Time PDF

Time - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time#Time_as_.22unreal.22
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Time is a measure in which events can be ordered from the past through the present
into the future, and also the measure of durations of events and the intervals
between them.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7] Time is often referred to as the fourth dimension,
along with the three spatial dimensions.[8]
Time has long been a major subject of study in religion, philosophy, and science,
but defining it in a manner applicable to all fields without circularity has
consistently eluded scholars.[2][6][7][9][10][11] Nevertheless, diverse fields such as
business, industry, sports, the sciences, and the performing arts all incorporate some
notion of time into their respective measuring systems.[12][13][14] Some simple
definitions of time include "time is what clocks measure",[6][15] which is a
problematically vague and self-referential definition that utilizes the device used to
measure the subject as the definition of the subject, and "time is what keeps
everything from happening at once", which is without substantive meaning in the
absence of the definition of simultaneity in the context of the limitations of human
sensation, observation of events, and the perception of such events.[16][17][18][19]
The flow of sand in an
Two contrasting viewpoints on time divide many prominent philosophers. One view
hourglass can be used to
is that time is part of the fundamental structure of the universea dimension
keep track of elapsed
independent of events, in which events occur in sequence. Sir Isaac Newton
time. It also concretely
subscribed to this realist view, and hence it is sometimes referred to as Newtonian
represents the present as
time.[20][21] The opposing view is that time does not refer to any kind of "container"
being between the past
that events and objects "move through", nor to any entity that "flows", but that it is
and the future.
instead part of a fundamental intellectual structure (together with space and
number) within which humans sequence and compare events. This second view, in
the tradition of Gottfried Leibniz[15] and Immanuel Kant,[22][23] holds that time is neither an event nor a thing,
and thus is not itself measurable nor can it be travelled.
Time is one of the seven fundamental physical quantities in both the International System of Units and
International System of Quantities. Time is used to define other quantitiessuch as velocityso defining time
in terms of such quantities would result in circularity of definition.[24] An operational definition of time, wherein
one says that observing a certain number of repetitions of one or another standard cyclical event (such as the
passage of a free-swinging pendulum) constitutes one standard unit such as the second, is highly useful in the
conduct of both advanced experiments and everyday affairs of life. The operational definition leaves aside the
question whether there is something called time, apart from the counting activity just mentioned, that flows and
that can be measured. Investigations of a single continuum called spacetime bring questions about space into
questions about time, questions that have their roots in the works of early students of natural philosophy.
Furthermore, it may be that there is a subjective component to time, but whether or not time itself is "felt", as a
sensation, or is a judgment, is a matter of debate.[2][6][7][25][26]
Temporal measurement has occupied scientists and technologists, and was a prime motivation in navigation and
astronomy. Periodic events and periodic motion have long served as standards for units of time. Examples
include the apparent motion of the sun across the sky, the phases of the moon, the swing of a pendulum, and the
beat of a heart. Currently, the international unit of time, the second, is defined by measuring the electronic
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transition frequency of caesium atoms (see below). Time is also of significant social importance, having
economic value ("time is money") as well as personal value, due to an awareness of the limited time in each day
and in human life spans.
1 Temporal measurement and history

1.1 History of the calendar
1.2 History of time measurement devices
1.3 List of units
2 Definitions and standards
2.1 World time
2.2 Time conversions
2.3 Sidereal time
2.4 Chronology
2.5 Time-like concepts: terminology
3 Religion
3.1 Linear and cyclical time
3.2 Time in Greek mythology
3.3 Time in Kabbalah
4 Philosophy
4.1 Time as "unreal"
5 Physical definition
5.1 Classical mechanics
5.2 Spacetime
5.3 Time dilation
5.4 Relativistic time versus Newtonian time
5.5 Arrow of time
5.6 Quantized time
6 Time and the Big Bang theory
6.1 Speculative physics beyond the Big Bang
7 Time travel
8 Time perception
8.1 Biopsychology
8.2 Development of awareness and understanding of time in children
8.3 Alterations
9 Use of time
10 See also
10.1 Books
10.2 Organizations
10.3 Miscellaneous arts and sciences
10.4 Miscellaneous units of time
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
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Temporal measurement, chronometry, takes two distinct period forms: the calendar, a mathematical tool for
organizing intervals of time,[27] and the clock, a physical mechanism that counts the passage of time. In
day-to-day life, the clock is consulted for periods less than a day, the calendar, for periods longer than a day.
Increasingly, personal electronic devices display both calendars and clocks simultaneously. The number (as on a
clock dial or calendar) that marks the occurrence of a specified event as to hour or date is obtained by counting
from a fiducial epocha central reference point.
History of the calendar

Artifacts from the Paleolithic suggest that the moon was used to reckon time as early as 6,000 years ago.[28]
Lunar calendars were among the first to appear, either 12 or 13 lunar months (either 354 or 384 days). Without
intercalation to add days or months to some years, seasons quickly drift in a calendar based solely on twelve
lunar months. Lunisolar calendars have a thirteenth month added to some years to make up for the difference
between a full year (now known to be about 365.24 days) and a year of just twelve lunar months. The numbers
twelve and thirteen came to feature prominently in many cultures, at least partly due to this relationship of
months to years.
The reforms of Julius Caesar in 45 BC put the Roman world on a solar calendar. This Julian calendar was faulty
in that its intercalation still allowed the astronomical solstices and equinoxes to advance against it by about 11
minutes per year. Pope Gregory XIII introduced a correction in 1582; the Gregorian calendar was only slowly
adopted by different nations over a period of centuries, but it is now the most commonly used calendar around
the world, by far.
History of time measurement devices

A large variety of devices has been invented to measure time. The study
of these devices is called horology.
An Egyptian device that dates to c.1500 BC, similar in shape to a bent
T-square, measured the passage of time from the shadow cast by its
crossbar on a nonlinear rule. The T was orientated eastward in the
mornings. At noon, the device was turned around so that it could cast its
shadow in the evening direction.[29]
A sundial uses a gnomon to cast a shadow on a set of markings
calibrated to the hour. The position of the shadow marks the hour in
local time.
Horizontal sundial in Taganrog
The most precise timekeeping device of the ancient world was the water clock, or clepsydra, one of which was
found in the tomb of Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep I (15251504 BC). They could be used to measure the hours
even at night, but required manual upkeep to replenish the flow of water. The Ancient Greeks and the people
from Chaldea (southeastern Mesopotamia) regularly maintained timekeeping records as an essential part of their
astronomical observations. Arab inventors and engineers in particular made improvements on the use of water
clocks up to the Middle Ages.[30] In the 11th century, Chinese inventors and engineers invented the first
mechanical clocks driven by an escapement mechanism.
The hourglass uses the flow of sand to measure the flow of time. They were used in navigation. Ferdinand
Magellan used 18 glasses on each ship for his circumnavigation of the globe (1522).[31] Incense sticks and
candles were, and are, commonly used to measure time in temples and churches across the globe. Waterclocks,
and later, mechanical clocks, were used to mark the events of the abbeys and monasteries of the Middle Ages.
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Richard of Wallingford (12921336), abbot of St. Alban's abbey,

famously built a mechanical clock as an astronomical orrery about
1330.[32][33] Great advances in accurate time-keeping were made by
Galileo Galilei and especially Christiaan Huygens with the invention of
pendulum driven clocks.
A contemporary quartz watch
The English word clock probably comes from the Middle Dutch word
klocke which, in turn, derives from the medieval Latin word clocca,
which ultimately derives from Celtic and is cognate with French, Latin,
and German words that mean bell. The passage of the hours at sea were
marked by bells, and denoted the time (see ship's bell). The hours were
marked by bells in abbeys as well as at sea.
Clocks can range from watches, to more exotic varieties such as the
Clock of the Long Now. They can be driven by a variety of means,
including gravity, springs, and various forms of electrical power, and
regulated by a variety of means such as a pendulum.
A chronometer is a portable timekeeper that meets certain precision
standards. Initially, the term was used to refer to the marine
chronometer, a timepiece used to determine longitude by means of
celestial navigation, a precision firstly achieved by John Harrison. More
recently, the term has also been applied to the chronometer watch, a
watch that meets precision standards set by the Swiss agency COSC.
The 555 timer IC is an integrated

circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer,
pulse generator and oscillator
applications.
The most accurate timekeeping

Chip-scale atomic clocks, such as this
devices are atomic clocks, which
one unveiled in 2004, are expected to
are accurate to seconds in many
greatly improve GPS location.[34]
millions of years,[35] and are used
to calibrate other clocks and
timekeeping instruments. Atomic clocks use the frequency of electronic
transitions in certain atoms to measure the second. One of the most
common atoms used is caesium, most modern atomic clocks probe
caesium with microwaves to determine the frequency of these electron
vibrations.[36] Since 1967, the International System of Measurements
bases its unit of time, the second, on the properties of caesium atoms. SI
defines the second as 9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation that
corresponds to the transition between two electron spin energy levels of
the ground state of the 133Cs atom.
Today, the Global Positioning System in coordination with the Network Time Protocol can be used to
synchronize timekeeping systems across the globe.
In medieval philosophical writings, the atom was a unit of time referred to as the smallest possible division of
time. The earliest known occurrence in English is in Byrhtferth's Enchiridion (a science text) of 10101012,[37]
where it was defined as 1/564 of a momentum (1 minutes),[38] and thus equal to 15/94 of a second. It was used
in the computus, the process of calculating the date of Easter.
As of May 2010, the smallest time interval uncertainty in direct measurements is on the order of 12 attoseconds
(1.2 1017 seconds), about 3.7 1026 Planck times.[39]
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List of units
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Units of time
Unit
instant
Length, Duration and

