The Principles of Wine Making - Frederic T. Bioletti

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA
THE
PRINCIPLES OP WINE-MAKING
By FREDERIC
T.
BULLETIN
BIOLETTI.
No. 213
(Berkeley. Cal., May. 1911)
SACRAMENTO
W. W.
SHANNON
SUPERINTENDENT OF STATE PRINTING
1911
EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF.

E.
E.
Wickson, M.A., Director and
J.
Horticulturist.
Ph.D., LL.D., Chemist (Emeritus).
W. A. Setchell, Ph.D., Botanist.
Leroy Anderson, Ph.D., Dairy Industry and Superintendent University Farm Schools.
E. Jaffa, M.S., Nutrition Expert, in charge of the Poultry Station.
R. H. Loughridge, Ph.D., Soil Chemist and Physicist (Emeritus).
C. W. Woodworth, M.S., Entomologist.
Ralph E. Smith, B.S., Plant Pathologist and Superintendent of Southern California
W. Hilgard,
Pathological Laboratory and Experiment Station.

M.A., Ph.D., Experimental Agronomist and Agricultural Technologist,
in charge of Cereal Stations.
E. W. Major, B.Agr., Animal Industry, Farm Manager, University Farm, Davis.
F. T. Bioletti, M.S., Viticulturist.
B. A. Etcheverry, B.S., Irrigation Expert.
George E. Colby, M.S., Chemist (Fruits, Waters, and Insecticides), in charge of
Chemical Laboratory.
H. J. Quayle, A.B., Assistant Entomologist, Plant Disease Laboratory, Whittier.
W. T. Clarke, B.S., Assistant Horticulturist and Superintendent of University Extension in Agriculture.
H. M. Hall, Ph.D., Assistant Botanist.
C. M. Haring, D.V.M., Assistant Veterinarian and Bacteriologist.
John S. Burd, B.S., Chemist, in charge of Fertilizer Control.
E. B. Babcock, B.S., Assistant in Agricultural Education.
W. B. Herms, M.A., Assistant Entomologist.
J. H. Norton, M.S., Assistant Chemist, in charge of Citrus Experiment Station, RiverG.
W. Shaw,
side.
W.
Horne, B.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist.

E. Corr, Ph.D., Assistant Pomologist, Plant Disease Laboratory, Whittier.
C. B. Lipman, Ph.D., Soil Chemist and Bacteriologist.
R. E. Mansell, Assistant in Horticulture, in charge of Central Station grounds.
A. J. Gaumnitz, M.S., Assistant in Cereal Investigations, University Farm, Davis.
E. H. Hagemann, Assistant in Dairying, Davis.
B. S. Brown, B.S.A., Assistant in Horticulture, University Farm, Davis.
F. D. Hawk, B.S.A., Assistant in Animal Industry.
J. I. Thompson, B.S., Assistant in Animal Industry, Davis.
R. M. Roberts, B.S.A., University Farm Manager, University Farm, Davis.
J. C. Bridwell, B.S., Assistant Entomologist.
C. H. McCharles, B.S., Assistant in Agricultural Chemical Laboratory.
N. D. Ingham, B.S., Assistant in Sylviculture, Santa Monica.
E. H. Smith, M.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist.
T. F. Hunt, B.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist.
C. O. SMirti, M.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist, Plant Disease Laboratory, Whittier.
F. L. Yeaw, B.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist, Vacaville.
F. E. Johnson, B.L., M.S., Assistant in Soil Laboratory.
T.
J.
Charles Fuchs, Curator Entomological Museum.

P. L. Hibbard, B.S., Assistant in Fertilizer Control Laboratory.
L. M. Davis, B.S., Assistant in Dairy Husbandry, University Farm, Davis.
L. Bonnet, LA., Assistant in Viticulture.
S. S. Rogers, B.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist, Plant Disease Laboratory, Whittier.
B. A.
Madson, B.S.A., Assistant in Cereal Laboratory.

E. Packard, M.S., Field Assistant, Imperial Valley Investigation, El Centre
Walter
M. E. Stover,
B.S.,
Assistant in Agricultural Chemical Laboratory.
P. L. McCreary, B.S., Laboratory Assistant in Fertilizer Control.

F. Flossfeder, Assistant in Viticulture, Davis.
V. Cruess, B.S., Assistant in Zymology.

E. E. Thomas, B.S., Assistant Chemist, Plant Disease Laboratory, Whittier.
W.
Assistant in Entomology.
Mrs. D. L. Bunnell, Secretary to Director.
W. H. Volck, Field Assistant in Entomology, Watsonville.
E. L. Morris, B.S., Field Assistant in Entomology, San Jose.
J. S. Hunter, Field Assistant in Entomology, San Mateo.
Chico.
J. C. Roper, Patron, University Forestry Station,
Fresno.
J. T. Bearss, Foreman, Kearney Park Station,
E. C. Miller, Foreman, Forestry Station, Chico.
Anna Hamilton,
CONTENTS.
I.
II.
INTRODUCTION.
THE NATURE OF WINE

a.
III.
Page.
_
Definitions
b.
Standards
c.
Classifications
THE BIOLOGICAL THEORY OF WINE-MAKING
405
405
406
406
407
Causes of variation in character and quality

6. Outline of operations of wine-making
c. The relation of micro-organisms to uine-making
d Causes of fermentation
a.
IV.
396
396
396
399
MICRO-ORGANISMS FOUND ON GRAPES

a.
b.
408
Blue Mold; 2. Black Mold; 3. Gray Mold
408
Yeasts, Saccharomyces : 1. Nutrition
3.
2. Relation
to oxygen
Relation to temperature
5. Relation to
4. Relation to acids
411-415
sulfurous acid 6. Morphology of wine yeasts
~
Pseudo-yeasts
415
Bacteria
417
Molds:
1.
c.
d.
V.
..
MICRO-ORGANISMS FOUND IN WINE

a.
b.
417
Aerobic organisms: 1. Mycodermae

2. Acetic bacteria
417,418
Anaerobic organisms: 1. Slime forming bacteria; 2. Propionic and
lactic acid bacteria
4. Butyric acid bac3. Mannitic bacteria
;
_419, 420
teria
VI.
CONTROL OF THE MICRO-ORGANISMS

a.
421
Before fermentation: 1. Gathering the Grapes; 2. Transportation
of Grapes
3. Cleanliness
4. Defecation of Must
5. Steriliza421-427
tion
6. Starters; 7. Pure Yeast
During Fermentation: 1. Starting temperature; 2. Crushing: 3.
Aeration
4. Use of sulfurous acid
5. Increase of acidity
6.
Modification of sugar contents 7. Temperature of fermentation
427-434
8. Aeration during fermentation
After Fermentation: 1. Aging; 2. Racking; 3. Exclusion of air;
6. Clarification
4. Sulfuring
5. Cellar hygiene
7. Filtration
434-442
8. Heating; 9. Pasteurization; 10. Cooling; 11. Bottling
;
b.
c.
THE PRINCIPLES OE WINE-MAKING.

I.
INTRODUCTION.
The Legislature of the State of California in 1909 passed an act to

provide for experiment and research work in viticulture, to be prosecuted
by the Regents of the University of California, and made an appropriaThis act specified a number of lines of work which were
tion therefor.
to be undertaken, including all the more important branches of grapegrowing and wine-making. It also directed that reports should be made
on "all matters appertaining
to the viticultural industry pertinent to
the successful conduct of the business that

interest, use
and
may
be of general public
profit."
In accordance with the provisions of this act the Viticultural Division

of the College of Agriculture has undertaken research and experimental
work in those directions which seemed of most pressing importance, and
for which the resources of the division were most available.
The principal
lines of
work undertaken have been:
(1)
the search
for the best resistant stocks for various localities differing in climate
and
soil,
and
for various varieties of wine, raisin
and
table grapes;
and testing of new and promising varieties;

and control of various insect pests and
diseases of the vine; (4) tests of improved methods of grafting and
establishing vineyards; (5) trials of methods of fertilization of vineyards; (6) investigation of improved methods of fermentation and
handling of wine, and of the utilization of the by-products of the vineyard and cellar.
The present bulletin is published in accordance with the special provision of the act which requires the Regents of the University of Cali*
*
fornia to ascertain #
the most important methods of vinifica***', As the profit of the vineyards of the State depends
tion
upon the successful marketing of the finished product, it is essential
that the product be handled properly and in accordance with modern
and scientific methods. As the larger part of the product of our vineyards is used in the manufacture of wine, it is very necessary that this
(2)
the introduction
(3) investigation of the nature
'
'
wine should be properly made.

In the general effort of farmers, especially of fruit growers, to standardize and improve the quality of their products, the wine-makers are
not conspicuous.
Some
of our wine
is good, some of it very good, but

and too large a portion, frankly bad.
There is no reason, except lack of skillful wine-making, why any Californian wine should be bad. While some improvement might be made in
our grapes in many cases, by a better choice of varieties, there is proba-
much
of
it is
indifferent,
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
396
EXPERIMENT STATION.
bly no grape-growing country where the grapes as a whole are more gen-
making good, sound wine. They are seldom injured

and their commonest fault, that of
The comexcess of sugar, is the most easily avoided and remedied.
parative regularity of our crops and the constancy of their quality
give us advantages which are counteracted to a great extent by the backward methods of many of our wine-makers. "Whatever other reasons
erally suitable for
by
diseases or inclement weather
there
may
fact that
be for the present prejudice against Californian wines, the
we produce
so
much
unnecessarily inferior wine
Though equally
is
quite
suffi-
wine is produced in
in the country
wine-making
countries,
most
of
it
is
consumed
all other
itself.
Much of our poorest wine is sent out of the State and does
All our wine ought to be good,
serious injustice to our good wines.
and it depends principally on the wine-makers to make it so.
cient, to
account for
II.
(a) Definitions.
it.
inferior
THE NATURE OF WINE.
Many
attempts have been
legislators to give a clear definition of wine.
that: ''wine
is
This excludes
This
stances.
made by authors and
They
practically all agree
the product of the alcoholic fermentation of the grape."

all liquids
is
or beverages
made from
other fruits or sub-
word and the

can only be made from grapes
in accord with the derivation of the
Wine, therefore,
and must contain alcohol produced by fermentation.
Most definitions contain also the proviso that wine must be made by
practice of centuries.
the usual cellar treatment.
When
'
the attempt
is
made
to state exactly
what the usual cellar treatment is, the definitions vary considerably.
They all agree in this, however, that they seek to confine the operations
of the wine-maker to those practices which secular experience has shown
to be necessary for the production of a stable, healthful and agreeable
beverage.
To do this, they limit all additions to the grapes or wine to
those substances which occur naturally in sound, ripe grapes or which
long experience has shown to be necessary to the preservation of the
desirable qualities of wine without adding any qualities which are
undesirable.
The mechanical operations are usually left to the choice
of the manufacturer.
The addition of even harmless or useful sub'
'
'
stances, however,
is allowed only within prescribed limits.

These limits
vary with different laws and definitions. The effort is usually made to
place them where they render possible all additions which will result in
an amelioration or bettering of the wine and will not defraud or deceive
the buyer.
(b) Standards.
vary very
much
As grapes of various
in (composition,
localities, varieties
and seasons
an addition that in one case would be
Bulletin 213]
TH E PRINCIPLES OF WINE-MAKING.
397
would do harm in another an addition that in one case would

provide the consumer with a more agreeable, healthful and valuable
beverage would in another simply supply him with a substitute or
desirable
inferior product.
The
central idea of all additions
must be that they
are intended to improve the product and not to defraud the buyer.
This is the distinction to be drawn between amelioration and sophistication.
Some
concrete illustrations
maker attempts
may make
If the
clearer.
this
wine-
to ferment very ripe grapes containing over 25 per cent
of sugar, the result will often be that the fermentation will be incomplete
and the resulting wine inferior or spoiled. By adding a carefully calculated amount of water to the crushed grapes he can so reduce the
sugar contents as to insure a complete fermentation and a sound, good
wine. While this increases the volume of wine made, slightly', it is as
much to the benefit of the consumer as to that of the manufacturer as
he
is
supplied with a better product.
If the dilution is accurately
done, the resulting wine will contain all the ingredients of a good wine
and the consumer is in no way defrauded. This

would be proper amelioration of the wine.
On the other hand, an equal addition of water to under-ripe grapes
might result in a wine deficient in alcohol and body and of inferior
quality, and the only object of such dilution would be an increase of
volume. In this case, the buyer would be defrauded. By adding to
such grapes both water and sugar the alcoholic contents of the wine
could be kept normal, but all the other ingredients would be deficient
and the practice become mere "stretching." Such additions would
in just proportions
dilution
constitute sophistication.
Owing
exactly,
to the
varying composition of good grapes,
just proportions
for
all
additions.
to
fix,
may
be
it is difficult
Maxima
limits
assigned, on the theory that grapes which require additions exceeding
these limits are totally unfitted for wine-making.
resolved usually by fixing such
composition for the wine.
and the
maxima and
The
difficulty
is
also certain standards of
So long as these maxima are not exceeded
finished wine possesses the various ingredients within assigned
The standards usually take into consideration not only the absolute amounts of
limits of quantity, the additions are considered legitimate.
each ingredient but their relative proportions. It has been found that
in wines made from suitable grapes there exist always certain har-
monious ratios between the alcohol and the extract and between the
alcohol and the acidity. An addition which does not destroy these ratios
is allowable.
In a few cases, wines made from grapes without additions
of any kind will fall outside of these ratios.
This simply proves that
the grapes were unsuitable for wine-making, and the wine might have
398
EXPERIMENT STATION.
been improved by additions which would have brought about the established ratios.
Various standards of composition have been promulgated by various

governments, but most of them are based on those of France. The
United States "Standards of Purity for Food Products" defines wine
as follows
made by the normal alcoholic fermentation of the juice

and the usual cellar treatment, (a) and contains not less than
seven nor more than sixteen per cent of alcohol, by volume, and, in one hundred
cubic centimeters (20C), not more than one tenth gram of sodium chlorid nor
more than two tenths gram of potassium sulphate and for red wine not more than
fourteen hundredths gram, and for white wine not more than twelve hundredths
gram of volatile acids produced by fermentation and calculated as acetic acid.
Red ivine is wine containing the red coloring matter of the skins of grapes. White
wine is wine made from white grapes or the expressed fresh juice of other grapes.
2. Dry wine is wine in which the fermentation of the sugars is practically complete and which contains, in one hundred cubic centimeters (20C.) less than one
gram of sugars, and for dry red wine not less than sixteen hundredths gram of grape
ash and not less than one and six tenths grams of sugar-free grape solids, and for dry
white wine not less than thirteen hundredths gram of grape ash and not less than one
and four tenths grams of sugar-free grape solids.
3. Fortified dry wine is dry wine to which brandy has been added but which
conforms in all other particulars to the standard of dry wine.
1.
*Wine
is
the product
of sound, ripe grapes
4. Sweet ivine is wine in which the alcoholic fermentation has been arrested, and
which contains, in one hundred cubic centimeters (20C. ) not less than one gram of
sugars, "and for sweet red wine not less than sixteen hundredths gram of grape ash,
and for sweet white wine not less than thirteen hundredths gram of grape ash.
sweet wine to which wine spirits have been added.

