There are more than 1700 species of lichen occuring

throughout the British Isles, and many grow in Scotland

where the air is purer. Several different species may be found on a single rock or tree, resulting in
lichenologists spending hours in one spot!

About other books in the series: Bumblebees

"The text is most enjoyable."

"The illustrations are a joy."

NATURALLY SCOTTISH

"The quality of this series is well known, and this volume is no exception."

"I am immensly impressed by the sharpness of the photos and the

details they provide as a valuable aid to identification."
Anne-Marie Smout, Recorder News, Biological Recording In Scotland Jan 2004

ISBN 1-85397-373-4

9 781853 973734

ISBN 1 85397 373 4

A CIP record is held at the British Library.

Scottish Natural Heritage. Visit our website on http://www.snh.org.uk

Oliver Gilbert has recently retired after a life spent

teaching botany to university students. He is a
general ecologist but admits to a special affection for
lichens, probably because until recently they were a
neglected group. His greatest pleasures come from
field work in remote areas so Scotland has been a
happy hunting ground.
SNH

Price 4.95

About the author:

s c o t t i s h

naturally scottish

n a t u r a l l y

LICHENS

Lichens

Lichens

Lichens
N A T U R A L L Y

S C O T T I S H

 Scottish Natural Heritage 2004

ISBN 1 85397 373 4 paperback
A CIPO record is held at the British Library
W3K0304

Acknowledgements: Advice and comments from Sandy and Brian Coppins

Author: Oliver Gilbert
Series Editor: Lynne Farrell (SNH)
Design and production: SNH Design and Publications

Photographs:
K. Dalby 2, 3, 16, 19 (inset); L.Farrell/SNH 29; B.Fox 36; A.Fryday 24; L. Gill/SNH back cover top left, frontispiece,
contents, opposite 1, 5 top left, 5 right, 5 bottom left, 9 top, 9 bottom, 13, 15, 17, 19, 20, 25, 27 28, 31, 33, 35 top left, 35
top right, 35 bottom; P&A Macdonald/SNH 23; I. Munro front cover, 1, 6 (inset); J.Petrie/Inverness Museum and Art
Gallery 7; G.Satterley 6.
Illustrations:
Bill Thompson 11 left (adapted from map by A. E. G. Averis) & 11 right (source: Gilbert 1974);
Dundee City Council, Museums and Art Galleries in conjunction with Dundee Naturalist Society 12.

Scottish Natural Heritage

Design and Publications
Battleby
Redgorton
Perth PH1 3EW
Tel: 01738 458530
Fax: 01738 458613
E-mail: pubs@snh.gov.uk
www.snh.org.uk

Cover photograph:
Mountain saffron (Solorina crocea) a rare alpine species found in the
Scottish Highlands
Frontispiece:
Several species of lichen completely
covering a rock
Back Cover photograph:
Blood-spot (Ophioparma ventosum) a common lichen in mountain areas

Lichens
N A T U R A L L Y

S C O T T I S H

by
Oliver Gilbert

Fo r e w o r d
Whilst Scotland's outstanding scenery is internationally
renowned, the fact that its lichen communities are also of
international importance is scarcely recognised. In
commissioning this book from one of Britain's leading
lichenologists, Scottish Natural Heritage is seeking to put
that right.
Oliver Gilbert outlines their place in folklore and their role
in the one-time world-famous Harris Tweed economy, but
it is when he comes to describe some of the special
places where lichens thrive that one senses just why these
strange organisms make his spine tingle.
Those venturing onto the high ground of the Cairngorm
plateau will find themselves in a lichen-dominated
wilderness, which Oliver and his friend Brian Fox did
much to describe. Some parts of the Celtic rain forest,
their trees 'dripping' with lichens, are so remote they are
still not fully explored for lichens, but you do not have to
know the names of the lichens to know that you are
somewhere special.
The importance of some habitats has only been
recognised in recent years. It was not until the late
1970s that Brian Coppins of the Royal Botanic Garden
Edinburgh realised that the twigs of Atlantic hazelwoods
supported a distinctive lichen flora. One species
discovered and named by him and Peter James of the
Natural History Museum was the white-script lichen probably endemic to Scotland.

Since Victorian times, lichens have been known to be

good indicators of air pollution - rather like the canary
down the coal mine. Back in those times, sulphur was
the problem but this has largely been conquered with the
clean air acts. Now the problems include nitrogen from
both agriculture and vehicle exhausts, and global
warming which may account for the apparent
disappearance of certain species of snow-bed lichen in
the Cairngorms. Global measures are required to
conserve such lichen communities.
Lichens colour the landscape, especially where the air is
'pure as wine', but look closely at bark, wood and rock
and you will see just how beautiful their intricate structures
can be. Their fruit bodies, through which reproductive
spores are produced, differ on the various species, some
being like miniature jam tarts, others tiny volcanoes and,
perhaps most fascinating of all - the 'writing' lichens - so
called because of their resemblance to hieroglyphics.
Lichenology is a neglected science, but Oliver's account
conveys the excitement of the chase.

Stephen Ward
Formerly Advisory Officer on Lichens,
Scottish Natural Heritage

Contents

Old Mans Beard (Usnea sp.) and Oak Moss (Evernia

prunastri) growing on a birch tree by Loch Ness

Lichens in Scotland

What is a lichen?

