/';-=09

)(8*=-0/']

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CONTENTS
John H. Kroll. A small findof silverbullionfromEgypt

Elena Stolyarik. Scythians in the West Pontic area: new

numismaticevidence

21

Hlne Guiraud and James H. Schwartz. Engraved gems in

the collectionof the AmericanNumismaticSociety III : male
deitiesand heroes

35

tremissis
Sebastian Heath and David Yoon. A sixth-century
fromPsalmodi (Gard, France)

63

Michael Fedorov. New data on the monetarycirculationof

medieval Uzgend: coins fromthe Kashka-Terekhillfort

81

Joel J. Orosz. JosephJ. Mickley'sdiary for1852: an annotated

transcription

89

Aleksandar N. Brzi. Yugoslav countermarkson AustroHungariangold coins

109

Warren W. Esty and David Spencer Smith. A die study of

some silvercoins of Sinkiang,China

133

BOOK REVIEW
Kenneth Sheedy, Robert Carson, and Alan Walmsley,
Pella in Jordan1979-1990: thecoins. Oliver D. Hoover

147

NEW ACQUISITIONS
Ute Wartenberg, Peter van Alfen, Elena Stolyarik,
Sebastian Heath, Michael Bates, and Robert W. Hge.
Acquisitionsfor2000 and 2001 in the AmericanNumismatic
Society collection

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151

AJN Second Series 13 (2001) pp. 1-20

Numismatic
2002TheAmerican
Society

A SMALL
SILVER

FIND
FROM

BULLION

OF
EGYPT
John H. Kroll*

(Plate 1)

There is no way of knowingwhen or under what circumstancesthis

modestgroup of miscellaneouspieces of silvercame into the possession
of the American NumismaticSociety. It has resided in the Society's
Greek vault forprobablymore than a half century,stored,at least in
recent decades, in a tray with a few other minor hoards or parts of
hoards. The pieces had once been kept togetherin a white envelope
1
that was annotated in a nondescripthand: "Hoard fromEgypt. . .19".
There are indeed nineteenpieces: three completeround cake ingots;
Athenian tetradrachms,of which one had been cut
two fifth-century
down and the other had been tested with a small gash; one flattened
coin-likedump; and thirteenirregularpieces of cut-silverof various
sizes. Weights,dimensions,and details are as follows:

* Department
AustinTX 78712-1181,
ofTexasat Austin,
ofClassics,
University
USA (ikroll@utxvms.cc.utexas.edu).
1 I thankSebastian
thefindto myattenHeathand OliverHooverforbringing
This
references.
several
crucial
van
Alfen
for
and
Peter
tion,
paperowesmuchalso
of Coinsand Medalsand
MuseumDepartment
MeadowsoftheBritish
to Andrew
and facilitating
MuseumCoinRoomfordiscussion
HenryKim of theAshmolean
of
thesummer
in
in
their
collections
cut-silver
the
and
examination
of
ingots
my
2000.
1

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John H. Kroll

2
Round cake ingots

One side flat and smooth,with two or more irregularextrusions;the

other side convex, with a rough surface (except towards the center
where the roughnesshas been abraded throughwear). A nick in 2,
flat side, along the rim (at 3 o'clock on Plate 1) was probably cut to
expose the metal beneath the surface.Apart fromtheirsimilarweights
2 and 3 are related by theirperpendicularcollar-likeedge.
1. 92.96 g, 44 X 11 mm (th.).
2. 68.27 g, 38 X 11 mm.
3. 64.30 g, 33 X 13 mm.
Atheniantetradrachms
Obverse: head of Athena r., with frontaleye and threeuprightolive
leaves on the brow of her helmet. Reverse: owl standingr. with olive
spray and AGE.
4 16.99 g, 24 mm, die axis 5 o'clock. Small test-cutbeneath the
tail of the owl on the reverse.
5. 11.62 g, 24 mm. Segmentcut away. The reversetype is entirely
obliterated.
Flatteneddump
The disk does not appear to be a hammeredcoin; the suggestionof a
possibly obliterateddesign on the middle of one side is more likely
randomsurfaceunevennessthan traces of an almost completelyeffaced
coin type.
6. 4.29 g, 11 mm.
Pieces of cut-silver
None appear to have been chopped fromcoins.
7. 12.02 g. Roughly square with a deep test gash in middle. 22 x
20 X 7 mm.
8. 10.70 g. Triangular,cut on all threesides. 25 x 20 x 7 mm.
9. 10.73 g. Edge fragmentof cake ingot;cut on two sides. 18 x 20
x 10 mm.