making fortified sweet wine and "wine
spirits," used for such fortification are defined as follows (section 43, act of October
1, 1890, 26 Stat. 567, as amended by section 68, act of August 27, 1894, 28 Stat. 509,
"That the wine
and further amended by act of Congress approved June 7, 1906)
spirits mentioned in section 42 of this act is the product resulting from the distillation of fermented grape juice to which water may have been added prior to, during,
or after fermentation, for the sole purpose of facilitating the fermentation and
economical distillation thereof, and shall be held to include the products from grapes
or their residues commonly known as grape brandy and the pure sweet wine, which
may be fortified free of tax, as provided in said section, is fermented grape juice
only, and shall contain no other substance whatever introduced before, at the time
of, or after fermentation, except as herein expressly provided
and such sweet wine
shall contain not less than four per centum of saccharine matter, which saccharine
strength may be determined by testing with Balling's saccharometer or must scale,
such sweet wine, after the evaporation of the spirits contained therein, and restoring
the sample tested to original volume by addition of water provided, that the addition
of pure boiled or condensed grape must or pure crystallized cane or beet sugar or
pure anhydrous sugar to the pure grape juice aforesaid, or the fermented product
of such grape juice prior to the fortification provided by this act for the sole
purpose of perfecting sweet wine according to commercial standard, or the addition
of water in such quantities only as may be necessary in the mechanical operation of
grape conveyors, crushers, and pipes leading to fermenting tanks, shall not be
Fortified sweet wine
5.
By
is
act of Congress, "sweet wine" used for
U.
"Standards or Purity for Food Products" Circular No. 19, Office of Secretary,
Department of Agriculture! Washington,
(a) The subject of sulphurous
C.
in wine Is reserved for consideration In connection with the schedule "Preservand iolorlng Matters."
S.
acid
<
>.
Bulletin 213]
TH e PRINCIPLES OF WINE-MAKING.
399
excluded by the definition of pure sweet wine aforesaid provided, howevi /. that the
cane or beet sugar, or pure anhydrous sugar, or water, so used shall not in either
case be in excess of ten per centum of the weight of the wine to be fortified tinder
this act; and provided, farther, that the addition of water herein authorized shall
be under such regulations and limitations as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue,
with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may from time to time prescribe
but in no case shall such wines to which water has been added be eligible for fortification under the provisions of this act where the same, after fermentation and before
fortification, have an alcoholic strength of less than five per centum of their volume.''
:
wine
which the after part of the fermentation is completed

and its place supplied by wine or sugar
liquor, and which contains, in one hundred cubic centimeters (20C. ), not less than
twelve hundredths gram of grape ash.
Sparkling icine
6.
is
in
in the bottle, the sediment being disgorged
Modified wine, ameliorated wine, corrected wine,
7.
is
the product
made by
the
alcoholic fermentation with the usual cellar treatment, of a mixture of the juice of
sound, ripe grapes with sugar (sucrose), or a sirup containing not less than sixty-five
per cent of sugar (sucrose) and in quantity not more than enough to raise the
alcoholic strength after fermentation to eleven per cent by volume.
Raisin icine
8.
is
the product
made by
the alcoholic fermentation of an infusion
of dried or evaporated grapes, or of a mixture of such infusion or of raisins with
grape
juice.
wine to be legal must not only satisfy the requirements of these

standards but must conform to certain other regulations of pure food
laws federal and state. These include the prohibition of all substances
which are poisonous or commonly regarded

exception
is
made
be used within specified limits
if
An
as injurious to health.
of certain antiseptics such as benzoic acid
which may
the fact of their presence
is
stated
plainly on the containing vessel.
The use of certain substances such as tannin and albumen, which

have been used for time immemorial in the treatment of wine, is
allowed.
Such substances are used only in minute quantities and solely
for the purpose of improving the product and there can be no object
for the manufacturer to use them unnecessarily or in undue quantities.
The same can be said of the use of citric, tartaric, and sulfurous acids.
Such substances are used only to increase the quality and the Avholesomeness of the wine, and in no way to disguise inferior material or
careless manipulation as is the case with salicylic acid, benzoates and
similar preservatives.
(c) Classifications.
certain
differentiation
into
classes
is
made
by the above standards. These classes are based partly on the nature
of the raw material, partly on the composition of the wine and partly
on the methods of manufacture.
A very much more detailed and complicated classification is necessary for commercial uses.
Wine
contains not only the half dozen sub-
stances usually determined in an ordinary analysis, but

a very large
the character
number
of others
more or
which have a very appreciable
and quality of the wine.
The number
less of
effect
of substances
on
and
400
EXPERIMENT
STATION.
compounds which have been found in pure wine, are reckoned by hunMany of these, which are in amounts so small as to be undeterdreds.
minable quantitatively, may influence the quality of the wine notably.
Many attempts have been made to devise a rational classification of
the large number of variations brought about by this complex and
variable composition. Most of them include scores of types and huncorrespond to actual and
appreciable differences, they are unnecessary to the wine-maker, and
a much simpler classification will serve his purpose.
While such
dreds of varieties.
Commencing with
grapes, they
way
may
classifications
the assumption that
all
wines are made from
be divided into a few great classes depending on the
these grapes are handled,
i. e.,
the methods of manufacture.
These
variations in the methods of manufacture will correspond to certain

easily defined differences in composition
enabled to segregate
all
and character.
We
are thus
wines into three groups, each with two similar
divisions
TABLE
1.
2.
3.
I.
Dry wines
(a) red; (6) white.

Sweet wines (a) red; (5) white.
Sparkling wines (a) red; (5) white.
To these may be added to conform with the

commercial practice
4.
5.
6.
official classification
and
Modified wine (a) red; (6) white.

Raisin wine (a) red; (6) white.
Carbonated wine (a) red; (b) white.
Groups four,
five
and
six,
however, can hardly be considered as
natural wines either in origin or character and will not be considered

here.
dry wine
is
one in which, by fermentation,
to the taste has been eliminated.
sweet wine
all
sugar perceptible
one in which
is
suffi-
cient sugar remains after fermentation to give a noticeable sweet taste
The two groups are on the whole perfectly

of the distinction
maker
to carry
is
distinct
that in the former every effort
and the main cause

made by the wine-
is
on the fermentation continuously until
all
the sugar has
been broken up into alcohol and carbonic acid, and, in the
latter, fer-
is stopped intentionally by the addition of alcohol while a

amount of unchanged sugar remains. This addition is called
fortification.
Very few wines are absolutely dry in the sense that all
the sugar has disappeared.
In young wines there will nearly always
mentation
certain
remain several hundredths of one per cent. A few wines classed as dry,
such as certain Sauternes and some Rhine wines may contain several
tenths of one per cent.
Such wines are difficult to handle and easily
subject to injurious changes but are often among the most prized and
valuable.
Bulletin 213]
the PRINCIPLES OF WINE-MAKIXG.
401
Sweet wines vary very much in the amount of sugar they contain,
which may range from two or three per cent to ten per cent or more.
The amount is determined in some cases by the stage of fermentation
at which the alcohol is added and in others by the addition of must or
grape syrup after fortification. A few wines in this class are made
without fortification by the use of very sweet grapes. Such wines are
difficult to make and are produced only locally.
There are differences besides those of sweetness which distinguish
most dry wines from most sweet wines. The chief of these is the rancio,
sherry or madeira taste, which is characteristic of most sweet wines, and
This taste may occur in dry wines,
is due to rapid and ample oxidation.
but is there considered a defect except in a few wines such as dry sherry
which are usually classed with the sweet. The methods of making sweet
wines are very diverse and are not treated in this bulletin. In the
United States they must be made under certain regulations of the
Internal Revenue Department.
A sparkling wine contains sufficient dissolved carbonic acid gas to
cause a pressure of five to six atmospheres in the bottle at a temperature
of 50 F.
The wine is made by practically the same processes as dry
wine and the sparkling quality given later by supplementary fermentation in the bottle.
The manufacture of sparkling wines requires special skill, knowledge,

and equipment and is not within the province of the ordinary winemaker.
All the above classes of wine may be red or white depending upon
whether the color. is extracted from the skins or not. While the presence or absence of red coloring matter is the most obvious difference
between these two classes, certain other differences of composition are
equally important. A red wine contains tannin and more extract than
a white wine.
The color, tannin and higher extract are due to the
fermentation of the must in the presence of the skins or sometimes to
the heating of the must and skins together before fermentation. A
wine made from white grapes by these methods would have all the
qualities of a red wine, except the color.
Such a wine would fit into
no classification and would be almost unmarketable. On the other hand,
a wine could be made from grapes with red juice or by partial extraction
of the skins, which, except for its light red or rose color, would have
all
the qualities of a white wine.
tion
is
made
in
some
localities
and
certain quantity of this last varia-
is
known by various names such

Such wines are made only
vin rose, schiller wein, vino siciliano.
as
in
small quantities for special markets.
Each
of the great groups
ber of varieties which
mentioned above includes a very large numto arrange logically. Among dry red
it is difficult
402
wines, for example,
we
EXPERIMENT STATION.
find in commerce,
Burgundy, Medoc, Hermitage,
Burgundy wines are further divided

into Chambertin, Clos Vougeot, etc. Medoc wines into Chateau Latour,
Commerce thus recognizes innumerable variations.
St. Estephe, etc.
Most of these variations are distinguished by the name of a region, a
The wines of a certain vineyard are
locality, or a particular vineyard.
Chianti,
and numerous
others.
The brands
and names recognized in commerce are to be reckoned by thousands.
Most of these names correspond to real differences. Names taken
from regions, such as Rhine wines and Sauternes, represent large differences in character easily distinguishable by taste and usually by chemfurther classified according to the year of the vintage.
ical analysis.
Names representing vineyards
or vintage years represent
which may be equally marked to the practiced

difficult
taster, but may be
to indicate by chemical means.
Names drawn from particular vineyards are properly considered
proprietary and should not be used, nor the wines imitated elsewhere.
Names drawn from localities or regions are of the same nature. They
represent qualities due to combinations of soil, climate, variety, and
methods which can not be exactly duplicated in any other place. An
exception should probably be made of certain names which, while
originally derived from particular localities have come to represent,
through long usage, characters due principally to methods of manufacture.
Such names are Port, Sherry and Champagne.
The name Burgundy should be given only to wine made in Burgundy
from Pinot grapes the name Medoc only to wine made in Medoc from
Cabernet, and the three or four other varieties recognized there as
capable of producing the wine to which the region owes its reputation.
There seems to be no sufficient reason, however, why we should not call
a wine Port if it is made of suitable grapes in the recognized way and
resembles those wines of the banks of the Douro, which first received this
name. "Port," is no longer synonymous with "wine of Oporto."
All the wines made in the region of Oporto are not port, and all port
docs not come from that region.
differences of quality,
With
these possible exceptions, locality
names should be given only
produced in the locality. This is not only fair to the consumer, but good policy in the selfish interest of the producer. Wines
are produced mosl profitably by those localities which have an established reputation.
They have a sure market whatever the abundance
ot crops in other localities.
It should be the aim of each locality to
obtain and maintain a reputation that will make them independent of
genera] competition.
This can be done only by marketing constantly
good wines under the name of the locality.
A classification founded on chemical analysis, giving the general
to the wines
Bulletin 218]
THE PRINCIPLES OF WINE-MAKING.
character of wines,
is
It enables
blender.
403
useful to the producer and especially to the wine-
them
to produce,
buy and blend wines
intelligently,
to obtain a desired result.
From this point of view, dry wines can be segregated into three
groups heavy, medium, and light. The first are produced from grapes
of high sugar contents and in the warmer localities, the last from the
more watery grapes and especially in the cooler localities. The sweeter
grapes give wines with higher alcohol and extract and with lower acidity.
The following table gives the usual range in these three components
:
TABLE
Classification of
2.
Dry Wines by Chemical
Analysis.
Composition.
Class.
Acidity.
as tartaric.
Alcohol,
______
Heavy
Medium
Light
The
a
way
alcohol
and acid
-_ _
--
--
by volume.
Extract.
13-15
10-12
8- 9
3.0-4.0
2.0-3.0
1.5-2.0
in natural wines vary in
an inverse
.3-.6
.6-.8
J-.9
ratio, in
such
that the volume percentage of alcohol added to the grams per liter
of acid as sulfuric
known
make
sum
lying between 13 and 17.
and
This
is
what
used for the detection of

watering. Water can be added only to very sweet grapes without
exceeding the limits of this ratio and then only in very limited
is
as the acid: alcohol ratio,
is
quantities.
The alcohol and extract vary directly and in such proportions that the
number representing the extract in grams per hundred c.c. multiplied
by the factor 4.5 gives a figure equal to or greater than the alcohol in
grams per 100 c.c. With white wines, in which the extract is normally
lower, the factor, 6.5 is used in the same way.
This is known as the
alcohol: extract ratio and is used for the detection of the addition of
alcohol to dry wines.
Light and heavy wines will vary also in the amounts of tannin and
coloring matter they contain, but these have no constant relation with
They depend principally upon the variety of
the other ingredients.
grape.
Each
of these groups can be again subdivided into three other groups
A fine wine is one in which all the

components are in proper and harmonious proportions and which has
sufficient quality to be worth aging and bottling.
These constitute in
most regions only a small part of the output. They are, however, the
ideal towards which the efforts of every wine-maker should tend
fine,
ordinary, and blending wines.
404
EXPERIMENT STATION.
sufficiently harmonious in their

but which exhibit no delicacy of
flavor or bouquet, and are intended for bulk shipments and cheap
Ordinary wines are those which are
composition for direct consumption,
Blending wines are of various degrees of quality and character, but agree in showing a deficiency or excess of some one or more
essential components.
There are blending wines with an excess of
alcohol or extract or of color which make them unsuitable for direct
consumption. They serve, however, by blending to correct other wines
which are deficient in these components. Where the wine handlers
have perfected their business, the bulk of wines are used for blending,
for it is only the exceptional wines which can not be improved by additions which will correct their deficiencies and faults.
If, together with the chemical analysis, we make three grades based
on organoleptic qualities, we have nine classes of red and nine classes
of white dry wines.
markets.
TABLE
3.
General Classes of Dry Wines.