Size
Notes
loosely speaking, zero time (colloquially the term may be used in
other ways)
varies
Planck time
unit
5.39 x
yoctosecond
1024 s
1044 s
The duration light takes to travel one Planck length. Theorized to

be the smallest duration measurement that will ever be possible,
roughly 1043 seconds.
in quantum physics, the duration light takes to travel one fermi
(1015m, about the size of a nucleon) in a vacuum: about 3
1024s.
In electronics, the duration for one alternating current power
cycle (1/60 or 1/50 of a second).
Also, an informal term for any unspecified short duration.
jiffy
varies
zeptosecond
1021 s
attosecond
1018 s
shortest duration now measurable
femtosecond
1015 s
pulse duration on fastest lasers
picosecond
1012 s
nanosecond
109 s
duration for molecules to fluoresce
shake
108 s
10 nanoseconds. Also a casual term for a short duration.
microsecond
106 s
millisecond
0.001 s
shortest duration unit used on stopwatches
centisecond
0.01 s
used on some stopwatches
decisecond
0.1 s
used on some stopwatches
jiffy
(electronics)
~1/50s to 1/60s
Used to measure the duration between alternating power cycles.

Also a casual term for a short duration
second
1 sec
SI base unit
decasecond
10 seconds
half a minute
30 seconds
minute
60 seconds
5 minutes
300 seconds
All the numbers on an analog clock are 5 minutes apart
moment
(historical)
1/40th of an hour? (90

seconds)
used by Medieval Western European computists.[40]
hectosecond
100 seconds
1 minute and 40 seconds
ke
864 seconds
traditional Chinese unit of decimal time duration, usually 1/100

of a day. 14 minutes and 24 seconds. (Nearly 1/4 of an hour.)
kilosecond
1,000 seconds
16 minutes and 40 seconds
hour
60 minutes
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day
24 hours
longest unit used on stopwatches and countdowns
week
7 days
Also called sennight
megasecond
1,000,000 seconds
About 11.6 days
fortnight
14 days
2 weeks (more common in Great Britain)
lunar month
27.229.5 days
Various definitions of lunar month exist.
February
2829 days
This month gets an extra day in a leap year
common month 3031 days
Often 30 days for financial and other calculations.
quarter and
season
3 months
The duration of any of the four calendar seasons; winter, spring,

summer and autumn.
year
12 months
common year
365 days
52 weeks + 1 day
tropical year
365.24219 days[41]
average
Gregorian year 365.2425 days[42]
average
Julian year
365.25 days
sidereal year
365.256363004 days
leap year
366 days
52 weeks + 2 days
biennium
2 years
A unit of time duration commonly used by legislatures
triennium
3 years
Olympiad
4 year cycle
lustrum
5 years
decade
10 years
Indiction
15 year cycle
generation
varies
about 1736 years for humans, but some are more extreme
gigasecond
1,000,000,000 seconds
About 31.7 years
jubilee
50 years
Lifespan
85 or 82 years
century
100 years
millennium
1,000 years
also called "kiloannum"
terasecond
1012 seconds
About 31,700 years
megaannum
1,000,000 years
1 million years
age
varies
on the geological timescale, some millions of years[43]
epoch
varies
on the geological timescale, tens of millions of years[43]
petasecond
1015 seconds
About 31.7 million years
era
varies
on the geological timescale, several hundred millions of years[43]
galactic year
Approximately 230 million The duration it takes the Sun to orbit the center of the Milky
Way galaxy once.
years[44]
how long (averagely) people live
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eon
varies
on the geological timescale, 500 million years or more.[43] Also

"an indefinite and very long period of time".[45]
gigaannum
1,000,000,000 years
A billion years (109)
Our star's
lifespan
12,000,000,000 years
Is how long the sun will live
exasecond
1018 seconds
roughly 31.7 x 109 years, more than twice the age of the universe
(on current estimates)
teraannum
1,000,000,000,000 years
A trillion years (1012)
zettasecond
1021 seconds
About 31.7 x 1012 years
petaannum
1,000,000,000,000,000
years
A quadrillion years (1015)
yottasecond
1024 seconds
About 31.7 x 1015 years
cosmological
decade
varies
10 times the length of the previous cosmological decade, with

C 1 beginning either 10 seconds or 10 years after the Big Bang,
depending on the definition.
The SI base unit for time is the SI second. The International System of Quantities, which incorporates the SI,
also defines larger units of time equal to fixed integer multiples of one second (1 s), such as the minute, hour and
day. These are not part of the SI, but may be used alongside the SI. Other units of time such as the month and
the year are not equal to fixed multiples of 1 s, and instead exhibit significant variations in duration.[46]
The official SI definition of the second is as follows:[46][47]
The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition
between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom.
At its 1997 meeting, the CIPM affirmed that this definition refers to a caesium atom in its ground state at a
temperature of 0 K.[46] Previous to 1967, the second was defined as:
the fraction 1/31,556,925.9747 of the tropical year for 1900 January 0 at 12 hours ephemeris time.
The current definition of the second, coupled with the current definition of the metre, is based on the special
theory of relativity, which affirms our spacetime to be a Minkowski space.
World time
Time-keeping is so critical to the functioning of modern societies that it is coordinated at an international level.
The basis for scientific time is a continuous count of seconds based on atomic clocks around the world, known
as the International Atomic Time (TAI). Other scientific time standards include Terrestrial Time and Barycentric
Dynamical Time.
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Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is the basis for modern civil time. Since 1 January 1972, it has been defined
to follow TAI with an exact offset of an integer number of seconds, changing only when a leap second is added
to keep clock time synchronized with the rotation of the Earth. In TAI and UTC systems, the duration of a
second is constant, as it is defined by the unchanging transition period of the caesium atom.
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is an older standard, adopted starting with British railways in 1847. Using
telescopes instead of atomic clocks, GMT was calibrated to the mean solar time at the Royal Observatory,
Greenwich in the UK. Universal Time (UT) is the modern term for the international telescope-based system,
adopted to replace "Greenwich Mean Time" in 1928 by the International Astronomical Union. Observations at
the Greenwich Observatory itself ceased in 1954, though the location is still used as the basis for the coordinate
system. Because the rotational period of Earth is not perfectly constant, the duration of a second would vary if
calibrated to a telescope-based standard like GMT or UTin which a second was defined as a fraction of a day
or year. The terms "GMT" and "Greenwich Mean Time" are sometimes used informally to refer to UT or UTC.
The Global Positioning System also broadcasts a very precise time signal worldwide, along with instructions for
converting GPS time to UTC.
Earth is split up into a number of time zones. Most time zones are exactly one hour apart, and by convention
compute their local time as an offset from UTC or GMT. In many locations these offsets vary twice yearly due
to daylight saving time transitions.
Time conversions
These conversions are accurate at the millisecond level for time systems involving earth rotation (UT1 & TT).
Conversions between atomic time systems (TAI, GPS, and UTC) are accurate at the microsecond level.
System
Description
UT1
UTC
TT
TAI
GPS
UT1
Mean Solar Time
UT1
UTC = UT1 DUT1
TT = UT1 + 32.184 s +
LS - DUT1
TAI = UT1 DUT1 + LS
GPS = UT1 - DUT1

+ LS - 19 s
UTC
Civil Time
UT1 = UTC + DUT1
UTC
TT
Terrestrial
(Ephemeris) Time
UT1 = TT - 32.184 s LS + DUT1
UTC = TT 32.184 s - LS
TT
TAI = TT 32.184 s
GPS = TT - 51.184 s
TAI
Atomic Time
UT1 = TAI + DUT1 LS
UTC = TAI - LS
TT = TAI + 32.184 s
TAI
GPS = TAI - 19 s
GPS
GPS Time
UT1 = GPS + DUT1 - UTC = GPS - LS

LS + 19 s
+ 19 s
TT = GPS + 51.184 s
TAI = GPS + 19
s
GPS
GPS = UTC + LS TT = UTC + 32.184 s

TAI = UTC + LS
19 s
+ LS
Definitions:
1. LS = TAI - UTC = Leap Seconds from http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/tai-utc.dat
2. DUT1 = UT1 - UTC from http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat or http://maia.usno.navy.mil/search
/search.html
Sidereal time
Sidereal time is the measurement of time relative to a distant star (instead of solar time that is relative to the
sun). It is used in astronomy to predict when a star will be overhead. Due to the orbit of the earth around the sun
a sidereal day is about 4 minutes (1/366th) less than a solar day.
Chronology
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Another form of time measurement consists of studying the past. Events in the past can be ordered in a
sequence (creating a chronology), and can be put into chronological groups (periodization). One of the most
important systems of periodization is the geologic time scale, which is a system of periodizing the events that
shaped the Earth and its life. Chronology, periodization, and interpretation of the past are together known as the
study of history.
Time-like concepts: terminology

