Use two people for carrying large portfolios.
Carry portfolios vertically.
Use waterproof portfolios when moving items outside.
Exhibitions
When exhibiting library material, special attention should be paid to the following:
w
Selecting items which are fit for display.
The security of the exhibit cases should have locks, shatter-proof glass, be
alarmed, and the room should be invigilated at all times.
Materials used for case construction should be chemically stable and checked
for offgassing.
The climatic factors of temperature, relative humidity, light, UV radiation,

and atmospheric pollutants should be tightly controlled and monitored by
appropriate equipment.
Materials used for mounting exhibits should be chemically stable and pose no
detrimental threat to the artefact.
Books should be strapped with polythene to tailor-made card or acrylic cradles

which acurately follow the profile of the opened or closed book. Books
generally should not be displayed at an angle greater than from horizontal,
nor opened wider than , and should be provided with a text-block support
when appropriate.
Acid-free card with an alkaline reserve should be used for window mats and
mounts.
Librar y material which is to

be displayed is most at risk
when an exhibition is being
mounted and dismantled.
Exhibits like paintings, not in cases, should be secured to walls or floors and
cordoned off for security reasons so that visitors cannot touch them.
w A record of all items exhibited should be kept.
w
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45

Loans to other institutions for consultation or for exhibition may involve risk or
damage. The librarian has a duty to see that such requests, if granted, involve the
borrowers making adequate provisions for safekeeping. All items should be
protected against wear and damage in transit, and for security reasons the lending
library may require such items to be carried both ways by personal courier,
preferably a conservator or librarian. The mounting of the exhibit should also be
carried out or supervised by the courier. Loan items must be adequately insured,
on an all-risks basis, again at the borrowers cost. The librarian needs to be satisfied
that the conditions for exhibiting the item are appropriate on conservation grounds,
and also that the security arrangements for the exhibitions are dependable.
Travelling exhibitions pose particular problems for conservation, because the
likelihood of damage is multiplied. Lending institutions should make condition
reports, including photographic records, of items being sent away for exhibition;
they also should consider making a complete microfilm of each loan, for the sake
of security.
46
Number One
PHOTOGRAPHIC AND FILM-BASED MEDIA

Photographic media
Composition of photographs
48
Handling
48
Enclosures
48
Environmental recommendations for storage
49
Storage
49
Film-based media
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48
50
Cellulose nitrate-based film
50
Cellulose acetate-based film
51
Polyester-based film
51
Handling
51
51
Segregated storage
52
Enclosures
52
General storage
52
47
P HOTOGRAPHIC AND F ILM-BASED M EDIA
Photographic media
Since the birth of photography in , photographs have been made employing
many different methods. Some of the materials used were extremely self-destructive,
others were very sensitive to physical contact, and almost all photographic material
is sensitive to the environment not only temperature, relative humidity, and air
pollution but also oxidising substances found from emissions in building materials,
wall paints, wooden furnishing, cardboard, wall paints, and even the enclosures
used to protect them. While the conservation of photographic material should
be left to specialists, library staff can take certain precautions to safeguard the
welfare of photographs within their collections.
Composition of photographs
A typical photograph consists of three different parts:

Support the support layer may be of glass, plastic film, paper, or resin-coated
paper.
Binder The emulsion or binder layer, most commonly gelatine, but also albumen
or collodion, holds the final image material or image-forming substance to the
support.
Final image material The final image material, made of silver, colour dyes, or
pigment particles, is usually suspended in the emulsion or binder layer.
Many different final image materials and binders have been used over the years.
Today, however, almost all black-and-white photographs are composed of silver
suspended in gelatine.
Handling
Photographic media are extremely susceptible to damage from careless handling;

staff and users should therefore:
w provide copies rather than originals whenever possible
w
wear clean, lint-free cotton gloves when handling photographic media and
never touch the emulsion side of any photographic image (e.g., print, negative,
transparency, lantern slide, etc.)
prepare a clean work surface
use two hands to hold a photograph, or support it with a piece of stiff card
not use adhesive tapes, staples, pins, paper clips, or rubber bands on
photographic material
consult a photographic conservator on issues of storage and handling.
Enclosures
PVC sleeves must not be
used.
48
All enclosures should pass the Photo Activity Test (PAT) as described in ANSI
standard IT. . This stringent test evaluates the effect of housing materials
on photographic media. Many manufacturers and suppliers of housing materials
now conduct this test on their products. If at all possible, purchase products that
have passed the PAT, or specify that any housing purchased must pass the PAT.
Enclosure materials for photographs fall essentially into two groups: paper/
Number One
board and plastic. Paper and board should conform to the following criteria:
w high cellulose content (above %)
w
neutral pH (around ..)
undetectable reducible sulphur content
free of lignin, pH buffers, metal particles, acid, peroxides, formaldehydes, and

harmful sizing agents.
Plastic enclosure materials should conform to the following criteria:

w free of plasticiser
w
surface not glazed, coated, or frosted
polyester is recommended for most enclosures so long as the environment is

stable. The exceptions are prints and negatives with delicate surfaces (such as
flaking emulsion and hand-colouring), glass-based material, Tintypes, cased
photographs, and early film-based material.
Photographic media are exceptionally sensitive to environmental factors.

w
Generally, storage temperatures should be kept as low as possible and measures

should be taken to reduce exposure to light, UV radiation, atmospheric, and
particulate pollution.
Black and white prints and negatives should be kept below C ( F) and
% RH.
Colour material should be placed in cold storage (below C or F) and

% RH if its longevity is to be ensured. Place material in cold storage
only after consulting a specialist.
For mixed photographic collections, % RH is recommended.
Fluctuations of temperature and RH should be avoided.
Storage
Photographs it is best for each item to have its own enclosure. This reduces
damage to the photograph by giving it protection and physical support. Because
paper enclosures are opaque, the photograph must be removed from the enclosure
when it is viewed; clear plastic L sleeves (two sheets of polyester placed on top
of one another and joined along two adjacent edges), with a piece of board behind
the print for added support, have the advantage of allowing researchers to view
the image without handling it, thus reducing the possibility of scratching or
abrasion.
Special care must be given to the storage of oversize photographic prints
mounted on cardboard. This board is often acidic and extremely brittle.
Embrittlement of the support can endanger the image itself because the cardboard
may break in storage or during handling, damaging the photograph. Such prints
must be carefully stored, sometimes in specially made enclosures. They should be
handled with great care.
Once photographs have been properly housed in folders, sleeves, or envelopes,
they may be stored upright or flat in drop-front boxes of archival quality. Horizontal
Number One
Different types of photographic material, such as glass

and film negatives, paper
contact prints, and colour
transparencies, should be
stored separately.
49

storage of photographs is usually preferable to vertical storage, since it provides
overall support and avoids mechanical damage such as bending.
Vertical storage, however, may make access to the collection easier and decrease
handling. With vertical storage, photographs should be placed in acid-free file
folders or envelopes that are themselves housed in hanging file folders or document
storage boxes. Overcrowding should be avoided. The use of hanging file folders
will prevent photographs from sliding down under each other and will facilitate
their handling. In either case, care should be taken not to pack the photographs
too tightly.
Prints in albums may be interleaved with a photographic conservation paper
if they appear to be suffering damage from adjacent prints or album pages. This
should not be done if the binding will be stressed by the extra volume of paper.
Modern albums of the type that have adhesive coated pages and plastic cover
sheets should not be used.
Photographic albums should be stored flat, preferably in boxes lined with
acid-free tissue paper padding.
Glass-plate negatives should be kept in individual paper enclosures and stored
vertically in suitably padded cabinets or strong boxes with a board separator after
every fifth plate.
Film negatives can be stored in paper or polyester sleeves. They can then be
placed in boxes or in a hanging file system in a cabinet.
Cased photographs such as Daguerreotypes and Ambrotypes should be kept
horizontally in their cases and these stored in cabinet drawers and/or boxes.
Boxes containing photographic material should be housed on metal shelves. Where
possible, items of similar size should be stored together; the mixing of different
sizes can cause abrasion and breakage, and can increase the risk of misplacing
smaller items. Regardless of the size of the photograph, all enclosures within a
box should be the same size and should be the size of the box. Boxes should not
be overfilled.
Film-based media
There are three main types of film-based photographic materials: cellulose nitrate,
cellulose acetate, and polyester. These materials have been used as a support for
negatives, positive transparencies, motion pictures, microfilms, and other
photographic products.
Cellulose nitrate and cellulose acetate are unstable. The by-products of their
degradation can severely harm and even destroy photographic collections. In
particular, institutions should isolate and properly store cellulose nitrate material
because of its extreme flammability, especially when in a deteriorated condition.
Cellulose nitrate-based film
w
It was manufactured and in use .
It is unstable and highly flammable.