Examples.
Classes.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
(Red
(Red
(Red
(Red
(Red
(Red
(Red
(Red
(Red
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
white)
white)
white)
white)
white)
white)
white)
white)
white)
Hermitages, Hauts Sauternes.

wines of hot regions.
Certain wines of Algeria.
medium, fine.
Fine Medocs and Burgundies.
medium, ordinary. Blends of classes 3 and 9.
medium, blending. Common wines of many regions.
light, fine.
Best Moselle wines.
light, ordinary.
Common Rhenish wines.
light, blending.
Common wines of the Midi.
heavy, fine.
heavy, ordinary.
heavy, blending.
Common
This classification does not take into consideration the various faults
which wines may have owing to defective methods of wine-making.

They represent differences due to variations in the raw material which
exist, however perfect the processes of manufacture.
In order to obtain the best results from a given raw material the
principles of wine-making must be known and applied.
Only in this
way can our wines be improved and gradually brought up to the high
standard which the general excellence of our grapes makes possible.
The conditions of the various grape-growing regions of California
are so varied that we can make wines conforming to all the classes of
Table III with perhaps the exception of class 7.
Bulletin 213]
405
THE BIOLOGICAL THEORY OF WINE-MAKING.
III.
It is
the PRINCIPLES OF WINE-MAKING.
now many
proved conclusively that

phenomenon; that it was possible
years since Pasteur
first
alcoholic fermentation was a vital

only through the activities of certain microscopic living plants. This
discovery and the investigations that have followed it have revolution-
Wine-making
ized all the fermentative industries.

to profit
by
this
knowledge.
There
is,
among
is
the last
however, probably no other
industry which depends so much for success and failure at every stage
upon the activities of micro-organisms.
(a) Causes of variation in character
wine depends on two
factors:
and
The quality of
raw material, and
quality.
(1) the nature of the
(2) the character of the processes of manufacture.
the grapeestablishes certain
The nature of the raw material
limits
We
can not make Sauternes from Muscat
in the character of the wine.
or Concord, port from Burger, or hock from Cabernet.
Within these
however, the processes of manufacture are capable of influencing

to a very considerable extent the finished product.
How much of the good or bad quality of the wine depends on each
limits,
Formerly the first factor

it is impossible to determine exactly.
was accredited with almost the whole. With the progress of investigation and improved practice, the second factor is found to exercise a very
factor
great, if not preponderating, influence.
The truth seems to be that the character of a particular grape grown

under particular conditions determines the class of wine which can best
be made from it, and also fixes a certain maximum quality which its
wine can be made to approach by perfecting the methods of manufacture.
Wine is one of the most complex and diverse of manufactured products, and the processes of manufacture must be equally diverse if we are
The processes must
to reach in each case the maximum possible quality.
vary according to the composition of the grape, its contents of sugar,
acid, color, flavor, and mineral salts according to the varying temper;
ature of the vintage in various seasons and localities
according to the
micro-organisms, molds, yeasts and bacteria, which occur in varying
numbers and kinds, and, finally, according to the class of wine, fine or
common, white or red, dry or sweet, still or sparkling, which it is
desired to make.
The most important part of the manufacturing process is the fermenIt is precisely this part which has been the last to be brought
under proper control and in which wine-makers are slowest in establishing that logical practice which alone can give certainty to the results.
The handling of a properly fermented wine is simple, easy and understood by all good cellarmen. An improperly fermented wine is never
tation.
EXPERIMENT STATION.
406
good wine, and
to save
taxes the ingenuity
and
it
skill
from spoiling and becoming a dead loss

of the most experienced wine-handlers.
wine is practically made or spoiled in the fermenting vat or cask.

The most critical period is the first week of the life of the wine; that of
the "main fermentation." An almost equally important period is the
following month or six weeks; that of the "after fermentation." A
wine, which passes successfully through these two periods is almost
"fool-proof." A wine, neglected or improperly treated during these
periods
is
a cripple for
life.
In the rush of the vintage season, the average cellarman 's main preoccupation is to change the grapes from the solid condition in boxes to
the liquid condition in casks.
After the
last
he examines his wine, commences to nurse
then too late. The best he can do

on his customers and distil the rest.
is
(&) Outline of the Operations of
is
it
load of grapes
is
crushed
or calls in the doctor.
to pick out the casks
Wine-making.
The
It
he can foist
operations in
the production of wine take place in four more or less distinct stages,
all
necessary for the final result.
The
first is
viticulture.
the production of the grapes, which
Unless this
is
is
the province of
properly done, however, the work of the
wine-maker becomes difficult or impossible. Suitable varieties of grapes

must be grown and they must be brought to the proper degree of ripeness
free from injury or decay before they are delivered to the wine-maker.
The second stage is the transfer of the grapes to the fermenting vat
or cask.
However good the fruit is on the vine it may be spoiled in this
transfer. The grapes must be gathered intelligently and skillfully they
must be stored and transporated with as little injury as possible they
must be protected from dirt, mold, and injurious fermentation; they
must be handled in a cleanly and efficient manner in boxes, wagons,
conveyors, crushers and must lines.
The third stage, that of fermentation, is usually considered the most
important because it is at this stage that most wine is spoiled. If this
stage is skillfully conducted, fair wine may be made even from inferior
grapes, while mistakes at this stage will spoil the best.
The alcoholic
fermentation is the breaking up of the sugar and the production of
alcohol.
At the same time color and tannin are extracted from the
skins and various minor changes occur.
The final stage is the aging of the wine. This consists of two more
or less concurrent changes, the clearing of the wine by the elimination
and precipitation of all undissolved matters and the acquirement of
;
certain desired flavors

(c)
all
through gradual, slow oxidation.
The Relation of Micro-organisms to Wine-making. Throughout

and wine are liable to be influenced by a
these stages the grapes
Bulletin 213]
t he PRINCIPLES OF WINE-MAKING.
407
In fact, the whole art of the winegreat number of micro-organisms.

maker, as distinct from that of the grape-grower, may be looked upon
A clear underas the control of the various agents of fermentation.
standing of the nature of these agents and of the means by which they
can be controlled is a necessary and the most essential part of the equipment of the wine-maker. The rest is little more than mechanical skill.
(d) Causes of Fermentation.
a vat, as
is
If we crush grapes and place them in
usually done in ordinary wine-making, they go through
Bubbles of carbonic acid gas are given off, the sugar

certain changes.
disappears more or less completely and alcohol and other substances are
These phenomena are called fermentation.
The fermentation proceeds in different ways in different cases and
the resulting wine varies very much in character even when the grapes
formed.
are apparently identical.
The reason
of these differences
is
that the
causes of fermentation are not always the same.
Fermentations of all kinds are due to the action of microscopic

plants
yeasts, molds and bacteria, of which there are innumerable
kinds.
In wine-making, they are all bad except one. This one is the
true wine yeast, known botanically as Saccharomyces ellipsoideus.
6
'
'
'
If we examine freshly expressed grape juice under a microscope,

magnifying 200-300 diameters, we will usually find no bacteria and no
If we examine it again, after bubbles
yeast, and at most, a few molds.
of gas have commenced to come off we will find large numbers of various
kinds of yeasts and molds. When the fermentation is nearly over,
especially if the temperature has been high, another examination will
reveal large numbers of bacteria among the other micro-organisms.
These observations prove two important facts. First, that the germs
of many kinds of fermenting micro-organisms are present on the grapes
when they are crushed, but in comparatively small numbers, so that
they can not be found readily by simple observation. Second, that
many of these micro-organisms develop in large numbers but with
different degrees of rapidity.
Whether the wine
sound or
whether it will reach

the maximum quality possible for the raw material, depends on the kind
of microbial growth which occurs in the fermenting mass.
The skillful
wine-maker can control the kind and amount of this growth the unskillful leaves it to chance.
In order to exercise this control, the winemaker must understand the micro-organisms with which he is dealing.
He must know what they are like, where they come from, what conditions favor their multiplication.
When he possesses this knowledge,
many parts of his art which seemed difficult or mysterious are seen to be
perfectly simple and under almost absolute control.
will be
will spoil,
2b213
408
MICRO-ORGANISMS FOUND ON GRAPES.
IV.
On
EXPERIMENT STATION.
may
be found any of the

and by insects. Many of
these, especially of the bacteria, are incapable of growing in grape juice
on account of its high acidity. They are, therefore, negligible and
without effect on the wine. Others, such as most yeasts and molds and
a few bacteria, find in grape juice a very favorable medium for development and growth. Wine is a less favorable medium than must (grape
juice), owing to the alcohol it contains, but still, a large number of
forms are capable of developing also in the wine. The older the wine
becomes the less suitable it is for the growth of micro-organisms, but it
is never quite immune.
the surfaces of grapes in the vineyard
bacteria
and fungi usually carried by the
(a) Molds.
The
spores of the
common
air
saprophytic molds, Penicil-
Dematium, are always present on the grapes,

and crushers, as on all surfaces exposed to dust laden air, and
most of them find in grape must, excellent conditions for development.
Botrytis cinerea, a facultative parasite of the leaves and fruit of the
lium, Aspergillus, Mucor,
boxes,
vine,
is
also nearly constantly present in larger or smaller quantities.
All of these molds are harmful, in varying degrees, to the grapes and
the wine.
moldy
Some
of them, such as Penicillium,
taste of the wine, sufficient to spoil its
such as Mucor and Aspergillus
may
may
give a disagreeable
commercial value.
Others,
wine but
slightly and injure it only by destroying some of the sugar and thereby
diminishing the alcohol. Dematium pullulans may produce a slimy
condition in weak white musts, and most of them injure the brightness
and flavor to some extent and often render the wine more susceptible
to the attacks of more destructive forms of micro-organisms.
On sound, ripe grapes, these molds occur in relatively small number,
and, being in the spore or dormant condition, they are unable to develop
sufficiently to injure the wine under the conditions of proper winemaking. On grapes which are injured by diseases, insects or rain,
may
they
gathered.
may
they
affect the taste of the
be present in sufficient quantities to spoil the crop before
it is
On sound
grapes which are gathered and handled carelessly,

develop sufficiently before fermentation to injure or spoil the
wine.
The molds are recognized by
their white or greyish
cobwebby growth
This consists of fine branching and interlacing filaments known as mycelium. This is the vegetative stage of the
over the surface of the fruit.
fungus, and the active pari in the destruction of the material attacked.
When mature, it produces spores which differ for each mold in form,
siz<-
and
color.
distribution.
The spores are the chief means of multiplication and

They are minute, single celled bodies which are easily
distributed like dusl through the
air,
and are capable, after remaining
dormant for a longer or shorter period, of germinating, under favorable

now growth of mycelium.
conditions, and giving rise to
;i
Bulletin 213]
the principles of wine-making.
I.
Fig. 1.
Grape mold's injurious to wine.
Black mold {Aspergillus niger). (After Duclauxj
a. Fruiting hyphae.
b. Sporecarp showing formation of spores.
c.
II.
III.
Spores enlarged.
Gray mold (Botrytis cinerea). (After Ravaz.)

Blue mold (Penicillinm glaucuvi)
(From skin
a. Mycelium or vegetative part.
.
b.
c.
d.
Fruiting hypha.
Chains of spores.
Spores enlarged.
of
moldy grape.)
409
410
EXPERIMENT
STATION.
The commonest molds on grapes in California are the Blue Mold, the
Black Mold, and the Gray Mold. Usually only one of these occurs
plentifully at the same time. "Which this one will be depends principIn the hotter regions the
ally upon the temperature and humidity.
Black Mold is most common during the earlier part of the vintage, later
In the cooler regions only Gray and Blue
the Blue Mold takes its place.
Molds occur commonly.
Blue Mold (Penicillium glaucum). This is the common mold
which attacks all kinds of fruit and foods kept for a length of time in a
damp place. It is distinguished by the greenish or bluish color of its
spores which cover the grapes attacked, and by its strong disagreeable
moldy smell. It sometimes attacks late grapes in the vineyard after
autumn rains have caused some of them to split. Grapes lying on the
ground are especially liable to attack. The principal damage of this
(1)
mold occurs usually
after the grapes are gathered while they lie in boxes
or other containers.
It will
grow on almost any organic matter
if
sup-
plied with sufficient moisture and at almost any ordinary temperature.