How lichens multiply and disperse

Use of lichens for dyeing

What's in a name?

The exceptional Scottish climate

10

Air as pure as wine?

12

Important habitats for lichens

14

The Celtic rain forest

14

Caledonian pinewoods

18

Atlantic hazelwoods

21

Alpines galore

22

The coast

26

Blanket bog

30

Conservation

32

Biodiversity Action Plan and the Red Data List

34

Finding out more about lichens

36

VIII

Lichen-covered oak trees at Ariundle National Nature Reserve (NNR), Ardnamurchan, Westerness

L ichens

in Scotland

Lichens are more abundant and better developed in

Particularly Scottish are:

Scotland than in other parts of the British Isles. Many

the Celtic rain forests,

people notice lichens for the first time as they see

Caledonian pinewoods,

dense, shaggy coats on tree trunks and rocks - 'old

Atlantic hazelwoods,

man's beard' hangs to a foot long off branches.

the lichens of the vast bird colonies on islands such

Spectacular patches of scarlet-tipped lichens are often

as St Kilda,

found on heathland. Those venturing onto the high

the montane communities are exceptional, where a

ground of the Cairngorm plateau, will find themselves

single mountain can exceed in diversity the

in a wilderness dominated by lichens.

combined lichen floras of Snowdonia and the

English Lake District.

In the past lichens played an important role in the

Scottish economy. They were used for dyeing, both on

This booklet provides an introduction to these riches.

a domestic scale and in supplying the manufacturers of

the world-famous Harris tweed with their shades from
orange through to brown. Even now you can bring
back a jersey knitted with lichen-dyed wool as a
memento of a visit to Scotland. The only naturalised
reindeer in Britain are found in the Highlands where
they live for much of the year on the lichen known as
'reindeer moss'.
From the point of view of Scotland's natural heritage,
many of the lichen communities in western Scotland are
unequalled anywhere in Europe and so are of
international importance.

Reindeer Moss (Cladonia portentosa)

Orange Sea Star (Caloplaca verruculifera) common on rocky shores

What

is a lichen?

A lichen (pronounced li'ken) is a dual organism consisting

tolerate being scorched by the sun in summer

of a fungus and a photosynthetic alga or blue-green alga

months, yet also survive ice and snow, and are

(cyanobaterium) which live in close association. The

therefore able to grow higher up in the mountains

photosynthetic partner manufactures food for the whole

than other plants.

lichen and the fungus provides a stable, protective

environment for its alga. The fungus forms the main

Scottish lichens are many colours: white, grey, black,

body of the lichen, and in most cases, the alga lies

yellow, orange, sulphur, apple-green, pink or scarlet.

sandwiched between upper and lower fungal layers.

Most grow as crusts, some are leafy (foliose), while

Where a lichen has a green algal partner, the green

others are shrubby. They are completely different from

algal layer can often be seen by scratching the upper

the mosses and liverworts with which they often grow.

surface of the lichen. Lichens are often quoted as a

The majority of mosses and liverworts are green, leafy

classic example of symbiosis - a mutually beneficial

and photosynthesise their own food.

partnership between two organisms.

Other interesting facts:
some crust-like lichens on rocks have a 'legendary
slow' growth rate, sometimes as little as 0.1 mm
per year,
in undisturbed conditions, some rock-dwelling
lichens can survive to a great age (many hundreds
of years) and are among the oldest living organisms
in Scotland,
many lichens have a remarkable tolerance to
drying out, during which state they can survive
extremes of heat and cold; this means that they can

Slow-growing lichen (Lecanora rupicola), Shetland

How

lichens
multiply and disperse
The upper surface of many lichens bears special

detached and grow into a new plant (propagules)

structures which appear as miniature jam tarts, delicate

containing both alga and fungus. The most common

cups, or tiny volcanoes with a minute pore at the tip.

are powdery structures (soralia) that develop as

Some are brightly coloured, others more muted, and

pustules on the upper surface. These release small

many are black. A special group of crustose lichens

clumps of algal cells (soredia) held together by a web

found on the smooth bark of hazel, rowan, holly and

of fungal threads (hyphae). The other structures for

ash (particularly in the west) are known as 'script

vegetative reproduction, also unique to lichens, are

lichens' as they have short, scribble-like lines scattered

isidia. These are fragile, peg-like outgrowths on the

over their surface. All these structures are known as

upper surface which contain both partners. Numerous

'fruit bodies' as they forcibly discharge tiny spores to a

lichen isidia and soredia are picked up following

height of a few millimeters where they have a good

stormy nights by pollen-sampling equipment run for

chance of becoming airborne.

hay-fever sufferers in a rooftop location in Edinburgh

Reproduction by spores is a risky business as, on

If you look through a hand lens you will see that the

landing and germination, they need to meet the right

upper surfaces of lichens with their varied fruit bodies,

algal partner before they can form a new lichen.

soralia, isidia and range of hues look extremely

beautiful.

Many lichens increase their chance of successful

reproduction by producing special parts that become

Sea Ivory (Ramalina siliquosa)

A Dog Lichen (Peltigera sp.)