w At room temperature and lower, it slowly and continuously deteriorates, emitting
w
50
Number One
gases in the process.

w
If these gases cannot escape from the container in which the film is kept, then
decomposition accelerates the base turns yellow, then brown, becomes sticky
and then brittle, until it disintegrates into ashy-brown powder, resulting in the
complete destruction of the picture/sound records.
The reaction can lead to spontaneous combustion of the film with disastrous
consequences for other adjacent material, people, and buildings.
Cellulose acetate-based film

w
It was introduced in , and from onwards almost totally replaced

cellulose nitrate.
It slowly decomposes at room temperature, giving off gases that resemble the
smell of vinegar hence the process is known as vinegar syndrome.
It eventually breaks down altogether.
Until recently, cellulose triacetate films had been considered suitable for archival
records; however, stability problems have become evident with this film as well.
Owing to the fire hazards associated with cellulose nitrate

negatives, it is especially important to isolate any cellulose
nitrate material; in fact, this is
required by many insurance
policies. Cellulose nitrate film
should be stored in specially
designed storage areas approved by the Fire Brigade.
It is recommended that
cellulose nitrate film be duplicated onto safety film.
Polyester-based film
Commonly known as safety film. For the most permanent photographic records,
films incorporating a polyester (polyethylene terephthalate) base are currently
recommended.
Handling
Film-based media can be damaged easily, even when in good condition. All three
film types, and the gelatine binder on them, can be scratched, abraded, and creased.
Oils and dirt from hands can also damage the support and binder, as well as the
final image material.
Once deterioration has begun, film-based media are even more prone to
handling damage. Deteriorated media can become quite brittle; in this state,
repeated removal from a housing can cause considerable harm. Furthermore,
deteriorated materials may become sticky and adhere to other items.
Ideally, film should not be handled at all by non-specialists and should be
projected or copied only by a film conservator. Handlers should wear lint-free
cotton gloves, handle the edges only, and work in a clean, well-lit, and well-ventilated
area with enough room for processing. Eating, drinking, or smoking should not
be allowed in the processing/examination area. Prolonged exposure to deteriorated
negatives can be a dangerous health hazard, especially when in large collections.
The degradation products of

cellulose nitrate and acetate
pose serious health and safety
hazards, so due care and
caution must be exercised
when handling these types of
film.
w Wear neoprene gloves.
w Maintain good air circulation.
w Use a respirator.
w Do not wear contact lenses.
w Limit exposure time.
Recent work at Rochester's Image Permanence Institute makes explicit the

relationship between storage temperature/relative humidity and long-term stability.
The results, published in the IPI Storage Guide for Acetate Film, predict the life span
of fresh and already degraded films under different combinations of relative
humidity and temperature. The following chart illustrates the predicted life
expectancies for the previously cited storage conditions. The first number of years
in each storage condition is for new film and the second is for film that has begun
to deteriorate.
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51
Pollutants which can harm

film include peroxides (from
paper and wood), chlorine
compounds, oxides of nitrogen, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide (ordinary rubber
bands could contain sulphur),
impurities in adhesives, gases
from paint, ozone produced
by photocopiers and certain
lamps and electrical equipment, ammonia, smoke, insecticides, dust, abrasive
par ticles, and fungus. Activated charcoal air filters and
looped, rather than cut, pile
car peting are recommended
in reading areas because bits
of fibre can be released from
a cut pile for a very long time,
and these are abrasive.
Estimated life expectancy (in years) for new and for deteriorating
acetate film in selected storage environments
Office, Air Conditioned
Cool Storage
Cool Storage
Cool Storage
Cold Storage
Cold Storage
C
C
C
C
C
C
F at % RH
F at % RH
F at % RH
F at % RH
F at % RH
F at % RH
The Guide is a very practical tool for a collections manager, since the cost of an
improved storage environment can be directly compared to quantitative benefits
measured in years of additional preservation. As indicated by the Guide, cold
storage is the only viable option to increase stability of material that already shows
signs of deterioration and for keeping new material in good condition.
If cold storage is not an option over the short term, the storage facility should
be well ventilated to prevent the build up of acidic gases that drive the autocatalytic
degradation reactions of cellulosic films. As much as possible, the environment
should be stable, cool, and dry. Significant fluctuations of temperature and relative
humidity should be avoided.
Segregated storage
Ideally, each type of film-based material should be stored separately, isolated from
other types of film supports. Organising storage in this way protects other
photographic media from the harmful degradation products of cellulose nitrate
and the cellulose acetates. In particular, the nitric acid formed by the degradation
of cellulose nitrate can fade silver images, cause gelatine binders to become soft
or even tacky, and corrode metal containers and cabinets. This type of materialbased organisation also makes monitoring the condition of the collection more
efficient and effective.
While it is important to separate different types of material if possible, it is also
important to segregate deteriorating media from those in good condition. As
mentioned earlier, deteriorating materials produce degradation products that can
induce deterioration in other photographic media.
Enclosures
The same standards apply as for photographic material (p. ).

General storage
Sheet film, like negatives and transparencies should be placed in sleeves, the sleeves
in a box or drawer, and these boxes or drawers on metal shelves or in a cabinet.
Roll film, such as motion picture film and microfilm, should be kept wound on
cores, emulsion-side-in and placed in canisters which are free from plasticizers,
chlorine, and peroxides. Acceptable materials include polyethylene or
polypropylene. Any paper or card inside the can should be removed, as should
any outside paper wrappings, and stored separately with appropriate
documentation.
Both flat and roll material should be stored horizontally on metal racking in
cool, dry, dark conditions, with good air circulation.
52
Number One
AUDIOVISUAL C ARRIERS
Audio disk recordings
Shellac disks
54
Vinyl disks
54
Handling
54
Storage
54
55
Magnetic media
Number One
55
Handling
55
Use
56
Backup and refreshing
56
Migration
56
Storage
57
57
Optical media
54
Laser disks
57
57
CD-ROM
57
Handling
58
Labelling
58
Cleaning
58
Storage
58
58
53
A UDIOVISUAL C ARRIERS

The most likely form of sound recordings to be found in libraries will be longplaying microgroove disks (-inch, rpm and -inch, rpm), usually pressed
on polyvinyl chloride, or the rpm shellac disks.
Shellac disks
The first shellac disks date from the s, and this format was used until the
s, when it was gradually replaced by vinyl disks.
Determining the causes of shellac degradation is difficult because a very wide
range of qualities of shellac and fillers have been used by manufacturers.
In a proper storage environment, these disks suffer a slow, progressive
embrittlement of the shellac. High humidity levels accelerate the embrittlement
of shellac disks. This embrittlement causes a fine powder to be shed from the
disk after each playback, effectively scraping away groove information. Organic
materials in the aggregates are susceptible to fungus attack, while shellac itself is
said to be fungus-resistant.
Vinyl disks
Although vinyl is stable, its life is not indefinite. Vinyl discs are made of polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), which degrades chemically when exposed to ultraviolet or to heat.
Stabilization is therefore achieved by adding a chemical to the resin during manufacture. This does not prevent the degradation but controls it.
Vinyl disks are resistant to fungal growth and are unaffected by high humidity
levels.
Handling
w
Remove grooved disks from the jacket (with the inner sleeve) by holding it
against the body and applying a slight pressure with a hand and bowing the
jacket open. Pull the disk out by holding a corner of the inner sleeve. Avoid
pressing down onto the disk with the fingers, as any dust caught between the
sleeve and the disk will be pressed into the grooves.
Remove grooved disks from the inner sleeve by bowing the inner sleeve and
letting it slip gradually into an open hand so that the edge falls on the inside of
the thumb knuckle. The middle finger should reach for the centre label. Never
reach into the sleeve.
To hold a disk, place the thumb on the edge of the disk, and the rest of the
fingers of the same hand on the centre label for balance. Use both hands on
the edge to place disk on turntable.
Storage
w
Store records in soft polyethylene inner sleeves. Avoid using inner sleeves made
of paper, cardboard, or PVC.
w Do not leave recordings near sources of heat or light (especially ultraviolet), as
plastics are adversely affected by both.
w
54
Do not place heavy objects on top of recordings. Recordings should never be

placed on top of each other.
Number One
Shelve recordings vertically, on edge.
Do not use shelving units where supports put more pressure on one area of
the recording or where supports are more than cm ( inches) apart.
Do not interfile recordings of different sizes, as smaller items may get lost or
damaged, while larger items may be subjected to uneven pressure.
Remove shrink-wrap on long-playing gramophone records (LPs) completely.