The term "time" is generally used for many close but different concepts, including:
instant[48] as an objectone point on the time axes. Being an object, it has no value;
time interval[49] as an objectpart of the time axes limited by two instants. Being an object, it has no
value;
date[50] as a quantity characterizing an instant. As a quantity, it has a value which may be expressed in a
variety of ways, for example "2014-04-26T09:42:36,75" in ISO standard format, or more colloquially
such as "today, 9:42 a.m.";
duration[51] as a quantity characterizing a time interval.[52] As a quantity, it has a value, such as a number
of minutes, or may be described in terms of the quantities (such as times and dates) of its beginning and
end.
Linear and cyclical time

Ancient cultures such as Incan, Mayan, Hopi, and other Native American Tribes - plus the Babylonians, Ancient
Greeks, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and others - have a concept of a wheel of time: they regard time as
cyclical and quantic, consisting of repeating ages that happen to every being of the Universe between birth and
extinction.
In general, the Islamic and Judeo-Christian world-view regards time as linear[53] and directional,[54] beginning
with the act of creation by God. The traditional Christian view sees time ending, teleologically,[55] with the
eschatological end of the present order of things, the "end time".
In the Old Testament book Ecclesiastes, traditionally ascribed to Solomon (970928 BC), time (as the Hebrew
word ,` iddan(time) zman(season) is often translated) was traditionally regarded as a medium for the
passage of predestined events. (Another word, "" zamn, meant time fit for an event, and is used as the
modern Arabic, Persian, and Hebrew equivalent to the English word "time".)
Time in Greek mythology

The Greek language denotes two distinct principles, Chronos and Kairos. The former refers to numeric, or
chronological, time. The latter, literally "the right or opportune moment", relates specifically to metaphysical or
Divine time. In theology, Kairos is qualitative, as opposed to quantitative.
In Greek mythology, Chronos (Ancient Greek: ) is identified as the Personification of Time. His name in
Greek means "time" and is alternatively spelled Chronus (Latin spelling) or Khronos. Chronos is usually
portrayed as an old, wise man with a long, gray beard, such as "Father Time". Some English words whose
etymological root is khronos/chronos include chronology, chronometer, chronic, anachronism, synchronize,
and chronicle.
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Time in Kabbalah
According to Kabbalists, time is a paradox[56] and an illusion.[57] Both the future and
the past are recognized to be simultaneously present.
Two distinct viewpoints on time divide many prominent philosophers. One view is that
time is part of the fundamental structure of the universe, a dimension in which events
occur in sequence. Sir Isaac Newton subscribed to this realist view, and hence it is
sometimes referred to as Newtonian time.[21] An opposing view is that time does not refer
to any kind of actually existing dimension that events and objects "move through", nor to
any entity that "flows", but that it is instead an intellectual concept (together with space
and number) that enables humans to sequence and compare events.[58] This second view,
in the tradition of Gottfried Leibniz[15] and Immanuel Kant,[22][23] holds that space and
time "do not exist in and of themselves, but ... are the product of the way we represent
things", because we can know objects only as they appear to us.
Hindu units of
time shown
logarithmically
The Vedas, the earliest texts on Indian philosophy and Hindu philosophy dating back to
the late 2nd millennium BC, describe ancient Hindu cosmology, in which the universe
goes through repeated cycles of creation, destruction and rebirth, with each cycle lasting
4,320 million years.[59] Ancient Greek philosophers, including Parmenides and Heraclitus,
wrote essays on the nature of time.[60] Plato, in the Timaeus, identified time with the
period of motion of the heavenly bodies. Aristotle, in Book IV of his Physica defined time
as 'number of movement in respect of the before and after'.[61]
In Book 11 of his Confessions, St. Augustine of Hippo ruminates on the nature of time,
asking, "What then is time? If no one asks me, I know: if I wish to explain it to one that
asketh, I know not." He begins to define time by what it is not rather than what it is,[62] an
approach similar to that taken in other negative definitions. However, Augustine ends up calling time a
distention of the mind (Confessions 11.26) by which we simultaneously grasp the past in memory, the present
by attention, and the future by expectation.
In contrast to ancient Greek philosophers who believed that the universe had an infinite past with no beginning,
medieval philosophers and theologians developed the concept of the universe having a finite past with a
beginning. This view is shared by Abrahamic faiths as they believe time started by creation, therefore the only
thing being infinite is God and everything else, including time, is finite.
Isaac Newton believed in absolute space and absolute time; Leibniz believed that time and space are
relational.[63] The differences between Leibniz's and Newton's interpretations came to a head in the famous
LeibnizClarke correspondence.
Immanuel Kant, in the Critique of Pure Reason, described time as
an a priori intuition that allows us (together with the other a priori
intuition, space) to comprehend sense experience.[64] With Kant,
neither space nor time are conceived as substances, but rather both
are elements of a systematic mental framework that necessarily
structures the experiences of any rational agent, or observing
subject. Kant thought of time as a fundamental part of an abstract
Time is not an empirical concept.

For neither co-existence nor
succession would be perceived by
us, if the representation of time did
not exist as a foundation a priori.
Without this presupposition we
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conceptual framework, together with space and number, within

which we sequence events, quantify their duration, and compare
the motions of objects. In this view, time does not refer to any kind
of entity that "flows," that objects "move through," or that is a
"container" for events. Spatial measurements are used to quantify
the extent of and distances between objects, and temporal
measurements are used to quantify the durations of and between
events. Time was designated by Kant as the purest possible schema
of a pure concept or category.
could not represent to ourselves

that things exist together at one and
the same time, or at different times,
that is, contemporaneously, or in
succession.
Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason
(1781), trans. Vasilis Politis (London: Dent.,
1991), p.54.
Henri Bergson believed that time was neither a real homogeneous medium nor a mental construct, but possesses
what he referred to as Duration. Duration, in Bergson's view, was creativity and memory as an essential
component of reality.[65]
According to Martin Heidegger we do not exist inside time, we are time. Hence, the relationship to the past is a
present awareness of having been, which allows the past to exist in the present. The relationship to the future is
the state of anticipating a potential possibility, task, or engagement. It is related to the human propensity for
caring and being concerned, which causes "being ahead of oneself" when thinking of a pending occurrence.
Therefore, this concern for a potential occurrence also allows the future to exist in the present. The present
becomes an experience, which is qualitative instead of quantitative. Heidegger seems to think this is the way
that a linear relationship with time, or temporal existence, is broken or transcended.[66] We are not stuck in
sequential time. We are able to remember the past and project into the futurewe have a kind of random
access to our representation of temporal existence; we can, in our thoughts, step out of (ecstasis) sequential
time.[67]
Time as "unreal"
In 5th century BC Greece, Antiphon the Sophist, in a fragment preserved from his chief work On Truth, held
that: "Time is not a reality (hypostasis), but a concept (noma) or a measure (metron)." Parmenides went
further, maintaining that time, motion, and change were illusions, leading to the paradoxes of his follower
Zeno.[68] Time as an illusion is also a common theme in Buddhist thought.[69][70]
J. M. E. McTaggart's 1908 The Unreality of Time argues that, since every event has the characteristic of being
both present and not present (i.e., future or past), that time is a self-contradictory idea (see also The flow of
time).
These arguments often center around what it means for something to be unreal. Modern physicists generally
believe that time is as real as spacethough others, such as Julian Barbour in his book The End of Time, argue
that quantum equations of the universe take their true form when expressed in the timeless realm containing
every possible now or momentary configuration of the universe, called 'platonia' by Barbour.[71] (See also:
Eternalism (philosophy of time))
Until Einstein's profound reinterpretation of the physical concepts associated with time and space, time was
considered to be the same everywhere in the universe, with all observers measuring the same time interval for
any event.[72] Non-relativistic classical mechanics is based on this Newtonian idea of time.
Einstein, in his special theory of relativity,[73] postulated the constancy and finiteness of the speed of light for all
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observers. He showed that this postulate, together with a reasonable definition for what it means for two events
to be simultaneous, requires that distances appear compressed and time intervals appear lengthened for events
associated with objects in motion relative to an inertial observer.
The theory of special relativity finds a convenient formulation in Minkowski spacetime, a mathematical
structure that combines three dimensions of space with a single dimension of time. In this formalism, distances
in space can be measured by how long light takes to travel that distance, e.g., a light-year is a measure of
distance, and a meter is now defined in terms of how far light travels in a certain amount of time. Two events in
Minkowski spacetime are separated by an invariant interval, which can be either space-like, light-like, or
time-like. Events that have a time-like separation cannot be simultaneous in any frame of reference, there must
be a temporal component (and possibly a spatial one) to their separation. Events that have a space-like
separation will be simultaneous in some frame of reference, and there is no frame of reference in which they do
not have a spatial separation. Different observers may calculate different distances and different time intervals
between two events, but the invariant interval between the events is independent of the observer (and his
velocity).
Classical mechanics
In non-relativistic classical mechanics, Newton's concept of "relative, apparent, and common time" can be used
in the formulation of a prescription for the synchronization of clocks. Events seen by two different observers in
motion relative to each other produce a mathematical concept of time that works sufficiently well for describing
the everyday phenomena of most people's experience. In the late nineteenth century, physicists encountered
problems with the classical understanding of time, in connection with the behavior of electricity and magnetism.
Einstein resolved these problems by invoking a method of synchronizing clocks using the constant, finite speed
of light as the maximum signal velocity. This led directly to the result that observers in motion relative to one
another measure different elapsed times for the same event.
Spacetime
Time has historically been closely related with space, the two
together merging into spacetime in Einstein's special relativity and
general relativity. According to these theories, the concept of time
depends on the spatial reference frame of the observer, and the
human perception as well as the measurement by instruments such
as clocks are different for observers in relative motion. For example,
if a spaceship carrying a clock flies through space at (very nearly)
the speed of light, its crew does not notice a change in the speed of
time on board their vessel because everything traveling at the same
speed slows down at the same rate (including the clock, the crew's
thought processes, and the functions of their bodies). However, to a
stationary observer watching the spaceship fly by, the spaceship
appears flattened in the direction it is traveling and the clock on
board the spaceship appears to move very slowly.
Two-dimensional space depicted in threedimensional spacetime. The past and future