Script Lichen (Graphis scripta) growing on a rowan tree at the

Birks of Aberfeldy

Inside a Harris tweed factory with some of the lichen-dyed wool

Inset: Cudbear (Ochrolechia tartarea)

Use

of lichens for dyeing

By far the most important use of lichens in Scotland

The other main lichen dye produced in Scotland and,

was for dyeing, first as a cottage industry and later on

exported all over Britain, was orchil or cudbear, which

a commercial scale. The lichens were scraped off the

gave a coveted purple or red. Its commercial value

rocks using metal hoops, spoons and, in the poorer

was so great that a factory producing this household

districts, seashells. Here is an account of lichen dyeing

dye was set up in Glasgow covering 17 acres and

from Shetland records:

processing 250 tons of lichen each year. Gathering

the lichen provided considerable employment in the

'My aunt was the one for making dyed yarn. I mind

Highlands. This gave rise to the Scottish saying:

seeing her work with yon scrottyie, yon grey lichen

Cattle on the hills, Gold on the stones.'

you scrape from the stanes. She made up a brawly

thick gruel, ye ken, and had it boiling abun the fire in a
muckle three-taed kettle, with layers of yarn packed
between. A few hanks came out soon and the rest
she'd leave a while longer to get a darker shade. She'd
knit her stockings striped in different shades of brown'.

Venables 1956, Life in Shetland: a world apart

As late as the 1950s, black, three-legged iron pots

used for boiling lichens could be seen outside many
crofts in the Hebrides. The browns and fawns of
Harris tweed were produced from a closely-related
group of lichens called crottle. The last of a long line
of commercial dyers and hand weavers of this cloth on
Harris ceased production in 1997.

Three-legged iron pot used for boiling lichens

What s

in a name?

Many Scottish lichens have three names:

a Gaelic name, once regularly used by the
Highlanders and Islanders, but now forgotten and

Gaelic: Crotal

Coille - wood crottle,

Common: Tree

Lungwort - due to the underside of

its lobes bearing a resemblance to the inside of a lung,

only found in dictionaries. They used crottle as a

Latin: Lobaria

general term for lichens,

a Common name which refers to some conspicuous

Gaelic: Lus

pulmonaria

Ghoinnich - a plant for wounds,

feature or property. Two of the examples given

have old names, dating back to Mediaeval times,

Common: Dog

when physicians practised a 'Doctrine of

dog - due to the underside bearing fang-like structures,

Signatures'. They believed that parts of the plants

Lichen - a cure for the bite of a mad

Latin: Peltigera

that bore some resemblance to parts of the human

canina

anatomy had special properties to heal ailments

occurring in the affected parts of the human body.

Gaelic: Crotal

Dubh - dark crottle,

Anyone with a lung complaint, for example, would

Common: Heather-rags - ragged and grey, growing

be made a concoction of lungwort,

amongst the heather,

Latin: Hypogymnia

the scientific Latin name which is also descriptive of

the species if you are a classical scholar.
The Common names of many Scottish lichens are pure
poetry: Sunburn, Rock Hair, Yellow Candles, Golden
Pine Lichen, Little Clouds, Oak Moss, Crab's-eye, Coral
Crust and Sea Ivory.

physodes

Tree Lungwort (Lobaria pulmonaria) on an oak tree near Arisaig

Heather-rags (Hypogymnia physodes) growing on a blanket bog in North Uist

11

T he

exceptional
Scottish climate
Lying on the western seaboard of Europe, in the track

A number of these lichens are endemic to Scotland

of the Atlantic depressions, Scotland has a climate that

which means they occur nowhere else in the world.

is unique in Europe. It is described as extreme

oceanic i.e. it is influenced by the surrounding seas.

The unusual climate affects all lichen communities. The

The diagram opposite shows how even the

mountains in the west experience a lower snow cover

Scandinavian fjords, Brittany, Cornwall and Wales

than those elsewhere and their rocks are so

have lower oceanicity scores. High values indicate a

continuously wet that lichen species normally restricted

combination of extreme humidity, abundant rainfall and

to damp rock are ubiquitous. The wet ground favours

number of rain days (days when rain falls), persistent

peat formation so some flat areas are covered with a

cloudiness, cool summers and mild winters. The Gulf

community known as blanket bog. The sodden

Stream helps to make the climate warmer with the result

moorland that results has its own suite of very beautiful

that along the west coast there are numerous sites, such

lichens which can be seen beside trackways or around

as Inverewe Gardens, where palm trees flourish.

the margins of disused peat cuttings. These include

clumps of reindeer lichens, patches of pixie-cup and

Woodland lichens which grow best in, or require, a

horn lichens (Cladonia species).

mild, wet climate thrive here. Oak woods bordering

the western sea lochs are 'dripping' with lichens that
are rare in Europe as a whole.

10

Mucky Air Map - produced by school

children, showing the polluted and
cleaner air over Britain

Map showing the gradient of

oceanicity across Europe

17.5
20
22.5
25
27.5
30
32.5

Pure air
Relatively clean
air

35
Moderate
pollution
Heavily polluted
air

35
32.5
30
27.5
25
22.5
20
17.5
15
12.5
10

11

Air

as pure as wine?

Most people are aware that lichens do not grow well

This goes to show that we must not be complacent

where there is air pollution. They are like the canary

about air pollution effects on Scottish lichens and

down the coal mine - detecting air pollution at lower

assume that remoteness from sources will always

levels than many other organisms. In 1972 school

protect them. But for the time being, areas north of the

children throughout Britain mapped lichens around their

Highland Boundary Fault enjoy some of the cleanest air

homes which helped produce the 'Mucky air map of

in Europe.