Shrink-wrap can continue to shrink, thus warping the disk.
A proper environment for the storage of sound recordings is essential to retard

degradation. Elevated and rapid fluctuations of temperature and humidity can
affect certain chemical properties of the plastics that make up recording media,
causing distortion of sound quality and warping of the disk itself. C ( F)
and % RH is recommended.
Fungi on disk surfaces can cause pitting, which affects playback quality.
Dust, combined with the pressure exerted on the grooves by the stylus, can
permanently abrade the walls of the grooves, which affects playback quality; dust
can also be embedded permanently into thermoplastic substances.
Magnetic media
Magnetic tapes (audio and video recordings on cassettes, audio and computer
reel-to-reel tape, computer diskettes, etc.) are most commonly made of a magnetic
layer of chromium or iron oxide bound with an adhesive onto a polyester film
base. It is the adhesive binder which is susceptible to deterioration, through
hydrolysis and oxidation. As the information is stored on magnetic tape in patterns
formed by the magnetized particles, any loss or disarrangement of the magnetic
oxide causes loss of information.
Since the early s, there have been more than forty video formats that have
varied in size, speed, and the manner in which the tape is held.
Cassette tapes are much thinner and weaker than reel-to-reel tapes, and their
useable life expectancy is very short. Use reel-to-reel tape for long-term retention.
Magnetic tape has a much shorter lifespan than is presumed. Magnetic tape
that is over years old almost certainly needs careful attention, and most tapes
over years old need professional help.
Handling
w
Minimize handling.
Avoid touching the surface of any tape or computer diskette. Oil from skin
leaves a residue that can coat the equipments playing head and attract dust.
Do not touch the tape surface or the edge of the tape pack unless absolutely
necessary, and then wear lint-free gloves.
Do not use commercial products advertised to clean tapes and diskettes. Contact an experienced professional to clean or repair dirty or damaged tapes.
Return tapes and diskettes to their individual boxes immediately after use to
Number One
55
AUDIOVISUAL C ARRIERS
avoid possible damage and dust.
w Never use paper clips or adhesive tape to attach notes directly to cassettes,
reels, or diskettes.
w
Handle tape only in clean areas.

w Do not let tape or leader ends trail on the floor.
w Return tapes to their containers when they are not in use.
w
Do not drop tapes or subject them to sudden shock.

w Cut off damaged tape or leader/trailer ends from open-reel tapes.
w Do not use general-purpose adhesive tapes to secure the tape end or for
splicing. If necessary, use adhesive products designed for the purpose.
Use
w
Label all tapes.
Maintain machines according to manufacturers specifications to ensure that

equipment will not damage tapes.
Clean the recorder tape path thoroughly at the recommended intervals.

w Discard tapes with scratches or any other surface damage, which causes
significant debris to be left in the recorder tape path.
w
Use a cleaning cassette after playing a damaged tape.

w Ensure tapes to be reused are thoroughly erased before they are put back into
service.
w
Fast forward and rewind tapes periodically.

w Do not leave a tape stopped in the middle always rewind the tape fully.
w
Protect the operating equipment and tapes from dust.
Backup and refreshing

Backup copies are the best
insurance f or protecting
valuable tapes and important
diskettes. In the event of
media ageing or a natural
disaster, a copy may be the
onl y means available to
retrieve infor mation from a
master that is no longer
playable.
The loss of a single computer diskette can mean the loss of a large quantity of
information. For this reason, backup copies are critical to ensuring the preservation of computer-based records. If maintaining an active computer database of
records is part of an institutional operation, copy the information recorded on
the systems hard drive onto backup diskettes or tapes on a daily basis. As a part
of disaster prevention, store backup copies in another secure location.
Audio, video, and computer tapes which are to be retained for long periods of
time will require periodic copying/refreshing to ensure access to information.
Every three to five years, re-copy all master tapes onto high quality, polyesterbased tape in the currently established format for the media. Use this copy master
only when making another use copy. Make the copies of masters at different
times so they do not age together.
Use reel-to-reel audio tape for master audio copies. A written transcript of an
audio or video tape can also be used as a use copy or backup copy. A transcript
may contain every word on the original tape, or only a general rendering of the
discussion.
Migration
Information formats disappear as new technology emerges. Within the last twenty
years, -track tapes, beta format video, -inch videotape, -inch, -inch and 56
Number One
inch computer diskettes and countless other formats have become obsolete.
Access to information is limited when machines necessary to read these records
fail and cannot be replaced. To ensure access to information, copy older formats
onto a stable technology while playback machines remain available.
Be knowledgeable about the

formats of all machine-readable records in your care.
Storage
Keep tapes and diskettes away from magnetic fields do not stack tapes on
top of electrical equipment.
w Keep storage areas clean and free from dust. Dust attracts and traps moisture
and will precipitate hydrolysis, a common and serious cause of long-term
magnetic tape degradation. Also, dust may cause permanent damage to the
tape: the abrasiveness of the dust, along with the pressure exerted
between the tape surface and the tape recorder heads, will scratch the oxide
layer and the tape recorder heads.
w
Diskettes should be stored on

edge.
Do not leave open reel or cassette tapes exposed to the sun.

w Store open-reel and cassette tapes with the reels or tape packs vertical. Reels
should be supported by the hub.
w
Use high quality reels or cassettes, boxes/containers, and accessories.

w Use protective collars for open-reel tapes.
w Do not store the tapes in poor quality cardboard sleeves/boxes, which may be
acidic, or vinyl boxes containing chlorine.
Tape storage areas should be cool and dry: C ( F) and %

RH are safe practical storage conditions. Extreme heat and frost will damage
magnetic media.
w RH above % accelerates the deterioration of the tape binder.
w Avoid subjecting tapes to rapid temperature changes. If storage and operating
area temperatures differ by more than C ( F), allow an acclimatization
time within the operating area of four hours for every C ( F) difference.
w
Optical media
Laser disks
Laser disks were launched in and are usually -inch ( cm) disks of glass
or plastic. Millions of pits are etched into the surface which are read by a laser
beam directed at the surface. A light beam is reflected, which is then converted
into a conventional analogue signal.
CD-ROM
CD-ROM (compact disk read only memory) originated from the audio compact disk which was available in the mid-s, and thus its physical dimensions
and characteristics are the same. The main difference between CD-ROM and CDAudio is that CD-Audio contains only audio data, while CD-ROM may contain
audio, computer, and video/picture data.
The moulded plastic compact disk incorporates a continuous spiral of pits,
Number One
57
A UDIOVISUAL C ARRIERS
which contain the data. An aluminium reflective layer allows a laser in the compact disk drive to read the encoded information. Data integrity is protected by a
lacquer coating on one side and a plastic substrate on the other side.
Handling
The worst handling stresses for an optical disk are caused by severe flexing or
application of a sharp point to the top surface. These actions deform the substrate,
wiping out pits and causing areas of the disk to become unreadable. A sharp
stylus a ballpoint pen, for example can cause compression of the polycarbonate
substrate and the metallic reflecting layer in the area under the pen point. Do not
leave disks in disk drives. Wear lint-free gloves when handling optical media.
Labelling
Applying labels of any kind may unbalance an optical disk and make it difficult
for the player to read. Also, labels may peel in humid conditions. Once a label is
on the disk, however, it is especially important not to try and remove it. The act
of peeling off a label creates a lever action that concentrates stress in a small area.
Such stress can cause delamination, especially in a writable CD. If it is necessary
to write on the top side of a disk, a soft felt-tip marker is preferable to other
writing instruments, but with some solvent-based markers there may be a danger
of the solvents migrating into the protective lacquer.
Cleaning
Avoid using cleaning solvents. Light dust or dirt may be safely brushed off with a
non-abrasive lens tissue, but the use of an air gun is preferable. Always be gentle
and wipe from the centre hub toward the outside edge of the disk. The motion
should be in a radial direction (like the spokes of a wheel), not circumferential.
Storage
The acrylic jewel cases provided by many manufacturers and distributors are
good protection against scratches, dust, light, and rapid humidity changes. Protect the individually cased CDs further by placing them in a closed box, drawer, or
cabinet. This gives additional protection from light, dust, and climate fluctuations.
If the manufacturer provides a spacer card or other material as part of the jewel
case package, it should be retained.
Optical disks should be stored in a dust-free, cool (below C or F), and

