Exoplanets

Press Kit

Exoplanets 1

Contents

Preface
Early discoveries
Techniques for detection
Direct detection
Imaging
Indirect detection
Radial velocity tracking
Astrometry
Pulsar timing
Transits
Gravitational microlensing
What can we learn from exoplanets?
What are exoplanets like?
Life outside the Solar System
Exoplanet research at eso
ESOs current exoplanet instruments
Exoplanet research in the future at ESO

Exoplanets

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5
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Cover: Artists impression of the exoplanets

HD 189733b | ESA,
NASA, G. Tinetti (University College London,
UK & ESA) and M. Kornmesser (ESO)
Left: Artists impression
of an exoplanets orbiting
its star | ESA, NASA, M.
Kornmesser (ESO) and
STScI

Preface

Since planets were first discovered outside the Solar System in 1992 (orbiting a
pulsar) and in 1995 (orbiting a normal
star), the study of planets orbiting other
stars, known as exoplanets, or extrasolar
planets, has become one of the most
dynamic research fields in astronomy.
Our knowledge of exoplanets has grown
immensely, from our understanding of
their formation and evolution to the development of different methods to detect
them.

This guide provides an overview of the

history of exoplanets and of the current
state of knowledge in this captivating
field. It reveals the various methods that
astronomers use to find new exoplanets
and the information that can be inferred.
The last section summarises the impressive findings of exoplanet research at
ESO and the current and near-future
technologies available in the quest for
new worlds.

Exoplanets 3

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Exoplanets

Left: ESO 3.6-m telescope, La Silla Observatory | ESO

Early discoveries

There are an infinite number of

worlds, some like this world, others
unlike it.
Epicurus letter to Herodotus
(~ 300 BC)
A planet is an object orbiting a star that is
massive enough both to have achieved
an almost spherical shape and to have
cleared the rotating disc of dense gas,
known as the protoplanetary disc, that
surrounds a newly formed star. Planets
differ in this from dwarf planets (such as
Pluto), which do not have enough mass
to clear the protoplanetary disc area.

In 1995, the Geneva-based astronomers

Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz detected the first exoplanet around a normal (main sequence) star, 51 Pegasi.
The planet, named 51 Pegasi b, has
around half the mass of Jupiter and whizzes around its parent star in just over
four Earth days, lying almost eight times
closer to it than Mercury is to the Sun.
Since 1995, this area of astronomy has
become a very dynamic research field
and astronomers have found over 450
exoplanets (as of May 2010), using a host
of techniques.

The first detection of an exoplanet

occurred in 1992 when the astrophysicists Aleksander Wolszczan and Dale
Frail discovered three exoplanets. They
were found in an unexpected environment, orbiting the pulsar PSR1257+12.

Exoplanets 5

Artists impression of
the planetary system
around HD 69830 | ESO

Exoplanets

Techniques for detection

Searching for exoplanets is like looking

for the proverbial needle in a haystack.
Planets emit little or no light of their own,
while their host stars shine brightly. Seeing the light from a distant planet is like
spotting a dim candle in front of a raging
forest fire.
Nowadays six investigative tools are used
to spot hidden exoplanets.
 irect detection
D
Imaging
Indirect detection
Radial velocity tracking
Astrometry
Pulsar timing
Transits
Gravitational microlensing

Direct detection
Imaging
The hardest way to detect an exoplanet is
to try to image it directly. This is because
of the extreme contrast between the light
emitted by the parent star and by the
companion planet. To expose the planet,
the starlight must be dimmed or masked
in some way so as to enable observers to
see into the shadow. One method is to
use infrared radiation, rather than visible
light. The visible light output of a Jupiterlike planet is one billionth of that of its
host star, while in the infrared the contrast is just a factor of a few thousandths.
This is particularly true when the planet is
still very young and thus contracting,
thereby emitting heat. Another method is
to physically block out the starlight, using
a coronograph that masks the bright
central core of the star, leaving only the
corona, the outer plasma region of the
stars atmosphere, visible and so allowing
any nearby planets to shine through.
Direct imaging is the only way to assess
some important physical parameters,
such as the amount of water on the surface and the properties of any possible
biosphere.