It is almost the sole cause of all
moldiness in boxes, hoses and casks, and
the most troublesome of all the molds with which the wine-maker has
to deal.
The conditions most favorable
to its
development are an atmosphere
saturated with moisture and the presence of oxygen.
Black Mold (Aspergillus niger).
(2)
This
hotter and irrigated parts of California.
tons of grapes before they are gathered.
It
is
very
common
in the
annually destroys
many
It attacks the grapes just as
they ripen and
is distinguished by the black color of its spores, which

sometimes fill the air with a black cloud at the wineries where the grapes
are being crushed.
It is especially harmful to varieties which have
compact bunches and thin skins, such as Zinfandel. Its effect on the
wine has not been well studied but it is much less harmful than Green
Mold. Large quantities of grapes badly attacked are made every year
into merchantable wine.

of crop
and
it is
The main damage done is in the destruction

enemy to the grape-grower than to
therefore a greater
the wine-maker.
This fungus in certain parts of

(3) Gray Mold (Botrytis cinerea).
Europe is a harmful parasite of the vine, injuring seriously leaves,
shoots and growing fruit.
The only injury of this kind noted in California
As
is
in the "callusing" beds of
a saprophyte
it
may
bench
grafts.
attack the ripe grapes in
much
the same
man-
ner as the Black Mold. It occurs apparently all over California but
seldom does much damage. It attacks principally second crop and late
table grapes.
Bulletin 213]
Under
certain circumstances this fungus
may have
411
a beneficial action.
When
the condition of temperature and moisture are favorable, it will

attack the skin of the grape, facilitating evaporation of water from
This results in a concentration of the juice. The mycelial
the pulp.
threads of the fungus then penetrate the pulp, consuming both sugar
and acid but principally the latter. The net result is an increase in the
percentage of sugar and a decrease in that of acid. This, where grapes

ripen with difficulty, is an advantage, as no moldy flavor is produced.
Two harmful
effects,
mold
and a consein certain circumstances, more than
however, follow:
results in the destruction of a certain
the growth of the
first,
amount
quent loss of quantity. This is,

counterbalanced by an increase in quality.
of material
This
is
the case with the
For this reason, the fungus

finest wines of the Rhine and Sauternes.
Second, an oxydase is prois called in those regions the "Noble Mold."
duced which tends to destroy the color, brightness and flavor of the vine.
This can be counteracted by the judicious use of sulfurous acid.
This mold is not of great importance in California as we do not need
its beneficial effects and it is seldom abundant enough to do much harm.
(&)
Yeasts.
The true yeasts occur much
than the molds.
less
abundantly on grapes
Until the grapes are ripe they are practically absent,
shown by Pasteur. Later, they gradually increase in number;

on very ripe grapes being often abundant. In all cases and at all
seasons, however, their numbers are much inferior to those of the molds
as first
and pseudo-yeasts. The cause of this seems to be that, in the vineyard,

the common molds find conditions favorable to their development at
nearly all seasons of the year, but yeasts only during the vintage season.
Investigations of Hansen, Wortmann and others show that yeasts
exist in the soil of the
amounts.
added
leaven.
vineyard at
all
times, but in very varying
For a month or two following the vintage, a
to nutritive solution contains so
much
For the next few months the amount
particle of soil
yeast that
it
acts like a
of yeast present decreases
when the soil must be carefully examAs soon as the grapes are ripe, however,
until a little before the vintage,
ined to find any yeast at
all.
any rupture of the skin of the fruit will offer a favorable nidus for the
development and increase of any yeast cells which reach it. Where these
first cells come from has not been determined, but as there are still a
few yeast cells in the soil, they may be brought by the wind, or bees and
wasps may carry them from other fruits or from their hives and nests.
The increase of the amount of yeast present on the ripe grapes is
often very rapid and seems to have (according to Wortmann) a direct
relation to the abundance of wasps.
These insects passing from vine to
vine, crawling over the bunches to feed on the juice of ruptured berries,
soon inoculate all exposed juice and pulp. New yeast colonies are thus
EXPERIMENT STATION.
412
produced and the resulting yeast cells quickly disseminated over the
skins and other surfaces visited.
The more unsound or broken grapes present, the more honey dew or
dust adhering to the skins, the larger the amount of yeast will be. The
same is true, however, also of molds and other organisms.
True Yeasts: Saccharomyces. The true yeasts differ from the molds
in the absence of a true mycelium and in a different method of spore
formation. They constitute several botanical groups or genera of which
only one, Saccharomyces, is of practical importance to the wine-maker.
This genus consists of unicellular fungi, multiplying by budding.
Under certain conditions some or all of the cells may produce spores
Such cells are called asci, and the contained spores
in their interior.
asco-spores, or endospores.
The preferred food of the yeasts is the sweet juice of

Most of them are active agents of alcoholic
fermentation breaking up the sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid gas.
1.
Nutrition.
more or
Wine
less acid fruits.
yeast
may
carry on the fermentation until the liquid contains
15 per cent or slightly more of alcohol.

beer yeast cease their activity
when
Other yeasts, such as ordinary
the alcoholic strength of the liquid
reaches 8 to 10 per cent, while some wild yeasts are restrained by

2 to 3 per cent.
2.
E elation
to
oxygen of the
They are
Oxygen.
air for their
aerobic, that
development.
is,
they require the
Most of them
are,
however,
capable of living and multiplying for a limited time in the anaerobic

condition, that
latter
is,
in the absence of atmospheric oxygen.
It is in the
condition that they exhibit their greatest power of alcoholic
fermentation.
They multiply most rapidly and
vigor in the presence of a full supply of
air.
attain their greatest
In wine-making, therefore,
promote their multiplication and vigor by growing in a nutritive solution containing a full supply of oxygen and, then,
to make use of their numbers and vigor to produce alcoholic fermentation in a saccharine solution containing a limited supply of oxygen.
These conditions are brought about automatically in the usual methods
of wine-making.
The crushing and stemming of the grapes thoroughly
aerates the must.
The yeast multiplies vigorously in this aerated
nutritive solution until it has consumed most of the dissolved oxygen.
11
then exercises its fermentative power to break up the sugar, with
the production of alcohol.
With many musts it is able in this way to
it is
necessary,
first,
completely destroy
to
all
the sugar without further oxygen.
In other
musts, cspeeially those containing a high percentage of sugar, the yeast
becomes debilitated before the wine

necessary to reinvigorate
of aeration before
ii
ii
is
dry.
In such cases
by pumping the wine over or
can complete
ils
work.
it is
generally
oilier
method
Bulletin 213]
413
Relation to Temperature. Yeast cells can not be killed or appreThey do not become active,
ciably injured by any low temperature.
3.
"Wine yeast shows

until the temperature exceeds 32F.
scarcely any activity below 50 F. and multiplies very slowly below
however,
Above this temperature the activity of the yeast gradually

Between 70 F. and 80 F. it is very active and it attains
degree of activity between 90 F. and 93 F. Above
maximum
its
93 F. it is weakened, and between 95 F. and 100 F. its activity
At still higher temperatures the yeast cell dies. The exact
ceases.
60 F.
increases.
death point depends on the condition of the yeast, the nature of the
and the time of exposure. In must and wine a temperature
of 140 F. to 145 F. continued for one minute is usually enough to
solution
destroy the yeast.
The
to be
wine-making will depend on the kind of wine

between 70 F. and 90 F.
best temperature in
made and
will lie
Relation to Acids. The natural acids of the grapes, in the amounts

which they occur in must, have little direct effect on wine yeast.
Indirectly they may be favorable by discouraging the. growth of competing organisms more sensitive to acidity. Acetic acid has a strong
retarding influence which commences at about .2 per cent and increases
with larger amounts until at .5 per cent to 1 per cent according to the
4.
in
variety of the yeast,
all activity ceases.
The fumes of burning sulfur are

5. Relation to Sulfurous Acid.
used in various ways and for various purposes in wine-making. The
active principle of these fumes is sulfurous acid gas of which the chemical
formula
S0
shows that
it is
bined with two atoms of oxygen*.
composed of one atom of sulfur com-
As
sulfur has just twice the atomic
weight of oxygen this means that one part by weight of sulphur
combines with one part by weight of oxygen to produce two parts by

weight of sulfurous acid gas. This combination takes place when sulfiir
is burned in free contact with air.
The same substance can be obtained
from certain salts, only one of which is suitable for use in wine-making.
This is a potash salt known as potassium meta-bisulftte. This salt is
composed of nearly equal weights of potash and sulfurous

contact with the acids of the must, the sulfurous acid
is
acid.
set free
In
and the
potash combines with the tartaric acid of the must to form bi-tartrate of
potash, which is already a constituent of the natural must.
Sulfurous acid
is
an antiseptic, mild or strong, according to the
all kinds are much more sensitive to its

than yeasts. If used, therefore, in properly regulated amounts it
can be made a very efficient means of preventing bacterial action and
quantities present.
Bacteria of
effects
thus indirectly of aiding the work of the yeast.
It has also the very

valuable property of preventing the injurious action of the oxydase
414
EXPERIMENT
produced by Botrytis and other molds.
Finally,
STATION.
it is
necessary in most
cases to prevent the too rapid or overoxidization of the wine during
aging.
6.
Morphology of Wine Yeasts.
The
yeasts,
the molds,
like
are
and without a filiform mycelium.

Wine yeast consists of cells so small that it would require about 2,500
placed end-to-end to stretch one inch. They can be seen individually
only by means of a high power microscope. In masses they may be
fungi, but they are single celled
6<?
<g&
\if
eb.
Fig.
1.
2.
3.
4.
2.
Wine yeast.
Saccharomyces ellipsoideus, young.

Saccharomyces ellipsiodeus, old.
Saccharomyces ellipsoideus, spores.
Mixed forms of yeast cells in fermenting grape
juice.
seen in the sediment of the fermenting liquids as a fine, smooth, or
somewhat granular powder. In the body of the liquid they produce

more or less cloudiness according to their number.
Under the microscope, the cells are seen to be spherical, ellipsoidal, or
oval bodies consisting of a thin outside
membrane
the
cell wall, enclos-
In young cells, the contents appear translucent

and almost homogeneous, but, when older, various clear space {vacuoles)
and dark bodies {granules) appear. Very old and dead cells are very
granular and almost opaque. Yeast cells multiply by budding. Under
conditioDs favorable to growth, a small rounded swelling appears near
ing the
cell contents.
Bulletin 213]
415
forms a partition
that separates its contents from those of the mother cell and finally
develops to full size, thus forming a new yeast cell. The daughter cell
The production of
usually separates immediately, and buds in turn.
one end of the
new
This gradually increases in
cell.
size,
under favorable conditions, from one to several

may, therefore, increase a million fold in twenty-
cell requires,
Yeast
hours.
cells
four hours.
When
young, vigorous, well nourished cells are supplied with abundant air and moisture at a comparatively high temperature under conditions that discourage budding (lack of nutriment) they form endospores.
These spores are about half the diameter of the mother cell and from
one to four usually occur in a cell. They are more opaque than the
other cell contents and can be distinguished from the granules by their
uniformity of
They
and shape.
size
are not formed in the
must or
wine.
In the older wine-making
districts,
much
of the yeast present on the
The race or
grapes consists of the true wine yeast, S. ellipsoideus.
variety of this yeast differs, however, in different districts.
The idea prevalent
several varieties occur in each district.
that each variety of grape has
its
own
Usually
at one time,
variety of yeast seems to have
been disproved, though there seems to be some basis for the idea that
grapes differing very much in composition, varying in acidity and
tannin contents,
may vary also in the kind of

may occur on the same
varieties of ellipsoideus
growing
districts,
yeast present.
grapes.
Several
In new grape-
where wine has never been made, ellipsoideus may
be completely absent.
Besides the true wine yeast, other yeasts usually occur. The commonest forms are cylindrical cells grouped as S. pasteurianus. These
forms are particularly abundant in the newer districts, where they
may
take a notable part in the fermentation.
numbers
is
other yeasts
Their presence in large

always undesirable, and results in inferior wine. Many
may
occur occasionally, and are
Some have been noted
all
more or
less
harmful.
producing sliminess in the wine. Many of

these yeasts produce little or no alcohol and will grow only in the
as
presence of oxygen.
(c)
Pseudo-yeasts.
Yeast-like
always occur on grapes.
organisms producing no endospores
Their annual
and their distribution

some of them are much more
life cycle
are similar to those of the true yeasts but
abundant than the latter. They live at the expense of the food matemust and, when allowed to develop, cause cloudiness and
rials of the
various defects in the wine.
The most important and abundant

(according to Lindner this
cells of this
is
is
the apiculate yeast S. apiculatus,
a true yeast, producing endospores)
organism are much smaller than those of
8. ellipsoideus
The
and
416
EXPERIMENT STATION.
In pure cultures these cells show various forms,

ranging from ellipsoidal to pear-shaped (apiculate at one end) and
lemon-shaped (apiculate at both ends). These forms represent simply
stages of development.
The apiculations are the first stage in the formation of daughter cells; the ellipsoidal cells, the newly separated daughter
very distinct in form.
cells,
which, later, produce apiculations and
Many
new
cells in turn.
varieties of this yeast occur, similar in degree to those of
They are widely distributed in nature, occuring on

and are particularly abundant on acid fruits such as grapes.
ellipsoideus.
S.
most
fruits,
Apiculate yeast appears on the partially ripe grapes before the true
<^
>^ji
Fig.
3.
Yeasts and pseudo-yeasts injurious
to wine.
Saccharomyces apiculatus.
Saccharomyces pasteurianus.
Mycoderma vini (2 forms).