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A Small Find of Silver Bullion from Egypt

10. 12.89 g. Amorphous lump composed of six or more small

pieces fusedtogetherby heat.
11. 6.43 g. Amorphouslump composed of several small pieces
fusedtogetherby heat.
12-19. Irregularcut chunks:8.56 g, 5.52 g, 5.97 g, 3.48 g, 2.86 g,
2.27 g, 2.24 g, 1.11 g.
Despite the poor preservationof the Athenian tetradrachms,the
visible details indicate that both coins date roughly to the third
quarter of the fifthcentury.2Since the coins are damaged, we should
probablydate the findto the later fifthor the earlierfourthcentury.
COMPARABLE HOARDS FROM EGYPT
There can be no doubt that the findcomes fromEgypt, as it replicates the contentsof a numberof fifth-and fourth-centuryEgyptian
hoards, which typicallyinclude cake ingots and chopped ingot fragments along with Greek coins, both whole (though frequentlygashed)
and in chopped pieces. For purpose of comparison,I here list ten such
hoards which were recorded with some attention to their uncoined
silver,along with three silver hoards (cited and reviewed by Dressel
and Regling 1927: 6) in which there were no coins. The three hoards
without coins were most likely secreted before Greek coins began to
flood into Egypt in the last quarterof the sixth century.
2
bothpiecesbelongafterStarr(1970)GroupV.Abutbefore
thefullStylistically
blownmechanical
of thelaterfifth-century
standardization
owls.No. 4, withits
letters
andowlwitha two-part
tidy,unevenly-sized
(smallomicron)
wingarticulated
in highrelief,
hasparallels
in Starr(1970:pls.XX.195[GroupV.B] andXXII.1'-3'
To judgefromthehelmetpalmette,
5 is later,definitely
after
[early"post-449"]).
of 449 has beenadjustedupwards
to c. 454
GroupV. NowthatStarr'sterminus
ofthefifth
5 somewhere
(Kroll1993:6), 4 shouldbelongaroundthemiddle
century,
- unlessit is actually
inorsoonafterthethirdquarter
of
oneofthemanyimitations
laterfifth-century
owlsmanufactured
in Egyptinthefourth
in
andperhaps
century
thelatefifth
itis impossible
to tell.No.4, on
(seebelow);givenitspoorpreservation
theotherhand,is almostcertainly
Athenian
sinceEgyptian
imitations
didnotcopy
owlsofpre-standardized
omicrons.
typewithlayered
wingsandsmallish

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John H. Kroll
No Coins
a. Samanoud (ancient Sebennytos,in the Delta), 1890s (Dutilh
1899: 287-88; Dressel and Regling 1927: 6 no. 1), gift to the
Greco-RomanMuseum, Alexandria: 470 pieces of chopped silver,
includingpieces of jewelry.
b. Mit Rahineh (ancient Memphis),February 1906, fromexcavations at Kom el-Qala (Brugsch 1906: 163; Dressel and Regling
1927: 6 no. 2): 4 whole cake ingots(92 g, 142 g, 147 g, 149 g), of
whichtwo had been gashed across with a chisel,and the half of a
fifthcake ingot (107 g). The silvertested at 95% fine.
c. Tel el-Athrib,near Benha (Delta), excavated on September27,
1924 (Engelbach 1924; Dressel and Regling 1927: 6 no. 3): 50 kg
of silver in the formof lumps, ingots, amulets, rings and other
small, mostly fragmentaryobjects in two broken potteryjars.
Engelbach lists and illustratesmany of the inscribedand figured
objects, and states that "[t]hey all seem to date between the
XXVIth dynasty[c. 672-525 BC] and Ptolemaic times,but none
of them permitus to date them more precisely."Cairo Museum
inv. no. 48859.4
With coins
d. Mit Rahineh (ancient Memphis) 1869 ( IGCH 1636; c. 500 BC
[Jenkins]):23+ coins; 73 kilogramsof ingots and cut-silver.See
note 3 above.

3
MitRahineh
listsa secondlotofcakeingotsfrom
thatcamefrom
an
Brugsch
earlierfindand had beendeposited
in theCairoMuseum.
Theseingots,
however,
are80 g, 98 g,
mayhavebeenpartofhoard"d"below,MitRahineh1860.Weights
witha chisel.
133g, 158g, and257g; thethirdingotwastest-cut
thattheBerlincabinetacquireda lot of 233 g of smallto
Reglingmentions
minuscule
piecesofsilverlumps,wire,sheet,and foilthatwereallegedto be part
threecoinsfrom
to rejectas modern
additions
ofthesamefind.He wassurely
right
withthe
and secondcenturies
northern
Greece(fourth
BC), whichwereincluded
silver.