light cones are absolute, the "present" is a
relative concept different for observers in
relative motion.
On the other hand, the crew on board the spaceship also perceives
the observer as slowed down and flattened along the spaceship's
direction of travel, because both are moving at very nearly the
speed of light relative to each other. Because the outside universe
appears flattened to the spaceship, the crew perceives themselves as quickly traveling between regions of space
that (to the stationary observer) are many light years apart. This is reconciled by the fact that the crew's
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perception of time is different from the stationary observer's; what seems like seconds to the crew might be
hundreds of years to the stationary observer. In either case, however, causality remains unchanged: the past is
the set of events that can send light signals to an entity and the future is the set of events to which an entity can
send light signals.[74][75][76]
Time dilation
Einstein showed in his thought experiments that people travelling at
different speeds, while agreeing on cause and effect, measure different
time separations between events, and can even observe different
chronological orderings between non-causally related events. Though
these effects are typically minute in the human experience, the effect
becomes much more pronounced for objects moving at speeds
approaching the speed of light. Many subatomic particles exist for only a
fixed fraction of a second in a lab relatively at rest, but some that travel
close to the speed of light can be measured to travel farther and survive
much longer than expected (a muon is one example). According to the
special theory of relativity, in the high-speed particle's frame of
reference, it exists, on the average, for a standard amount of time known
as its mean lifetime, and the distance it travels in that time is zero,
because its velocity is zero. Relative to a frame of reference at rest, time
seems to "slow down" for the particle. Relative to the high-speed
particle, distances seem to shorten. Einstein showed how both temporal
and spatial dimensions can be altered (or "warped") by high-speed
motion.
Relativity of simultaneity: Event B is

simultaneous with A in the green
reference frame, but it occurred before
in the blue frame, and occurs later in
the red frame.
Einstein (The Meaning of Relativity): "Two events taking place at the points A and B of a system K are
simultaneous if they appear at the same instant when observed from the middle point, M, of the interval AB.
Time is then defined as the ensemble of the indications of similar clocks, at rest relatively to K, which register
the same simultaneously."
Einstein wrote in his book, Relativity, that simultaneity is also relative, i.e., two events that appear simultaneous
to an observer in a particular inertial reference frame need not be judged as simultaneous by a second observer
in a different inertial frame of reference.
Relativistic time versus Newtonian time

The animations visualise the different treatments of time in the Newtonian and the relativistic descriptions. At
the heart of these differences are the Galilean and Lorentz transformations applicable in the Newtonian and
relativistic theories, respectively.
In the figures, the vertical direction indicates time. The horizontal direction indicates distance (only one spatial
dimension is taken into account), and the thick dashed curve is the spacetime trajectory ("world line") of the
observer. The small dots indicate specific (past and future) events in spacetime.
The slope of the world line (deviation from being vertical) gives the relative velocity to the observer. Note how
in both pictures the view of spacetime changes when the observer accelerates.
In the Newtonian description these changes are such that time is absolute:[77] the movements of the observer do
not influence whether an event occurs in the 'now' (i.e., whether an event passes the horizontal line through the
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observer).
However, in the relativistic description the observability of events is
absolute: the movements of the observer do not influence whether an event
passes the "light cone" of the observer. Notice that with the change from a
Newtonian to a relativistic description, the concept of absolute time is no
longer applicable: events move up-and-down in the figure depending on the
acceleration of the observer.
Arrow of time
Time appears to have a directionthe past lies behind, fixed and
Views of spacetime along the
immutable, while the future lies ahead and is not necessarily fixed. Yet for
world line of a rapidly accelerating
the most part the laws of physics do not specify an arrow of time, and allow
observer in a relativistic universe.
any process to proceed both forward and in reverse. This is generally a
The events ("dots") that pass the
consequence of time being modeled by a parameter in the system being
two diagonal lines in the bottom
analyzed, where there is no "proper time": the direction of the arrow of time
half of the image (the past light
is sometimes arbitrary. Examples of this include the Second law of
cone of the observer in the origin)
thermodynamics, which states that entropy must increase over time (see
are the events visible to the
Entropy); the cosmological arrow of time, which points away from the Big
observer.
Bang, CPT symmetry, and the radiative arrow of time, caused by light only
traveling forwards in time (see light cone). In particle physics, the violation
of CP symmetry implies that there should be a small counterbalancing time asymmetry to preserve CPT
symmetry as stated above. The standard description of measurement in quantum mechanics is also time
asymmetric (see Measurement in quantum mechanics).
Quantized time
Time quantization is a hypothetical concept. In the modern established physical theories (the Standard Model of
Particles and Interactions and General Relativity) time is not quantized.
Planck time (~ 5.4 1044 seconds) is the unit of time in the system of natural units known as Planck units.
Current established physical theories are believed to fail at this time scale, and many physicists expect that the
Planck time might be the smallest unit of time that could ever be measured, even in principle. Tentative physical
theories that describe this time scale exist; see for instance loop quantum gravity.
Stephen Hawking in particular has addressed a connection between time and the Big Bang. In A Brief History of
Time and elsewhere, Hawking says that even if time did not begin with the Big Bang and there were another
time frame before the Big Bang, no information from events then would be accessible to us, and nothing that
happened then would have any effect upon the present time-frame.[78] Upon occasion, Hawking has stated that
time actually began with the Big Bang, and that questions about what happened before the Big Bang are
meaningless.[79][80][81] This less-nuanced, but commonly repeated formulation has received criticisms from
philosophers such as Aristotelian philosopher Mortimer J. Adler.[82][83]
Scientists have come to some agreement on descriptions of events that happened 1035 seconds after the Big
Bang, but generally agree that descriptions about what happened before one Planck time (5 1044 seconds)
after the Big Bang are likely to remain pure speculation.
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Speculative physics beyond the Big Bang

While the Big Bang model is well established in cosmology,
it is likely to be refined in the future. Little is known about
the earliest moments of the universe's history. The Penrose
Hawking singularity theorems require the existence of a
singularity at the beginning of cosmic time. However, these
theorems assume that general relativity is correct, but
general relativity must break down before the universe
reaches the Planck temperature, and a correct treatment of
quantum gravity may avoid the singularity.[84]
If inflation has indeed occurred, it is likely that there are
parts of the universe so distant that they cannot be observed
in principle, as exponential expansion would push large
regions of space beyond our observable horizon.
A graphical representation of the expansion of the

universe with the inflationary epoch represented as
the dramatic expansion of the metric seen on the left
Some proposals, each of which entails untested hypotheses,