Britain'. It revealed that the largest reservoirs of pure air

Sulphur dioxide levels around Dundee in 1976

are in Scotland, which, apart from Scotland's Midland

Valley, appears to enjoy air as pure as wine. This is not
quite the full story however.
The school children's map reflected the distribution of
sulphur dioxide to which virtually all lichens are sensitive.
However there are several different types of air pollution.
Despite a big drop in sulphur dioxide levels, acid rain
which travels a lot further, is still affecting certain

Sulphur dioxide levels around Dundee in 2000

woodland lichens - for instance along the southern edge

of the Highlands and the remoter areas of the Cowal
peninsula. In addition, residents in the Cairngorms have
reported up to five centimetres of highly-acidic, black
snow falling several times a year. When it melts this
produces a pulse of toxic water, but its effect on lichens is
not known. A further cause of concern is increasing
SO2 pollution

long-distance nitrogen pollution from sources associated

with industry, transport and agriculture.

most

12

least

13

Sticta limbata is particularly sensitive to acid rain but is still widespread in the woodlands of western Scotland

I mportant habitats for lichens

The Celtic rain f ores t
The west of Scotland holds very wet and mossy, oak

liverworts helps maintain the very high humidity.

and hazel woods which are internationally important

The moss forms the base on which the rare lichen

for their lichens, mosses and liverworts. Their higher

communities are found, especially one called the

plant flora is not particularly special. It is the epiphytes

'Lobarion' after its most conspicuous family. There are

(plants which grow on other plants without being

four species of lungworts (Lobaria) that can grow to the

parasitic) clothing the trees that are exceptional. The

size of dinner plates. Growing with these are lead-grey

woods are best developed along the sides of sheltered

Pannaria, Parmeliella and Degelia species, dark Stictas

sea lochs such as Sunart, Shiel and Moidart. Some of

and jelly lichens, Biatora sphaeroides with pink fruits

these woods are so remote that they still have not been

and Dimerella lutea with bright yellow ones. The trees

fully explored for lichens.

often have a skirt of dog lichen (Peltigera) which has

abundant shield-like, chestnut-coloured fruit bodies.

It is quite an experience to visit these Celtic rain forests.

The weight of the lichen cover eventually becomes so

The trees are of only a moderate size and the first

great that the moss peels off the trees, leaving heaps of

impression is of how mossy the habitat is - a deep

these internationally rare lichens around their base.

blanket of moss covers the floor, climbs the tree trunks,

festoons horizontal boughs, and even extends into the

You do not have to know the names of the lichens to

canopy. By absorbing rain and mist, then releasing

realise that you are somewhere very special.

this moisture slowly, the blanket of mosses and

14

18

15

Veteran oak tree covered in lichens, mosses and ferns, Ariundle NNR, Ardnamurchan

The best lichen sites are on sunny, south-facing slopes

On higher ground the oak woods give way to grazed

while the rare Atlantic mosses and liverworts, which

birch woodland which is a different, but equally

need more moisture, favour northern aspects. The

distinctive, lichen-rich variant of Celtic rain forest. It is

optimal sites for lichens are also well lit being around

dominated by silvery-grey leafy species many of which

the edge of glades or along woodland margins.

grow directly on tree bark. This bark has a high acidity

due to 'washing out' or leaching by the high rainfall.

While the whole area is a lichenologists Mecca, sites

where burns and gorges cut through the woodland are

These western woods are far from being undisturbed

particularly special. Here, in ravines full of tangled

relics of the ancient forest. In times past, these woods

vegetation, there is a wider range of trees - oak

were extensively coppiced, and the wood used for

together with ash, elm, cherry and willows. Ash and

charcoal, tanning and bobbin-making. This activity

hazel have a more alkaline bark and are a home to

ceased about 150 years ago, but it is thought there was

'jewels' such as the handsome Specklebellies

always sufficient wildwood remaining for the entire suite

(Pseudocyphellaria species) and Blackberries and

of rare lichens to survive. Today the best examples of

Custard (Parmentaria chilense).

these woodlands are managed for nature conservation.

Netted Shield Lichen (Parmelia sulcata) showing the powdery reproductive parts (soralia)

16

Golden-edged Specklebelly (Pseudocyphellaria crocata) growing at Ballachuan hazelwood, Argyll

Caledonian

pinewoods

It is a myth that the Scottish Highlands were once

plates are welded together by thick, multi-coloured

covered by a vast pine wood called 'The Great Wood

lichen crusts, scrambling leaf-like species and festoons

of Caledon'. Pollen analysis tells us that pine has

of yellow-grey Usnea and horse-hair brown Bryoria.

always been patchily distributed. The native

The rare Witches Hair (Alectoria sarmentosa) occurs in

pinewoods are the surviving fragments of the ancient

spectacular swathes on the lower branches of pine in

Caledonian pine forests. Today pinewoods cover an

valleys in the west.

area of around only 10,000 hectares. Some of their

strongholds are Glen Affric, the Black Wood of

A major difference from deciduous forests is that a high

Rannoch, Rothiemurchus, and hill slopes beside Loch

proportion of the lichens are found on stumps and

Maree. The woods are composed of Scots pine Pinus

standing dead trees. This habitat may be very sparse,

sylvatica subspecies scotica. This is restricted to

less than one tree per hectare, but is of the utmost

Scotland, has short needles and maintains a pyramidal

importance as slowly decaying pines that have lost

form until late in life when it becomes round-headed.

their bark hold many of the pinewood specialities.