Dematium pullulans.
Torulae and pseudo-yeasts.
Torulse and pseudo-yeasts.
more abundant than the latter.

very rapid under favoring
The first part of
conditions and much exceeds that of wine yeast.
the
beginning
of
the
vintage and with
the fermentation, especially at
acid grapes, is. therefore, often almost entirely the work of the apiculate
wine yeast and even on ripe grapes
is
Tin- rate of multiplication of this yeast is
The amount of alcohol produced by
this yeast is about 4
varying with the variety from 2 to 6 per cent.
When
per cent,
the fermentation
has produced this
amount of
and
finally stops,
allowing the more resistant ellipsoideus to multiply
and
finish the destruction of the sugar.
however, has
much
of the
alcohol, the activity of the yeast slackens
The growth
of the apiculatus,
deterring effect on that of the true yeast so that where
former
lias
been
present, during the first stages of the
Bulletin 213]
the principles
oi^
wine-making.
fermentation, the latter often fails to eliminate
all
417
the sugar during
the last stages.
Wines
in
which the apiculate yeast has had a large part in the
fermentation are apt to retain some unfermented sugar and are very
Their taste and color are
liable to the attacks of disease organisms.
defective,
and they are difficult to clear.

acids of the must, the amount of which is
often suggestive of cider
This yeast attacks the fixed
therefore diminished in the wine while, on the other hand, the volatile
acids are increased.
Many
other yeast-like organisms
ordinary conditions,
fail
may
occur on grapes but, under
develop sufficiently in competition with
to
Most of them
They destroy the
apiculatus to have any appreciable effect on the wine.

are small round
cells,
classed usually as Torulae.
or no alcohol.
group of similar forms, known collectively as Mycoderma vim'.
occurs constantly on the grapes but, all being strongly aerobic, they do
not develop in the fermenting vat, but, under favoring conditions, may
be harmful to the fermented wine.
(d) Bacteria of many kinds occur on grapes as on all surfaces exposed
Most of these are unable to develop in solutions as acid as
to the air.
grape juice of wine. Of the acid-resisting kinds, a number may cause
serious defects and even completely destroy the wine.
These, the
'"disease bacteria" of wine are mostly anaerobic and can develop only
after the grapes are crushed and the oxygen of the must exhausted by
other organisms. Practically all grape-must contains some of these
bacteria, which, unless the work of the wine-maker is properly done,
will seriously interfere with the work of the yeast, and may finally
spoil the wine.
The only bacteria which may injure the grapes before
crushing are the aerobic, vinegar bacteria, which may develop on injured
or carelessly handled grapes sufficiently to interfere with fermentation
and seriously impair the quality of the wine.
sugar but produce
little
V.
MICRO-ORGANISMS FOUND
Wine micro-organisms may
IN WINE.
be conveniently divided into two groups
Those which grow only in the presence of notable supplies of free oxygen
at robic), and those which require or grow better in the absence of free
oxy gen ( anaerobic )
(a)
Aerobic organisms.
one strong in alcohol,
Mycodermce.
with
its
If a
normal wine, especially
surface exposed to the
air, it will
few days, be covered with a whitish film, thin and smooth

but gradually becoming thicker and finally rough and plicate.
usually, in a
at first
1.
is left
418
This
is
what
known
is
EXPERIMENT STATION.
wine-makers as "wine floivers."
to
This film
somewhat longer and more cylindrical and

ellipsoideus, reproducing by budding and forming large
consists of yeast-like cells,
regular than S.
aggregations.
Pure cultures show that there are many varieties of this organism
differing in the color and texture of the film, in the cloudiness of the
liquid and the character of the deposit.
They are called collectively
Mycoderma
vini.
These organisms are strongly aerobic and can develop only on the
^
\
Fig.
1.
2.
4.
5.
6.
Bacteria of
wine diseases.
Bacteria of vinegar sour wine (acetic).

Bacteria of lactic wine (propionic), young,
(a)
3.
4.
Cell of wine yeast.

of lactic wine (propionic), old.
of slimy wine.
of mannitic wine.
of bitter wine (butyric).
Bacteria
Bacteria
Bacteria
Bacteria
air.
They are a serious enemy to the
and cloudy. They attack the extract, fixed
acids and alcohol, producing at first volatile acids and finally causing
complete combustion of the organic matters to C0 2 and H 2 0, destroying
the wine completely.
surface in full contact with the

wine, rendering
2.
it
insipid
Acetic Bacteria.
The
film
formed on wines exposed
to the air,
especially on those of low alcoholic contents, will often differ
due to Mycoderma
vini.
It will be thinner,
from that
smoother and consist of
These, the acetic bacteria, grow not only on the wine at the
expense of the alcohol, but on crushed grapes and must at the expense
of the sugar, producing acetic acid in both cases.
bacteria.
Acetic acid in small amounts is a normal constituent of wine produced

by the yeast. Unless in excess, its effect is not injurious. There may be
present from .09 gs. in 100 gs. in light white wine to .14 gs. in a heavy
Bulletin 213]
419
red wine without deterioration of quality. In sweet wines even a

somewhat larger amount may be present without causing injury.
Much larger amounts are injurious in two ways. When the acetic
"When an abnormal
amount of acetic acid is produced, before or during fermentation, it
In such cases, the wine
interferes with or stops the work of the yeast.
"sticks," that is, fails to eliminate all sugar and becomes especially
acid
perceptible to the taste, the wine
is
is
spoiled.
liable to the attacks of other bacteria.
Wines high
in
alcohol are less liable to acetic fermentation than
weaker wines. Sound wines containing ovjer fourteen per cent by

volume are almost immune, but such wines may be spoiled during the
fermentation by the growth of acetic bacteria on the exposed floating
"cap" of pomace or on the crushed grapes, especially at high temperatures.
Some
most frequent and

most difficult to treat of the diseases and defects of wine are due to
organisms which develop only in the absence of oxygen. These organisms are all bacterial and appear to include a large number of forms,
though, owing to difficulties of isolation and culture, the different forms
have not been well studied or described.
(6)
Anaerobic Organisms.
of the worst,
Musts and wines become slimy, rarely,

1. Slime-forming Bacteria.
through the action of Dematium pullulans (Wortmann) and wild yeasts
(Meisner) in the presence of oxygen more frequently through the action
In most cases, only young wines after fermentation
of special bacteria.
;
and when contained
in closed casks or bottles exhibit this defect.
slimy wine has an oily appearance, pours without splashing, and, in
extreme cases, becomes cloudy and will hang from a glass rod in strings.
In such wines, the microscope reveals large numbers of spherical or
more or
less
elongated bacteria in long chains.
These bacteria attack the sugar, but not the glycerine nor the alcohol,
and produce mannite, carbonic acid, lactic and acetic acids and alcohol.
Alcohol above thirteen per cent, free tartaric acid, tannin and sulfurous
acid in small amounts prevent their growth.
serious
and disappears under the ordinary
The
disease
is
usually not
cellar treatment.
2. Propionic and Lactic Acid Bacteria.

The most serious and perhaps the commonest disease of wines is characterized by persistent
cloudiness, disagreeable odors
and
flavors, increase of volatile acid
injury to or complete destruction of the color.
commonly
Wines
and
affected are
and
Tourne of the French).
The cause is bacteria. These are readily revealed by the microscope
in enormous numbers in badlv affected wines.
There seem to be several
characterized
as mousey, lactic or turned wines (Pousse
420
or
many
EXPERIMENT STATION.
closely related forms, all short rod-shaped, isolated in the first
stages of the disease, but, later, forming chains or filaments of various
The most noticeable changes caused in the composition of the

wine are the decrease of fixed and the increase of volatile acidity. The
tartaric acid and tartrates are destroyed, and carbonic, acetic, lactic,
propionic and other volatile acids formed.
Light wines of low acidity are most subject to this disease, which may
be prevented by measures which increase the acidity and alcohol,
defecate* and attenuate the wine rapidly and completely, by the proper
use of sulfurous acid, and finally, by timely nitration and pasteurization.
Wines noticeably affected can be used only for distilling; those badly
lengths.
affected are valueless.
Mannitic Bacteria. Very sweet grapes of low acidity in hot

climates are subject during fermentation to a similar trouble characterized by increase of volatile acidity a persistent cloudiness and a vapid
3.
The disease is commonly confused with the preceding but is caused by bacteria of different forms. The form described
by Gayon is a very fine short rod which does not unite in filaments.
sweet-sour taste.
producing volatile acids

and mannite. The latter may reach over two per cent and the former
five per cent, giving a sweet-sour wine which is completely spoiled.
The bacteria grow abundantly only at high temperatures, approaching 104 F., and can be controlled by cool fermentation, increase of
acidity and proper use of sulfurous acid.
It attacks the sugar, especially the levulose,
Butyric Acid Bacteria.
In the cooler climates, wines, especially

This trouble is due to
comparatively large rod-shaped bacteria, first described by Pasteur.
The cells remain united in angular filaments, short at first, but becoming
4.
old red wines in bottles, often become bitter.
longer and finally thicker, by incrustations of coloring matter, with age.
The tannin, coloring matter, and glycerine of the wine are attacked,
and butyric acids being formed. In small amounts the bacteria
do little or no harm, in larger amounts they may spoil the wine. Means
which increase the alcohol, tannin and acidity diminish the liablity to
the disease. Prompt attenuation and clarification and in extreme cases,
acetic
pasteurization, will cure wines not too badly affected.
All the above anaerobic bacteria of wine diseases probably exist in

most wines. Which develop most or whether any develop sufficiently
wine depends on conditions, chiefly the composition of the

must and the temperature at which the wine is fermented or stored.
Mos1 <lis<';isc(l wines show a mixed infection of several forms.
to injure the
Bulletin 213]
VI.
421
CONTROL OF THE MICRO-ORGANISMS.
Given grapes of suitable composition, the quality of the wine depends

on the work of the micro-organisms. The art of the wine-maker consists
almost entirely in the control of these micro-organisms. His success in
facilitating the work of the useful form (true wine yeast) and in preventing or hindering that of injurious forms determines the quality
of his product.
On the skins of sound ripe grapes as

(a) Before the Fermentation.
they hang in the vineyard, the micro-organisms are comparatively few
and in an inactive condition and with intelligent methods they can not
On
broken or injured grapes the number is greater and

If many such grapes occur they should not be
mixed with the sound grapes if the best wine is to be made.
injure the wine.
the forms
active.
The sorting of grapes after gathering is

The best method for the separation of
inferior grapes is by " double picking.
This may be done by furnishing each picker with two boxes, one for the sound grapes and the other
1.
more
Gathering the Grapes.
expensive and unsatisfactory.
'
'
for the rest.
grapes at
better method, however,

If
first.
many
is to
gather only the good
inferior grapes are left
to go over the vineyard a second time for these.
it
may
be profitable
These inferior grapes
can then be made up separately by special methods and by such means

can often be made into a fair wine, and at worst are useful as distilling
few to repay a second picking, it

them and lose them completely than to mix them with
the good grapes and make all the wine inferior.
Any bunches which
show more than a few moldy, cracked or diseased berries should be left.
material.
is
If the grapes left are too
better to leave
In case the larger part of the crop shows defects of this kind, it may be
them all at once and treat them as inferior grapes, but
in this case fine wine can not be made.
Care should be taken to avoid unnecessary bruising of the fruit if it
can not be worked immediately. Molds, wild yeasts and vinegar bacteria
best to gather
multiply rapidly on grapes wet with juice, The sooner the grapes can
be crushed and placed in the fermenting vat or press the easier it is to
obtain a sound fermentation.
If the grapes are to remain for two or more days after they are gathered before being delivered to the winery, special precautions should be
taken.
Even with great care in gathering, handling and protecting
from dust and
heat, grapes will deteriorate if kept
without crushing.
If bruised
changes even sooner.
and hot they
will
more than two days

undergo injurious
422
EXPERIMENT STATION.
"When grapes have to be taken long

best to crush them at the vineyard,
and then transport them in tight vats or tanks. They may commence
2.
Transportation of Grapes.
distances by
to
wagon
or railroad
it is
ferment before they arrive at the winery, but this
yeasts on the crushed grapes
much
is
effect of the
wild
than that of the

Fermentation can be
less deleterious
molds and vinegar bacteria on the uncrushed.

delayed and minimized by crushing the grapes as cold as possible.
The coolness of the grapes can be insured by crushing those gathered
in the morning immediately before they have had time to become warm.
Those gathered during the heat of the day can be cooled by leaving them
If they
in the picking boxes distributed along the avenues all night.
are not piled up until the following morning, they will usually cool off
They may then be crushed, or, if
fifteen or twenty degrees or more.
necessary, piled up. Large masses of grapes, such as a pile of full boxes,
cool off or
The
best
warm up
method
slowly.
of preventing injurious fermentation, however,
is
to
measured quantity of potassium meta-bisulfite

The
equally through each receptacle containing the crushed grapes.
will
and
condition
of
the
quantity needed
depend on the temperature
grapes.
If the grapes are cool and sound, from 5 oz. to 6 oz. for each
distribute a carefully
ton will be
sufficient, if
warm
or moldy, 9
oz.,
12
oz.
or 16 oz. will be
necessary.
The
sulfite
may
be sprinkled over the crushed grapes as they
the receiving vat, but
way.
made
it is difficult
It is better to dissolve it first in hot water.
pound
at the rate of one
fall into
to get a proper distribution in this