are:
Models including the HartleHawking boundary condition in which the whole of space-time is finite; the
Big Bang does represent the limit of time, but without the need for a singularity.[85]
Brane cosmology models[86] in which inflation is due to the movement of branes in string theory; the
pre-big bang model; the ekpyrotic model, in which the Big Bang is the result of a collision between
branes; and the cyclic model, a variant of the ekpyrotic model in which collisions occur periodically.
[87][88][89]
Chaotic inflation, in which inflation events start here and there in a random quantum-gravity foam, each
leading to a bubble universe expanding from its own big bang.[90]
Proposals in the last two categories see the Big Bang as an event in a much larger and older universe, or
multiverse, and not the literal beginning.
Time travel is the concept of moving backwards or forwards to different points in time, in a manner analogous to
moving through space, and different from the normal "flow" of time to an earthbound observer. In this view, all
points in time (including future times) "persist" in some way. Time travel has been a plot device in fiction since
the 19th century. Traveling backwards in time has never been verified, presents many theoretic problems, and
may be an impossibility.[91] Any technological device, whether fictional or hypothetical, that is used to achieve
time travel is known as a time machine.
A central problem with time travel to the past is the violation of causality; should an effect precede its cause, it
would give rise to the possibility of a temporal paradox. Some interpretations of time travel resolve this by
accepting the possibility of travel between branch points, parallel realities, or universes.
Another solution to the problem of causality-based temporal paradoxes is that such paradoxes cannot arise
simply because they have not arisen. As illustrated in numerous works of fiction, free will either ceases to exist
in the past or the outcomes of such decisions are predetermined. As such, it would not be possible to enact the
grandfather paradox because it is a historical fact that your grandfather was not killed before his child (your
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parent) was conceived. This view doesn't simply hold that history is an unchangeable constant, but that any
change made by a hypothetical future time traveler would already have happened in his or her past, resulting in
the reality that the traveler moves from. More elaboration on this view can be found in the Novikov
self-consistency principle.
The specious present refers to the time duration wherein one's perceptions are considered to be in the present.
The experienced present is said to be specious in that, unlike the objective present, it is an interval and not a
durationless instant. The term specious present was first introduced by the psychologist E.R. Clay, and later
developed by William James.[92]
Biopsychology
The brain's judgment of time is known to be a highly distributed system, including at least the cerebral cortex,
cerebellum and basal ganglia as its components. One particular component, the suprachiasmatic nuclei, is
responsible for the circadian (or daily) rhythm, while other cell clusters appear capable of shorter-range
(ultradian) timekeeping.
Psychoactive drugs can impair the judgment of time. Stimulants can lead both humans and rats to overestimate
time intervals,[93][94] while depressants can have the opposite effect.[95] The level of activity in the brain of
neurotransmitters such as dopamine and norepinephrine may be the reason for this.[96] Such chemicals will
either excite or inhibit the firing of neurons in the brain, with a greater firing rate allowing the brain to register
the occurrence of more events within a given interval (speed up time) and a decreased firing rate reducing the
brain's capacity to distinguish events occurring within a given interval (slow down time).[97]
Mental chronometry is the use of response time in perceptual-motor tasks to infer the content, duration, and
temporal sequencing of cognitive operations.
Development of awareness and understanding of time in children

Children's expanding cognitive abilities allow them to understand time more clearly. Two- and three-year-olds'
understanding of time is mainly limited to "now and not now." Five- and six-year-olds can grasp the ideas of
past, present, and future. Seven- to ten-year-olds can use clocks and calendars.[98]
Alterations
In addition to psychoactive drugs, judgments of time can be altered by temporal illusions (like the kappa
effect),[99] age,[100] and hypnosis.[101] The sense of time is impaired in some people with neurological diseases
such as Parkinson's disease and attention deficit disorder.
Psychologists assert that time seems to go faster with age, but the literature on this age-related perception of
time remains controversial.[102] Those who support this notion argue that young people, having more excitatory
neurotransmitters, are able to cope with faster external events.[97]
In sociology and anthropology, time discipline is the general name given to social and economic rules,
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conventions, customs, and expectations governing the measurement of time, the social currency and awareness
of time measurements, and people's expectations concerning the observance of these customs by others. Arlie
Russell Hochschild[103][104] and Norbert Elias[105] have written on the use of time from a sociological
perspective.
The use of time is an important issue in understanding human behavior, education, and travel behavior.
Time-use research is a developing field of study. The question concerns how time is allocated across a number
of activities (such as time spent at home, at work, shopping, etc.). Time use changes with technology, as the
television or the Internet created new opportunities to use time in different ways. However, some aspects of
time use are relatively stable over long periods of time, such as the amount of time spent traveling to work,
which despite major changes in transport, has been observed to be about 2030 minutes one-way for a large
number of cities over a long period.
Time management is the organization of tasks or events by first estimating how much time a task requires and
when it must be completed, and adjusting events that would interfere with its completion so it is done in the
appropriate amount of time. Calendars and day planners are common examples of time management tools.
A sequence of events, or series of events, is a sequence of items, facts, events, actions, changes, or procedural
steps, arranged in time order (chronological order), often with causality relationships among the items.
[106][107][108] Because of causality, cause precedes effect, or cause and effect may appear together in a single
item, but effect never precedes cause. A sequence of events can be presented in text, tables, charts, or timelines.
The description of the items or events may include a timestamp. A sequence of events that includes the time
along with place or location information to describe a sequential path may be referred to as a world line.
Uses of a sequence of events include stories,[109] historical events (chronology), directions and steps in
procedures,[110] and timetables for scheduling activities. A sequence of events may also be used to help describe
processes in science, technology, and medicine. A sequence of events may be focused on past events (e.g.,
stories, history, chronology), on future events that must be in a predetermined order (e.g., plans, schedules,
procedures, timetables), or focused on the observation of past events with the expectation that the events will
occur in the future (e.g., processes). The use of a sequence of events occurs in fields as diverse as machines
(cam timer), documentaries (Seconds From Disaster), law (choice of law), computer simulation (discrete event
simulation), and electric power transmission[111] (sequence of events recorder). A specific example of a
sequence of events is the timeline of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.
Era
Horology
International System of Quantities
Kairos
Term (time)
Books
A Brief History of Time by Stephen Hawking
About Time: Einstein's Unfinished Revolution by Paul Davies
From Eternity to Here: The Quest for the Ultimate Theory of Time by Sean M. Carroll
The Physical Basis of The Direction of Time by Heinz-Dieter Zeh
An Experiment with Time by John William Dunne
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Einstein's Dreams by Alan Lightman

Being and Time by Martin Heidegger
Organizations
Leading scholarly organizations for researchers on the history and
technology of time and timekeeping
Antiquarian Horological SocietyAHS (United Kingdom)
Chronometrophilia (Switzerland)
Deutsche Gesellschaft fr ChronometrieDGC (Germany)
National Association of Watch and Clock CollectorsNAWCC
(United States)
Time's mortal aspect is personified in

this bronze statue by Charles van der
Stappen
Miscellaneous arts and sciences

Anachronism
Date and time representation by country
List of cycles
Network Time Protocol (NTP)
Nonlinear narrative
Philosophy of physics
Rate (mathematics)
Miscellaneous units of time