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A Small Find of Silver Bullion from Egypt

e. Demanhur (Delta) 1900-01 ( IGCH 1637; c. 500 BC [Kraay]):

164 coins; 2 cake ingots ("Silberkuchen" [Dressel and Regling
1927: 9]).
f. Sakha (Delta) 1897, ( IGCH 1639; early fifthc. BC [Jenkins]):
72+ coins; 3 pieces of silver ingots and an uncertainnumber of
coin fragments,all of which were melted down as worthless
(Dressel 1900: 250).5
g. Benha el-Asl (Delta) 1929 ( IGCH 1640; c. 485 BC [Robinson]):
77+ coins, most gashed or fragments; 13 small cake ingots
(weighingfrom48 g [diam. 35 mm] down to 9 g [diam. 20 mm]);
2 cut-silverfragments.The British Museum acquired all of the
unminted silver. Robinson (1930, 1931) gives the weight and
dimensionof each piece and illustratesone of the larger ingots
(1930: pl. IX, no. 33). Some of the smaller ingots may be fused
or partiallymelted coins.
h. Asyut (Middle Egypt) 1968 or 1969 ( IGCH 1644; c. 475 BC
[Price]): 631+ coins, many gashed or fragments;5 fragmentsof
cake ingots, and one roughly hemisphericaldump (Price and
Waggoner 1975: 115, with photos of two of these pieces, pl. xxxi).
i. Naucratis (Delta) 1885 ("silversmith'shoard") ( IGCH 1647;
450-425 BC [Barron]): 15 coins (of which 6 are Athens of mid to
late fifth-century
style), with 42 oz of roughlycast and cut-up
lumps of silver.
j. Zagazig (Delta) 1901 ( IGCH 1645; c. 470 [Barron],but a much
later date, probably in the fourthcenturyBC, is called for): 84
coins, of which the latest are 5 Athenian tetradrachms,4
5 In thehoard
in addition
thataboutforty
Dressel(1900:250)writes
publication,
with
the
hoard.
He
illustrates
lead
were
associated
two,one
squarish,
stamped pieces
withtheobverse,
theotherwitha reverse
Athenian
drachm,
stampof a post-480
in
bothapparently
drachms
trialpiecesfortheproduction
of imitation
Athenian
If
with
the
silver
these
remnants
from
an
mint
were
found
Egypt.
truly
Egyptian
andis remi(onecanonlysaythatit is at leastnotbeyondtherealmofpossibility
niscent
ofthebronzereverse
diethatwasallegedly
foundwiththecoinsoftheTel
el-Athrib
hoard[seenote14 below]),theburialdateoftheassemblage
wouldhave
to be lowered
considerably.

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John H. Kroll
of the second half of the fifthcenturyand one apparentlyof the
fourth6;16 cake ingots,and two cut halves of ingots,all of which
are preservedin Berlin. Six of the ingots,of which one has the
Athenian tetradrachmcorroded onto it,
fourth-century-looking
are illustratedin Dressel and Regling (1927: pl. IV).
k. Delta 1940 ( IGCH 1650; 375-350 BC [Robinson]): 9 coins,
includingSidon, some gashed; 2 coins (?) with fused,obliterated
types; 1 small cast disk ingot (Robinson 1960: pl. 11.12), now in
the AshmoleanMuseum- 8.33 g, diam. 27 mm, th. 5 mm even.
1. Beni Hasan (Middle Egypt) 1903 ( IGCH 1651; c. 360 BC
[Jenkins]):77 coins (of which 55 are Athens, fifth-century
type;
with Sidon, Tyre, Gaza); 1 small cake ingot (22 g; diam. 28 mm)
and 6 irregularlycut ingot fragments.Robinson (1937) gives
weightsand dimensionsof the uncoined silver pieces, which are
in the BritishMuseum.
m. Naucratis (Delta) 1905 ( IGCH 1652; c. 360 BC [Jenkins]):83
coins (of which 70 are Athens: 68 of fifth-century
type, 2 of

6 ThreeofthefivelaterAthenian
tetradrachms
(Dresseland Regling1927:nos.
timein Kraay(1975:plate,nos.1-3).They,
forthefirst
219-221)wereillustrated
withthefourth
areofthestandard(no.222)thatKraaydidnotillustrate,
together
ized typeof thesecondhalfor last thirdof thefifth
and led Kraayto
century
a closingdateofc. 440 BC forthehoard.But at leastoneofthesetetrasuggest
thewide-flan
no.220 (Kraay1975:no.3) is surely
an Egyptian
imitation
drachms,
ofthefourth
and noneoftheothersare abovesuspicion
ofbeingfourthcentury,
imitations
as well(seebelow).
century
Egyptian
In orderto checktheaccuracy
ofthepublished
ofthetetradrachm
(no.
drawing
ofthe
ontoIngotb (DresselandRegling
1927:pl. IV), Dr. B. Weisser
223)corroded
whichtendto confirm
that
BerlinCabinetkindly
sentme a castand photograph,
the Athenaof thistetradrachm
does indeedappearto have a profile
eye,fully
owl silverof thefourth
in keeping
withstandard
Athenian
openedat thefront,
of
silverovertheoutline
But sincetherearesomeparticles
ofredeposited
century.
of theeye was only
theeye,one cannotbe sure,and it maybe thatthefront
and goldcoinagesofthelastdecadeof
silver-plated
partially
open,as on Athens'
whichotherwise
thetetradrachm's
thefifth
reverse,
might
century.
Unfortunately,
Forall onecan
is affixed
to theingotand cannotbe inspected.
decidethematter,
in origin.
tell,thiscointoomaybe Egyptian