moderately dry environment (% RH). Warmer and humid conditions will lead
to the oxidation of metallic reflecting layers, dark fading of dyes, and deterioration in polymer substrates and coatings. Do not leave disks in sunlight.
58
Number One
R EFORMATTING
Why reformat?
60
Reducing wear and tear to originals
60
Selecting a format
61
Photocopying
61
Advantages
61
Disadvantages
61
Photocopy paper, toner, and machines
61
Microfilming
Microfilming process
62
Commercial microfilm bureaux
62
Advantages
63
Disadvantages
63
Types of microfilm
63
Storage and environmental recommendations
63
Digitizing
Number One
62
64
What is digitizing?
64
Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
64
Advantages
64
Disadvantages
65
Obsolescence issues
65
Digitizing and microfilming combined
65
59
R EFORMATTING
Why reformat?
When refor matting is performed an emphasis must be
placed on the welfar e of
the original material in terms
of training staff to handle
items correctly, the temporary
storage of material which is
awaiting reformatting, and
the environmental conditions
of reprographic studios.
When bound material is to
be microfilmed or digitized
cradles should be used that
support items in such a way
that no damage is inflicted
during reformatting.
Although libraries can take steps to prevent damage to their collections and the
rate at which they deteriorate, few institutions can afford the labour-intensive and
costly process of conserving their collections. Preserving the intellectual content,
by putting it into another, more durable format (reformatting), is all that is feasible
and may be all that is required. Many publications are available which cover in
detail the issues that reformatting raises and the methods and techniques involved.
This section summarises some of the most common points and is concerned
mainly with looking after the reformatting media. It is also a reminder that material
which is to be reformatted needs to be handled with all due care.
Library and archive material is reformatted for numerous reasons:
w To preserve its intellectual content.
w
To reduce wear and tear to originals.

w To save space brittle and badly damaged material may be disposed of if it
has no artefactual worth and if intellectual content is the only concern.
w
To improve access copies of microfilm and digitised media can be distributed

to off-site locations, providing access to more than one user at a time.
To duplicate certain records for security reasons, in case the originals are
damaged, stolen, or destroyed.
Reformatting, if it is to be a truly successful preservation process, depends upon

the cooperation of institutions on a national and international scale. Projects like
that of the European Register of Microfilm Masters (EROMM), a database of
existing microforms in the most important libraries of Europe, must be set up.
EROMM records what reformatted texts exist and where, so that institutions
avoid duplicating their efforts (two institutions microfilming the same newspaper
is a waste of valuable resources, as is one institutions reformatting a run of journals
when a healthy set exists in another town nearby). Furthermore, cooperation is
necessary between libraries in planning what is to be reformatted and by which
institution. Many guides have been published to aid librarians in selecting material
for reformatting and in setting up reformatting programmes. Generally, the
following questions have to be asked:
w Is the item or collection unique or rare?
w Are there other copies of the item in the library or elsewhere?
w Does the item need to be treated (is the paper already, or is it likely to
become, highly acidic and brittle)?
w Is it possible to replace the item?
w Is it, or is it likely to be, heavily used?
w Does it need to be retained in its original form?
w Has it been reformatted somewhere else already?
Reducing wear and tear to originals
When the objective is to reduce wear and tear to originals, great caution has to be
exercised in preventing damage occurring during the reprographic process.
Reformatting increases the risk to an item because of the number of times it has
to be handled in the process.
60
Number One
Selecting a format
There are three main reformatting processes:

w Photocopying
w
Microfilming
Digitizing
Each has advantages and disadvantages over the others, but they can all serve
different purposes, and all are worth having present in a library to some degree.
Photocopying
Photocopying as a reformatting process is not a complete preservation tool since
usually no master is made from which other copies can be taken. However, it is
particularly useful for replacing missing pages or text:
w
Damaged or missing items in hard-copy periodical runs can be copied and

bound for storage on open shelves.
Photocopies may also be used when an embrittled item can no longer be used
without risking damage, and a paper copy replacement (rather than film) is
desired but is not available from a commercial publisher.
Fra gile and rare books/

bindings should never be
photocopied on flat-bed photocopying machines.
In each case, it is essential that photocopies be of the highest quality and on

permanent paper.
Advantages
w
There is no reading machine interface required other than the photocopier

itself.
The medium and format of the original can be retained.
It usually costs less than other processes, particularly if the original is a

monochrome document.
Library patrons prefer paper facsimiles to the use of, say, microfilms, except
where bulky documents, such as newspapers, are involved.
Disadvantages
w
Photocopies made directly from a master photocopy are usually of poorer

quality than paper prints of microfilms.
The costs of making subsequent photocopies is higher than the cost of

printing microfilms.
There is some loss of information, especially for graphic objects other than
line art.
If the original is kept, more space has to be created.
Photocopy paper, toner, and machines

w
Paper: photocopies should be made on paper that meets the American

National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard for permanent paper, Z. or ISO , using a black-and-white copy machine, since colour
photocopies are not stable over the long-term.
Number One
61
R EFORMATTING
w
Toner: other considerations are toner quality (carbon black is recommended),

and the fusion of the toner to the paper. Photocopy machines should be well
maintained to ensure that the temperature is right for fusing the toner to the
paper. If a freshly-made copy smudges when an attempt is made to erase the
image, the machine is not fusing the image to the paper properly and must be
adjusted.
Machines: photocopying bound items on common library photocopiers exerts

enormous strain on bindings and inevitably damages them. Photocopiers which
allow an item to be photocopied face-up are preferable. Overhead photocopiers
which also digitise text and images are now available. They have great potential
for being able to capture good-quality images of volumes which do not open
well.
Microfilming
Microfilming process
A wide range of standards covering all aspects of microfilm production and

storage have been published. Preservation microfilming comprises a number of
steps:
Selection making informed decisions on what is to be filmed.
Preparation checking the item is complete; cleaning and repairing pages;
preparing targets that denote details such as title and magnification.
Filming similar to basic photographic procedures.
Processing the film after exposure, the film is processed to archival standards
and tested to ensure residual processing chemicals are removed.
Inspection after processing, the film is inspected for blemishes, legibility, and
completeness.
Record creation the creation and mounting of machine readable records
(MARC) to promote use of film and prevent duplication of effort.
Commercial microform bureaux
Using a commercial microform bureau can be more economical than setting up

an in-house operation. It is vitally important to evaluate the qualifications of any
microfilm service company.
w Talk to other institutions, particularly archives, and inquire about their
experiences with microfilming companies.
62
Ask potential firms about their experience in filming records that are bound,
fragile, or oversized.
Ask for at least three references from other institutions.
Contact the referees to see how the microfilm vendor handled records, met
deadlines, and responded to refilming corrections.
Inspect the microfilmers operation. Ask questions about standards, procedures,

and security.
Draw up a contract between the institution and the bureau.
Commission sample film.