These standing pillars of dead wood, and recently

These woods have so far yielded more than 430

fallen ones, are picturesquely known as the 'bones of

epiphytic lichens of which 222 have been found on

the forest'. Pinhead lichens looking exactly like their

pine. The rest are on associated rowan, birch and

name, often form swards on sheltered parts of the

juniper. Seventeen of these lichens are found nowhere

'bones'. Being small it is often easiest to locate them

else in the British Isles so this is another particularly

by manoeuvring so that a patch of bark is seen against

Scottish community.

the sky. If present, they can be seen in silhouette. Up

to eight types of Pinhead lichen may be present and

Lichen cover is most often best developed on ancient

can be distinguished by their colours - green, yellow,

'granny pines', in sheltered situations. Here the bark

rusty, grey, black or brown.

18

Pinewood, Glen Affric. Many of the lichens here are epiphytic 19

growing on another plant without being parasitic
Inset: Pinhead lichen (Chaenotheca brunneola)

Hazel stems covered in mosses, liverworts and crustose lichens

20

Atlantic

hazelwoods

Hazel forms a lower storey in oak woods or is a

be distinguished by subtle shades of colour and the

hedgerow shrub growing throughout most of Britain.

small dots, scribbles and tiny 'volcanic craters' through

In the west of Scotland, however, it forms pure woods

which their spores are ejected.

on steep slopes facing the sea. Hazelwoods have

probably occupied these sites for 9,000 years, the

High-quality, old-growth hazelwoods contain trunks of

extreme exposure preventing invasion and over-topping

all sizes including very large individuals with rough

by other trees. Hazel enjoys the benefit of being able

moss-covered bark which are around 70-100 years

to persist indefinitely under grazing and has a partiality

old. These support a very different range of lichens to

for soils developed over basalt that are widespread

those found on the smooth thin stems. Here large

along the coast around Oban and on the islands of

leafy species of the 'Lobarion' are dominant. Despite

Mull, Eigg and Skye.

the woods having the appearance of a past history of

coppice management this is not the case. On Eigg,

The lichen interest of these pure hazelwoods only

Cleadale Woods were last exploited during the 1940s

started to be recognised in the late 1970s when Brian

when a wartime coal shortage led the crofters to cut

Coppins, lichenologist at the Royal Botanic Garden,

the larger stems for firewood.

Edinburgh, realised that they contained many distinctive

species, some new to Britain, others new to science.

The best season to explore this unique habitat is late

An example is the White Script lichen (Graphis

spring, before the interior becomes shaded by the

alboscripta) which has so far not been found outside

expanding leaves. At this time the woods are bright

this habitat and is regarded as a Scottish endemic.

with primroses, violets and bluebells, sunlight filters

through the branches, and birdsong is at its height.

On entering a hazelwood the 'brush' of thin stems that

To investigate a lichen flora of international importance

make up a high proportion of each individual can be

against this background is magical and a particularly

seen to be covered with a dense, pale, mosaic of small

Scottish experience.

lichens which give the bark a silvery hue. These can

21

Alpines

galore

Only a tiny fraction of Scotland is over 914 metres high

lichen with tiny reddish fruits and the discoverer, Alan

(or 3,000 feet if you are a Munroist) but this small area,

Fryday named it in honour of his young daughter, Amelia.

above the upper limit of heather, is home to a vegetation

dominated by lichen, moss and sedge heath. This is the

A curious factor, which restricts the abundance of lichens on

nearest we have to tundra in Britain. The Scottish

the granite boulders that litter the summit plateau, is

montane lichen flora comprises about 400 species and

abrasion from windblown gravel and needle-like ice

includes nearly a third (52) of the British Red List lichens

crystals which blast and erode during winter blizzards.

so it is very special (see p34). It is possible to walk all

Several of the rarest lichens of this high 'tundra' have not

day in the hills and encounter only common upland

been seen for over 20 years and are suspected of being

species. The rarities have particular habitat requirements

casualties of global warming.

that need to be appreciated and some of these are

In contrast, Ben Nevis in the damper, milder west, supports

outlined.

a somewhat different alpine lichen flora. A species more

The Cairngorm Plateau is the place to study lichens

common here than elsewhere is Catolechia wahlenbergii.

associated with late snow patches. These species are

This elegant lichen forms vivid yellow rosettes in dark

left-overs from the last Ice Age. The largest patches are

crevices. It is protected under Schedule 8 of the Wildlife

almost permanent, melting on average once every 25

and Countryside Act 1981, as amended, and therefore has

years. The lichens are concentrically-zoned around them

been given an English name. After some discussion it was

depending on their tolerance to snow lie; the inner-most

named 'Goblin lights'.

ones can survive years of burial. Ice-cold melt-water

streams issuing from the toe of the snow patches are also

As Ben Nevis is the highest point in Britain it was hoped that

good lichen-hunting grounds. Lichens form a skin over

a recent survey of the summit area would produce at least

the soft ground or occur on the moss cushions covering

one special lichen. We were not disappointed and in

small boulders. The handsome, green Lecanora

1990 the first UK record of the suitably named Staurothele

leptacina is absolutely restricted to these sites. Recently

arctica was made a few yards from the summit cairn.

moss cushions were found supporting an undescribed

22

23

Aerial view of Ben Nevis, Britains highest mountain at 1344 metres

24

The rare Goblin Lights (Catolechia wahlenbergii) found on Ben Nevis

A feature of these western hills that sets them apart

moss. The communities are reminiscent of a minature

from those in the east is that lichens which grow on the

rock garden and they have probably been growing

ground are rare. Instead, carpets of the Woolly Hair

undisturbed since the end of the Ice Age.

