KANZ PHILOSOPHIA Volume 5, Number.

1, June 2015

73

KANZ PHILOSOPHIA
Volume 5

Number 1 June, 2015

Page 73-87

THE COMPLEX RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SUFISM AND SHIISM

AS REFLECTED IN THE CONCEPT OF WALYAH
Wahyuddin Halim
wahyuddinh@hotmail.com
Abstrak
Tulisan ini mencoba meneliti konsep walyah dalam tradisi Sufisme dan Syiisme. Walyah
adalah salah satu prinsip yang paling penting dalam Sufisme dan Syiisme, menempati
status mendasar dalam seluruh struktur doktrin metafisik mereka. Walyah merupakan
ide tentang kelanjutan otoritas spiritual Nabi Muhammad kepada otoritas tertentu setelah
beliau mangkat. Berangkat dari sumber-sumber agama yang sama, kedua pihak tampaknya
mengembangkan konsep yang sama tentang walyah dan karakteristik mereka yang layak atas
otoritas rohani, meskipun mereka mengartikulasikan konsep tersebut dalam terminologi dan
fungsi yang berbeda.
Kata-kata Kunci: Sufisme, Syiisme, walyah, manusia sempurna, keimaman (immah),
penutup para nabi, risalah.
Abstract
This paper tries to examine the concept of walyah in Sufism and Shiism. Walyah is one
of the most important principles in both Sufism and Shiism, occupying such a fundamental
status within the whole structure of their metaphysical doctrines. Walyah constitutes the
idea on the necessary continuation of the spiritual authority of the Prophet Muhammad to
particular authorities after the prophets death. Drawing from the same religious sources,
both parties seem to develop the same concept of what constitutes walyah and what the
characteristics of those who deserve that spiritual authority, although they articulated the
concept in different terminologies and functions.
Keywords: Sufism, Shiism, walyah, perfect man, Immate, seal of the prophets, rislat.

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The Complex Relationship Between Sufism and Shiism As...........

Introduction
The concept of the walyah is foundational to both Sufism and Shiism ,1 although
the two parties give different meaning and
function to this concept. In Shiism, the
term conveys a special sense of the devotion,
allegiance, and closeness to the Imms on the
part of their followers as well as of the Imm
function as a spiritual authority. In Sufism, it
denotes the role played by the Sufi masters
(wal) in spiritual path. The slightly different
vocalization, wilya, is also used which
suggests a complex variety of meanings in the
political, religious and legal spheres. Thus, the
distinction made between walyah and wilya
does not just bear different vocalization but
also different meanings. Whereas walyah
denotes devotion, or the acceptance of the
authority of a wal or Imm, wilyah is the
rule or governing authority of a wal or Imm.
The former is more technical and specialized
while the latter is a common term denoting
the delegation of authority by a king or sultan
to a deputy or governor. 2
It is not the purpose of this paper, however, to discuss the meanings and functions of
this concept in Islamic legal or political realms.
Rather, it will examine the meanings and
functions of walyah in Sufism and Shiism
and how it is differently understood by both
parties. It is also to analyze the interplay and
relationship between Sufism and Shiism by
investigating the concept of walyah in which
Throughout this paper, Shiism and Shite
refer to Imami (Twelver) Shiism unless otherwise
indicated.
2
It is important to note that, as Landolt
indicates, the vocalization is not normally indicated
in the texts, and there is no a common agreement
among the classical Arab lexicographers on this
point (Hermann Landolt 1987, 316). According to
Moojan Momen, the concept of walyah or wilyah
is one of the most difficult Islamic terms to translate,
paricularly since in different contexts its meaning
varies (Moojan Momen 1985,157).
1

the Shiites root in the Sufi structure can

be observed, and vice versa. This question
seems important to answer since, as Henry
Corbin notes, it is one of the problems that
the history of Islamic philosophy cannot pass
over unanswered because they dominate
the entire perspective of Islamic spirituality
(Corbin 1933, 26-28).
Sufi Perspectives on Walyah
As stated earlier, walyah is one of
the most fundamental concepts in Sufism
and many Sufis deal with this concept in
their works. According to al-ujwr in his
eleventh-century systematic ex-position of
the Sufi doctrine, the Kashf al-Mahjb, the
very principle and foundation of Sufism rests
on walyah (al-ujwr 1976, 210). Jami, a
Persian Sufi poet who came three centuries
after ujwr, began his discussions concerning
the history of Sufism with a paragraph on
saintship (Schimmel 1975, 199). On the other
hand, al-akm
al-Tirmidh (d. 298/910)
in his work, Khatm al-Awliy,3 as Schimmel
commented in her classical work on Sufism,
considers that the works of al-Tirmidh on the
subject of walyah, confirm the fact that the
theories of saintship, wilyah, have formed
one theme that has been discussed by the
Sufis since the late ninth century (Schimmel
1975, 55&199).
At the beginning of his work, al-Tirmidh
This is the traditional title given to this alTirmidhis main work, most probably since a large
part of the book is devoted to discuss this idea of khatm
al-awliy, probably also the same reason for Uthman
Yahya to use that title for his well-known edition of
the book (Uthman Yahya 1965), henceforth Khatm
al-Awliy. With some reasons, Radtke suggested that
the original title of book was irt al-Awliy and thus
picks up this title for his new edition and translation
of the book (Bernd Radtke 1999, 483-484). For a full
English rendition of irt al-Awliy together with alTirmidhis autobiography, Bad Shan Abi Abdillah
(Radtke and John OKane 1996) (henceforth, The
Concept of Sainthood).
3