Number One
Advantages
w
A well-proven history library material has been reproduced in microformats

since the s .
Problems with the technology have largely been ironed out.

w Numerous standards exist for filming, processing, and storage.
w
Microfilms can be economically created, duplicated, and distributed.
Microfilms can be digitized if good-quality film has been used.

w Film is very compact.
w
Disadvantages
w
User resistance usually microfilm reading machines in libraries are of poor

quality, and not designed for human comfort.
Users must access the film manually by

locating the film
loading it onto a machine
spooling through dozens of images to find the required one.

w If the film is not in the library, it may take weeks to be delivered.
w
Film can become scratched when handled.

w Each generation or succeeding copy loses resolution (about ten percent).
w
Printouts may be of poor quality.

w Film creation variables are difficult to control.
w
Image quality can be determined only after filming is complete.
Bad pages must be re-filmed and spliced in.
Types of microfilm
Silver-gelatine the only type for archival master negatives, which are to be
retained indefinitely off-site in tightly controlled conditions. Master negatives are
used solely for generating further copies and never for viewing.
Diazo an interim printing copy can be made from the master on diazo film,
from which other copies are taken.
Vesicular positive copies can be made on vesicular film for use and circulation.
Polyester-based diazo and vesicular film are not regarded

as being of proven archival
quality but if stored in appropriate conditions may last for
years.
Storage and environmental recommendations
Most of the recommendations for film-based media (pp. ) apply to microfilm

material.
Many films in existing collections are on acetate-based stock. Such film chemically
decomposes, giving off a vinegar smell and ultimately leading to shrinkage and
emulsion damage. Indeed, all cellulosic films are susceptible to deterioration. The
rate of deterioration of the film base proceeds gradually until it reaches the
autocatalytic point, at which time the rate rapidly increases. Temperature and
humidity have a significant impact on how long it takes the film base to reach the
autocatalytic point (see table on p. ).
It is frequently claimed that properly processed and stored, black-and-white,
silver gelatine film has a usable life of about years, far longer than the useful
Number One
Microfilms should always be

preserved in conditions which
conform to ISO .
63
R EFORMATTING
life of many poor-quality originals. However, improper processing and storage
conditions will reduce film longevity.
w Master negatives should be stored in fire-proof vaults (not safes, as these can
not be kept at the required RH), free of dust and atmospheric pollutants and
maintained at a temperature of C C ( F F), with a constant
level of RH between % and % for silver gelatine on a cellulose ester base,
and % to % for silver gelatine on a polyester base.
w Intermediate printing copies on diazo film and viewing copies on vesicular
film can be stored in less stringent conditions. However, cool and dry conditions
will help to prolong the life of these types of film.
In all cases, rapid fluctuations of RH and temperature should be avoided.
w Diazo film images will fade, and exposure to light accelerates fading, so diazo
film should be stored in darkness and always in its container when not in use.
w
Machines for viewing and

copying microforms must be
kept clean to avoid scratches
and deposits on the film.
Patrons must be educated in
careful handling to avoid
damage.
Vesicular film is particularly vulnerable to dust and the high temperatures

produced by microfilm reading machines, so it is important to keep the
machine clean and cool.
w Containers should be free from acidic, oxidising and reducing agents and
meet the Photographic Activity Test (PAT), specified by ANSI Standard IT..
w
Digitizing
What is digitizing?
Digitizing is a way of capturing and storing images using computer technology. A

digital camera or a scanning device takes an electronic photograph, which is
converted into binary digital code (essentially a string of zeros and ones), and can
be viewed on a computer screen or printed out on paper. The data are stored
within magnetic and optical media. The information content of digital images is
not converted to alphanumeric form at the time of scanning and thus is not textsearchable.
Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
OCR software enables a scanned printed document to be converted into text

which can be edited using word processing programmes. Unfortunately, the process
is not completely accurate and time has to be spent rectifying misread letters.
Moreover, OCR programmes are not capable of saving the original documents
typography or page layout.
Advantages
w
Digitizing offers quick access to multiple users world-wide.

w Images can be electronically restored and enhanced.
w High-quality user copies can be provided.
w Automated retrieval aids facilitate the finding of information.
w
Digitizing provides an image which can be reproduced many times with no

loss of quality.
w Digital images do not decay with use.
64
Number One
Disadvantages
w
w
w
w
w
w
w
w
It requires an expensive commitment to supporting technologies used to

convert and retrieve records.
A digital image, displayed or printed, may not yet be acceptable as a legal
substitute for the original.
Standards are lacking in many areas.
Digital storage is not yet accepted as truly archival it requires continuous
monitoring and eventual or periodic refreshing and transfer.
The drive systems will become obsolete.
There are relatively high but rapidly declining storage and production costs.
The time needed to capture and store high-resolution archival images, and the
costs of doing so increase as the quality increases.
It is expensive to reproduce colour images.
Obsolescence issues
The technological life span of any optical or electronic medium and its associated
hardware and software is a major issue that does not exist when considering
microfilming as a reformatting process. Computer hardware and software both
change rapidly, with new versions of each coming out on a regular basis. In addition,
technologies come and go. Libraries will probably not be able to use many of the
technologies of today in the future. Certainly, parts for the hardware will no longer
be manufactured, and old software will eventually not work on new machines.
What this means is that libraries may not be able to retrieve information stored
on optical media in years, and this will almost certainly be a problem in
years. To deal with hardware obsolescence, archival copies of magnetic and optical
computer media will have to be migrated when newer technologies become the
standard.
Magnetic and optical media,

such as hard disks, floppy
disks, magnetic tapes, CDROMs and CD-Rs are inherently unstable, easily
damaged and, like all media,
are deteriorating as soon as
they are made.
Digitizing and microfilming combined
The production of both microfilm masters for preservation, and digital masters
for access, seems likely to become the preferred preservation strategy for the next
decade. On the whole, a film-first policy is currently favoured. However, the rapid
advancement of computer technology, the emergence of sophisticated equipment,
which can produce microfilms and high-resolution digital images simultaneously
and at low-cost, and the ever-increasing pressures of providing greater access will
eventually see digital technology in the ascendancy. Nevertheless, until standards
are in place, the use of digitizing for preservation will remain questionable.
Number One
65
B IBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
Choosing to Preserve: towards a cooperative strategy for longterm access to the intellectual heritage. Papers of the
international conference organised by the European
Commission on Preservation and Access and Die
Deutsche Bibliothek, Leipzig/Frankfurt am Main,
March, . Amsterdam: European Commission
on Preservation and Access, .
Conway, Paul. Archival Preservation: Definitions for
Improving Education and Training. Restaurator, vol.
no. , .
Darling, Pamela W. and Wesley Boomgaarden, comps.
Preservation Planning Program: An Assisted Self-Study Manual.
Revised by Jan Merrill-Oldham and Jutta Reed-Scott.
Washington, DC: Association of Research Libraries,
.
Sitts, Maxine K. A Practical Guide to Preservation in School
and Public Libraries. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University,
ERIC Clearinghouse on Information Resources, .
Stevenson, Condict Gaye. Working Together: Case Studies
in Cooperative Preservation. Washington, DC: Commission
on Preservation and Access, .

Security
Carrying out a Library Security Survey and Drafting a Security
Policy, ; How to Deal with Criminal and Anti-social
Behaviour, ; Designing Out Crime, . London:
National Preservation Office.
Jackanicz, Donald. Theft at the National Archives: The
Murphy Case, . Library and Archival Security
vol. no. , .
Moon, Myra Jo. Reducing Theft, Mutilation and Defacement of Library Materials. Conservation Administration News no., April .
Storey, Richard, A. M. Wherry, and J. F. Wilson. Three
Views on Security. Journal of the Society of Archivists ,
July .
Disaster Planning
Alegbeleye, Bunmi. Disaster Control Planning in Libraries,
Archives and Electronic Data Processing Centres in Africa.
66
Ibadan: Options Book and Information Services, .