Fiscal year
Half-life
Hexadecimal time
Season
Tithi
Unit of time
Unix epoch
1. "Oxford Dictionaries:Time". Oxford University Press. 2011. Retrieved 18 December 2011. "the indefinite
continued progress of existence and events in the past, present, and future regarded as a whole"
"Webster's New World College Dictionary". 2010. Retrieved 9 April 2011. "1.indefinite, unlimited duration
2.
in which things are considered as happening in the past, present, or future; every moment there has ever been
or ever will be a system of measuring duration 2.the period between two events or during which something
exists, happens, or acts; measured or measurable interval"
"The American Heritage Stedman's Medical Dictionary @dictionary.com". 2002. Retrieved 9 April 2011. "A
duration or relation of events expressed in terms of past, present, and future, and measured in units such as
minutes, hours, days, months, or years."
"Collins Language.com". HarperCollins. 2011. Retrieved 18 December 2011. "1. The continuous passage of
existence in which events pass from a state of potentiality in the future, through the present, to a state of
finality in the past. 2. physics a quantity measuring duration, usually with reference to a periodic process
such as the rotation of the earth or the frequency of electromagnetic radiation emitted from certain atoms. In
classical mechanics, time is absolute in the sense that the time of an event is independent of the observer.
According to the theory of relativity it depends on the observer's frame of reference. Time is considered as a
fourth coordinate required, along with three spatial coordinates, to specify an event."
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"The American Heritage Science Dictionary @dictionary.com". 2002. Retrieved 9 April 2011. "1. A
continuous, measurable quantity in which events occur in a sequence proceeding from the past through the
present to the future. 2a. An interval separating two points of this quantity; a duration. 2b. A system or
reference frame in which such intervals are measured or such quantities are calculated."
"Eric Weisstein's World of Science". 2007. Retrieved 9 April 2011. "A quantity used to specify the order in
which events occurred and measure the amount by which one event preceded or followed another. In special
relativity, ct (where c is the speed of light and t is time), plays the role of a fourth dimension."
3. "Time". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (Fourth ed.) (Houghton Mifflin Company).
2011. "A nonspatial continuum in which events occur in apparently irreversible succession from the past through the
present to the future."
4. Merriam-Webster Dictionary (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/time) the measured or measurable period
during which an action, process, or condition exists or continues : duration; a nonspatial continuum which is
measured in terms of events that succeed one another from past through present to future
5. Compact Oxford English Dictionary A limited stretch or space of continued existence, as the interval between two
successive events or acts, or the period through which an action, condition, or state continues. (1971)
"Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy". 2010. Retrieved 9 April 2011. "Time is what clocks measure. We
6.
use time to place events in sequence one after the other, and we use time to compare how long events last...
Among philosophers of physics, the most popular short answer to the question "What is physical time?" is
that it is not a substance or object but rather a special system of relations among instantaneous events. This
working definition is offered by Adolf Grnbaum who applies the contemporary mathematical theory of
continuity to physical processes, and he says time is a linear continuum of instants and is a distinguished
one-dimensional sub-space of four-dimensional spacetime."
"Dictionary.com Unabridged, based on Random House Dictionary". 2010. Retrieved 9 April 2011. "1. the
system of those sequential relations that any event has to any other, as past, present, or future; indefinite and
continuous duration regarded as that in which events succeed one another.... 3. (sometimes initial capital
letter) a system or method of measuring or reckoning the passage of time: mean time; apparent time;
Greenwich Time. 4. a limited period or interval, as between two successive events: a long time.... 14. a
particular or definite point in time, as indicated by a clock: What time is it? ... 18. an indefinite, frequently
prolonged period or duration in the future: Time will tell if what we have done here today was right."
Ivey, Donald G.; Hume, J.N.P. (1974). Physics 1. Ronald Press. p. 65. "Our operational definition of time is
that time is what clocks measure."
7. Le Poidevin, Robin (Winter 2004). "The Experience and Perception of Time". In Edward N. Zalta. The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
8. "Newton did for time what the Greek geometers did for space, idealized it into an exactly measurable dimension."
About Time: Einstein's Unfinished Revolution, Paul Davies, p. 31, Simon & Schuster, 1996, ISBN 978-0684818221
9. Sean M Carroll (2009). From Eternity to Here: The Quest for the Ultimate Theory of Time. Dutton.
ISBN 978-0-525-95133-9.
10. Adam Frank, Cosmology and Culture at the Twilight of the Big Bang, "the time we imagined from the cosmos and
the time we imagined into the human experience turn out to be woven so tightly together that we have lost the ability
to see each of them for what it is." p. xv, Free Press, 2011, ISBN 978-1439169599
11. St. Augustine, Confessions, Simon & Brown, 2012, ISBN 978-1613823262
12. Official Baseball Rules, 2011 Edition (2011). "Rules 8.03 and 8.04" (Free PDF download). Major League Baseball.
Retrieved 7 July 2012. "Rule 8.03 Such preparatory pitches shall not consume more than one minute of time...Rule
8.04 When the bases are unoccupied, the pitcher shall deliver the ball to the batter within 12 seconds...The
12-second timing starts when the pitcher is in possession of the ball and the batter is in the box, alert to the pitcher.
The timing stops when the pitcher releases the ball"
13. "Guinness Book of Baseball World Records". Guinness World Records, Ltd. Retrieved 7 July 2012. "The record
for the fastest time for circling the bases is 13.3 seconds, set by Evar Swanson at Columbus, Ohio in 1932...The
greatest reliably recorded speed at which a baseball has been pitched is 100.9 mph by Lynn Nolan Ryan (California
Angels) at Anaheim Stadium in California on 20 August 1974."
14. Zeigler, Kenneth (2008). Getting organized at work : 24 lessons to set goals, establish priorities, and manage
your time. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 9780071591386. 108 pages
15. Burnham, Douglas : Staffordshire University (2006). "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (16461716) Metaphysics 7.
Space, Time, and Indiscernibles". The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 9 April 2011. "First of all,
Leibniz finds the idea that space and time might be substances or substance-like absurd (see, for example,
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"Correspondence with Clarke," Leibniz's Fourth Paper, 8ff). In short, an empty space would be a substance with no
properties; it will be a substance that even God cannot modify or destroy.... That is, space and time are internal or
intrinsic features of the complete concepts of things, not extrinsic.... Leibniz's view has two major implications.
First, there is no absolute location in either space or time; location is always the situation of an object or event
relative to other objects and events. Second, space and time are not in themselves real (that is, not substances).
Space and time are, rather, ideal. Space and time are just metaphysically illegitimate ways of perceiving certain
virtual relations between substances. They are phenomena or, strictly speaking, illusions (although they are illusions
that are well-founded upon the internal properties of substances).... It is sometimes convenient to think of space and
time as something "out there," over and above the entities and their relations to each other, but this convenience
must not be confused with reality. Space is nothing but the order of co-existent objects; time nothing but the order of
successive events. This is usually called a relational theory of space and time."
16. Cummings, Raymond King (1922). The Girl in the Golden Atom. U of Nebraska Press. p. 46.
ISBN 978-0-8032-6457-1. Retrieved 9 April 2011. Chapter 5. Cummings repeated this sentence in several of his
novellas. Sources, such as this one (http://books.google.com/books?id=39KQY1FnSfkC&pg=PA98&lpg=PA98&
dq=cummings+%22time+professor%22+%22keeps+everything%22#v=onepage&q=cummings
%20%22time%20professor%22%20%22keeps%20everything%22&f=false), attribute it to his earlier work, The
Time Professor, in 1921. Before taking book form, several of Cummings's stories appeared serialized in magazines.
The first eight chapters of his The Girl in the Golden Atom appeared (http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/title.cgi?46112)
in All-Story Magazine on 15 March 1919. In the novel version (http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/21094) the quote
about time appears in Chapter V (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/21094/21094-h/21094-h.htm#CHAPTER_V).
17. International, Rotary (Aug 1973). "The Rotarian". Published by Rotary International: 47. ISSN 0035-838X.
Retrieved 9 April 2011., What does a man possess? page 47 (http://books.google.com
/books?id=vjUEAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA47)
18. Daintith, John (2008). Biographical Encyclopedia of Scientists (third ed.). CRC Press. p. 796.
ISBN 1-4200-7271-4. Retrieved 9 April 2011., Page 796, quoting Wheeler from the American Journal of Physics,
1978 (http://books.google.com/books?id=vqTNfnKJVPAC&pg=PA796)
19. Davies, Davies (1995). About time: Einstein's unfinished revolution. Simon & Schuster. p. 236.
ISBN 0-671-79964-9. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
20. Rynasiewicz, Robert : Johns Hopkins University (12 August 2004). "Newton's Views on Space, Time, and Motion".
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. Retrieved 5 February 2012. "Newton did not regard
space and time as genuine substances (as are, paradigmatically, bodies and minds), but rather as real entities with
their own manner of existence as necessitated by God's existence... To paraphrase: Absolute, true, and
mathematical time, from its own nature, passes equably without relation to anything external, and thus without
reference to any change or way of measuring of time (e.g., the hour, day, month, or year)."
21. Markosian, Ned. "Time". In Edward N. Zalta. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2002 Edition).
Retrieved 23 September 2011. "The opposing view, normally referred to either as Platonism with Respect to
Time or as Absolutism with Respect to Time, has been defended by Plato, Newton, and others. On this view,
time is like an empty container into which events may be placed; but it is a container that exists independently of
whether or not anything is placed in it."
22. Mattey, G. J. : UC Davis (22 January 1997). "Critique of Pure Reason, Lecture notes: Philosophy 175 UC Davis".
Retrieved 9 April 2011. "What is correct in the Leibnizian view was its anti-metaphysical stance. Space and time do
not exist in and of themselves, but in some sense are the product of the way we represent things. The[y] are ideal,
though not in the sense in which Leibniz thought they are ideal (figments of the imagination). The ideality of space is
its mind-dependence: it is only a condition of sensibility.... Kant concluded "absolute space is not an object of outer
sensation; it is rather a fundamental concept which first of all makes possible all such outer sensation."...Much of
the argumentation pertaining to space is applicable, mutatis mutandis, to time, so I will not rehearse the arguments.
As space is the form of outer intuition, so time is the form of inner intuition.... Kant claimed that time is real, it is
"the real form of inner intuition.""
23. McCormick, Matt : California State University, Sacramento (2006). "Immanuel Kant (17241804) Metaphysics: 4.
Kant's Transcendental Idealism". The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 9 April 2011. "Time, Kant
argues, is also necessary as a form or condition of our intuitions of objects. The idea of time itself cannot be
gathered from experience because succession and simultaneity of objects, the phenomena that would indicate the
passage of time, would be impossible to represent if we did not already possess the capacity to represent objects in
time.... Another way to put the point is to say that the fact that the mind of the knower makes the a priori
contribution does not mean that space and time or the categories are mere figments of the imagination. Kant is an
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empirical realist about the world we experience; we can know objects as they appear to us. He gives a robust
defense of science and the study of the natural world from his argument about the mind's role in making nature. All
discursive, rational beings must conceive of the physical world as spatially and temporally unified, he argues."
24. Duff, Okun, Veneziano, ibid. p. 3. "There is no well established terminology for the fundamental constants of
Nature. The absence of accurately defined terms or the uses (i.e., actually misuses) of ill-defined terms lead to
confusion and proliferation of wrong statements."
25. Carrol, Sean, Chapter One, Section Two, Plume, 2010. From Eternity to Here. ISBN 978-0452296541. "As human
beings we 'feel' the passage of time."
26. Lehar, Steve. (2000). The Function of Conscious Experience: An Analogical Paradigm of Perception and Behavior
(http://cns-alumni.bu.edu/~slehar/webstuff/consc1/consc1.html), Consciousness and Cognition.