KANZ PHILOSOPHIA Volume 5, Number. 1, June 2015

prefaces his remarks by declaring that in his

view there are two groups of friends of God:
one of whom he calls awliy aqq Allh, and
the other the friends of God, awliy Allh
(al-Tirmidhi n.d., 117).4 It is interesting to note
that al-Tirmidhs main word for mystic is wal,
which Radtke understands to mean someone
who is close to God, and therefore a friend of
God. But it is God who determines the nature
of this relationship rather than man (Radtke
1999, 488). Wal Allh is a person who by
Gods eternal decree becomes close to God
and becomes his friend because God wishes
it and chooses him. In other words, he reaches
the state of saintship by Gods grace through
the act of loving. Meanwhile, for the other
type of mystic, the wal aqq Allh, things are
more difficult because he has to strive to be
nearer to God by faithful adherence to every
detail of Law (shara) and the Path (tarqa).
This includes renouncing the world (tawba),
educating of the soul, and following the
initial mystical experiences. Regardless of the
hardship of his struggles, his rank will always
be below that of the wal Allh (Radtke 1999,
489).
According to Radtke, there is no difficulty
in the translation of the second term, wal/awliy
Allh, of which he translates as the friends of
God, in contrast to the other term, wal aqq Allh
of which he translate the Friends of what is due
unto God (Radtke 1999, 43). This difficulty is, in
Radtkes view, complicated by the fact that the term
wal aqq Allh is used by al-Tirmidhi only in this
book. The concept of the different groups of friends
of God, however, is to be found in other works also,
although using a different terminology. Radtke goes
to say that the term wali/awliy Allah, as is known,
is Quranic, whereas wal/awliy aqq/huqq Allh
is al-Tirmidhis own creation since he has not met the
concept in any other author, mystical or non-mystical
(Radtke 1999 43&488). This last observation by
Radke may not be totally true because, in fact, in
the Quran we find a terminology quite similar to alTirmidhis second category of wal Allh, that is, wal
aqq Allh. The Quranic term under discussion is
ulaika awliy Allh aqqan.
4

75

It is important to note that here the

ascent of the wal aqq Allh is terminated
at the border of the created cosmos which is
none other than the throne of God, which is
also called by al-Tirmidh space (makn) or
nearness to God (qurb).Therefore, although
the wal aqq Allh comes close to God, he
does not attain God himself (Radtke 1999,
64&490). On the contrary, the wal Allh
reaches God himself not through his own
effort, but by divine grace. The ascent beyond
the throne of God includes traversing the
kingdoms of the divine Names which the
mystic comes to realize. These kingdoms of
light surround the inconceivable unknowable
divine Essence. According to Radtke and
Landolt, in this respect, al-Tirmidh is
undoubtedly influenced by Gnostic ideas
(Radtke 1999, 490; Landolt 1987, 321).
Al-Tirmizi further argues that upon
traversing all the kingdoms of the divine
Names so that he realizes God in all his
Names, the wal Allh is annihilated in Gods
Essence (fan f ain al-dzt al-adiyah). His
ego or his soul (nafs) is extinguished and thus
be in Gods hand (f qabdatihi). His action is
Gods action through him. However, this state
of annihilation, of renouncing the ego, is at
the same time a state of the highest possible
activity in the world. A proper understanding
of this idea would bring us to discuss alTirmidhs most important concept of khatm
al-walyah, the seal of friends of God, which
has to be investigated within the structure of
his idea of prophethood (Radtke, 95&490).
In al-Tirmidhs view, Muhammad
was the last and perfect prophet. This rank,
however, does not concern a matter of time
in the sense that he deserves this rank merely
because he was the last in time; otherwise,
it would not be to bestow a great honor on
him, as al-Tirmidh sarcastically notes. He
instead deserved the rank because he has

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The Complex Relationship Between Sufism and Shiism As...........

become the locus on which the perfection of

the prophethood can be attained. Therefore,
we see that for al-Tirmidh the term seal of
prophethood (khatm al-nubuwwah) has
nothing to do with a point in time. Rather, the
seal in this context indicates the completion
of prophethood. Radtke notes that this is the
reason why Tirmizi prefers to read the active
participle khtim instead of the usual khtam
al-nubuwwah (Radtke 1999, 490).
Furthermore, al-Tirmidh suggests
that Muhammad was entitled to the khatm
al-nubuwwah because he was the first of
creation. In this context, al-Tirmidh meets
with not only Shiites ideas, but also with
al-Tstar (Bowering 1980, 149), whose
ideas will be discussed briefly below. Here
we have undoubtedly the forerunner of the
concept of the aqqah al-Muhammadiyyah
(Muhammadan reality). According to this
concept, being the seal of prophethood, the
Prophet Muhammad was consequently also
bestowed with other qualities not possessed
by ordinary human beings; he was protected
from error and sin (mam) and was able
to take control of his lower nature, soul and
ego, and the devil had no power over him.
Muhammad was designated to become the
leader of the community (ummah) through
divine revelation (way), he had knowledge
of the unseen (ilm al-ghayb) and was able
to perform miracles (mujizt). Because
Muhammad had completed, or properly
speaking, sealed, prophethood, the coming of
another prophet after him becomes something
impossible (Radtke 1999, 491).
However, there is one of the most
important questions in Islamic theology and
politics, that is, who was to lead the Islamic
community (ummah) following the death
of the Prophet? There seems to be major
answers to the question during the first three
centuries of Islamic history, but here we

only deal with the mysticss interpretation.