Anderson, H. and J. E. McIntyre. Planning Manual for
Disaster Control in Scottish Libraries & Record Offices. Edinburgh: National Library of Scotland, .
Artim, N. Cultural Heritage Fire Suppression Systems:
Alternatives to Halon . WAAC Newsletter, vol.
no. , May .
Artim, N. An Introduction to Automatic Fire Sprinklers, Part I. WAAC Newsletter, vol. no. , September
.
Artim, N. An Introduction to Automatic Fire Sprinklers, Part II. WAAC Newsletter, vol no. , May .
Artim, N. An Update on Micromist Fire Extinguishment Systems. WAAC Newsletter, vol. no. , September .
Disaster Preparedness: Guidelines for Archives and Libraries.
London: Society of Archivists, .
Fortson, J. Disaster Planning and Recovery: A HowTo-Do-It Manual for Librarians and Archivists. HowTo-Do-It Manuals for Libraries, no. . New York:
Neal-Schuman, .
Fox, Lisa. L. Management Strategies for Disaster
Preparedness. The A L A Yearbook of Library and Information Services, vol. . Chicago: American Library
Association, .
Skepastianu, M. and J. I. Whiffin. Library Disaster Planning. The Hague: IFLA HQ, .
Trinkaus-Randall, Gregor. Preserving Special Collections Through Internal Security. College and Research
Libraries News , July .
Trinkley, Michael. Can You Stand the Heat? A Fire Safety
Primer for Libraries, Archives and Museums. Atlanta, GA:
Southeastern Library Network, .
Trinkley, Michael. Hurricane! Are You Ready for the Big
One? A Primer for Libraries, Museums, and Archives.
Columbia, SA: Chicora Foundation, .
ENVIRONMENT
Briggs, James R. Environmental Control of Modern
Records. Conservation of Library and Archive Materials and
the Graphic Arts, ed. Guy Petherbridge. London:
Number One
Butterworths, .
Harmon Preservation Pest Management, .
Erhardt, D. and M. Mecklenburg. Relative humidity

re-examined. Preventive Conservation: Practice, Theory and
Research. Preprints of the Contributions to the Ottawa
Congress, September . London: The International Institute for Conservation of Historic and
Artistic Works, .
Pinniger, D. B. Insect Pests in Museums. London: Archetype, .
Lull, William P. Conservation Environment Guidelines for

Libraries and Archives. Ottawa: Canadian Council of
Archives, .
Macleod, K. J. Relative Humidity: Its Importance,
Measurement and Control in Museums. Canadian Conservation Institute Technical Bulletin . Ottawa: Canadian
Conservation Institute, .
Thomson, Garry. The Museum Environment, nd edition.
London: Butterworths-Heinemann, .
Wellheiser, J. G. Non-chemical Treatment Processes for Disinfestation of Insects and Fungi in Library Collections. The
Hague: K.G. Saur, International Federation of Library
Associations and Institutions, .
TRADITIONAL L IBRARY M ATERIAL

Processing library material
Boral, J. The Great Spine and Box Label Mystery!.

Abbey Newsletter, vol. no. , August .
Fasteners
Mould
Florian, Mary-Lou E. Conidial Fungi (Mold, Mildew)
Biology: A Basis for Logical Prevention, Eradication
and Treatment of Museum and Archival Collections.
Leather Conservation News, vol. , .
Ritzenthaler, Mary Lynn. Preservation of Archival Records

<http://www.nara.gov/nara/preserva/maintena/
hm.html>
Florian, Mary-Lou E. Conidial Fungi (Mould) Activity

on Artifact Material A New Look at Prevention, Control and Eradication. Preprints of the th Triennial Meeting, ICOM Committee for Conservation. Lawrence, KS: Allen
Press, Inc., .
Kaplan, H. A. Mold: A Follow-up. <http://palimpsest.

stanford.edu/byauth/kaplan/moldfu.html>
Photocopying of Library and Archive Materials. London:

National Preservation Office, .
Nyberg, Sandra. The Invasion of the Giant Spore.

SOLINET Preservation Program Leaflet, no . Atlanta, GA:
South-eastern Library Network, .
Insects and Pests
Clarkson, Christopher. The Safe Handling and Display

of Medieval Manuscripts and Early Printed Books, Book
and Paper Conservation Proceedings. Ljubljana: .
Photocopying
Handling Books in General Collections, Atlanta, GA: Southeastern Library Network, . <http://palimpsest.
stanford.edu/solinet/hndlbook.htm>
Child, R. E., and D. Pinniger. Insect Trapping in

Museums and Historic Houses. Preventive Conservation
Practice, Theory and Research. Preprints of the Contributions to the Ottawa Congress, September .
London: The International Institute for Conservation
of Historic and Artistic Works, .
Palmer, Patricia. Stacks Management: Shelf Maintenance Procedures. <http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/byauth/

palmer/palmer.html>
Harmon, James D. Integrated Pest Management in Museum,

Library and Archival Facilities: A Step by Step Approach for
the Design, Development, Implementation and Maintenance of
an Integrated Pest Management Program. Indianapolis, IN:
Pickwoad, N. Books and Libraries. The National Trust

Manual of Housekeeping, eds. and comp. Hermione
Sandwith and Sheila Stainton. Harmondsworth: Penguin, .
Number One
Page, Susan and Diane S. Nixon. Storing and Handling

Oversized Documents. Restaurator, vol. no. , .
67
B IBLIOGRAPHY

Brown, Margaret R. Boxes for the protection of rare books:
their design and construction. Washington: Library of
Congress, .
Kulka, E. Archival Enclosures: a guide. Ottowa: Canadian
Council of Archives, .
Stagnitto, J. The Shrink Wrap Project at Rutgers
University Special Collections and Archives, The Book
and Paper Group Annual, vol. . Washington, DC: The
American Institute for Conservation of Historic &
Artistic Works, .
Vine, Mark G. and William K. Hollinger. Active Archival Housing. Restaurator, vol. no. , .
Fascicules
graphies. Eclipse. Paris: SFIIC Groupe photographie,

.
Hendriks, Klaus B. and Brian Lesser. Disaster
Preparedness and Recovery: Photographic Materials.
American Archivist, Winter .
McCormick-Goodhart, M. H. The Allowable Temperature and Humidity Range for the Safe Use and Storage
of Photographic Materials. The Journal of the Society of
Archivists, vol. no. , .
Paine, C., ed. Standards in the Museum Care of Photographic
Collections. London: Museums & Galleries Commission,
.
Roosa, M. Preservation Packet: Care, Handling and Storage
of Photographs. Washington: IFLA-PAC, .
Lindsay, Helen and Christopher Clarkson. Housing

Single-sheet Material: the Development of the Fascicule
System at the Bodleian Library. The Paper Conservator,
vol. , .
Wilhelm, H. The Permanence and Care of Color Photographs:

Traditional and Digital Color Prints, Color Negatives, Slides,
and Motion Pictures. Grinnell, IA: Preservation Publishing Co., .
Exhibitions
Film-based media
Blaser, Linda. Construction of Plexiglas Book Cradles.

The Book and Paper Group Annual . Washington, DC:
American Institute for Conservation of Historic and
Artistic Works, .
Fischer, Monique C. and Andrew Robb. Guidelines for

Care and Identification of Film-based Photographic
Materials. Topics in Photographic Preservation, vol. . Washington, DC: The American Institute for Conservation
of Historic & Artistic Works, .
Clarkson, Christopher. Preservation and Display of

Single Parchment Leaves and Fragments, Conservation
of Library and Archive Materials and the Graphic Arts, ed.
Guy Petherbridge. London: Butterworths, .
Messier, P. Preserving Your Collection of Film-Based Photographic Negatives. <http://palimpsest.stanford.edu:/

byauth/messier/negrmcc.html>
Shenton, Helen. Developments in the Display of Books

at the Victoria and Albert Museum. The Paper Conservator , .
Reilly, James M. IPI Storage Guide for Acetate Film.

Rochester, NY: Image Permanence Institute, .
Stolow, Nathan. Conservation and Exhibitions Packing,

Transport, Storage and Environmental Considerations. London: Butterworths, .
AUDIO-VISUAL C ARRIERS
Varlamoff, Marie Thrse. Recommendations Regarding Loans of Library Documents to Exhibitions. IFLA
Journal , no. , .
PHOTOGRAPHIC AND FILM-BASED MEDIA

Photographic media
Cahier des charges pour les expositions de photo68

Boston, George, Survey of Endangered Audio Carriers. International Preservation News, no. , May .
Calas, Marie-France and Jean-Marc Fontaine. La Conservation des Documents Sonores. Paris: CNRS Editions,
.
St-Laurent, Gilles. The Care and Handling of Recorded Sound
Materials. <http://palimpsest.stanford.edu:/byauth/
st-laurent/care.html>
Number One
Magnetic media
Microfilming
Boyle, Deirdre. Video Preservation: Securing the Future of

the Past. New York: Media Alliance, .
Elkington, Nancy E., ed. Preservation Microfilming Handbook. Mountain View, CA: Research Libraries Group,
.
Eilers, Delos A. Audio Magnetic Tape Preservation and Restoration. Arlington, VA: Association of Recorded Sound
Collections, International Federation of Television
Archives, International Association of Sound Archives,
no. , September .
Lindner, J. Confessions of a Videotape Restorer; Or,
How Come These Tapes all Need to be Cleaned
Differently? AMIA Newsletter no. , April . Association of Moving Image Archivists.
Elkington, Nancy E., ed. Archives Microfilming Manual.