27. Richards, E. G. (1998). Mapping Time: The Calendar and its History. Oxford University Press. pp. 35.
28. Rudgley, Richard (1999). The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 86105.
29. Barnett, Jo Ellen Time's Pendulum: The Quest to Capture Timefrom Sundials to Atomic Clocks Plenum, 1998
ISBN 0-306-45787-3 p.28
30. Barnett, ibid, p.37
31. Laurence Bergreen, Over the Edge of the World: Magellan's Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe,
HarperCollins Publishers, 2003, hardcover 480 pages, ISBN 0-06-621173-5
32. North, J. (2004) God's Clockmaker: Richard of Wallingford and the Invention of Time. Oxbow Books. ISBN
1-85285-451-0
33. Watson, E (1979) "The St Albans Clock of Richard of Wallingford". Antiquarian Horology 372384.
34. "NIST Unveils Chip-Scale Atomic Clock". 27 August 2004. Retrieved 9 June 2011.
35. "New atomic clock can keep time for 200 million years: Super-precise instruments vital to deep space navigation".
Vancouver Sun. 16 February 2008. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
36. "NIST-F1 Cesium Fountain Clock". Retrieved 24 July 2015.
37. "Byrhtferth of Ramsey". (2008). In Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved 2008-09-15, from Encyclopdia Britannica
Online: http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9438957
38. "atom", Oxford English Dictionary, Draft Revision September 2008 (contains relevant citations from Byrhtferth's
Enchiridion)
39. "12 attoseconds is the world record for shortest controllable time". 12 May 2010. Retrieved 19 April 2012.
40. Bacon, Roger. Opera quaedam hactenus inedita. Harvard University. Retrieved 5 July 2014.
41. McCarthy, Dennis D.; Seidelmann, P. Kenneth (2009). Time: from Earth rotation to atomic physics. Wiley-VCH.
p. 18. ISBN 3-527-40780-4., Extract of page 18 (http://books.google.com/books?id=7NdrK4e77CIC&pg=PA18)
42. Jones, Floyd Nolen (2005). The Chronology Of The Old Testament (15th ed.). New Leaf Publishing Group. p. 287.
ISBN 0-89051-416-X., Extract of page 287 (http://books.google.com/books?id=ZkBasQYRy4sC&pg=PA287)
43. Cohen, K.M.; Finney, S.; Gibbard, P.L. (2013), International Chronostratigraphic Chart (PDF), International
Commission on Stratigraphy, retrieved 23 September 2013
44. http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/questions/question18.html NASA - StarChild Question of the Month
for February 2000
45. "Aeon - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary". Merriam-webster.com. 31 August 2012.
Retrieved 24 September 2013.
46. Organisation Intergouvernementale de la Convention du Mtre (1998). The International System of Units (SI), 7th
Edition (PDF). Retrieved 9 April 2011.
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48. IEC 60050-113:2011, item 113-01-08
49. IEC 60050-113:2011, item 113-01-010; ISO 80000-3:2006, item 3-7
50. IEC 60050-113:2011, item 113-01-012: "mark attributed to an instant by means of a specified time scale
51. IEC 60050-113:2011, item 113-01-013: "range of a time interval (113-01-10)"
52. ISO 80000-3:2006, item 3-7
53. Rust, Eric Charles (1981). Religion, Revelation and Reason. Mercer University Press. p. 60.
ISBN 9780865540583. Retrieved 2015-08-20. "Profane time, as Eliade points out, is linear. As man dwelt
increasingly in the profane and a sense of history developed, the desire to escape into the sacred began to drop in
the background. The myths, tied up with cyclic time, were not so easily operative. [...] So secular man became
content with his linear time. He could not return to cyclic time and re-enter sacred space though its myths. [...] Just
here, as Eliade sees it, a new religious structure became available. In the Judaeo-Christian religions - Judaism,
Christianity, Islam - history is taken seriously, and linear time is accepted. The cyclic time of the primordial
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mythical consciousness has been transformed into the time of profane man, but the mythical consciousness remains.
It has been historicized. The Christian mythos and its accompanying ritual are bound up, for example, with history
and center in authentic history, especially the Christ-event. Sacred space, the Transcendent Presence, is thus opened
up to secular man because it meets him where he is, in the linear flow of secular time. The Christian myth gives
such time a beginning in creation, a center in the Christ-event, and an end in the final consummation."
54. Betz, Hans Dieter, ed. (2008). Religion Past & Present: Encyclopedia of Theology and Religion. 4: Dev-Ezr (4
ed.). Brill. p. 101. ISBN 9789004146884. Retrieved 2015-08-20. "[...] God produces a creation with a directional
time structure [...]."
55. Lundin, Roger; Thiselton, Anthony C.; Walhout, Clarence (1999). The Promise of Hermeneutics. Wm. B. Eerdmans
Publishing. p. 121. ISBN 9780802846358. Retrieved 2015-08-20. "We need to note the close ties between
teleology, eschatology, and utopia. In Christian theology, the understanding of the teleology of particular actions is
ultimately related to the teleology of history in general, which is the concern of eschatology."
56. Hus, Boaz; Pasi, Marco; Von Stuckrad, Kocku (2011). Kabbalah and Modernity: Interpretations,
Transformations, Adaptations. BRILL. ISBN 9004182845.
57. Wolfson, Elliot R. (2006). Alef, Mem, Tau: Kabbalistic Musings on Time, Truth, and Death. University of
California Press. p. 111. ISBN 0-520-93231-5., Extract of page 111 (http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&
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58. Navratil, Gerhard (2009). Research Trends in Geographic Information Science. Springer Japan. p. 217.
ISBN 3-540-88243-X. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
59. Layton, Robert (1994). Who needs the past?: indigenous values and archaeology (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 7.
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60. Dagobert Runes, Dictionary of Philosophy, p. 318
61. Hardie, R. P.; Gaye, R. K. "Physics by Aristotle". MIT. Retrieved 4 May 2014."Time then is a kind of number.
(Number, we must note, is used in two senses-both of what is counted or the countable and also of that with which
we count. Time obviously is what is counted, not that with which we count: there are different kinds of thing.) [...]
It is clear, then, that time is 'number of movement in respect of the before and after', and is continuous since it is
an attribute of what is continuous. "
62. Augustine of Hippo. Confessions. Retrieved 9 April 2011. Book 11, Chapter 14.
63. Gottfried Martin, Kant's Metaphysics and Theory of Science
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Meiklejohn, eBooks@Adelaide, 2004
65. Bergson, Henri (1907) Creative Evolution. trans. by Arthur Mitchell. Mineola: Dover, 1998.
66. Balslev, Anindita N.; Jitendranath Mohanty (November 1992). Religion and Time. Studies in the History of
Religions, 54. The Netherlands: Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, and 59.
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67. Martin Heidegger (1962). "V". Being and Time. p. 425. ISBN 978-0-631-19770-6.
68. Harry Foundalis. "You are about to disappear". Retrieved 9 April 2011.
69. Huston, Tom. "Buddhism and the illusion of time". Retrieved 9 April 2011.
70. Garfield, Jay L. (1995). The fundamental wisdom of the middle way: Ngrjuna's Mlamadhyamakakrik. New
York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509336-0.
71. "Time is an illusion?". Retrieved 9 April 2011.
72. Herman M. Schwartz, Introduction to Special Relativity, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1968, hardcover 442 pages,
see ISBN 0-88275-478-5 (1977 edition), pp. 1013
73. A. Einstein, H. A. Lorentz, H. Weyl, H. Minkowski, The Principle of Relativity, Dover Publications, Inc, 2000,
softcover 216 pages, ISBN 0-486-60081-5, See pp. 3765 for an English translation of Einstein's original 1905
paper.
74. "Albert Einstein's Theory of Relativity". YouTube. 30 November 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
75. "Time Travel: Einstein's big idea (Theory of Relativity)". YouTube. 9 January 2007. Retrieved 24 September
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76. Hours, After (11 February 2012). "7 Theories on Time That Would Make Doc Brown's Head Explode".
Cracked.com. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
77. Mughal, Muhammad Aurang Zeb. 2009. Time, Absolute (http://dro.dur.ac.uk/10920/1/10920.pdf). H. James Birx
(ed.), Encyclopedia of Time: Science, Philosophy, Theology, and Culture, Vol. 3. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp.
1254-1255.
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78. Hawking, Stephen (1996). "The Beginning of Time". University of Cambridge. Retrieved 8 July 2012. "Since events
before the Big Bang have no observational consequences, one may as well cut them out of the theory, and say that
time began at the Big Bang. Events before the Big Bang, are simply not defined, because there's no way one could
measure what happened at them. This kind of beginning to the universe, and of time itself, is very different to the
beginnings that had been considered earlier."
79. Hawking, Stephen (1996). "The Beginning of Time". University of Cambridge. Retrieved 8 July 2012. "The
conclusion of this lecture is that the universe has not existed forever. Rather, the universe, and time itself, had a
beginning in the Big Bang, about 15 billion years ago."
80. Hawking, Stephen (27 February 2006). "Professor Stephen Hawking lectures on the origin of the universe".
University of Oxford. Retrieved 5 December 2012. "Suppose the beginning of the universe was like the South Pole
of the earth, with degrees of latitude playing the role of time. The universe would start as a point at the South Pole.
As one moves north, the circles of constant latitude, representing the size of the universe, would expand. To ask
what happened before the beginning of the universe would become a meaningless question because there is nothing
south of the South Pole."
81. Ghandchi, Sam : Editor/Publisher (16 January 2004). "Space and New Thinking". Retrieved 9 April 2011. "and as
Stephen Hawking puts it, asking what was before Big Bang is like asking what is North of North Pole, a meaningless
question."
82. Adler, Mortimer J., PhD. "Natural Theology, Chance, and God". Retrieved 9 April 2011. "Hawking could have
avoided the error of supposing that time had a beginning with the Big Bang if he had distinguished time as it is
measured by physicists from time that is not measurable by physicists.... an error shared by many other great
physicists in the twentieth century, the error of saying that what cannot be measured by physicists does not exist in
reality." "The Great Ideas Today". Encyclopdia Britannica. 1992.
83. Adler, Mortimer J., PhD. "Natural Theology, Chance, and God". Retrieved 9 April 2011. "Where Einstein had said
that what is not measurable by physicists is of no interest to them, Hawking flatly asserts that what is not
measurable by physicists does not existhas no reality whatsoever.
With respect to time, that amounts to the denial of psychological time which is not measurable by physicists, and
also to everlasting timetime before the Big Bangwhich physics cannot measure. Hawking does not know that
both Aquinas and Kant had shown that we cannot rationally establish that time is either finite or infinite." "The
Great Ideas Today". Encyclopdia Britannica. 1992.
84. Hawking, Stephen; and Ellis, G. F. R. (1973). The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-09906-4.
85. J. Hartle and S. W. Hawking (1983). "Wave function of the universe". Phys. Rev. D 28 (12): 2960.
Bibcode:1983PhRvD..28.2960H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.28.2960.
86. Langlois, David (2002). "Brane cosmology: an introduction". Progress of Theoretical Physics Supplement 148:
181. arXiv:hep-th/0209261. Bibcode:2002PThPS.148..181L. doi:10.1143/PTPS.148.181.
87. Linde, Andre (2002). "Inflationary Theory versus Ekpyrotic/Cyclic Scenario". In: the future of theoretical physics
and cosmology. Edited by G. W. Gibbons: 801. arXiv:hep-th/0205259. Bibcode:2003ftpc.book..801L.
88. "Recycled Universe: Theory Could Solve Cosmic Mystery". Space.com. 8 May 2006. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
89. "What Happened Before the Big Bang?". Archived from the original on 4 July 2007. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
90. A. Linde (1986). "Eternal chaotic inflation". Mod. Phys. Lett. A1 (2): 81. Bibcode:1986MPLA....1...81L.
doi:10.1142/S0217732386000129. A. Linde (1986). "Eternally existing self-reproducing chaotic inflationary
universe". Phys. Lett. B175 (4): 395400. Bibcode:1986PhLB..175..395L. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(86)90611-8.
91. G. Quznetsov, Prespacetime Journal, March 2010, Vol.1, Issue 2, Page 274-275 (http://prespacetime.com/index.php
/pst/article/view/10)
92. Andersen, Holly; Rick Grush (2009). "A brief history of time-consciousness: historical precursors to James and
Husserl" (PDF) 47 (2). Journal of the History of Philosophy: 277307. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
93. Wittmann, M.; Leland DS; Churan J; Paulus MP. (8 October 2007). "Impaired time perception and motor timing in
stimulant-dependent subjects" (online abstract). Drug Alcohol Depend. 90 (23): 18392.
doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.03.005. PMC 1997301. PMID 17434690.
94. Cheng, Ruey-Kuang; Macdonald, Christopher J.; Meck, Warren H. (2006). "Differential effects of cocaine and
ketamine on time estimation: Implications for neurobiological models of interval timing" (online abstract).
Pharmacology, biochemistry and behavior 85 (1): 114122. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2006.07.019. PMID 16920182.
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95. Tinklenberg, Jared R.; Walton T. Roth1; Bert S. Kopell (January 1976). "Marijuana and ethanol: Differential effects
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Barbour, Julian (1999). The End of Time: The Next