This solution was given, among others, by
al-Hakim al-Tirmidh. Opposing the Shiite
and the Sunnite belief altogether, al-Tirmidh
declared that neither relationship of blood
nor the ordinary knowledge of the Law is in
themselves sufficient qualifications for the
leadership of the ummah. The leadership was
to be entrusted to the forty chosen men whom
al-Tirmidh calls either siddqn (the truthful
ones) or awliy Allh. After the death of
the Prophet these personalities assumed
the leadership of the world. Their rank is,
however, below that of the Prophet.5
Al-Tirmidh further asserts that, as the
second of creation, these forty men establish
the second spiritual hierarchy of the cosmos.
Their characteristic is not nubuwwah,
but walyah friendship of God. Like the
prophets, but by virtue of walyah, they
are endowed with exceptional capacities.
The prophetic gift of revelation (way)
corresponds to their inspiration (ilhm). They
can perform karmat (miracles of the saint),
as the prophets performed mujizt (miracles
of the prophet). Like the prophets they also
possess knowledge of the unseen (ilm alghayb). But unlike the Prophets (rasl) they do
not bring a new Shara (revealed Law) to the
people, because the Law had been revealed in
its totality by Muhammad. However, through
their knowledge they assure the perfect
explanation and presentation of the Shara
(Radtke 1999, 492).
The knowledge of these friends of
God, which al-Tirmidh terms ilm al-bin
(literally, inner knowledge), is at the highest
level al-ilm bi-Llh, the knowledge of
God, This is not --as understood in Shiites
contexts an esoteric knowledge, but rather
a knowledge of the inner laws of creation and
As we have seen, this is the first question dealt
with by Abu Said al-Kharraz. See above.
5

KANZ PHILOSOPHIA Volume 5, Number. 1, June 2015

revelation which are hidden from normal

consciousness, which the mystic attains by his
own endeavor (1999, 493). In the hierarchy
of the forty saints, which will be dealt with
later, there is also a highest perfect one
who corresponds to the rank of the Prophet
Muhammad, who is the seal of friendship of
God (khatm al-walyah; khtm/khtim alwalyah). Parallel to the seal of the prophets,
he is not a seal because he is the last of
friends of God; rather, he deserves this rank
because he has perfected his friendship
with God, that is, he has sealed it. Like the
Prophet Muhammad, this seal protects him
against his enemies, the lower soul (nafs) and
Satan but he is not sinless, because his sin
was decreed by God (maqdr alayh). He is
gifted with inspiration, knowledge of the
unseen, and is able to perform miracles -for
example, can walk on water. His mystical
ascent terminates in annihilation in God
(fan f Allh). Furthermore, all his gifts
are perfected by the seal of the friendship of
God. Therefore, his active involvement in the
material world cannot risk him any dangers.
It becomes clear from his autobiography, Bad
Shan Abi Abdillah, al-Tirmidh perceives
himself as this highest friend of God, as the
khatm al-wilya (1999, 493; 1996, 21-22).
It is of vital importance to remember
that from among those perfect saints in the
context of Sufi walyah, a whole hierarchy
of saints has evolved since at least the time of
al-Tirmidh. The highest spiritual authority
is the qutb, axis, pole, or gas, help. He
is surrounded by three nuqba, substitutes,
four awtd, pillars, seven abrr, pious,
forty abdl, substitutes, three hundred
akhyr, good, and four thousand hidden
saints. It should be also noted that the terms for
these ranks and the number of saints in each
rank may vary among different Sufi authors,
or even interchangeable. Some authorities,

77

such as Ibn Arab, claim that there are seven

abdls, one for each of the seven regions or
territories (sabat al-aqlm) (Schimmel 1975,
200).
From the previous discussion it appears
that, with respect to the concept of walyah,
one of the major theoretical problems
discussed in Sufi circles from the beginning
was the exact nature of the relationship
between the awliy and anbiy, that is,
between the Sufi masters and the Prophets or,
in a broader context, walyah and nubuwwah.
In the commentary of Quran, the Sufi, Sahl alTstar (d. 283/896 in Basra), stated that the
heart or spiritual reality of Muhammad (qalb
Muhammad) is seen as the divine element
enshrined in him and the source for the
illumination of human hearts; his pre-Adamic
Light-nature (Nr al-Muhammadiyyah) is the
source of the prophetic ancestors of mankind,
and of those desired [by God], that is,
awliy (Bwering 1980, 322).
On the other hand, al-Tstar argues that
divine walyah is conferred directly on the
elect, those who possess the true knowledge
of God and of the Quran. The basis for
this opinion about the divine election is the
well-known Quranic phrase about wal,
Your guardian can be only Allah; and His
messenger and those who believe (5:55).6 In
al-Tstars interpretation:
The friendship of God (walyah
Allh) is the election (ikhtiyr) of
one of whom He takes possession
(istawlah). The friendship of the
Prophet (walyah al-rasl) is Gods
notification of the Prophet that he
is the friend of the believers (wal
al-muminn). Thus the Prophet is
bound to be a friend (yuwall) of one
This and all subsequent citation of the Quran
are from The Meaning of the Glorious Koran, An
Explanatory Translation by Muhammad Marmaduke
Pickthall (New York: New American Library, 1953).
6

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The Complex Relationship Between Sufism and Shiism As...........

of whose friend is God (man wal

Allh). (Bwering 1980, 234)