Mountain View, CA: Research Libraries Group, .
Fox, Lisa L., ed. Preservation Microfilming: A Guide for
Librarians and Archivists. Chicago: American Library
Association, .
Van Bogart, John W. C. Magnetic Tape Storage and

Handling: A Guide for Libraries and Archives. Washington,
DC: Commission on Preservation and Access, .
Preservation Microfilming: Does it Have a Future? Proceedings of the First National Conference of the National
Preservation Office at the State Library of South
Australia, May . Canberra: National Library
of Austalia, .
Van Bogart, John W. C. Recovery of Damaged Magnetic Tape

and Optical Disk Media.<http://www.nml.org/Publications/Presentations/DisasterRecovery/>
Unger, Carol . Storage of Microforms: What are They

Doing in the Dark?. Abbey Newsletter, vol. no. ,
August .
Wheeler, Jim. The Dos and Donts of Videotape Care.

<http://palimpsest.stanford.edu:/byauth/wheeler/
wheeler.html>
Digitizing
Optical media
The National Archives and Records Administration and the
Long-Term Usability of Optical Media for Federal Records: Three
Critical Problem Areas. <http://palimpsest.stanford.edu:
/bytopic/electronic-records/electronic-storage-media/
critiss.html>
Permanence, Care and Handling of CDs. <http://www.
kodak.com:/daiHome/techInfo/permanence.
shtml>
Schamber, Linda. Optical Disk Formats. <http://
palimpsest.stanford.edu/bytopic/electronic-records/
electronic-storage-media/ed. html>
R EFORMATTING
Photocopying
Guidelines for Preservation Photocopying. Library
Resources & Technical Services, vol. no. , July .
Preservation Photocopying in Libraries and Archives.
Papers from the Conference of the U.S. National
Archives and Records Administration, Washington, DC,
December, . Restaurator, vol. no. , .
Number One
Kenney, Anne R. and S. Chapman. Digital Imaging for

Libraries and Archives. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University,
.
Lesk, Michael. Preservation of New Technology: A Report of
the Technology Assessment Advisor y Committee to the
Commission on Preservation and Access. Washington, DC:
Commission on Preservation and Access, .
Waters, Donald J. From Microfilm to Digital Imagery: On
the Feasibility of a Project to Study the Means, Costs and
Benefits of Converting Large Quantities of Preserved Library
Materials from Microfilm to Digital Images. Washington, DC:
Waters, Donald J. and J. Garrett. Preserving Digital Information: Final Report and Recommendations of the Task Force
on Archiving Digital Information. Washington, DC:
Weber, Harmut and Marianne Drr. Digitisation as a
Method of Preservation? Amsterdam: European Commission on Preservation and Access, .
Willis, Don. A Hybrid Systems Approach to Preservation of
Printed Materials. Washington, DC: Commission on
Preservation and Access, .
69
A PPENDIX I
Where to turn for advice

Abbey Publications Inc
7105 Geneva Drive, Austin TX 78723, USA
Tel: + 1 (512) 929 3992 Fax: + 1 (512) 929 3995
e-mail: Abbeypub@flashnet
<http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/byorg/abbey/>
Publications: Abbey Newsletter and Alkaline Paper Advocate.
Council on Library and Information Resources (CLIR)

1755 Massachusetts Avenue, NW, Suite 500
Washington, DC 20036, USA
Tel: + 1 (202) 939 4750 Fax: + 1 (202) 939 4765
e-mail: info@clir.org
<http://www.clir.org/cpa/>
American Institute for Conservation of Historic and

Artistic Works (AIC)
1717 K Street NW, Suite 301, Washington DC 20006,
USA
Tel: + 1 (202) 452 9545 Fax: + 1 (202) 452 9328
e-mail: InfoAic@aol.com
<http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/aic/>
Publications: AIC News and AIC Journal.
European Commission on Preservation and Access (ECPA)

PO Box 19121, NL-1000 GC, Amsterdam,
THE NETHERLANDS
Tel: + 31 (20) 551 0807 Fax: + 31 (20) 620 4941
e-mail: yola.de.lusenet@bureau.knawl.nl
<http://www.knawl.nl/ecpa/ecpatex/welcome.htm>
Bibliothque nationale de France (BnF)

Services de Conservation
Quai Franois Mauriac, 75706 Paris cedex 13, FRANCE
Tel: + 33 (0) 1 53 79 41 65 Fax: + 33 (0) 1 53 79 41 61
<http://www.bnf.fr>
e-mail: eromm@mail.sub.uni.goettingen.de
Is an inter national database to help libraries coordinate
microfilming and other reformatting activities aimed at the
preservation of the printed information which is threatenend
by brittle paper. It also serves as an instrument for ordering
service copies of reformatted books.
The British Library

National Preservation Office (NPO)
Great Russell Street, London WC1B 3DG, UK
Tel: + 44 (0) 171 412 7612 Fax: + 44 (0) 171 412 7796
e-mail: npo@bl.uk
<http://www.bl.uk/index.html>
Canadian Conservation Institute (CCI)
1030 Innes Road, Ottawa, Ontario K1A OM5, CANADA
Tel: + 1 (613) 998 3721 Fax: + 1 (613) 998 4721
e-mail: cci-iccpublications@pch.gc.ca
<http://www.pch.gc.ca/cci-icc>
Publication: Bulletin de lICC bilingual (French and English), biannual and free of charge.
Canadian Council of Archives (CCA)
1009344 Wellington Street, Ottawa, Ontario K1A ON3,
CANADA
Tel: + 1 (613) 995 0210 Fax: + 1 (613) 947 6662
e-mail: dubeau@fis.utoronto.ca
<http://www.fis.utoronto.ca/groups/aao/index.htm>
Conservation on Line (CoOL)
<http://palimpsest.stanford.edu>
Full-text searchable database of ar ticles and repor ts, as
well as numerous links to a wide range of resources including conservation-related organizations, vendors and librar y
preservation department home pages.
70
European Register of Microform Masters (EROMM)

Tel: + 49 (551) 39 34 68 Fax: + 49 (551) 39 95 25
Fdration Internationale des Archives du Film (FIAF)

1 rue Defacqz, B-1000 Bruxelles, BELGIUM
Tel: + 32 (2) 538 3065 Fax: + 32 (2) 534 4774
email: fiaf@mail.interpac.be
<http://www.cinema.ucla.edu/fiaf/enfiaf.html>
Brings together institutions from all countries dedicated to
the collection and preservation of films of both cultural and
historic interest.
Fdration Internationale des Archives de Tlvision
(FIAT)
Elmfield Mansions, Elmfield Road, Balham, London
SW17 8AA, UK
Tel: and Fax: + 44 (0) 181 675 5941
e-mail: gosta@msn.com
<http://www.nbr.no/fiat/fiat.html>
Fundao Nacional de Ar te (FUNARTE)
Rua So Jos 12 andar - Centro, CEP 20010-020,
Rio de Janeiro, BRAZIL
Tel: + 55 (21) 533 8090 Fax: + 55 (21) 262 4516
e-mail: zuniga@omega.eincc.bc
Among other things FUNARTE has set up a national
programme for photographic preservation and research in
Brazil. It is conceived as a network of working centres
throughout the country.
Number One
APPENDIX I
Getty Conservation Institute
1200 Getty Center Drive, Suite 700, Los Angeles,
CA 90049-1684, USA
Tel: + 1 (310) 440 7325 Fax: + 1 (310) 440 7702
<http://www.getty.edu/gci>
Publications: Newsletter three times a year in English and
Spanish, free of charge.
Image Permanence Institute (IPI)
Rochester Institute of Technology,
Frank E. Gannett Memorial Building, PO Box 9887,
Rochester, NY 14623-0887, USA
Tel: + 1 (716) 475 2736 Fax: + 1 (716) 475 7230
Institute of Paper Conservation (IPC)
Leigh Lodge, Leigh, Worcester WR6 5LB, UK
Tel: + 44 (1886) 832323 Fax: + 44 (1886) 833688
e-mail: clare@ipc.org.uk
<http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/ipc>
Publications: Paper Conservation News is issued quarterly. The Paper Conser vator is published annually.
International Association of Sound Archives (IASA)
Tel: + 46 (8) 783 3700 Fax: + 46 (8) 663 1811
International Centre for the Conservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM)
13, via di San Michele, I-00153 Roma, ITALY
Tel: + 39 (6) 585 531 Fax: + 39 (6) 5855 3349
e-mail: iccrom@iccrom.org
<http://www.iccrom.org>
International Council on Archives (ICA)
60, rue des Francs-Bourgeois, F-75003 Paris, FRANCE
Tel : + 33 (1) 40 27 63 06 Fax: + 33 (1) 42 72 20 65
e-mail: 100640.54@compuserve.com
<http://www.archives.ca./ica>
International Federation of Librar y Associations &
Institutions (IFLA)
PO Box 95312, 2509 CH The Hague,
THE NETHERLANDS
Tel: + 31 (70) 31 40 884 Fax: + 31 (70) 38 34 827
e-mail: IFLA. HQ@IFLA.NL
<http://www.nlc-bnc.ca/ifla>
IFLA Section on Preservation and Conservation
National Library of Canada, 395 Wellington Street, Ottawa
Ontario K1A ON4, CANADA
Tel: + 1 (613) 943 85 70 Fax: + 1 (613) 947 29 16
e-mail: ralph.manning@nlc-bnc.ca
e-mail:mskepast@it.teither.gr
Number One
International Institute for Conservation (IIC)