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A Small Find of Silver Bullion from Egypt

fourth-century
type); "a few silver ingots and probably also coin
fragments"(Dressel and Regling 1927: 4).
Could the ANS assemblage be a small parcel fromone of these later
hoards? It is not impossible,but differencesin the character of the
unmintedsilver make it unlikely.For instance the very small bits of
cut-silver,like our 15-19, have not been reportedfromany of these
later finds;nor are any of the betterpreservedhoards known to have
produced lumps of silver, like our 10 and 11, composed of smaller
pieces that had been partially melted together,although Robinson
(1960: 35) notes that "[h]alf melted coins and lumps of fused metal
are regularlyfound in hoards fromthe Persian empire and especially
Egypt."
Probably the most intriguingpiece in the ANS materialis the flattened dump (6) that has the exact weight of an Attic drachm and a
mixed hoard
nearlyexact counterpartin the great early fifth-century
of bullionand archaic coins fromTaranto, Italy ( IGCH 1874). The disk
fromTaranto, slightlyovoid and flatter,weighs 4.31 g.7 A third but
lighterflattenedsilver dump (test-cutwith a chisel) showed up in the
late sixth-century
mixed coin/bullionhoard fromSelinus,Sicily in 1985
(Arnold-Biucchi,Beer-Tobey,Waggoner 1988: 26, pl. 12 A); at 2.45 g,
affiliation,if any, with a standard weight system is not obvious.
Together,these "flans"forma class of anonymous,typeless,but still
coin-likepieces, produced in some cases as standard-weightdrachms,
that circulatedin areas where silver was transactedby weight.There
are no sure indicationsthat any of these flatteneddisks had once been
a struckcoin.
Any distinctivenessof the ANS Egyptian findis thus to be foundin
its smallerpieces. The two Atheniantetradrachms,on the otherhand,
are entirelytypical of Egyptian silverassemblages of the fifthcentury
and most of the fourth,as are the three ingots of bun or cake type.
Other kinds of ancient silver ingots are known fromfindsoutside of
Egypt- like the rectangularslab or brick ingotsrecoveredin Western

7 Thereis a
withsomeofthecut-silver
fromtheTarantohoardin
photograph
Price(1980:fig.60).

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John H. Kroll

Greek contexts8or the flat pancake ingots that came to light in the
Antilebanon1981 hoard (Hurter and Paszthory 1984: 121, pls. 16-17
nos. b-i)9- but in Egypt the round, plano-convexcake type of ingot
recurswithoutexceptionand is the prevalentingot type in contemporarymixed hoards fromthe Levant as well.10
Such ingotsowe theirshield-likeshape to having been cast in open,
saucer-likecrucibles.One face (the upper,open side at time of casting)
is regularlyflat and smooth; the other side, shaped by the concave
mould, is convex and normallyhas a rough,pitted surfacecaused by
the grittytexture of the mould (which was probably made of coarse
ceramic). Oftenprotrudingfromthe smooth,upper surfaceare one or
more irregularknobs or extrusionsof silverformedby solidificationof
highly viscous bubbles of metal when highly purifiedmolten silver
cools. In a discussion of these extrusions, C. Conophagos (1980:
329-30) states that they formonly on silver with a purityof 98.5%
or higherand thereforeserved as a guaranteeof an ingot'sfineness.
In shape and size, the ANS specimens are fairly typical, and
compare closely to the ingots fromthe Zagazig hoard illustratedby
Dressel and Regling (1927: pl. VI). The largest of the Zagazig specimens is considerablybigger than any of the ANS ingots, weighing
156 g and having a diameter of 57 mm; the smallest,with a 22-mm
diameterand weighinga mere 15.5 g, is very much smaller. In some
Egyptian hoards,like Benha el-Asl and the Delta hoards,nearlyall of
the round ingots are small, not much or not any largerthan a Greek
8 See theendofan brick
inBabelon(1912:
theTarantohoardpictured
ingotfrom
to Zeus,from
dedication
brickingot(725g) withan inscribed
335)andthecomplete
no. 423 = IG XIV no. 597).
1893-1916:
Museum(Hirschfeld
Sicily,in theBritish
ofthepieceofa flatslabingotin theSelinushoard(ArnoldLead isotopie
analysis
its silveras probably
identified
Biucchiet al. 1988,ingotB) has provisionally
2001:66-67).It and
or
Iran
et
al.
from
(Stos-Gale
coming Spain(Beer-Tobey 1998)
havebeenon depositat the
nowin a privatecollection,
theotherSelinusingots,
Museum.
Ashmolean
to 6).
Museum
Mostoftheseingotsarenowin theBritish
(inv.1988-4-12-1
10See, for
in theRas Shamra
all withextrusions,
thefinespecimens,
example,
known
1939:485-86,fig.11).Theearliest
1936hoard(IGCH 1478;Schaeffer
ingots
withthenameoftheNeo-Hittite
arethethreeinscribed
ofsilverin cakeform
king
733-732BC, froma hoard(nowsee Gitinand Golani2001:38) excaBarrakkab,
inwestern
vatedat Zinjirli
Syria.