In al-Tstars view, it seems there is no

an essential distinction between prophets
generally and awliy, although siddqun
occupy a lower rank; the charismatic of the
awliy are signs (yt) of Gods power, and
al-Tstar himself claims to be the proof of
God (hujjah Allh), a claim which makes
him the subject of harsh criticism from several
traditional jurists of his time, most notably Ab
Yahya Zakariy al-Saji (d. 307/909) and Ab
Abdillah al-Zubayr (d.317/929) (Bwering
1980, 64). However, his idea of the saints as
the heirs of the prophets stands with regard
to the relationship between prophethood and
sainthood. He says, There is no prophet who
does not have someone similar to himself in
this community, that is to say, a wal who
shares his charisma (1980, 65).
The issue was yet brought to light again,
and enriched with elements of a breathtaking
complexity by Ibn Arabi (1164-1240). According to Michel Chodkiewicz, the doctrine
of walyah is the cornerstone of all initiatic
in Ibn Arabs work (Chodkiewicz 1993,
47). Put it briefly, Ibn Arabs concept of the
relationship between the two Seals can be
described like this: the Seal of the Prophets,
considered from the point of view of his
own walyah, is toward the One who seals
the walyah in the same position as all other
prophets and lawgiving messengers (anbiy)
are toward him because he is wal, lawgiving
messenger, and prophet. But walyah itself is
divided into two, and, consequently, there are
two Seals of walyah in Ibn Arabs doctrine:
Jesus, Seal of General Walyah, and Ibn
Arab himself, or his spiritual reality, Seal
of the Particular Muhammadan Walyah.
According to Landolt, although this doctrine
may appear provocative, it is, however,
balanced by the self-evident necessity for

both Seals of Walyah to follow the law of the

Seal of Prophecy; and everything is placed
under the primordial reality of Muhammad
(aqqah Muhammadiyyah), also called
reality of realities, or the logos (Landolt
1987, 322).
In chapter fourteen of the Fu alikm, Ibn Arab elucidates some aspects of
walyah which are of major importance.
Know that walyah is the sphere which
encompasses all the other spheres,
and for this reason it has no end in
time.... On the other hand, legislative
prophethood (nubuwwah) and the
mission of the Messengers (rislt) do
have an end which they have reached
in the person of Muhammad, since
after him there is neither any other
prophet - meaning a prophet who
brings a revealed Law or submits
himself to a previously revealed Law
- nor any other legislating Messenger.
(Ibn Arab 1370, 134)

Ibn Arab elaborates this idea further

that since no being can henceforth term
himself nabyy or rasl - names which
properly belong only to created being because
they form no part of the divine Names - the
only name which remains available is al-wal,
which is one of the Names of God. For the
spiritual man, awareness of his ubdiyyat
(his servitude or ontological nothingness)
goes contrary to such a sharing with God of
the same name, for it implies participation in
the rubbiyyat, or Lordship. But, he adds that
if prophethood, in its strict sense, is ended
general prophethood (nubuwwah ammah)
remains. This is what more commonly termed
walyah, and although it is not accompanied by
the legislative authority which characterizes
the prophets in the narrow sense of the word,
it actually contains a legislative aspect because
it implies the possibility of interpreting

KANZ PHILOSOPHIA Volume 5, Number. 1, June 2015

the statutes of the Law. This is one of the

interpretations of the afore-mentioned adth
that says that the learned (al-ulam) - and
the awliy alone, according to Ibn Arab, are
truly worthy of the name - are the heirs of the
prophets (Chodkiewicz 1993, 51).
In several chapters in the Futt,
Shaykh al-Akbar draws our attention to a
meaning of walyah which has a connection
with this etymology but is distinct from it.
Walyah, he suggests, is the nar, meaning
help or assistance. This help can be envisaged
as active (the help that one gives) or as passive
(the help that one receives). It is help in the first
sense that is discussed here, and specifically
walyah to the extent that it is a divine
attribute (1993, 55-56). Ibn Arab makes the
observation that the Quranic verse 2:257,
which states that Allah is the Protecting
Guardian [wal] of those who believe (wa
Allh waly al-muminn), actually refers
to those who believe in general, not just to
monotheistic believers (muwaidn). He
concludes that the walyah of Allah extends
to the mushrik (polytheist), and that the latters
faith, no matter what its immediate object
may be - a stone, an idol, a star - in fact has
no object but God. He resonates the Quranic
notion that all that is in the universe, believing
or unbelieving, glorifies God (1993, 56).
Shaykh al-Akbar makes a clear distinction between walyah ammah, walyah
in its broadest sense, which consists in the
cooperation of created beings, each of them
occupying its place and playing its part in the
hierarchy of being, and walyah khassah or
walyah in the limited sense, which consists of
the capacity of the saints to receive, according
to the circumstances, the authority and power
of one of the divine Names, and to manifest
justice or Mercy or Majesty or Beauty,
according to what is required by the state of
things at any given moment. Among these

79

saints, we must also distinguish between the

ashab alahwl, the beings who are governed
by their spiritual states, and the ashab
almaqmt, who master the stations while
remaining masters of their states, and are the
most potent men along the Way. The former
are relatively imperfect, but their walyah can
be seen by most people. The walyah of the
latter, in a certain way, is even more obvious,
but its very brilliance covers it up from mans
eyes: They manifest themselves endowed
with the divine Attributes (bi-ift al-aqq)
and for this reason they are unnoticed
(1993, 57). Here we encountered the idea
of perfect sainthood as occulted and implies
the interplay between this Sufi idea and the
Shiites doctrine of the hidden Imm (will be
shown after this part).
Whereas the passages from the Futt
which we have been consid
ering portray
walyah in the sense of taking charge or
helping, and are thus concerned with the
function of the wal rather than with what
constitutes the wal as such, in the concluding
chapter of the series, Ibn Arab considers
walyah inasmuch as it is nearness to God.
According to al-Ghazl, the coming of
Muhammad put the stage of prophethood out
of bounds once and for all, the highest level
attainable by human beings is the stage of
siddqn, a word derived from the surename
of the Caliph Ab Bakr al-Shiddq, the
truthful. In this as in other texts Ibn Arab
contradicts the author of the Ihy, saying that
there is a spiritual station which is higher than
the siddqn, intermediate between that and
the prophetic station (1993, 57-59). This is
the station of nearness/closeness (maqm alqurb), which represents the ultimate point
in the hierarchy of the saints, a point which
he also calls the station of non-legislative
prophethood (ghair nubuwwat al-tashr) or
commonality of prophethood (al-nubuwwah