Moss (Racomitrium lanuginosum) form an undulating

mattress over the ground. The distinctive lichens of the

It is not just the outcrops that hold arctic-alpine lichens.

western Highlands mostly grow on rock.

The lichens extend into burns, lochans, summit

grasslands and bare, gravelly areas. There is a

The mountains considered so far have all been acid,

lifetime of investigation to be undertaken. It is every

which is the norm for the Highlands. But the foremost

lichenologist's dream to discover a new 'Ben Lawers'.

areas for arctic-alpines, flowering plants, mosses, and

Just one such area has come to light in recent decades -

lichens alike, are those where calcareous rocks occur.

40 kilometres away in the remote Ben Alder range.

The outstanding locality for this feature is the

Breadalbane range in Perthshire. Here extensive
deposits of soft, calcareous schist outcrop over a
distance of 11.2 kilometres reaching a height of 1219
metres at one point. For two centuries botanists have
been making pilgrimages to this area and, though the
higher plants are now well-known, the lichens, which
are twice as abundant, are still being investigated.
Calcareous outcrops on these mountains are restricted
and often stumbled on by chance. But once such a
site has been located it pays to spend several hours
with hand lens and kneeling mat examining every
'square inch' of its surface. The rewards are great,
ledges are crowded with rare and beautiful species
that scramble over rock, soil, dead vegetation and

25

Snow patches in Lurchers Gully and

Coire an Lochan, Cairngorms
Snow patches in Lurchers Gully and Coire an Lochan,
Cairngorms

The

coast

Several features combine to make the Scottish coast of

sulphur-tinted Lecanora straminea. This is the main

special interest to lichenologists. The bird islands of St

British habitat for these three species.

Kilda, North Rona and the Flannans; the machair; and

the vast, east coast sand dunes deserve special mention.

Around these remote, storm-lashed islands the coloured

bands are uplifted so the black zone on the west coast

The lichens produce distinct colour bands on

of North Rona extends vertically to 16 metres above

coastal rocks:

sea level, compared with a sheltered shore on the

A black zone at sea level, above that,

mainland, where it might be only one metre deep.

an orange zone heavily influenced by salt

A typical lichen of the grey zone is Sea Ivory Ramalina

spray, and then,

siliquosa which forms dense shaggy swards in places

an upper, grey zone which is richest in lichens.

exposed to the wind. On St Kilda, the agile Soay

sheep supplement their diet by grazing on these

Sea bird cities

swards during winter.

Beyond the Outer Hebrides lies an arc of small remote

islands known as the Furthest Hebrides. The islands

Machair

are lapped by the waters of the Arctic Ocean, so sea

Machair is a habitat unique to the west coasts of

temperatures remain low even in summer. These

Scotland and Ireland. It develops where calcareous

islands are home to millions of seabirds, their nests line

shell-sand blows inland converting the wet, acid, peaty

the cliffs, the air is full of their cries, and they perch on

landscape into a well-drained, flowery pasture. It is a

every rock covering them with their droppings. It is

feature of the west coast of the Inner and Outer

these guano-spattered boulders that are special for the

Hebrides with islands such as Coll, Tiree, South Uist

lichens. Each can support up to 25 species including

and Harris supporting the finest examples.

such rarities as the golden-coloured Caloplaca

scopularis, the brown Amandinea coniops and the

26

27

Lichen-covered boulders showing the zonation on the shore at Loch Sween, Taynish NNR

Lichen heath in the stabilized dunes at Tentsmuir NNR

28

The short, species-rich turf is sufficiently open to support a

A number of the ground-dwelling lichens, favoured by

lichen community that has many species in common with

disturbance, are found along the edge of forestry tracks.

chalk grassland. The richest sites are associated with

low, partially sand-covered outcrops where crevice-loving

At Cuthill Links, on the north side of the Dornoch Firth,

species such as the socket lichens (Solorina saccata,

the lichen interest is concentrated on sandy valley floors

S.spongiosa) and the apple-green Thrushwort (Peltigera

separated by gorse-covered dune ridges. Here is the

leucophlebia) can find a foothold. Early summer is the

best place to go to see the curious phenomenon

time to explore the machair. The flowers are out, blue

whereby normally alpine species descend to sea-level in

butterflies are on the wing, white surf lines the shore and

the far north of Scotland. Lichens typical of mountain

the lichens - well, who knows what you will find?

summits, such as Thamnolia vermicularis, which looks

like a cluster of white worms, are found here. They
grow luxuriantly on the sand within sight and sound of

East coast dunes

the sea. These east coast dune lichen communities have

Sandy beaches backed by dunes are a characteristic

links with those on the Danish coast.

feature of Scotland's maritime scenery. The largest of

these are on the east coast at Culbin, Forvie and
Tentsmuir. These vast, remote dunes are exciting
places where the lack of grazing, trampling and fire
has resulted in the lichen swards developing an unusual
luxuriance. Reindeer lichens, for example, form a
deep, extensive white carpet spreading into the conifers
planted many years ago, and suppressing all
other growth.
Over 30 species of the lichen genus Cladonia have
been recorded at Culbin, including a northern element

Heather and lichen heath at Cuthill Links, near Dornoch Firth

- an internationally important site

better represented here than anywhere else in Britain.