The adaptive optics instrument, NACO,

on ESOs Very Large Telescope (VLT) has
obtained the first image of an exoplanet.
The European Extremely Large Telescope
(E-ELT) planned for 2018, will search for
new planets using direct imaging, thanks
to its very sharp vision.
Indirect detection
The majority of all exoplanets discovered
so far have been detected using indirect
methods identifying their existence by
their effect on their host star.
The presence of a planet affects its host
star in several ways. The weak gravity of
the planet pulls the star in a small circular
orbit, introducing a minute wobble that
can be detected using radial velocity
tracking or astrometry (see pages 810).
Alternatively, as the planet moves between the star and the observer, the
measured luminosity of the star will
change. These tiny variations are important for astronomers, as it makes the
indirect observation of exoplanets possible.

Possibly the first image

of an exoplanet (red
spot), obtained with
NACO at the VLT. The
planet orbits a brown
dwarf (blue spot in middle) | ESO

Beta Pictoris as seen in

infrared light | ESO

debris disc

0.5
Size of Saturns orbit
around the Sun

Beta Pictoris
location of the star

2003
2009
Planet Beta Pictoris b

Exoplanets 7

The planetary system

around Gliese 581
(artists impression) |
ESO

Radial velocity tracking

An astronomer can determine much
about a distant star by recording its
spectrum. As the star moves in the small
orbit resulting from the pull of the exoplanet, it will move towards the Earth and
then away as it completes an orbit. The
velocity of the star along the line of sight
of an observer on Earth is its radial velocity. Changes in the radial velocity of the
star cause the lines in the stars spectrum
to shift towards redder wavelengths
when the star is moving away from us
and towards bluer wavelengths when the
planet is approaching us (see image).
This is the Doppler effect, and it is noticeable with sound waves in everyday life,

Exoplanets

for example in the change of pitch of an

ambulance siren as it drives past on the
street.
The periodic changes in the stars radial
velocity depend on the planets mass and
the inclination of its orbit to our line of
sight. These tiny changes or wobbles
can be measured by a distant observer.
Astronomers use high precision spectrographs to study Doppler-shifted spectra, looking for small regular variations in
the radial velocity of a star. As the inclination of the planetary orbit is unknown, the
measurement of this regular variation
gives a minimum value for the mass of
the planet.

The radial velocity method has proven to

be the most successful in finding new
planets. At present, the most successful
low-mass exoplanets hunter is HARPS
(High Accuracy Radial Velocity for Planetary Searcher), which is mounted on
ESOs 3.6-metre telescope at La Silla,
Chile.

The radial velocity

method | ESO

Exoplanets 9

1.01
1
0.99
Relative Flux

0.98
OGLE-TR-113

0.97
1.01
1
0.99

Intensity

0.98

0.1

Time
1. The measured drop in
brightness of the star
when the planet passes
in front of it | ESO

0.05

0
Phase

0.05

0.1

2. Brightness variations of
two stars with transiting
exoplanets | ESO

10 Aug
2005

Magnification

OGLE-TR-132

0.97

11 Aug
2005

Observer

2.5
2

Source star

et
Planet

1.5
1

Observer
3. Light curve of OGLE2005-BLG-390 | ESO

Lens Star

Source star

4. Gravitational lensing
caused by the presence of a star and an
exoplanet | ESO

Astrometry

Pulsar timing

Transits

The astrometry method is similar to radial

velocity tracking and is used to detect
exoplanets by measuring the small regular perturbation in the position of a star
due to its unseen companion. The star
moves in a tiny circular orbit on the sky
with a radius that depends on the mass
of the planet and its distance from the
star, but not on the inclination. No planets
have been discovered so far using this
method.

The presence of a planet orbiting a star

affects the timing of the regular signals
emitted by the star itself. This phenomenon can be used to detect planets
around a pulsar. Pulsars emit radio waves
regularly as they rotate, creating a periodically pulsed beam, like a lighthouse. If
an orbiting planet perturbs the motion
of the star, then the timing of the beam is
also affected, and this is how the first
exoplanets were detected.