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The Complex Relationship Between Sufism and Shiism As...........

al-ammah). This station is accessible only to

the afrd (people who hold a highest position
of saintship), known as the muqarrabn, those
who are close to God - a term which originates
in the Quran (ulika al-muqarrabn). One
of these is the Pole, qutb, the one being in
this world who is the place of Allahs gaze,
and who therefore carries out the mandate of
heaven in all the universe. But the superiority
he possesses in respect of his function does
not make him superior in spiritual rank he is
primus inter pares (the first among others) and
has no authority over others. Prophethood and
sainthood, therefore, are related. But there
exist another relationship as well, in virtue of
which the saints are the heirs of the prophets
(1993, 58-59).
One may assume a close structural
relationship between the concept of the qutb
as the highest spiritual guide of the faithful
and that of the hidden Imm in Shiism. As
we have seen, there are a number of mystics or
Sufis who claimed to be the qutb of their time,
and quite a number of them assumed the role
of the Mahdi, the manifestation of the hidden
imm at the end of time. Therefore, we
observe that the devotion shown to the imm
and the qutb, as manifested in the mystical
preceptor, is common to Sufism and Shiism.
As we shall discuss in the following section
of this paper, one of the most important
teachings of Twelver Shiism is: Who dies
without knowing the imm of his time, dies
as an infidel. Similarly, some Sufi authors,
such as Jalluddn Rumi, though a relatively
moderate Sufi, in his Mathnaw once said:
He who does not know the true sheikh i.e.,
the Perfect Man and qutb of his time is a
kafr, an infidel. (1925-40, 3225). In the Sufi
perspective, the world cannot exist without
a pole or an axis just as a mill turns around
its axis, it turns around him and is otherwise
worthless (Schimmel 1975, 200).

Before going further to discuss this

interplay between Sufism and Shiism on the
concept of walyah, we should devote the
next part of this paper to discuss the Shiites
point of view of walyah.
Walyah in Shiism
As we have seen, in the administrative,
social, and religious language of the
beginnings of Islam and, particularly, later in
the technical terminology of Sufism, the term
walyah has a rather complex meaning. On the
contrary, according to Amir-Moezzi, in early
Shiism, the term walyah denotes a simple
meaning. He states that, in principle, the term
has two interdependent and complementary
meanings. First, it refers to the ontological
status or the sacred initiatory mission of the
imms of different prophets. In this meaning,
we find such terms as the wal - imm or the
friend and closest helper of God and His
prophet. In this context, wal is a synonym
of was (the inheritor, the heir [of the Sacred
Cause of the prophets]) or mawl (applied
to the imm, this term means the master, the
guide, the protector, the patronus). The second
meaning is related to the faithful of the imms.
In that sense, walyah denotes the unfailing
love, faith, and submission that the initiated
owe to their holy initiating guide (Moezzi
1994, 159). Therefore, the term becomes the
equivalent of tawall (being the faithful friend
or the obedient protege of someone). In fact,
according to Amir-Moezzi,true Shiites are
called the mutawall of the imms (1994,
159).
Shiism is recognized with the concept
of walyah (with, it should be noted here, a
slightly different vocalization) as devotion to
Ali and the imms from the house of the
Prophet (ahl al-bayt), that is, descendants
of Ali who are considered imms. Walyah
applies also to the position of Ali ibn Abi

KANZ PHILOSOPHIA Volume 5, Number. 1, June 2015

Talib as the single, explicitly designated heir

and successor to Muhammad in whom all
responsibility for the guidance of the Muslims
was subsequently vested. Due to this position,
it is understandable, therefore, if in Shiism,
rejecting Alis walyah was and is equivalent
to apostasy. The Shiites authors emphasize
that without the walyah there will be no faith
which is approved by God (Corbin 1971, 248).
As Sachedina states, the walyah of `Ali in
Shiites doctrine has become the sole criterion
for judging true faith and the entire spiritual
structure of the Shiism was established on
the walyah (love and devotion) of Ali, who
became the first Shiites imm (Sachedina
1981, 6).
In this context, we see that the transfer
of walyah from the Prophet Muhammad
to Ali was believed as part of a universal
process of revelation in which the imms,
being the inheritors of the esoteric knowledge
and substance of the previous prophets
(ban al-nubuwwa) came to complete the
process. Shiism insists that only the transfer
of walyah from Muhammad to Ali and
subsequent imms makes Islam the perfect
religion (as in the Quran, 5:3, see below).
Moreover, because in the Shiites perspective,
walyah designates the adherence to the
imms and the recognition of their mission as
the true holders of the [divine] Command
(ulu al-amr) as well as the exclusive possessors
of the true meaning of the Quran and the
knowledge of the hidden (ilm al-ghayb), it
remains the key to salvation, without which
no pious act of obedience to God (tah) is
truly valid. Due to these reasons and contrary
to Sunnis belief on the doctrinal status of the
profession of monotheism (tawd), walyah
in Shiism attains the status of doctrine and it is
considered one of the pillars of Iman (Landolt
1987, 320). Al-Kulayni, for example, indicates
this in his chapter on the daim (pillars) in