29

Blanke t

bog

Most level ground in the west of Scotland is naturally

These moorland lichens have attracted the attention of

covered with a deep layer of peat, known as blanket

poets. Wordsworth wrote of them:

bog. The surface vegetation, a mixture of Bog Moss

(Sphagnum), various types of heather and cotton-grass,

'Ah me what lovely tints are these,

is very wet - too wet for most lichens. Lichens find an

Of olive, green, and scarlet bright!

opening, however, where there has been disturbance

In spikes and branches and in stars,

perhaps associated with peat cutting, drainage or fire.

Green, red, and partly white.'

Drier faces, ridges and baulks of peat are rapidly

colonised by a range of attractive species. Particularly

Though Cladonia species are dominant, and the first to

noticeable are a suite of red-fruited Cladonia species

attract attention, others are equally attractive. Very wet

with common names such as Scarlet cups, British

peat is the habitat of Pycnothelia papillaria, the thallus

soldiers or Bengal matches. Others have brown fruits

(plant body) of which has been compared to babies'

and are branched like deer's antlers, coral, or have

molar teeth, and it is always a thrill to come across the

fantastic 'Disney-world' shapes. Another series, the

large coral-pink fruits of the Heath Lichen (Icmadophila

cup-lichens, again Cladonia species, have fruit bodies

ericetorum).

resembling trumpets or goblets.

30

31

Scarlet-cup Lichen (Cladonia coccifera) growing on a peat bog, Rannoch Moor

Conser vation
It should be clear by now that a number of lichen

the spread of rhododendron,

habitats in Scotland are of international importance,

lack of continuity of veteran trees, and

being richer and more extensively developed than

the decline of wayside trees.

anywhere else in Europe.

The promotion of lichen conservation in Scotland is
Happily, past threats from air pollution, inappropriate

shared by a number of organisations which keep in

forestry, and sheer ignorance are receding fast.

close contact despite lichenologists being thin on the

Unfortunately a new threat, global warming, is beyond

ground. Most major threats get identified and their

the capability of national conservation bodies to

effects mitigated.

counter and may already be responsible for the recent

extinction of four high-alpine lichens, Bellemerea

The British Lichen Society recruits amateur and

alpina, Brodoa intestiniformis, Snow Caloplaca

professional lichenologists, helps train them through

(Caloplaca nivalis), Alpine Moss Pertusaria (Pertusaria

courses, and holds field meetings to explore little-known

bryontha) and the decline of several others.

areas. It has an active Conservation Committee, and

provides generally stimulating conditions for those

Nitrogen pollution arising from industry, agriculture

wishing to pursue the study of lichens.

and transport is increasingly causing concern.

Vigilance is still required at a site level with regard to

The Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh provides advice

potentially damaging operations and changes.

through its resident lichenologist, at present Dr Brian

Examples of this are:

Coppins. Preserved specimens of most of Scotlands

hydroelectric schemes,

lichens can be seen in the herbarium there. These

provide a source of reference for both historical and

ski development,

modern records, and can help in identification work.

road projects,

32

Lichen carpet at Culbin Forest, Moray

33

Biodiversity

Action Plan and

the Red Data List

In 1996 a Red Data Book of Lichens in Britain was

intensive fieldwork. The results were often surprising -

published. It contained descriptions of 208 of Britain's

certain species turned out to be more widespread than

rarest lichens. Each of these lichens was placed in one

expected, for example, Stump Lichen (Cladonia

of the following four internationally recognised threat

botrytes, Gyalideopsis scotica) while others were in

categories: Extinct (29), Critically Endangered (27),

steep decline (Bacidia incompta, Cladonia

Endangered (30), Vulnerable (91) and Rare (31).

peziziformis). When deciding on conservation

Many are montane calcicoles but even more occur in

priorities there is a difficulty. Should resources be

sheltered valley woodland along the west coast where

directed towards saving species on the verge of

the combination of a high rainfall, cool summers and

extinction or are these at the edge of their range and

mild winters favours the development of communities

unlikely to respond to conservation measures? It is

rich in spectacular genera containing blue-green algae.

probably wisest to concentrate on Scottish endemic

species, the White Script Lichen Graphis alboscripta

To promote the conservation of 40 of the most

and Halecania rhypodiza, or those such as Norwegian

important lichens, Scottish Natural Heritage funded in-

Specklebelly (Pseudocyphellaria norvegica) for which

depth studies that involved the production of Biological

Scotland is its European stronghold.

Action Plans or Species Dossiers. These comprised a

review of the literature, herbarium searches, and

34

Stump Lichen (Cladonia botrytes)

White Script Lichen (Graphis alboscripta)

Norwegian Specklebelly (Pseudocyphellaria norvegica)

35

Finding

out more
about lichens
Listed here are some starting points for anyone who
wishes to learn more about lichens. Some of the
books are on identification, others cover ecology,
general biology, and uses of the lichens. Most people
with a serious interest join the British Lichen Society or
attend a course at a field centre.