6 Buckingham Street, London WC2N 6BA, UK
Tel: + 44 (171) 839 5975 Fax: 44 (171) 976 1564
e-mail: 100731.1565@compuserve.com
Publications: IIC Bulletin, bimonthly, free to IIC members.
Joint IFLA-ICA Committee for Preservation in Africa
(JICPA)
Kenya National Archives and Documentation Service
Moi Avenue, PO Box 49210, Nairobi, KENYA
Tel: + 254 (2) 22 89 59 Fax: + 254 (2) 22 80 20
Librar y of Congress
Preservation Directorate
LM-G21, Washington, DC 20540, USA
Tel: + 1 (202) 707 5213 Fax: + 1 (202) 707 3434
<http://www.lcweb.loc.gov/preserv/>
National Librar y of Australia
National Preservation Office
NIAC, Canberra Act 2600, AUSTRALIA
Tel: + 61 (6) 262 1571 Fax: + 61 (6) 273 4535
e-mail: claw@nla.gov.au
<http://www.nla.gov.au/archive/npo/html>
Northeast Document Conservation Center (NEDCC)
100 Brickstone Square, Andover, MA 01810, USA
Tel: + 1 (978) 470 1010 Fax: + 1 (978) 475 6021
e-mail: nedcc@nedcc.org
<http://www.nedcc.org>
Research Libraries Group (RLG)
1200 Villa Street, Mountain View, CA 94041-1100, USA
Tel: + 1 (800) 537 7546 (North America)
Tel: + 1 (650) 691 2333 (outside North America)
Fax: +1 (650) 964 0943
e-mail: bl.ric@rlg.org
<http://www.rlg.org/toc.html>
Solinet Preser vation Service
1438 West Peachtree Street, NW, Suite 200, Atlanta, GA
30309-2955, USA
Tel: + 1 (404) 892 0943 or + 1 (800) 999 8558
e-mail: helpdesk@solinet.net
<http://www.solinet.net>
UNESCO Memor y of the World
1, rue Miollis, 75015 Paris, FRANCE
Tel: + 33 (0) 1 45 68 44 96 Fax: + 33 (0) 1 44 49 00 58
<http://www.unesco.org/webworld>
71
A PPENDIX II
Standards
International and national standards are documented agreements containing technical specifications or the precise criteria
to be used consistently as rules, guidelines, or definitions of characteristics, to ensure that materials, products, processes
and services are fit for their purpose. Although it is recommended that they are followed, they may have to be adapted for
local requirements.
If we are to be fully confident about our preservation effor ts, then we need to know that our practices, procedures, and
purchases conform to established standards. While adherence to some standards is mandatory, electrical standards for
example, in other cases compliance is voluntary. This puts the responsibility on the practitioner or consumer to be aware of,
and to insist on, conformance with all standards governing an activity or product.
Some relevant ISO standards:

ISO JCT 1: Information Technology
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

1, rue de Varembe
CP 56, CH 1211 Genve 20
ISO TC 6: Paper, Board and Pulps
Switzerland
ISO TC 21: Equipment for Fire Protection and Fire
Tel: + 41 (22) 749 0111
Fighting
ISO TC 35: Paints and Varnishes
ISO TC 37: Terminology (Principles and Coordination)
Fax: + 41 (22) 733 3430

<http://www.iso.ch/welcome.html>
ISO conducts its work through technical committees
that work on specific materials, methods, systems,
ISO TC 42: Photography

ISO TC 46: Information and Documentation
terminologies or technologies.
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
ISO TC 47: Chemistry
11 West 42nd Street, 13th Floor
ISO TC 61: Plastics
New York, NY 10036

USA
ISO TC 92: Fire Safety

ISO TC 94: Personal Safety Protective Clothing
and Equipment
Tel: + 1 (212) 642 4900

Fax: + 1 (212) 398 0023
<http://www.ansi.org/>
ISO TC 120: Leather
ANSI is the USA representative to ISO and principal
ISO TC 122: Packaging
national standards organization in the USA. It is a private

organization that coordinates work of committees and
ISO TC 146: Air Quality

ISO TC 171: Document Imaging Applications
organizations that it has accredited as standards

developers.
Standard for permanent paper

Permanent paper is free of any substance leading to self-deterioration. It has a life-expectancy of several hundred years
according to accelera ted ageing tests. Permanent pa per characteristics are described in the ISO standard:
ISO 9706:1994 Information and Documentation Paper for Documents Requirements for Permanence.
w pH between 7.5 and 10
w Alkaline reserve (calcium carbonate equivalent): 2%
w Kappa number (resistance to oxidation): under 5
w Tear resistance: 350 mN for all papers over 70g/m2
This symbol should appear on any publications printed on permanent paper:
72
ISO 9706
Number One

IFLA Guide Library Preservation

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International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions

Core Programme on Preservation and Conservation

Compiled and edited by

International Preservation Issues

International Preservation Issues

Laurence Bobis, Direction du Livre et de la Lecture, France

Paul Conway, Yale University Library, USA

Christopher Clarkson, a Stanley Road, Oxford, Oxon , UK

International Preservation Issues

SECURITY AND D ISASTER P LANNING 13

TRADITIONAL L IBRARY M ATERIAL

PHOTOGRAPHIC AND F ILM-BASED M EDIA

International Preservation Issues

it is flexed or folded. Paper is said to be brittle when a corner

rigidity of plants, but its presence in paper and board is

expose the vulnerability of library material

advance knowledge about the permanence and durability of library material

encourage proper care and handling of library material

aid library staff in their search for solutions to preservation problems

encourage clear lines of communication among library managers, buildings

It must be emphasised that this publication cannot be used in isolation. It has

International Preservation Issues

The nature of the material itself

Everyone is responsible. While preservation and conservation specialists can advise

International Preservation Issues

When purchasing material

Part of the process of formulating a preservation policy is to define whether, and

It is important to have a clear idea of the objectives of the study before

International Preservation Issues

help to create a picture of the librarys holdings (for example: photographs,

International Preservation Issues

SECURITY AND DISASTER P LANNING

Preventing criminal and anti-social behaviour

Security in reading areas

Security of library material

Emergency information booklet

Identifying external environmental threats

Identifying internal environmental threats

Assessing current preventive measures

International Preservation Issues

Fire alarm systems

Manual extinguishing systems

Automatic extinguishing systems

Drying wet material

S ECURITY AND D ISASTER PLANNING

Library perimeters and grounds should be kept tidy.

The need for an alert attitude should be instilled in staff.

having prominent notices which clearly define what is unacceptable behaviour

training staff in how to deal with an awkward or aggressive user or a suspected

Security in reading areas

International Preservation Issues

Security of library material

Acts of war and terrorism

Make sure the plan is written

Numerous resources have been published to aid institutions in implementing

S ECURITY AND D ISASTER PLANNING

developing a written preparedness, response, and

What are the immediate surroundings or perimeters to the building (fences