When a planet passes between the Earth

and its host star, this is known as a transit. The planet blocks some of the starlight during the transit and creates a periodic dip in the brightness of the star. This
effect can be measured using photometry, which measures the amount of light
coming from celestial objects.

10 Exoplanets

We can learn much about the composition of a planets atmosphere from planetary transits. As a planet passes in front
of its star, light from the star will pass
through the planets atmosphere, where
some of it is selectively absorbed. By
comparing the before and after

The Crab Nebula | ESO

spectral data of the starlight, the composition of the planets atmosphere can be
deduced.
The Optical Gravitational Lensing Experiment (OGLE) located at Las Campanas,
Chile, was used to find the first planet
through transit photometry (called OGLETR-56). Nowadays, satellites in space
such as COROT and Kepler have found
numerous transiting planets.
Radial velocity measurements, combined
with transit photometry, make it possible
to determine not only the mass of a
planet, but also its radius and density.

Gravitational microlensing
The gravitational pull of a large object will
bend the light from distant objects and
amplify it, acting like a magnifying lens.
When light from the background object
travels towards Earth, its path is bent or
warped as it bypasses any large foreground object that is aligned with the
background light source. As the microlensing effect works on radiation from the
background source, this technique can be
used to study intervening objects that emit
little or no light, such as black holes, or
planets around distant stars. Suppose that
the aligned foreground mass to be studied

is a star that is hosting a planet, then the

amplified light curve from the background
source will contain an additional side peak.
The size and shape of the secondary peak
will depend on the mass and distance of
the planet from the host star (see the
image).
The exoplanet OGLE 2003-BLG-235/
MOA 2003-BLG-53 was the first planet
discovered using this technique, in 2003.
The disadvantage of the microlensing
technique is that the effect happens only
once, as it relies on a unique chance
alignment of the foreground and background stars, and so measurements
must be checked using other methods.

Exoplanets 11

Planet-forming disc
(artists impression) |
ESO

Possible orbital
migration of the planetary system around
HD89830. Planets may
have formed far away
from the star and spiralled inwards over time. |
ESO

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The central region of the

Orion Nebula | ESO,
M. McCaughrean et al.

What can we learn from exoplanets?

Exoplanets are fascinating because they

may solve mysteries about our own Solar
System. There is a wealth of data available to study different types of galaxies
and stars, which has enabled astronomers to develop models and theories on
star and galaxy formation and to place
our own galaxy and star amongst them.
The Solar System is 4.6 billion years old,
but there is no way to measure directly
how it formed and it was, until recently,
the only planetary system that we knew
of, so there was nothing to compare it
with. We had no idea if it was one of
many, a typical example of a planetary
system or a unique one-off. Studying the
formation of other young planetary systems may give us answers.

Protoplanetary discs are regions of dust

and gas orbiting very young stars, where
planets are formed. Current theories of
planetary formation suggest that dust
particles start to collapse under gravity
and stick together, forming bigger and
bigger grains. If young protoplanetary
discs survive the threat of stellar radiation
and impacts by comets and meteorites,
then matter continues to clump together
and eventually planetoids may form. Planetoids are celestial objects bigger than
meteorites and comets, but smaller than
planets. After a few million years, most of
the circumstellar dust will have been
swept away as planetoids accumulate
mass and grow into planets.

Many of the planets found so far are

large, gaseous and very close to their
star, unlike the situation in our own Solar
System. The concept of orbital migration
has been revived to explain the close
proximity of some giant planets to their
star: these planets may have formed
undisturbed relatively far from the star
and then slowly spiralled inwards over
time.

Exoplanets 13

What are exoplanets like?

There are small icy exoplanets as well as

gigantic hot planets. One of the interesting questions to answer is how the distribution of exoplanet type is linked to the
type of parent star. It is likely that there
are also exoplanets with rings and satellites, but these are difficult features to
detect.

Due to the limitations in current detection

methods, the majority of planets discovered so far have been rather large
Jupiter-sized or much larger. Although it
is difficult to detect smaller planets, a
planet with less than twice the mass of
the Earth has been discovered.