Lichenologists at work on a fallen pine trunk

Identification

General aspects

Dalby, C. 1981 and 1987. Lichens and Air Pollution and

Gilbert, O. 2000. Lichens. Collins New Naturalist

Lichens on Rocky Seashores. British Museum (Natural

Series, HarperCollins. (Covers all aspects of

History) and BP Educational Service.

British lichens)

Dobson, F.S. 2000. Lichens: An illustrated guide to

Purvis, W. 2000. Lichens. The Natural History

British and Irish species. Richmond Publishing Co. Ltd.,

Museum, London. (A popular guide to lichens

London. (Improvers).

world-wide).

Orange, A. 1994. Lichens on Trees: a guide to some

Richardson, D. 1975. The Vanishing Lichens. David

common species National Museum of Wales, Cardiff.

and Charles, Devon. (An account of their history,

(Beginners).

biology and importance; out of print).

Purvis, O.W, Coppins, B.J, Hawksworth, D.L, James,

Useful Addresses

P.W, & Moore, D.M. 1992. The Lichen Flora of

British Lichen Society, c/o Department of Botany,

Great Britain and Ireland. Natural History Museum

The Natural History Museum,

Publications with the British Lichen Society (the

Cromwell Road, London, SW7 5BD

standard flora, in the process of being revised).

www.thebls.org.uk

Conservation

Kindrogan Field Centre, Field Studies Council,

Church, J.M, Coppins, B.J, Gilbert, O.L, James, P.W, &

Enochdhu, Blairgowrie, Perthshire, PH10 7PG

Stewart, N.F. 1996. Red Data Books of Britain

Email: kindrogan@btinternet.com

and Ireland: lichens. Volume 1: Britain. Joint Nature

www.econet.org.uk/kindrogan

Conservation Committee, Peterborough.

The Royal Botanic Garden, 20a Inverleith Row,
Woods, R.G, & Coppins, B. J. 2003. A Conservation

Edinburgh, EH3 5LR.

Evaluation of British Lichens. Natural History Museum

www.rbge.org.uk

Publications with the British Lichen Society.

37

Also in the Naturally Scottish series...

If you have enjoyed Lichens why not find out more about Scotlands wildlife in our Naturally

Scottish series. Each booklet looks at one or more of Scotlands native species. The clear and informative text is illustrated with exceptional photographs by top wildlife
photographers, showing the species in their native habitats and illustrating their relationships with man. They also provide information on conservation and the law.

Bumblebees

Red Kites

Did you know that Bummiebee, Droner and Foggie-toddler

are all Scottish names for the bumblebee? Find out what
these names mean and why bumblebees are so special
inside this beautifully illustrated booklet. Also discover how
you can help the bumblebee by planting appropriate
flowers for their continued survival.
Murdo Macdonald
ISBN 1 85397 364 5 pbk 40pp 4.95

This graceful and distinctive bird was absent from Scotlands

skies for more than a century. Now with the help of a
successful programme of re-introduction, its russet plumage
and forked tail can once again be seen in Scotland.
David Minns and Doug Gilbert
ISBN 1 85397 210 X pbk 24pp 3.95

Red Squirrels
The red squirrel is one Scotlands most endearing
mammals. This booklet provides an insight into their
ecology and some of the problems facing red squirrels in
Scotland today.
Peter Lurz & Mairi Cooper
ISBN 1 85397 298 4 pbk 20pp 3.00

Burnet Moths
Unlike many other species of moth, burnet moths fly by
day. They can be easily recognised by their beautiful,
glossy black wings with crimson spots. Their striking
colouring is a very real warning to predators.
Mark Young
ISBN 1 85397 209 6 pbk 24pp 3.00

River Runners
Scotlands clean, cascading rivers contain a fascinating
array of species. The atlantic salmon is the best known of
our riverine species but others, such as lampreys and
freshwater pearl mussels, are frequently overlooked but no
less captivating. This booklet aims to illuminate aspects of
their intriguing and largely unseen lifecycles, habitats and

Corncrakes
Secretive, skulking, rasping, loud, tuneless, scarce. . . all
these words have been used to describe the corncrake. But
once you could have added plentiful and widespread to the
list. Now only a few birds visit Scotland each year. This
booklet brings you the latest information on the corncrake
and reveals this elusive and noisy bird in its grassy home.
ISBN 1 85397 049 2 pbk 40pp 3.95

conservation measures.
Iain Sime
ISBN 1 85397 353 X pbk 44pp 4.95

Fungi

Sea Eagles

Fungi belong to one of the most varied, useful and ancient

kingdoms in the natural world. Scotland may have almost
2000 larger species with some of the most interesting found
in our woodlands and grasslands. This booklet provides an
introduction to their life cycles, habitats and conservation.
Discover the fascinating forms of earthstars, truffles and waxcaps.
Roy Watling MBE and Stephen Ward
ISBN 1 85397 341 6 pbk 40pp 4.95

This magnificent bird, with its wing span of over 2m is the

largest bird of prey in Britain. In 1916 they became extinct,
but a reintroduction programme began in 1975. This
booklet documents the return of this truly majestic eagle.
Production subsidised by Anheuser-Busch.
Greg Mudge, Kevin Duffy, Kate Thompson & John Love
ISBN 1 85397 208 8 pbk 16pp 1.50

38

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