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A Small Find of Silver Bullion from Egypt

silvertetradrachm;such smalleringotstend to be disk-like,with relativelyeven thicknesses,but since they were cast in round moulds with
one side roughand the otherside smooth(and may sometimeshave an
silver extrusionon their flat side), it seems reasonable to associate
themwith the normallylargerplano-convexingots.
Some cake ingotswere very large indeed, althoughthe evidence for
them comes from outside of Egypt. At 420.8 g, the complete cake
ingot (diam. 80 mm) fromthe Selinus hoard (Arnold-Biucchi,BeerTobey, Waggoner, 1988: 26, pl. 12, ingot E) weighs very close to a
Attic/Aeginetanmina (433 g); and the very thick, cut quarter of
anothercake ingotin the same hoard (ingot D, 597.4 g) comes froman
ingotthat must have originallyweighedin the neighborhoodof 2400 g.
The 140-plus "cakes" ( phthoides
) of unminted silver stored in the
Parthenon on the Athenian Acropolis in 344/3 BC and listed in an
Atheniantreasuryinscriptionof that year were much largerstill,each
of a talent.11
weighing12 minas (5196 g) or one-fifth
Apart from documentingthe great size of these Athenian ingots,
theiritemizationin the inscriptionservesto remindus that the conventional modernterm,cake or bun ingot,mirrorsgood ancientpractice,12
11See IG II2.1443lines
in Harris(1995: 123-27),
12-88;textand translation
where(as in LSJ) the wordphthois
is misleadingly
translated
"bar"insteadof
Theingotswerestoredandinventoried
in groupsoffive,i.e.,bytalents.
It
"ingot".
is interesting
thatveryfewof thesecakesweighed
an exact1200drachms,
most
or moreoffonewayortheother,in a deviation
from
idealweight
beinga drachm
thatis reminiscent
ofGreekcoins.Theheaviest
oftheingots
1208drachms,
weighed
thelightest
1184.
12In an inscribed
accountof late fifth-century
Athens(IG I3.376lines57, 105,
is usedforsmalleringotsof gold,
111,1170),the samewordforcake (phthois)
whichcollectively
300drachms,
from
in coastalThrace.
weighed
Skaptesyle
Sincea unitoftheSpartans'
ironcurrency
was knownas a pelanor,
or
primitive
sacrificial
a moneyof
cake,it wouldseemthatthisSpartanmoneywas effectively
ironcakeingots.
Plutarch
thata pelanor
a mina;and
(Moralia226D)writes
weighed
as ironis about30% lessdensethansilver,
a Spartanironpelanor
wouldhavebeen
somewhat
thantheSelinusingotE, i.e.,aboutlargeenough
to entirely
fillthe
larger
hand.Bronzewas another
metalthatwas commonly
tradedin cakeor bunform.
Cakeingotsof bronzego backto thesecondmillennium;
forbibliography
and an
informative
discussion
ofthe24 bronzecakeingotsrecovered
from
theLate Bronze
offtheSW coastofTurkey
inthelate1950s,seeBass(1967:78-81).
Ageshipwreck
A verylargediskingotofbronze(so Boardman
1985:no. 158)is depicted
on the