81

his al-Kafi when he cites a number of adth

wherein the imms have enumerated these
pillars usually four, including prayer, alms,
fasting, pilgrimage, plus walyah and have
singled out walyah as especially important
(Heffening n.d. ).
In Shiites perspective, the Prophet
explicitly declared Alis elevation to this
status at Ghadir Khumm upon returning from
the farewell pilgrimage in Mecca when he
uttered the famous declaration: Of whomever
I am the master (mawl), Ali is his master
(Man kuntu mawl fa Al mawl) (abaabai
1977, 68). This pronouncement was made
by the Prophet after the Quranic verse (5:3)
was revealed to him that says, This day have I
perfected your religion for you and completed
My favour unto you, and have chosen for you
as religion al-Islam. This verse is commonly
understood by both Sunni and Shiites that it
indicate the end of Muhammads prophetic
mission.
To fully understand the concept of
walyah in Shiism, it is also important to
take into account a number of statements
which both Sunni and Shiites sources agree
were made by Muhammad and to which the
Shiites regard as the evidence of the walyah
of Ali and his family and of Alis divinely
election as Muhammads successor. It is not
necessary here, however, to consider all such
statements or traditions. It may be relevant to
focus on those traditions in which the term
wal is employed the following quotation
gives us examples of the adth of this kind
which also includes the statements made by
Ali which, in Shiism, are also regarded as
traditions:
On one occasion when four of the
Muslims complained to the Prophet
concerning something that Ali has
done, the Prophet grew angry and
said: What do you want from Ali?

82

The Complex Relationship Between Sufism and Shiism As...........

Ali is from me and I am from Ali.

He is the guardian [wal] of every
believer after me (Tirmidzi n.d.,
298). And in another context: You
are my successor [wal, the guardian
of the religion] in this world and the
next. (Ibn Hanbal n.d., 331)
Ali said: I am Muhammad and
Muhammad is I; Ali said in the
Hadth al-Nurniyyah: Muhammad
is the Seal of the Prophets (khtim
al-anbiy) and I am the Seal of the
Successors (khtim al-wasyyun).
(Momen 1985, 17)

Besides such adth, several Quranic

verses are considered to provide a theological
foundation for Alis walyah. Probably the
most important ones being: (1) Your guardian
[wal ] can be only Allah; and His messenger
and those who believe, who establish worship
and pay the poordue, and bow down (in
prayer) (5:55). In this particular verse, the
word wal can denote friend, helper or master.
Many of the commentators, both Sunni and
Shiite, agreed that this verse refers to Ali
and was revealed after Ali had given his ring
away to someone in need who had entered the
mosque while prayers were in progress (1985,
17; mul 1969, 400); (2) Lo! We offered the
trust [amna] unto the heavens and the earth
and the hills, but they shrank from bearing it
and were afraid of it. And man assumed it. Lo!
he hath proved a tyrant and a fool (33:72). In
Shiites perspective, the trust or the divine
charge (amna) in this context referred to the
walyah or Immate of Ali and the subsequent
imms, whereas the sinful and ignorant men
are those who took the rightful place of the
imms (1987, 17; Ayoub n.d., 58).7
In respect of Twelver Shiism, the
According to M. Ayoub, walayah here means
both the imams nearness to God as His friends
(awliy) and their authority (walya) over people.
7

Imamate conception is characterized by

the occultation (ghaybah) or absence of
the Twelfth Imm who is believed to have
disappeared in 260/873. At his appearance
(uhr) at the end of time he will fill the earth
with justice as it is now filled with injustice. In
the absence of the imm, the ulama assumed
authority in theological and juridical matters
much like their Sunni counterparts before.
They insisted, however, on the presence of
the infallible (mam) Hidden Imm as a
grace necessary upon God (lutf wajb) that
would validate their consensus (ijm)! ref.
Gnostic Shiism reappears within Twelver
Shiism by the fourteenth century in a Sufi
form but uses different name,irfan (esoteric
knowledge). The fourteenth century Shiites
author, Sayyid Haydar Amuli (d. after 1385)
interprets Ibn Arabs doctrine of the two
seals of walyah in terms of Twelver Shiites
imamology, with Ali as the seal of absolute
walyah and the twelfth imm as the seal
of particular Muhammadan walyah
(mul 1969, 396-400).
From the very beginning, walyah is
represented largely in the teaching of the
Imms themselves. The Shiites authors
repeat over and over that the walyah is
the esoteric aspect of prophecy (ban alnubuwwah). The awliy Allh are the
Friends of God (and the Beloved of God);
strictly speaking, they are the prophets and
the Imms, the elite of humanity to whom
the divine secrets are revealed through divine
inspiration. The friendship with which they
are favored by God makes them the spiritual
Guides of humanity. It is by responding to
them with his own devotion, as a friend, that
each of their initiates, under their guidance,
arrives at knowledge of himself and shares
in their walyah. Therefore, the notion of
the walyah is, essentially, indicative of the
initiatic and supervisory function of the Imm

KANZ PHILOSOPHIA Volume 5, Number. 1, June 2015

who initiates his disciples into the mysteries

of the doctrine. Thus walyah embraces, in
an inclusive sense, both the idea of knowledge
(marifa) and the idea of love (mahabbah) - a
knowledge which is by its nature a salvatory
knowledge. That is probably why, in this
respect, Corbin considers Shism as truly
gnosis of Islam (Corbin 1971, 371).
Accordingly, the cycle of walyah is the
cycle of the Imm succeeding the Prophet;
that is to say, of ban succeeding the dhhir,
the aqqa succeeding the shara. According
to Corbin, there is no question here of
dogmatic magisterium. The fact is that it
would be more appropriate to speak of the
simultaneity of shara and aqqa rather than
of their succession, thereby adding the latter
to the former.
The ban or esoteric aspect, as
the content of knowledge, and the
walyah, which configurates the
type of spirituality postulated by this
knowledge, come together and show
Shiism to be the gnosis of Islam (irfan
or theosophy). Analogous relationships
come to mind: the dhhir is to the
ban what literal religion (shara)
is to spiritual religion (aqqa), what
prophecy (nubuwwa) is to the
walyah. It would be better to speak
of the cycle of walyah as the cycle
of spiritual initiation, and the awliy
Allh as the Friends of God or men
of God. (1993, 27)