If the solution
is
of meta-bisulfite to one gallon of water,
easy to measure the calculated amount. A good way to use it is to

put the amount needed in a vessel furnished with a small tap and to
let the solution drip from this tap into the vat, or better into the crusher,
it is
as the grapes are passing through.
The amount of sulfurous acid introduced in this way will be just about
what is needed in the fermentation, and is much more effective and
beneficial if added at this time than later.
3.
Cleanliness.
vat, the better
The
less
foreign .matter
our wine will
be.
we
get into the fermenting
Grapes as they hang in the vineyard
are usually clean except in the vicinity of dusty roads or on vines
pruned so low that the fruit rests on the soil. Soil and dust, however,
are more or less eliminated from the liquid during the first part of the
processes of wine-making and are much less harmful than molds and
bacteria.
of dirt are those to which grapes may be

Grapes gathered in moldy, vinegar-sour boxes,
dirty wagons or cars and passed through dirty crushers,
The most harmful forms

exposed after gathering.
hauled
iD
the principles of wine-making.
Bulletin 213]
423
conveyers and presses may be so completely infected with injurious

germs that it is impossible to obtain a good fermentation. The most
injurious form of dirt is grapes, must or wine which have been allowed
to
become moldy or vinegar-sour.
Picking boxes or other receptacles for grapes should not remain more
than twenty-four hours after using without washing. "Where this is
impossible, they should be exposed to the sun and thoroughly dried.
Molds will not grow on a dry surface even though it is covered with
The same treatment is necessary for crushers, pumps,

machinery and utensils with which the grapes come in
Surfaces which can not be dried quickly, such as the inside
contact.
of closed vats, should be sterilized with the fumes of burning sulfur.
grape
hoses
juice.
and
all
not necessary in the case of metal surfaces, such as

the interior of pumps and pipe lines, which can usually be kept free from
mold if well washed and drained after using. All pipe lines should be
This sulfuring
is
furnished with drainage cocks at all low points and pump wells should
have an opening at the bottom so that they can be washed and drained
Hose should be hung up vertically when not in use. Picking
easily.
boxes should be thoroughly dry before being stacked away for the
winter, or, if this is inconvenient, they should be stored in a close room
and
4.
sulfur ed occasionally.
Defecation of Must.
However
carefully the grapes are handled,
a certain amount of dust, germs, and other injurious matters will reach
the vats and presses. If these matters are left in the must during
fermentation, they injure the delicacy of the flavor of the wine.
desirable in the
It is
manufacture of white wines to have a clear must
to
ferment.
The clearing of the must can be accomplished in several ways.

Mechanical separators similar in principle to those used in creameries
are sometimes used, but the clearing is not sufficiently complete. Their
main use is to separate the bulk of the solid matter from must which
has been extracted by a continuous press.
Small quantities of must can be cleared with gelatinous matters and
tannin as in fining wine. Owing to the higher specific gravity of must
and
the finings often settle with difficulty.

The settling
by the addition of Spanish clay or infusorial earth, but the
method is too slow and uncertain for large scale practice.
Most musts will clear sufficiently in twenty-four to forty-eight hours
by simple settling, if fermentation can be delayed so long. With perfectly sound grapes and clean vats in cold weather, no other treatment
is necessary.
As soon as the impurities have formed a sediment, the
clear must is drawn off into the fermenting vessels.
is
its viscidity,
facilitated
3b213
EXPERIMENT STATION.
424
As
a rule, fermentation starts before the settling
after the
commencement
is
Soon
and conveyors
complete.
of the vintage, the crushers
supply an abundance of yeast to the must and, if the weather is hot, it

be fermenting before it gets into the defecating vat. Even in
cases where there is no perceptible fermentation during the first twentyfour hours and where the settling is satisfactory, there is always, unless
the grapes are very cold, a multiplication of apiculate and other wild
yeasts.
It is nearly always advisable to treat the must with sufficient
may
sulfurous acid to delay
all
growth of micro-organisms until
it
can be
decanted from the sediment.
have been treated with meta-bisulfite before or during

This is, indeed, the best time to apply the
crushing, this will suffice.
sulfurous acid, as it prevents even the commencement of growth of undesirable organisms.
If this has not been done, the sulfuring may be
accomplished by pumping the must into a closed vat in which sulfur has
been burned.
The amount of sulfur or sulfite to use will depend on the temperature
and on the nature of the must. The higher the temperature and the
more contaminated the must the more sulfurous acid is necessary.
From 12 to 16 oz. of meta-bisulfite to one thousand gallons is an average
amount. The amount of sulfurous acid which gets into the must from
the fumes of burning sulfur depends so much on the size of the cask, the
If the grapes
method
of filling
nearly
all
sufficient.
pumped
the fumes, 4
Where
in,
definite amount can be

taken to make the must absorb
and other conditions that no
Where every precaution
stated.
oz. to
is
5 oz. of sulfur to a thousand gallons
is
simply burnt in the cask and the wine

more
is
somewhat
needed. If the must commences to
the sulfur
is
ferment before it clears, more sulfur should be used the next time. If
it remains without fermenting for several days after adding yeast, less
should be used.
No harm need be anticipated from a slight excess of sulfurous acid
at this time.
large part of
it
escapes into the air before and during*
fermentation and the remainder forms combinations with the sugar and
other components of the must which are tasteless and innocuous.
An
exception should be
made perhaps
of very acid musts.
acid tends to preserve the normal fixed acidity of the must.
Sulfurous
Wine made
from unsulfured must has a lower fixed acidity than the must. The
acidity of wine made from sulfured must is nearly or quite equal to
that of the must. For this reason sulfiting is especially beneficial in the
case of musts of low acidity.
For unduly acid musts or in the manufacture of sweet wines where a low acidity is desirable, it may be objectionable.
The cause
of the preservation of acidity
is
probably the prevention
Bulletin 213]
of the
425
growth of acid consuming micro-organisms, such
as the apiculate
yeast.
In from twelve to twenty-four hours, the must

gross impurities, including micro-organisms, dust
purged of all its

and solid particles
is
derived from the skins, stems, pulp, and leaves. It may be slightly
cloudy or nearly clear. It should then be drawn off into clean casks
and fermentation started with

This defecation
is
yeast.
of great value, ridding the
must
of substances that
affect the flavor of the wine in the heat of fermentation and

eliminating the excess of albuminoid matters that would serve as food
"Wine-makers who use it for the first time are
for injurious bacteria.
would
usually surprised at the great improvement in the quality of the wine
and in the ease with which

5.
it
can be handled.
The defecation
Sterilization.
of
must for white wine,
as just
described, eliminates nearly all the non-living solid matters but leaves
more or
micro-organisms.
less of the
to devise a
method
micro-organisms.
Many
attempts have been
would remove or destroy

This can be accomplished by heating, but the
of sterilization that
made
all
the
results
High heating caramelizes part of the sugar and

injuring the flavor and color of the resulting wine.
are not satisfactory.

oxidizes the 'must,
Several successive heatings at a lower temperature in an atmosphere of
Both
acid gas is preferable but troublesome and costly.
methods have the defect of extracting undesirable substances from the
solid matters contained in the must unless they are previously removed
by defecation.
Chemical sterilization by means of disinfectants is still less practicable.
No substance could be used for this purpose except sulfurous acid and
this used in sufficient quantities would injure the flavor of the wine.
The effect would be totally different from that of the small quantities
used in defecation.
Experience has shown that the absolute sterilization of the must or
grapes is quite unnecessary. Proper defecation of the must removes
a large proportion of the undesirable micro-organisms and what remain
have no opportunity to injure the wine if the yeast fermentation is
prompt and properly conducted. In the manufacture of red wine,
where preliminary defecation is impossible, care, cleanliness and prompt
fermentation are usually sufficient to prevent any serious injury and
when properly supplemented by accurate use of meta-bisulfite, enable
carbonic
us to prevent injurious action in
all cases.
6. Starters.
All the methods discussed have for their object the
diminution or elimination of micro-organisms of all kinds. With the
injurious forms the true yeast is also removed.
The more perfect these
methods, the more necessary
it is
to
add wine
yeast.
Without
this addi-
426
tion, in fact, all these precautions
yeast being present in
forms
may
much
EXPERIMENT STATION.
may
result in harm, for the wine-
smaller numbers than
many
of the injurious
be completely removed while enough of other forms
is left
to spoil the wine.
A "starter" of some kind is therefore necessary with defecated must

and useful in all other cases.
One method of producing such a starter is to gather a suitable quantity of the cleanest and soundest ripe grapes in the vineyard, crush
them carefully and allow them to undergo spontaneous fermentation
An addition of a quarter to a third of an ounce of
in a warm place.
potassium meta-bisulfite to one hundred pounds of grapes will be of
great assistance in promoting a good yeast fermentation in the starter.
Perfectly ripe grapes should be selected and the fermentation allowed
per cent of alcohol is produced. If imperused or the starter used too soon, the principal
Towards the end of the fermentation
yeast present may be apiculatus.
From one to three gallons of this starter
ellipsoideus predominates.
should be used for each hundred gallons of grapes or must to be
fermented. Too much should not be used in hot weather or with warm
to proceed until at least 10
fectly ripe grapes are
may
be impossible to control the temperature.

used only for the first vat or cask. Those following
are started from previous fermentations, care being taken always to use
the must only from a vat at the proper stage of fermentation and to
grapes, or
it
This starter
avoid
all
is
vats that
defect.
An
improvement on a natural starter of this kind is

Such yeasts are used extensively in
Germany and France and have been employed in several Californian
wineries for some years with excellent results.
There are two ways of using these yeasts. One is to obtain from a
7.
Pure Yeast.
show any
a pure culture of tested yeast.
pure yeast laboratory a separate starter for each fermenting vat or cask.
All the wine-maker has to do is to distribute this starter in the grapes
or must as they run into the vat.
If the starter is used when in full
vigor this
method
is
simple and effective.
Unfortunately,
it is difficult
on hand in just the right condition at the right moment. If

the starter is too young it will not contain enough yeast cells, if too old
to
have
it
The usual starter is in full vigor

few days at the most. Recent improvements in the methods
of preparing pure yeast starters are said to overcome this difficulty and
to produce starters which maintain their full vigor for weeks or months.
The other method is for the wine-maker to obtain a small culture of
pure yeast from a reliable source and from this to make his own starter.
To do this he prepares two or three gallons of must defecated with
the cells will be inactive or dead.

for only a
Bulletin 213]
427
This, on cooling, is placed

and the pure culture
sterilized
cotton
with
plugged
demijohn
in a large
in
a warm place (70
placed
The demijohn must be
of yeast added.
to 80 F.) and thoroughly shaken several times a day to aerate the
must. In a few days a vigorous fermentation occurs.
When the fermentation is at its height in the demijohn, which will be
sulfurous acid and sterilized by boiling.
the must still contains 3 or 4 per cent of sugar, it is ready to use

prepare
a starter. This is best prepared in a small open vat or tub,
to
varying in size according to the amount of starter needed daily. In
this tub is poured twenty to fifty gallons of well defecated must
when
extracted from clean sound grapes.
It is not necessary to boil
it,
as the
few micro-organisms it may contain will be without effect in the presence of the vastly more numerous yeast cells introduced from the pure
culture in the demijohn.
poured into the tub of must, the

temperature of which should be between 80 and 90 F. This temperature is maintained either by warming the room or by occasionally
placing a large can full of boiling water in the tub. This can should, of
course, be tightly stoppered in order that none of the water may get into
The must should be well aerated several times a day to
the must.
invigorate the yeast.
This is done by dipping out some of the must with
a bucket or ladle and pouring it back into the tub from a height of
several feet or by the use of compressed air.
The tub should be covered
with a cloth to exclude dust, and everything with which the must comes
The whole
of the pure culture
is
in contact should be thoroughly cleaned with boiling water.
In a day or two the must
is
in full fermentation
and may be used
as
a starter.
From ten to thirty gallons of starter are used for every
thousand gallons of must or crushed grapes. The cooler the grapes
the more should be added.
Too much added to warm grapes may make
the fermentation so rapid that it will be difficult to control the temper-
Moldy or dirty grapes require more than clean, because there

more injurious germs to overcome.
Every twenty-four hours, nine tenths of the contents of the starter
tub can be used and immediately replaced with fresh defecated must.
The yeast in the one tenth remaining is sufficient to start a vigorous
fermentation and multiplication of yeast. Two things must be watched
with special care if the starter is to maintain it vigor. The temperature
must be kept above 80 F. and thorough and frequent aeration must be
ature.
are
given.
With care, a starter of this kind will remain sufficiently pure to be

used continuously throughout the vintage.
(6)
During
the Fermentation.
However
carefully
we have excluded
injurious germs and increased the good yeast, fermentation will not be
EXPERIMENT STATION.
428
successful unless
we maintain
as unfavorable to the
conditions as favorable to the latter and
former as
possible.
The temperature
of the crushed grapes

below 60 F., unless the
weather is warm, they should be warmed to 70 or 75 F. Unless this
is done, the molds and apiculatus, which require less heat than ellip-
Starting Temperature.
1.
or expressed must
is
of importance.
If
it is
more quickly. This is especially true when starters

In the warmer and earlier districts the grapes are
soideus will develop

are not used.
On
practically never too cold.
the other hand, unless there
is
great
commencement of fermentahowever, the more artificial cooling will be
carelessness, they are never too hot for the
The hotter they
tion.
are,
necessary later and the sooner
Crushing.
2.
it
will
Thorough crushing
have to commence.
necessary in the case of white
is
wine, to facilitate the expression of the juice.

are crushed,
and
For red wine, the grapes
pulp and juice fermented together. In this case

crushing is necessary. Imperfectly crushed grapes
skin,
also, thorough
ferment unevenly and incompletely and the growth of mold is much
facilitated. Crushing of the seeds should be avoided or the quality and
clearness of the wine will be injured.
Aeration.
3.
The must should be thoroughly saturated with
air at
the beginning of fermentation to insure the multiplication of the yeast.
The aeration received

ing
ful,
is
and pressMore aeration would be harmthe wine by over oxidation and
in the processes of stemming, crushing
usually sufficient for this purpose.
injuring the flavor and color of
promoting the growth of injurious aerobic organisms. An objection

to the sterilization of must by heat is the expulsion of the air and the
difficulty of replacing it in the proper amount.
4.
Use of Sulfurous Acid.
regulation of fermentation
is
The proper use of sulfurous acid in the

one of the most important and necessary
art.
Only by this
proper use in most cases can wholesome wine of the highest quality be
produced. Improper use will injure or completely spoil the wine. Its
beneficial effects are due primarily to its action on micro-organisms, on
but least understood parts of the wine-maker's
enzymes and on the color of the wine.