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10

John H. Kroll

and also how inaccurate it is to referto the cake ingot as a "SyroEgyptian" type (cf. Price and Waggoner 1975: 115), despite its
commonappearance in Egyptian and Levantine hoard contexts.Lead
isotopie analyses of the cake ingot and ingot quarter fromthe Selinus
hoard have in fact revealed that the silverof both came fromAegean
sources; in the case of the complete Selinus ingot (E), the silver is
almost certainly from Laurion (Beer-Tobey, Gale, Kim, Stos-Gale
1998; Stos-Gale 2001: 66). It is to be hoped that in time the ANS
and other ingots can be likewise sourced by identifyingtheir lead
Meanwhile,the most suggestiveevidence forthe
isotope "fingerprints".
of
most
origin
ingots in Egyptian (and Levantine) bullion hoards is
provided by the Greek coins that were found with them; for if most
of the coined silverin Egypt came as it did fromthe miningdistricts
of the northernand central Aegean basin, these should also be the
sources that in the sixth and fifthcenturieswere supplyingmost of
the unmintedsilverto Egypt as well.
It is generallyrecognizedthat authoritiesin Egypt began to mint
and make payments in silver coin in the first half of the fourth
century,in large part (scholars have assumed) for compensatingthe
foreignmercenarieswho were recruitedfor Egypt's strugglesfor independence from Persia. The silver coinage of choice was the fifthcentury Athenian tetradrachm,the supply of which, once Athens
ceased mintingsilver near the end of the Peloponnesian War, was
hugely augmented by Egyptian imitations,some occasionally with
Aramaic or demotic inscriptions(Kraay 1976: 294-295; Lipiski 1982;
Buttrey 1982, 1984; Jones and Jones 1988: 107-110; Price 1993;
furtherbibliography in Stroud 1974: 169-71 and Figueira 1998:
13
530-534). The great Egyptian hoards of such Athenianand pseudoSosinosin theLouvre(Clairmont
fourth-century
gravesteleof thebronze-smelter
themould
smooth
roundobjectbehindit is probably
1970:no. 10);thestilllarger,
inwhichit wascast.
13To the various
and
thathave beenidentified
typesof Egyptianimitations
discussed
overtime,it has beenrecently
2000b)to add a
(Nicolet-Pierre
proposed
thirdofthefourth
ofthefirst
well-defined
tetradrachms
century;
groupofAthenian
witha profile
werethefirst
to depicttheheadofAthena
thesetetradrachms
eyeand
and heavily-fringed
owlwithan enlarged
to displaya newlyproportioned
thefirst
as freeandhighly
to Nicolet-Pierre,
thesecoinsareto be recognized
head.According

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A Small Find of Silver Bullion from Egypt

11

Atheniantetradrachmsdate to the fourthcentury.14As we have seen,

however,in the fifthcenturyand also for much of the fourth,silver
was hoarded in Egypt in the formof bullion,and to this day scholars
are not entirelyin agreementas to the significanceof these earlier
hoards: whether the bullion in them was assembled for monetary
purposesor merelyas a commodity,valuable primarilyas raw material
forthe manufactureof jewelryand finemetal vessels. Early commentators regularly dubbed the hoards "silversmiths'hoards" (cf. the
Naucratis hoard, "g" above; Engelbach 1924) or interpretedthem as
remainsof a jewelers workshop(Brugsch 1906) or of a mint (Dutilh
1899). But early in the last centuryDressel (1900: 257-58) and Dressel
and Regling (1927: 12) insisted on the currency interpretation,
explainingthat the frequencyand characterof such finds,which regularly included coins and ingots that had been chopped into smaller
pieces, point to a monetary convention,well known, for example,
frommedieval northernand easternEurope (cf. Williams 1997: frontispiece [silverbullionhoard fromVikingEngland, eighthc. AD] and fig.
117 [Russian cut-silveringot of the twelfthor thirteenthc. AD]),15 in
of fifth-century
creativeEgyptianimitations
owls.But the profile
eye and the
owlhappenalsoto be characteristic
ofthevoluminous
Athestubby,
shaggy-headed
nianpi-style
silverofthesecondhalfofthefourth
andsinceit is unthinkcentury;
ablethattheAthenians
wouldhavemodeled
thelattercoinageonforeign
imitations,
thetetradrachms
inquestion
removed
from
as pseudo-Athemaybe safely
suspicion
nian.Although
the onlysuchtetradrachms
withrecorded
comefrom
findspots
hoardsin Sicilyandonehoardin Egypt(Tel el-Athrib,
seenote14),theirunmistakable styleis to be seenveryclearlyin thetribolsand diobolsin thesmalllamp
hoardfrom
Ag.IoannisRentisin Attica( IGCH 89; Kroll1993:8 n. 25).
Tel el-Athrib
1905( IGCH 1663):700tetradrachms
to the
(together,
according
withthebronzereverse
die fora fifth-century
Athenian
owltetradrachm).
vendor,
Tellel-Maskhouta
ofthe
(Delta)1947-48( IGCH 1649):6000+tetradrachms.
Reports
latterfindand theAramaicinscriptions
on therelatively
intactsilverbowlsfound
withthe coinsclearlyindicatethatthe find(whichalso included
gold-set
agate
ofa templededicated
to theforeign
inlays)wasa treasure
goddessAlat,and nota
hoard.The inscribed
bowlshad beendedicated
around410 BC by chiefcurrency
tainsof someQedariteArabs,another
aliengroupsettledin EgyptunderPersian
Museum
1956:43-44).It is worth
1956,1959;Brooklyn
auspices(Rabinowitz
noting
thattheAthenian
coinsin theseandotherfourth-century
likehoards1 and
hoards,
m above,arerarely
neverchopped
intopieces.
gashedandwereapparently
15Thewordruble
comesfrom
theRussianverb"to cut(off)".Foran important
ofsuchhistorical
see Regling
survey
comparanda,
(1926:225-236).