Finally, there is the following decisive

statement: Ali was sent secretly with every
prophet; with me he was sent openly
(Baatha Al ma kulli nabiyyn sirran wa
miya jahran) (mul 1969, 401). This last
is as precise a statement as could be wished
for. The Muhammadan Immate, as the
esotericism of Islam, is in fact the esotericism
of all previous prophetic religions (Corbin
1993, 41-42; mul 1969, 399-400).

83

It is thus evident that the essence

(aqqa) of the Seal of the prophets and that
of the Seal of the awliy is one and the same,
viewed both exoterically (as prophecy) and
esoterically (as the walyah). The situation
confronting us is as follows. Everyone in Islam
is unanimous in professing that the cycle of
prophecy came to an end with Muhammad,
Seal of the prophets. For Shiism however,
the closing of the cycle of prophecy coincided
with the opening of the cycle of the walyah
the cycle of spiritual Initiation. What in
fact came to an end, according to the Shiite
authors, was legislative prophecy (Corbin
1993, 43). Prophecy pure and simple
characterizes the spiritual state of those who
before Islam were called naby, but who from
then on were designated awliy: the name
was changed, but the thing itself remained.
Such is the vision which typifies Shiite Islam,
inspiring the expectation of a future to which
it remains open. It is a conception based on
a classification of the prophets, itself founded
on the prophetic gnosiology taught by the
Imms themselves. It also establishes an order
of precedence between wal, naby and rasl,
the receiver Shiite understanding of which
differs from that of Ismailism (1993, 43).
Nevertheless, in thus affirming the
superiority of the walyah the Twelver
Shiites do not mean to imply that the person
of the wal pure and simple is superior to
the person of the naby and the Messenger.
What is meant is that of the three qualities,
viewed in the single person of the Prophet of
Islam, the walyah is preeminent, because it
is the source, foundation and support of the
two others. Hence the apparent paradox: that
even though the walyah is preeminent, in
concrete terms it is the prophetMessenger
who takes precedence, because he contains all
three qualities: he is walnabyrasl
(1993, 44).

84

The Complex Relationship Between Sufism and Shiism As...........

Walyah and the Complex

Relationship between Shiism and
Sufism
In his Sufi Essays, Seyyed Hossein
Nasr asserts that one if the most difficult
questions touching the manifestation of
Sufism in Islamic history is its relation with
Shiism (Nasr 1991, 104). The complexity
of this relationship, according to Nasr, is due
to the fact that Sufism and Shiism cannot be
dealt with on the same structures of Islamic
tradition. Although both Sufism and Shiism
represent the esoteric dimension of Islam,
Shiism represents another division of Islam,
that is, of Shiism and the Sunni. While the
esoteric dimension of Islam in the Sunni is
crystallized in Sufism, this Islamic dimension
poured into the whole structure of Shiism
(1991, 105).
Nasr goes on to argue that, from the
Sunni perspective, the relationship between
Sufism and Shiism is, in essence, a matter
of similarity and assimilation. On the other
hand, from the Shiites point of view, Shiism
understood here in its general sense as the
esoteric instructions of the Prophet - is the
origin of what later came to be known as
Sufism. However, to follow Nasrs conclusion,
looking at the historical manifestation of both
Sufism and Shiism in later period, neither
Shiism nor Sunnism, nor Sufism within
the Sunni world, derive from one another
because the fact is, they all derive their
authority from the Prophet and the source of
the Islamic revelation (1991, 105).
Henry Corbin presents a different
conclusion from Nasrs in this respect.
Corbin seems to understand Sufism-Shiism
relationship in terms of the transposition
(and the denaturation) of Shiite concepts
in Sufism, especially the doctrine of the
Immate or walyah. Corbin insists that,
The Sufi notion of the person who is the Pole

(Qutb) and the Pole of Poles, as well as the

notion of the walyah, have a Shiites origin
is something that cannot be denied (Corbin
1993, 190-191), The same influence is also
observed within the tradition of the cloak of
Sufism which, to Corbin, cannot be explained
without reference to the same origin, that is
Shiism (1993 190-191). Even with regard to
Haydar Amulis admiration to certain of Ibn
Arabs ideas which were also accepted by
many other Shiites authors in later periods,
Corbin frequently states that Shiism in this
case was simply taking back its own (1971,
219). It is not surprising, if when comparing
many of Ibn Arabs ideas with those of
Shiism, Corbin states that many pages of the
shaykh can be read as the work of a Shiite
author. Corbin also observes that despite the
fact that Ibn Arabs writings undoubtedly
demonstrate an exposition of the concept of
the walyah with perfect correctness, the
walyah itself is separated from its origins and
supports (1993, 28-29).
Corbin further argues that there is possibly no single concept in Islamic esotericism
which was not mentioned or initiated by the
Shiites Imms in conversations, lessons, and
sermons, and other means of communication.
To provide an example for this, he gives a
critical analysis on the relationship between
the walyah and prophecy (nubuwwah) in
al-Tirmidhs doctrine. As we have discussed
earlier, al-Tirmidh develops the theses on
the all-encompassing nature of the walyah
as the source and foundation of the prophetic
mission and inspiration; the idea of the dual
walyah (of which Corbin thinks to be first
propounded and established by Shiites
doctrine); the superiority of walyah to
prophecy because of its permanence mission;
the historical completeness of the cycle of
prophecy with the coming of the last Prophet;
and the ever-existence of the cycle of the

KANZ PHILOSOPHIA Volume 5, Number. 1, June 2015

walyah through the presence of the awliy.