In the small quantities properly used in wine-making, it is antiseptic
in a degree varyiDg with the amount.
All micro-organisms are suseeptible to its action in varying degrees.
Bacteria are particularly
sensitive, molds and pseudo-yeasts less so, while wine yeast is the most
resistant of the ordinary forms found in must and wine.
The result of the use of the proper amount in crushed grapes and
must before fermentation is the almost complete suppression of bacterial
action, the discouragement of molds and pseudo-yeasts and the promo-
Bulletin 213]
429
growth of wine yeast which is given a clear field unhindered

by the deleterious excretions of its competitors.
It would be
Its action as regards enzymes is hardly less important.
Rheingau
the
and
of
Sauternes
wines
finest
the
impossible to make
Botrytis
the
produced
by
without its use on account of the oxydase
cinerea which is abundant and necessary on the best grapes of these
In other regions where this mold and others occasionally occur,
regions.
tion of the
its
use
is
also necessary.
because bacterial action
In hot climates,
is
it is
especially useful, not only
more intense in such
regions, but because of
its action in preserving the natural fixed acids of the grapes, which are,
This preservation, according to Wortthere, nearly always deficient.
mann, is due to the suppression of acid-consuming bacteria, but experiments of Astruc tend to show that the prevention of the action of
unknown acid-destroying enzymes is in part the cause.
By the action
Its action on the color of wines is also of importance.
yellowish
and finally
gradually
made
red
wine
is
color
of
of oxygen, the
rendered insoluble and precipitated. This action is to a great extent
prevented or much retarded by the use of minute quantities of sulfurous
acid.
Wines made without sulfuring and kept in casks in the ordinary
way will lose from one third to two thirds of their color during the first
This loss of color continues until finally such wines as port,
six months.
after keeping for many years, may be completely deprived of all their
red color and become yellowish or brown.
If we sulfur a red wine as soon as it is taken from the fermenting vat,
the
first effect is to
amount
diminish
of sulfur used.
This
its
color,
loss,
more or
however,
is
less
not
according to the
all
permanent, for
some of it returns, so that after one month, the

color may be actually deeper than immediately after the first sulfuring.
The color remaining, moreover, is more stable and a sulfured wine after
six months may have fifty per cent more color than if it had not been
sulfured.
The color, moreover, will be of a better tint. If the sulfuring or sulfiting is done before fermentation, the beneficial effect is even
more striking. In this case, the color is not only rendered more stable,
but the sulfurous acid seems to cause a more thorough extraction of the
color so that the wine from a sulfited vat is actually darker at drawing
off than that from one where no sulfite has been used.
The beneficial effects of sulfurous acid on the color of white wine is
equally striking. The greenish golden color of white wine gradually
changes to yellow or brown with age and oxidation. This undesirable
change is much diminished by a proper use of minute quantities of
after the first racking
sulfurous acid.
The most commonly used source of sulfurous acid is the fumes of

burning sulfur. Sulfur is burned in a cask and the must caused to take
430
up
the fumes by being
hole.
It
pumped
EXPERIMENT STATION.
into the cask through the
upper bung
almost impracticable to apply sulfurous acid from this
is
source to crushed grapes for red wine.
The method is defective in many ways. It is impossible to tell within

very wide limits how much sulfurous acid has been absorbed by the wine.
Moreover, the sulfur burns incompletely and the volatilized sulfur acted
upon by the yeast may produce sulfur etted hydrogen. Other sulfur
compounds are also produced during the burning, to some of which the
Several devices have
so-called sulfur taste of wine is said to be due.
been invented to decrease these defects, but none remove them completely, and progressive wine-makers are adopting more reliable sources.
improvement is the use of potassium meta-bisulfite K 2 S 2 5 a

salt which can be obtained in the requisite purity in commerce and
The amount of
which contains about fifty per cent by weight of S0 2
potash added by this salt in the doses used, is very small and far within
the limits of variation between different wines. By the use of this salt,
exact amounts of sulfurous acid can be applied both to white and red
wines.
Other sulfites are not permissible.
The best source of the acid, recently brought into limited use, is the
liquified gas.
This can be manufactured comparatively cheaply in
An
great purity.
By
its use, all
the benefits of sulfurous acid are obtained
and the defects eliminated.

The amount of potassium meta-bisulfite to use will depend on the
cemperature and on the condition and nature of the grapes. In cold
weather and with cold grapes very little should be used or it may be
difficult to start
they are
fermentation.
With very
less liable to bacterial
acid grapes, less
is
needed, as
fermentation and the preservation of
the fixed acids due to the sulfite
may
be a disadvantage.
In making
little or no sulfite should be used as most of them are

by thorough oxidation. In hot weather and with grapes of
low acidity, more should be used, especially if they are in bad condition,
moldy or broken.
The amounts which have been found to give the best results are from
3 to 5 ounces per ton in cold weather, from 6 to 8 ounces in average
conditions and from 10 to 12 ounces in hot weather or for moldy grapes.
sweet wines,
benefited
"With liquid sulfurous acid half these quantities are sufficient.
The
should be thoroughly distributed throughout the vat, if necessary, by pumping over until the outflowing must shows by its brownish
sulfite
color that
it
has
The addition
all' been
made within two or three hours

and the yeast distributed evenly throughout the vat
of the starter should be
after the sulfiting

in the
acted on.
same way.
Bulletin 213]
Some
Increase of Acidity.
5.
especially
high acidity,
their
431
grapes, owing to their composition,
very resistant to the attacks of
are
Others, owing to their low acidity or highly nitrog-
injurious bacteria.
enous nature, are very susceptible. The addition of tartaric or citric

acid to the latter has a deterring effect on some of the most dangerous
forms. It is seldom necessary, however, to modify the composition for
this
purpose
acid or
ment
its
the other
if
means
of control are used.
The addition of
decrease by dilution should be solely for the direct improve-
of the taste.
In the hotter parts of California, many varieties of grapes are defiwhen they are sufficiently ripe for wine-making.
This defect may be remedied in various ways. The best is by blending
cient in natural acidity
them with acid grapes of other varieties or other localities before

fermentation, whereby the wine of both is improved. The blending of
wines too high with wines too low in acidity, after fermentation,
is
also
good practice.
Where
acid grapes are unobtainable, a small proportion of imperfectly
ripe second crop bunches
may
be used with advantage.
used, the wine does not
is
made
from imperfectly ripe grapes.
altogether
The use of
very
is
common
harsh and
'
'
plaster
'
'
or
gypsum on
for this purpose but
may show more
is
If only a
show the harshness of wines
small proportion
the crushed grapes was formerly
The resulting wine
not advisable.
sulfate than
is
allowed by certain pure
Phosphoric acid in various forms has been used for the same
is less objectionable.
Its main object, however, the promoting of a clean fermentation, is more effectually accomplished by sulfurous acid.
"Where it is considered desirable to increase the acidity of a wine after
making, it may be done by adding tartaric or citric acid. The former
food laws.
purpose and
apt to produce a harsh acidity and some of that added
is thrown
cream of tartar. Pure citric acid is preferable, giving a
cleaner and more agreeable acidity and all remaining in the wine. The
amount to add is determined by taste, but in any case, should not exceed
one and a half pounds per 100 gallons of wine.
In some cases an addition of tannin to the grapes or must before
fermentation is advisable. In making white wine it may be employed
is
down
as
in addition to or instead of sulfurous acid for the preliminary defeca-
tion of the must.
It coagulates the
albuminoids and promotes clearing.
It is especially useful in the cooler regions,
the must
is
and with
rich in coagulable albuminoids, which
varieties of
make the
which
clearing of
difficult.
From one half to two thirds of an ounce may be used
hundred gallons of must for white wine.
It may be used in a similar way in the manufacture of red wine, and
has a favorable effect on the color, which it intensifies and renders more
the wine
in one
432
It is especially useful for
stable.
EXPERIMENT STATION.
grapes which have been badly attacked
may be used to a ton of crushed

grapes or nearly twice this amount in the case of moldy grapes.
with molds.
From
eight to ten ounces
Only clean tasting tannin extracted by water and alcohol should be

Ether-extracted tannins are very pure and white, but give a
persistent taste of ether to the wine. New oak barrels and casks, even
after thorough cleaning and steaming, yield notable amounts of tannin
to the wine which is often benefited thereby.
The tannin is obtained in the form of a light powder which may be
used.
sprinkled on the crushed grapes or preferably dissolved
warm
6.
first
in a little
water or wine.
Modification of Sugar Contents.
If there
is
too
much sugar
in
and the wine will remain

sweet. In practice, any must which shows more than 25 Bal. is very
liable to remain sweet.
Too much sugar can often be reduced, like too
little acid, by blending with under-ripe grapes and both defects remedied
at the same time. Where this is impracticable the only way of making
dry wine from over-sweet grapes is to reduce the sugar by the addition
of water. This reduction should seldom exceed 2 per cent, that is to
say, the maximum amount of water that may be added is about fifteen
gallons to the ton of grapes.
Where this amount is not sufficient to
reduce the sugar to a point where it can be all eliminated by the yeast,
the grapes the yeast can not eliminate
it all
the grapes should be used for sweet wine.
When
the sugar
is
too abundant, most of the other useful components
of the grapes are also in excess, so that moderate dilution in such cases
wine of normal composition. The acidity, however, is an

is nearly always accompanied by low acidity.
Dilution with water must, therefore, nearly always be accompanied by
addition of acid. The water should be added before fermentation, and
the acid after, where sulfites are used.
Increasing the sweetness of the grapes by the addition of pure sugar
is allowed and practised in some countries but is practically never necessary in California. In France, the law allows a maximum addition of
about 3 per cent by weight of sugar. In the United States, when sugar
is added, the wine must be sold as
modified, ameliorated, or corrected
wine.
The addition of both sugar and water constitute stretching,
and is practised only in the manufacture of inferior, imitation wines.
results in a
exception.
High sugar
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
7. Temperature of Fermentation.
The quality and character of the
wine depend greatly on the temperature of the fermentation. If too
low, it may be unduly prolonged, the wine-yeast may have difficulty in
overcoming its competitors and the wines may remain inferior and
cloudy. With red wine, the desired color, tannin and body may not be
ex1 racted.
On the other hand, if the temperature is too high the results
Bulletin 213]
433
The growth of bacteria is promoted, injuring the wine by

the volatile acid and displeasing flavors produced and preventing the
proper action of the yeast. Such wines may remain sweet on account
of the failure of the yeast to do its work- and become unpleasantly sour
owing to the volatile acids produced by the bacteria.
Some means of controlling the temperature is therefore always needed.
Where heat is deficient, it may be supplied by direct heating of the must
Where heat is excessive, it may
or part of it, or by heating the cellar.
using small fermenting
only
grapes,
crushing
cold
diminished
by
be
vats and open wineries to promote radiation, and finally, by the use of
are worse.
cooling machines applied directly to the fermenting wine.
The best temperature for fermentation depends on the kind of wine.

For light white wines, the maximum should not exceed 75 or 80 F.
for heavier wines, 85 or 90 F., while for heavy red wines, where high
extract and tannin are required, it may be allowed to reach 95 F.
Sound wines can be made at all these temperatures.
8. Aeration During Fermentation.
As already explained, the ordinary processes of treatment of grapes result in sufficient aeration for
With grapes containing little sugar,

With sweeter grapes, the
when the alcohol reaches 11 or 12 per
the multiplication of the yeast.

this
may
suffice to
complete fermentation.
fermentation usually slackens
cent by volume or sooner, unless some supplementary aeration
With white
is
given.
seldom done, with the result that the time of

fermentation is prolonged. With red wine, the necessary stirring of the
pomace to promote color extraction or the pumping over of the must
wine, this
is
amount
in the cooling process usually gives a large
of aeration
which
sometimes excessive. Too much aeration results in too rapid fermentation and consequent difficulty in controlling the temperature.
is
It
may
also
have a deleterious
effect
on the
color, especially if
S0
has
not been used.
In any case, the main part of the fermentation should be over in

from three to five days in the case of red and in from seven to fourteen
days in the case of white wine. With heavy musts, however, there will
still remain from .5 to 1 or 2 per cent of sugar.
With certain special
wines such as Sauternes
to this small
it is
desirable to retain the slight sweetness due
amount of unfermented
the judicious use of sulfurous acid,
This
is
accomplished by
by filtration
The pasteurization
remove those albuminoids which are coagulated by heat and
or fining and
tends to
sugar.
prompt
when necessary by
clarification
pasteurization.
which are preferred food of bacteria.