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12

John H. Kroll

which exchange was transactedthroughthe cuttingand weighingout

of silverbullionon the scale. E.S.G. Robinson (1930: 94) accepted this
interpretationas conclusive. Yet in the new OxfordEncyclopediaof
AncientEgypt, P. F O'Rourke (2001: 288) comes dangerouslyclose to
revivingthe old silversmithinterpretation
by writing,with referenceto
the coins in the bullion hoards, that "[i]t is highlydoubtful,however,
that these coins were consideredof any intrinsicvalue by native Egyptians, other than the artisans who worked in gold and silver. To the
metalworkers,such coins were desirable as a source of bullion..." and
that "beyond their value as metal, coins appear to have played next
to no role in the Egyptian economy of the sixth and fifthcenturies
BCE."16 However true this last statementmay be, O'Rourke's attention to metalworkersshows that he was unaware that silver bullion
played a very significantrole in the Egyptian economy duringthose
centuries.
That it did has been understood for some time from the great
papyrusarchive of the Jewishmilitarysettlementat Elephantinenear
Aswan in upper Egypt. The records,writtenin Aramaic,began around
500, after the Persian king established the military colony, and
continuedto the beginningof the fourthcentury.In the many documents that deal with economic matters
marriage contracts,bills of
sale, loan agreements,receipts of payment, deeds of ownership,and
the like- prices and means of transactionare expressedin weightsof
silver.17There being no state silvercoinage at this time,it is clear that
the communityemployeda currencyof silverthat was weighedout on
16Mller
that
an alternative
use, declaring
non-currency
(2000:209) suggests
onlyamongthe elite,who
objectin Egypt,circulating
"[silverwas a prestige
theirwealth".For explicit
utilizedit eitherforgiftexchangeor to demonstrate
see theElephantine
ofthissilver,
oftheuse ofa balancein thepayment
mention
divorces
1953:Papyrus7), c. 420 BC: "IfYehoyishma
contract
marriage
(Kraeling
Sheshallsitbythescales
..sheshallbecomeliablefordivorce
herhusband.
money.
and shallgiveto herhusband7 silvershekelsand 2 quarters"
(lines24-26).The
recordof thefirst
harbortaxesin silverand goldlistedin an Egyptiancustoms
mustsimilarly
have beenweighedout (Yardeni1994;
halfof the fifthcentury
BriantandDescat1998).
17The
arenon-EgyptheshekelandthePersiankarsh,
mostcommonly
weights,
tian.

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A Small Find of Silver Bullion from Egypt

13

the balance, similar to that which was employed throughoutthe

Persian empire at the time (Porten 1968: 62-72; Naster 1970), and
which of course had been independentlyimplied by the contemporary
Egyptian hoards of silverbullion,as Dressel and Reglinghad deduced.
Thus, just as in Mesopotamia and the Levant, where over two dozen
hoards of silver bullion,some as early as the second millennium,have
come to light,and where the textual evidence for the use of silver as
an importantmonetaryinstrumentis older and much more abundant
than in Egypt, texts and hoards readily supplementeach other and
allow us to identifysuch hoards confidentlyas monetaryin nature.18
Marriage contractson papyri fromthe Persian era attest furtherto
the widespread monetary use of silver in Egypt at this time; the
formulaic contracts are written in demotic and record penalty
paymentsin weightsof silver,the weightsbeing the traditionalEgyptian debenand kite.(Porten 1968: 68; Chauveau 1998: 140-141).
In Egypt the exchange use of silver can be traced back to the New
Kingdom, when prices were notationally expressed in weight-units
) of copper- unlike silver, a metal native to Egypt- and
(idebens
paymentscould be made in any goods, includinglivestock,in a fixedvalue type of barter-exchangearrangement(Kemp 1989: 248-250).
Hence silverand gold mightboth be used, and it is worthnotingthat
the great fourteenth-century
hoard fromAmarna (Kemp 1989: 244-45,
fig. 82; Williams 1997: fig. 11) consisted of bullion in both metals.19
Yet even withinthis contextof heterogeneousexchange,writtendocuments from the craftsmen'svillage of Deir el-Medina near Thebes
reveal that by the twelfthcentury the word for silver (hedj) had
acquired a broader, colloquial meaning as a kind of generic term for
"money" (Janssen 1975: 9; Kemp 1989: 248-250; Williams 1997:
20-21).
If this marks an early stage in the recognitionof silver as the
preferredmetal in economic exchange, by the Persian period silver
18On NearEastern
in Williams
texts,see theoverview
(1997:16-19).On Near
Easternhoards(and texts),see mostrecently
Le Rider(2001: 1-17),Gitinand
Golani(2001),andStern(2001).
19As didtheearlier
andlarger
TodTreasure
ofthetwentieth
BC (Bisson
century
de la Roque1950).