1RXS J160929.1-210524 b

GQ Lupi b

Formalhaut b

HR8799a,b,c

2M1207

Beta Pic b

Sun

20

40

60

80

100

120

300

This diagram compares our Solar

System with some of the various
planetary systems imaged so far (the
Solar System is at the bottom of the
image, showing the Sun along with
the four outer planets, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus and Neptune)

Artists concept of
the exoplanet orbiting
Fomalhaut | ESO
(L.Calada), ESA, NASA

14 Exoplanets

Exoplanets 15

Artists impression of an
exoplanetsary
system | NASA, ESA
and G. Bacon

Life outside the Solar System

The current focus of research into exoplanets is to develop the theories and
understanding of planetary formation,
and to understand how the Solar System
developed and what its future might be.
However, what makes exoplanets truly
fascinating for most is the possibility of
finding another world that harbours life.
Exobiology is concerned with the study
of life outside of the Earth. The concept
of life is subject to debate, but there is
agreement in defining the features that
could permit the development of carbonbased life:

16 Exoplanets

A planet should have a mass of

between 1 and 10 terrestrial masses,
be big enough to hold its atmosphere,
but not so massive that it keeps too
much hydrogen.
A planet must be in the habitable zone,
sometimes called the Goldilocks Zone,
which is defined as the band around a
star where water can be liquid. This
means that a planet can neither be too
close nor too far from its star, as water
would be either gaseous or icy respectively.

Exobiology is not a focus of current

exoplanet research projects, but is one
for the future. Future spectroscopic missions ESAs Darwin and NASAs Terrestrial Planet Finder missions are
planned for launch over the next decade
and will search for oxygen, carbon dioxide and chlorophyll.

Exoplanet research at eso

A list of ESOs most recent achievements is given below.

2010: VLT detects first superstorm on an
exoplanet. (eso1026)
2010: For the first time, astronomers have
been able to directly follow the
motion of an exoplanet as it moves
to the other side of its host star.
(eso1024)
2010: Six exoplanets were found orbiting
in the opposite direction to the
rotation of their host star challenging theories of planet formation. (eso1016)
2010: With HARPS, astronomers have
discovered the first normal exoplanet that can be studied in great
detail. (eso1011)
2010: VLT captures first direct spectrum
of an exoplanet. (eso1002)
2009: Astronomers discover first superEarth with an atmosphere.
(eso0950)
2009: Sun-like stars that host planets
appear to have destroyed their lithium much more efficiently than
planet-free stars. (eso0942)
2009: HARPS discovers 32 new exoplanets, mostly low-mass ones.
(eso0939)
2009: HARPS finds first solid evidence for
a rocky exoplanet. (eso0933)
2009: Lightest exoplanet found using the
most successful low-mass exoplanet hunter in the world, the
HARPS spectrograph. (eso0915)
2008: First planet discovered around a
fast-rotating hot star, discovered by
three undergraduate students and
confirmed by ESOs VLT. (eso0845)

2008: First direct image of a planet that is

as close to its host star as Saturn
is to the Sun. (eso0842)
2008: Unsurpassed details revealed on
the motion and makeup of planetforming discs around Sun-like
stars. (eso0827)
2008: A trio of super-Earths are observed
using ESOs HARPS instrument.
Data suggests one in three Sunlike stars have such planets.
(eso0819)
2007: Discovery that exoplanets may pollute the atmospheres of their parent stars with planetary debris.
(eso0729)
2007: ESO develops a new imaging
spectrograph so as to be able to
image faint objects obscured by
their bright parent stars directly.
This paves the way for many thrilling new discoveries. (eso0728)
2007: Discovery of the most Earth-like
planet: located 20 light-years away,
it may have water on its surface.
(eso0722)
2006: Observations show that some
objects that are several times the
mass of Jupiter have a disc surrounding them and may form in a
similar way to stars. It thus
becomes much more difficult to
define precisely what a planet is.
(eso0629)
2006: Detection of three Neptune-like
planets, each of a mass between
ten and twenty times that of Earth,
around a star that also possesses
an asteroid belt. Of all known systems, this is the most similar yet to
our own Solar System. (eso0618)