Revolution in Our Understanding of the Universe.
Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514592-5.
Landes, David (2000). Revolution in Time. Harvard
Das, Tushar Kanti (1990). The Time Dimension: An
Interdisciplinary Guide. New York: Praeger.
ISBN 0-275-92681-8.- Research bibliography
Davies, Paul (1996). About Time: Einstein's
Unfinished Revolution. New York: Simon &
Schuster Paperbacks. ISBN 0-684-81822-1.
Feynman, Richard (1994) [1965]. The Character of
Physical Law. Cambridge (Mass): The MIT Press.
pp. 108126. ISBN 0-262-56003-8.
Galison, Peter (1992). Einstein's Clocks and
Poincar's Maps: Empires of Time. New York: W.
W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-02001-0.
Highfield, Roger (1992). Arrow of Time: A Voyage
through Science to Solve Time's Greatest Mystery.
Random House. ISBN 0-449-90723-6.
Mermin, N. David (2005). It's About Time:

Understanding Einstein's Relativity. Princeton
Penrose, Roger (1999) [1989]. The Emperor's New
Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds, and the Laws
of Physics. New York: Oxford University Press.
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9 April 2011.
Price, Huw (1996). Time's Arrow and Archimedes'
Point. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-511798-0. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
Reichenbach, Hans (1999) [1956]. The Direction of
Time. New York: Dover. ISBN 0-486-40926-0.
Stiegler, Bernard, Technics and Time, 1: The Fault
of Epimetheus
Quznetsov, Gunn A. (2006). Logical Foundation of
Theoretical Physics. Nova Sci. Publ.
ISBN 1-59454-948-6.
Whitrow, Gerald J. (1973). The Nature of Time.
Holt, Rinehart and Wilson (New York).
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Whitrow, Gerald J. (1980). The Natural Philosophy

of Time. Clarendon Press (Oxford).
Whitrow, Gerald J. (1988). Time in History. The
evolution of our general awareness of time and
temporal perspective. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-285211-6.
Rovelli, Carlo (2006). What is time? What is space?.
Rome: Di Renzo Editore. ISBN 88-8323-146-5.
Charlie Gere, (2005) Art, Time and Technology:
Histories of the Disappearing Body, Berg
Craig Callendar, Introducing Time, Icon Books,

2010, ISBN 978-1848311206
Benjamin Gal-Or, Cosmology, Physics and
Philosophy, Springer Verlag, 1981, 1983, 1987,
ISBN 0-387-90581-2, ISBN 0-387-96526-2.
Roberto Mangabeira Unger and Lee Smolin, The
Singular Universe and the Reality of Time,
Cambridge University Press, 2014, ISBN
978-1-107-07406-4.
Accurate time vs. PC Clock Difference (http://www.centralx.com/time/index.en.html)

Exploring Time (http://exploringtime.org/?page=segments) from Planck Time to the lifespan of the
universe
Different systems of measuring time (http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/systime.html)
Time (http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p005465z) on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Time&oldid=701093673"
Categories: Time Concepts in metaphysics Concepts in physics Physical quantities SI base quantities
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Time - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Time - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

1 Temporal measurement and history

Time - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

History of the calendar

History of time measurement devices

Horizontal sundial in Taganrog

Time - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Richard of Wallingford (12921336), abbot of St. Alban's abbey,

A contemporary quartz watch

The 555 timer IC is an integrated

The most accurate timekeeping

Time - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Time - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Length, Duration and

The duration light takes to travel one Planck length. Theorized to

shortest duration now measurable

pulse duration on fastest lasers

duration for molecules to fluoresce

10 nanoseconds. Also a casual term for a short duration.

shortest duration unit used on stopwatches

used on some stopwatches

used on some stopwatches

Used to measure the duration between alternating power cycles.

All the numbers on an analog clock are 5 minutes apart

1/40th of an hour? (90

used by Medieval Western European computists.[40]

1 minute and 40 seconds

traditional Chinese unit of decimal time duration, usually 1/100

16 minutes and 40 seconds

Time - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

longest unit used on stopwatches and countdowns

Also called sennight

About 11.6 days

2 weeks (more common in Great Britain)

Various definitions of lunar month exist.

This month gets an extra day in a leap year

common month 3031 days

Often 30 days for financial and other calculations.

The duration of any of the four calendar seasons; winter, spring,

Gregorian year 365.2425 days[42]

A unit of time duration commonly used by legislatures

About 31.7 years

also called "kiloannum"

About 31,700 years

on the geological timescale, some millions of years[43]

on the geological timescale, tens of millions of years[43]

About 31.7 million years

on the geological timescale, several hundred millions of years[43]

how long (averagely) people live

Time - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

on the geological timescale, 500 million years or more.[43] Also

A billion years (109)

Is how long the sun will live

A trillion years (1012)

About 31.7 x 1012 years

A quadrillion years (1015)

About 31.7 x 1015 years