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14

John H. Kroll

had become monetarilyso dominantthat copper was no longer used

notationally,fines and payments were expressed in terms of and
routinelytransacted in silver, and the hoarding of silver bullion, as
finds indicate, had became commonplace. Clearly, by the sixth and
fifthcenturies,silver was far more abundant in Egypt than earlier,
the result,one assumes, of large-scaleimportationof the metal from
the Aegean, at firstprobablythroughLevantine middlemenand then,
afterthe establishmentof Naucratis as a Greek emporiumin the later
seventh century,from trade directly with Greek suppliers. In the
second half of the seventh centuryalso, Egypt began to receive an
unprecedentedinfluxof foreignersfromthe Aegean and the Levant,
who came as merchantsand mercenarysoldiersand establishedtheir
own, separate ethnic communities(Ray 2001: 11.269-271). Since most
of them,like the Jewishsoldiersgarrisonedat Elephantine,came from
regionswhere weighed silver bullion had long served as currency,the
presenceand special economic importanceof these communitiescould
only have intensifiedthe wide-spreaduse of this practicein Egypt.
A major modificationwithinthis currencyemergedover the course
of the fifthcenturyas Egyptians came increasinglyto prefersilver in
the form of the Athenian tetradrachm.Fifth-centuryhoards reveal
that after c. 480 the Athenian tetradrachmwas virtually the only
specie of Greek coinage that continuedto enterEgypt20and, as noted
above, the demand forthese coins eventuallybecame so heavy that the
Egyptians resortedto mintinggreat quantities of them themselves.
Apparently,in certain transactional circumstancespayment in any
other kind of silver was no longer acceptable. The earliest written
evidence specifyingpaymentin this coinage (or in its unit of weight)
dates fromthe last decade of the fifthcenturyand the firstdecade of
the fourth.In the Aramaic dossierfromElephantine,documentsof the
years 408, 401, 400, and 399 specifypaymentsof a "stater"or a "stater
20The
oftheAthenian
tetradrachm,
especially
importation
heavyand exclusive
in theLevantas wellas Egypt.
welldocumented
afterc. 450,is a phenomenon
of Egyptian
Now see Nicolet-Pierre
(2000a),who notesalso the largenumbers
in
the
fourth
in
the
Levant
that
are
found
tetradrachms
century
pseudo-Athenian
be duelargely
owlsilvertheremight
thatthepopularity
ofAthenian
andsuggests
influence.
to Egyptian

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A Small Find of Silver Bullion from Egypt

15

of Greek silver"("silver of Yawan" i.e., of Ionia, the place name Near

Eastern peoples used forGreece at large) (Porten 1968: 64, 69; Naster
1970: 34-35; Lipiski 1982: 23-24; with Grelot 1972: nos. 6, 7, and
63). Similarly,among the demotic contractsrecordedon ostraca from
the oasis site of Manwir in Egypt's westerndesert,five, which date
from410 to 400, stipulatepenaltypaymentsin "staters"or "statersof
Ionia", and a sixth, dating to 393 or 387, concernsa loan deposit of
one stater (Chauveau 2000: 138-139). There can be no doubt that
these staters are Athenian tetradrachms,not only because of the
latters exclusive ubiquityat this time in Egypt, but also since several
of the contractsdefinethe Greek stater in traditionalElephantine or
that it was a coin (and weight
Egyptian silverweightunits,informing
unit) of 17+ g.
In the main administrativeand population centersof Egypt, preference for the transactionaluse of the Athenian tetradrachmought to
have taken hold earlier than we find at Elephantine and at an oasis
in the Western Desert. But as the mixed character of some of the
hoards implies, silver continued to circulate and be
fourth-century
transacted in bullion formas earlier, even as payments in Athenian
tetradrachmsmight be increasinglypreferredor required, with or
withoutweighing,in particulareconomic contexts. For every one of
the late fifth-and early fourth-century
ostraca from Manwir that
a
in
there
is
another
that specifiespayment in
gives penalty staters,
traditionalweights of silver (deben) (Chauveau 2000: 140-141). One
assumes that coin use, normallywithoutweighing,must have steadily
advanced over bullion use as the fourthcenturywore on, but it may
not have been untilthe advent of the Ptolemaic economythat the long
transitionwas finallycompleted.
Among the several stages of the evolution of silver currencyin
Egypt, the nineteen-pieceANS find survives as a modest witness to
the intermediateand long-lived bullion phase when even Athenian
tetradrachmswere still regarded as pieces of silver to be transacted
by weight. However prized they may have been for their familiarity
and reputationfor fineness,one of the two hoard tetradrachms(5)
had been cut down and could have never passed at face value, without
weighing.As for the find itself,as it had been assembled fromsmall
pieces of silver as well as large, it implies, perhaps more palpably

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16

John H. Kroll

than any of the otherrecordedhoards, that weighedsilverin Persianera Egypt was employed not only for major transactions,but also in
many that must have been quite humble.
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Plate 1
k

Silver Bullion from Egypt

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