2006: Discovery of the first terrestrialsized exoplanet, five times the size
of the Earth. (eso0603)
2005: Discovery of a planet with a mass
comparable to Neptune around a
low-mass star, the most common
type of star in our galaxy.
(eso0539)
2004: Ingredients for the formation of
rocky planets discovered in the
innermost regions of protoplanetary discs around three young
stars. This suggests that the formation of Earth-like planets may
not be unusual. (eso0435)
2004: First direct image taken of an exoplanet, paving the way for more
direct studies. (eso00428)
2004: Discovery of the first possible
rocky exoplanet, an object with 14
times the mass of the Earth.
(eso0427)
2004: Confirmation of the existence of a
new class of giant planet. These
planets are extremely close to their
host stars, orbiting them in less
than two Earth days, and are
therefore very hot and bloated.
(eso0415)
2002: The discovery of a dusty, opaque
disc surrounding a young Sun-like
star, in which planets are forming
or will soon form. This disc is similar to the one in which astronomers
think the Solar System formed.
(eso0214)

The VLT platform at

Paranal | ESO

Exoplanets 17

ESOs current exoplanet instruments

The groundbreaking discoveries of recent
years were possible thanks to the ESO
instruments searching for following:
HARPS (High Accuracy Radial Velocity
for Planetary Searcher) on the ESO 3.6metre telescope at La Silla for radial
velocity high resolution spectroscopy. It
can measure velocities with a precision
greater than 1 m/s (or 3.6 km/h).
NACO on the VLT at Paranal an
active optics and near-infrared imager
and spectrograph that allows the sharp
imaging of objects smaller and fainter
than stars, such as exoplanets.

UVES on the VLT for radial velocity

high resolution spectroscopy in the UV
and visible.
EMMI on the NTT at La Silla spectrograph operating at visible wavelengths.
FLAMES (Fibre Large Array Multi Element Spectrograph), on ESOs VLT at
Paranal for multi-fibre resolution
spectroscopy.
Swiss 1.2-metre Leonhard Euler Telescope at La Silla high resolution
spectroscopy.
Danish 1.54-metre Telescope at
La Silla long-term monitoring.

AMBER studies of circumstellar environments and protoplanetary discs,

important for planet formation studies.
VISIR studies of circumstellar environments and protoplanetary discs, important for planet formation studies.
ISAAC (Infrared Spectrometer And
Array Camera), attached to the VLT
MIDI, the MID-infrared Interferometric
instrument of the VLT Interferometer.

The Atacama Large

Millimeter/submillimeter
Array | ALMA (ESO/
NAOJ/NRAO)/
L. Calada (ESO)

18 Exoplanets

The E-ELT | ESO

Exoplanet research in the future at ESO

The PRIMA instrument of the ESO Very
Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI),
which recently saw first light at its new
home atop Cerro Paranal in Chile, will
boost the capabilities of the VLTI to see
sources much fainter than any previous
interferometers, and enable astrometric
precision unmatched by any other existing astronomical facility. PRIMA will therefore be a unique tool for the detection of
exoplanets.

The second generation instrument

SPHERE for ESOs Very Large Telescope
is dedicated to the discovery and study
of new giant exoplanets orbiting nearby
stars by direct imaging, in particular of
planets more massive than Jupiter at various stages of their evolution, in the key
separation regime 1 to 100 AU (AU is the
mean EarthSun distance). SPHERE
should have first light around 2011.

Moreover, two future ground-based telescopes will be used to search for exoplanets:
E-ELT (European Extremely Large Telescope) expected to be able to image
exoplanets directly, revealing their composition, and to detect, via the radial
velocity method, Earth-mass planets.
ALMA (Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array) for accurate astrometry measurements, possibly even for
direct detection. Detailed mapping of
protoplanetary discs, which is important for understanding planet formation.

Exoplanets 19

Exoplanets
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20 Exoplanets