A similar thesis is developed in a more
historicist fashion by Kmil Muaf al-Shayb
in al-ilah bayna al-tasawwuf wa al-tashayyu.
According to al-Shayb, it is highly probable
that Shiism provided Sufism with numerous
ideas in many fields. In this book, he attempts
to demonstrate the influence of Shiism on
Sufism, arguing that from many similarities
found between both parties, we can infer
that Shiism came first and had established
its whole body of doctrine upon a spiritual
foundation, just as Sufism did afterwards.
When dealing with Ibn Arabs metaphysical
ideas, for instance, al-Shayb asserts that the
latter had actually borrowed many of his ideas
from Shiism. For example, Ibn Arabs idea
of the limited prophecy of the awliy, the
idea of Muhammadan reality (al-aqqa alMuhammadiyyah), the awliys (represented
by Imms in Shiism ) intercession for people,
and the two resurrection at the end of the
world (resembling the Shiites conception of
al-raj (the second coming) and al-qiyma
(the resurrection); all of these ideas, al-Shayb
argues, were borrowed from Shiism (alShayb 1969, 64).
Based on these assumptions, he
then ventures to prove that Sufi Wilya
(Sainthood) formed a complete Immate with
all its divine privileges and Gods support.
Furthermore, al-Shayb contends that it is
particularly with regard to the concept of
walyah that the Sufis could not deny their
dependence upon the Shiites doctrines,
and, to a large extent, were even obliged to
associate all their doctrines with the person of
Ali (1969, 11-12). Al-Shaybi concludes that
the relationship between Sufism and Shiism
passed through two independent phases: first,
the establishment of Sufi ideas identical with
those in Shiism; and secondly, the influence
of Sufism on Shiism in its later periods (1969,

12).

85

Michel Chodkiewicz provides different

analysis from that of Corbin and al-Shayb
pertaining to the influence of Shiism on
Sufism. He asserts that it is certainly pointless
to deny the terminological and conceptual
connection and, therefore also, interaction
that exist between Shiism and Sufism,
especially prior to the coming of the Safavids.
But, Chodkiewicz argues that these influences
were reciprocal, and he points out to the
influence of Ibn Arab whose importance
was acknowledged by many Shiites authors,
such as Haydar Amuli-- on the Shiites
doctrine of walyah as an obvious proof for
this reciprocity (Chodkiewicz 1993, 49). As
we have discussed earlier, the Imm is seen as
the spiritual friend or supporter who guides
and initiates mankind into the mystical or
inner truth of religion. It is through him that
Gods grace reaches the Earth. As the apostles
or prophets are concerned with external
aspects of the religion, in particular with the
legislation of religious laws and ordinances,
the Imm is concerned primarily with the
inner or esoteric aspects of religion (conclusion
without basis), guiding mankind onto the path
of spiritual enlightenment and progress. The
Imm is therefore, at one and the same time,
master and friend in the journey of the spirit.
This theme is, of course, very close to the Sufi
idea of the wilya possessed by a Sufi Shaykh
or awliy (Momen 1985, 157).
Other most important doctrine of Sufism
that should also be taken into account when
we are dealing with the idea of walyah is
the concept of the Perfect Man (al-Insn alKmil), most importantly as expounded by
Ibn Arab and after him elaborated by Abd alKarm al-Jl (1365-1428). This doctrine states
that there always must exist upon the earth a
man who is the perfect channel of grace from
God to man. This man who is called the Qutb

86

The Complex Relationship Between Sufism and Shiism As...........

(Pole or Axis, of the Universe) is considered

to be in a state of walyah (here to mean
sanctity, being under the protection of God).
We have repeatedly stated that there are great
similarities between the concept of the Qutb
in Sufism and the Shiites Imam. As a matter
of fact, many of the Traditions referring to
the Imam are also to be found among Sufis
teachings and doctrines regarding the Qutb.
For example, there are the well-known Sufi
sayings such as There can only be one Qutb
on the earth at any one time; Anyone who
dies without recognizing the Qutb of his time
has died the death of the Jahiliyyah; again
Only recognition of the Qutb confers true
belief, and some other similar traditions
(1985, 209).
The authority to teach the Sufi path
has been handed down from master (Qutb,
Shaykh, Murshid or Pir) to pupil (Murd,
alb, Slik) through the generations. Most of
these chains of authority (silsla) traditionally
go back through various intermediaries to
Ali who among Sufis is considered to have
received initiation into mystical truth from
Muhammad.
Conclusion
Closly associated with walyah is the
concept of the Imam in Shiism, for the imm
is he who possesses the power and function
of walyah. The role of imm is central to
Shiism, though we can not deal with all
ramifications. But from the spiritual point of
view it is important to point out his function
as spiritual guide, the function that closely
resembles that of the Sufi master. Though
the primarily conclusions to be drawn from
this complex relationship may appear hard
to reconcile, they come to the close point
that walyah encompasses nubuwwah and
rislah which proceed from it, and hence it
is superior to them in the person of him who

combines the three qualifications. Although

there are a number of issues in which the vast
and intricate relationship between Shiism
and Sufism can be well observed.

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