9.
Completion of the Fermentation.
tection
tion.
from bacteria
is
best obtained
In the case of dry wines, pro-
by prompt and complete attenua-
Fermentation should not be allowed
to cease until all the
sugar
434
EXPERIMENT STATION.
For
has disappeared.
pumping over
this
The temperature
tumultuous fermentation.
allowed to
purpose, one, two or more aerations by
are usually necessary immediately after the end of the
fall sufficiently to
of the wine should not be
check the action of the yeast until
all
the
sugar has disappeared.
Racking into small casks or into a

pletely dry
is
cool cellar before the
wine
is
com-
therefore to be avoided.
The time for drawing off red wine from the pomace in the fermenting
is determined by the amount of extraction desired.
As soon as the
wine has extracted as much color and tannin from the skins as is
required, it should be drawn off and the pomace pressed. The amount
vat
of sugar remaining, or the degree of "dryness," should not be consid-
Fermentation will continue just as well in the storage casks with-
ered.
is not unduly chilled

from open vats in an open fermenting room to closed casks in a closed cellar is one of the best means of
maintaining the temperature of the wine during the last stages of fer-
out the pomace as in the vats, providing the wine
In
in the transfer.
fact, the transfer
mentation.
The drawing
and helps
yeast
watched, and,
and pressing give an aeration which invigorates the

The wine in casks should be closely
not perfectly dry, in a few days it should be aerated
off
it
if
to finish its work.
by pumping over.
The yeast should be retained in the wine until its action on the sugar
is complete.
During the violent fermentation, the yeast is kept suspended in the body of the liquid by the rise of gas bubbles. In the slow
after fermentation, the main bulk of the yeast sinks and forms a layer
If the wine is
at the bottom, where, however, it continues to work.
racked from this yeast sediment before it is dry, it will very frequently
cease fermentation
tion for the wine.
and remain sweet.
New
This
is
a very dangerous condi-
yeast often can not be produced in sufficient
quantity owing to the fact that the yeast already produced has exhausted
Bacteria, however, are able to increase, and
during the winter often spoil the wine. It is a great mistake to trust to
the spring fermentation to complete the elimination of the sugar. While
this will sometimes occur in a satisfactory manner, the danger of the
wine spoiling is serious, and, in any case, the final clearing of the wine
is delayed several months.
the yeast food in the wine.
(c)
After the Fermentation.
As soon
as all the', sugar has been
destroyed, in the case of dry wines, or the desired degree of attenuation
has been obtained, in the case of sweet wines, all the useful work of
micro-organisms has been accomplished. The quality and safety of the
wine then depends on freeing

ing
he en1 ranee
and action of
it
from
all
all others.
organisms present and prevent-
Bulletin 213]
435
Aging. A young wine, immediately after the fermentation, is

Before it is ready for consumption, it must be rendered perThis is accomplished by time and the
fectly and permanently clear.
wine-handling.
A perfectly sound and dry wine
of
various operations
can be made clear by filtration and other means, directly after the fermentation is over, but it will not remain clear. Certain salts (cream
1.
cloudy.
and certain albuminoid matters gradually become insoluble

and are slowly precipitated. The clear wine therefore has to be separated from these insoluble matters repeatedly until they practically
cease to form and the clearness becomes permanent.
The time necessary to attain this condition varies with the kind of
wine, the temperature and the amount of aeration. Wines rich in
extract and albuminoid substances clear slowly and with difficulty.
The difficulty is increased if the wine contains a small remnant of sugar
and is infected with many disease bacteria. The effect of the temperThe lower the
ature differs according to the kind of cloudiness.
temperature, the more rapidly yeasts and other micro-organisms become
At low temperatures the
inactive and accumulate in the sediment.
dissolving power of the wine is lessened and the cream of tartar tends
to go out of the solution and to be precipitated. Many of the albuminoid
and organic substances, on the other hand, are eliminated more rapidly
A wine should, therefore, be kept as cold as
at higher temperatures.
This will
practicable for several weeks after the fermentation is over.
tend to throw down the micro-organisms and salts. After separating
from the sediment thus formed, the temperature should be raised for
several months in order to facilitate certain physical and chemical
changes which result in rendering other matters insoluble. When
separated from all sediments, the wine develops best at an even temperature of between 50 and 60 F.
As the wine clears, it also undergoes certain favorable changes in color,
odor and taste which distinguish an old from a young wine. These
changes are due partly to the clearing of the wine and partly to chemical combinations and reactions between the various constituents of the
wine under the influence of the oxygen of the air. The more intense
the aeration the more rapid are these changes.
Small casks and freof tartar)
quent rackings increase the aeration and, therefore, the rapidity of

aging.
High temperatures have
the same effect.
temperatures retard these changes.

acquire
Large casks and low
If too rapid, the wine does not
qualities and become vapid; if too slow, the aging of

unduly prolonged and the wine is liable for a longer time
its finest
the wine
is
to the possibility of injurious changes.
In any particular case, it is a matter of judgment how rapidly the

aging should be caused to progress. In a general way, the best results
436
EXPERIMENT STATION.
by the use of small casks and low temperatures.

Where low temperatures are unavailable, larger casks must be used.
The time of aging is determined riot only by the attainment of stable
limpidity but by the acquirement of the odors and tastes which distinguish a properly aged wine. Improvement in the latter respect may
continue after all insoluble matters have been separated from the wine.
After a certain time, however, every wine attains its optimum quality.
At this point it should be bottled or consumed for all further changes
in quality are obtained
decrease the quality.
The point of optimum quality varies greatly with the character of

The more alcohol and extract the wine contains the more
slowly it acquires its highest value. Ports and sherries may improve
the wine.
for twenty or thirty years, while light northern wines

best in one or two.
account.
The
taste of the
While a wine in aging acquires certain
odors grouped as " bouquet"

in the grape
2.
consumer must
may
be at their
also be taken into
qualities such as the
aromas preformed
and which are most marked in the young wine.
Backing.
As soon
it
loses certain agreeable
as bubbles of
C0
cease to be given
off,
the yeast
bottom and the liquid become

clear.
This often occurs before the fermentation is complete. In this
case the temperature should be kept up and the fermentation stimulated
by .aeration as described above.
When the wine is dry it should be "racked" (drawn off, decanted)
from the sediment into clean casks. The first racking is usually done
while the wine is till slightly cloudy during the first month or six weeks,
If left too long in contact with
to remove the more bulky sediment.
the yeast the autophagy or degeneration of the latter may produce
substances which injure the brightness and flavor of the wine.
A second racking is necessary at the end of the winter before the
spring rise of temperature arrives and stimulates the vitality of the
micro-organisms which always remain in the wine. A well-made wine
at this time should be perfectly bright and all solid matters consisting
of yeast and bacteria, coagulated albuminoids and crystals of bitartrate
should have accumulated in the sediment.
Racking should take place when possible only in settled weather,
and other
solid matters will settle to the
Low atmospheric pressures

with
which
the wine is saturated.
2
Under these conditions, therefore, bubbles of gas are apt to be given
off, bringing up particles of sediment and rendering the wine cloudy.
However long wine is kept in wooden casks, it will continue to deposit
when the barometric pressure
diminish the solubility of the
is
high.
C0
owing to chemical changes due to the action of ogygen

which penetrates slowly through the wood. Repeated rackings are
traces of sediment,
therefore necessary, occurring at least twice a year until the wine

bottled or consumed.
is
Bulletin 213]
437
Exclusion of Air. Abundant aeration is necessary during fermentmoderate supply of oxygen is necessary for the proper aging
ation.
Experience has shown that exactly the proper amount of pure
of wine.
filtered air will obtain access to the wine for the latter purpose through
3.
of ordinary casks of proper size.

completely fermented wines, all aeration other than
sound,
"With
of the wood should be avoided as much as posporosity
that due to the
the
wood
accomplished by keeping the casks tightly bunged and

completely filled. Evaporation through the wood continually diminishes the volume of wine and the lack must be supplied by filling up, at
This
sible.
first
drier
is
two or three times a month and later every month or two. The
and warmer the air of the cellar, the more frequent the fillings
necessary.
4.
wine
Very
Sulfuring.
is
racked
little is
A
is
light sulfuring of the clean casks into
which the
This should be practised with great caution.
usual.
needed with sound wines, especially
if it
has been used
before or during fermentation and a slight excess will injure the flavor.
The amount for perfectly dry wines should not exceed

white wine and
One
less for red.
.004 per cent for
half to one third of this
is sufficient
The amount can be accurately measured only when

using meta-bisulfite or the liquefied gas, and is equivalent to from 2 to 5
ounces of meta-bisulfite to 1,000 gallons of wine. The utility of the S0 2
for old wines.
with perfectly sound wines,
is
to disease, to discourage the

5.
Cellar Hygiene.
ducted with
strict
All
to diminish oxidation;
with wines liable
growth of bacteria.
manipulation of the wines should be con-
attention to cleanliness.
Cleanliness in this case
means not only absence of dirt, but the prevention of the development
of molds and bacteria.
The alcohol, acids and tannin of sound, wellmade wines have certain antiseptic properties which prevent injury by
the small infection with the spores which exist in ordinarily pure air
and clean water and which it is impossible to avoid entirely. Any wine,
however, may be injured or spoiled by the abundant infection with
harmful micro-organisms which occurs when they are placed in contact
with dirty hoses,
pumps
or casks.
All the surfaces with which the wine comes in contact should be thoroughly cleaned and washed immediately after use. If these surfaces
are metallic or otherwise non-absorbent, they should be kept perfectly
dry.
If they are of wood, rubber or other porous material, they should
be preserved from bacterial or mold growth by means of sulfurous acid.
Empty
casks should be sulfured
by burning a small piece of sulfur
in each, once a month, for three or four months.
After these sulfurings
the casks will usually be perfectly sterilized and the sulfurings need then
Open wooden vats may be

they can be covered temporarily with
be done only every three to six months.

sulfured in the same
way
if
EXPERIMENT STATION.
438
canvas or a close wooden cover.

cent solution of calcium sulfite
Spraying or swabbing with a 10 per
more effective if the vats are not

Rubber or canvas hoses should be rinsed with a sulfite solution and hung up so that no liquid remains in them and washed before
is
covered.
using.
Casks or vats which have contained spoiled wine or been permitted

become moldy or vinegar-sour require special treatment before they
are used again. They must first be made mechanically clean by removto
ing
all
sediment with scraper, washing-chain or brush. All volatile acid

a hot 5 per cent to 10 per
must then be neutralized by treatment with

cent solution of carbonate of soda. Moldy
tastes are
When
best to take
a cask becomes badly tainted
re-cooper
it
before treatment.
When
the staves are sound, the moldy taste
it
is
hard
it
to remove.
apart and
badly affected and when
less
may
all
be removed by treating the
After the oil has acted for two

or three days, it should be removed with hot water and soda.
After mechanical cleaning and removal of all bad tastes, the cask
should be sterilized. Small casks are most easily treated with boiling
dried interior with hot cotton-seed
oil.
water or steam, followed by heavy sulfuring.
With very
large casks
the heads and staves are apt to be warped by this treatment.

case, several
heavy sulfurings
at intervals of several
days are
In this
effective.
The clarification of a perfectly sound wine may be

and hastened by thoroughly stirring up the yeast immediately before the first racking.
The yeast in settling carries down
much of the finer suspended matter, thus effecting a rough fining.
Materials such as kaolin, pure silica sand, charcoal and filter paper
can be used with the same effect after the first racking. The fining,
however, is never perfect and the flavor of the wine is often injured by
6.
Clarification.
facilitated
A very pure clay, known commercially as Spanish

used largely for clearing sweet wines where the flavor is not so
delicate.
From .5 to 1 pound per 100 gallons is used for this purpose.
The best wines are nearly always fined at least once immediately
the materials used.
clay, is
before bottling.
One
or two finings
may
precede this to hasten aging,
defecation and bottle ripeness.
The materials used are soluble gelatinous or albuminous substances

which are capable of being coagulated and precipitated by some ingredient of the wine.
The best of the commonly used substances are
Isinglas (Ichthyocol) \ to \ an ounce per 100 gallons for white wines;
he white of fresh eggs, 4 to 8 per 100 gallons for red, and gelatin 1 to 1J
ounces per 100 gallons for either. The amount used depends on the
1
degree of cloudiness.
The proper quantity of the finings is first dissolved in a little water,

then diluted with wine and stirred into the cask. The tannins and acids
of the wine cause a gradual coagulation in
minute particles throughout
439
Bulletin 213]
These particles gradually coalesce, forming larger particles

which include all the other floating solid matter of the wine as in a net.
These larger particles, contracted by the alcohol, then settle to the bottom, leaving the wine perfectly bright.
The coagulum consists of a combination of the gelatinous matter and
the liquid.
Some
the tannin.
of the latter, therefore,
is
removed from the wine.
With astringent red wines, this may be an improvement. If there is no

excess of tannin present, enough must be added to combine with the
With white wines, which contain little or no tannin, this
finings used.
addition
is
always necessary.
The amount to use varies with the quality of the finings and of the
tannin and with the composition and temperature of the wine.
To precipitate commercial gelatin of good quality about an equal
quantity of good tannin
requires only
necessary;
is
from one half
properly prepared
amount. Eggs require
isinglass
to one third this
only minute quantities.

Specially prepared casein of milk
used for fining white wine.

its complete precipitation and no addition of tannin is needed. Many other albuminous
substances such as milk, blood and various proprietary preparations are
also used, but they are all inferior to the three mentioned and many of
them introduce foreign matters such as milk-sugar and bacteria, which
Its chief merit
is
is also
that the acids of the wine alone cause
are a source of danger to the wine.
Wines containing many disease bacteria may be injured by the introThe evolution of gases due to the bacterial action
may prevent the settling and the albuminoid matters introduced will
favor the multiplication of the disease organisms. By means of a light
duction of finings.
sulfuring or the addition of about
.5 oz.
to 1 oz. meta-bisulfite to a 100
gallons added immediately before the addition of the gelatin, the bacteria
may be temporarily
paralyzed and the finings will then
settle
and remove
the bacteria with the other floating particles.
The bright wine should be racked from the

the sediment has settled, especially
ous.
wine
7.
when
finings very soon after
the disease bacteria are numer-
This will be in from seven to ten or at most twenty days.

is
not clear in three weeks
Filtration.
bright wine.
Filtering
It is
is
it
should be
inferior to fining in producing a perfectly
more rapid, however, and
mon wine and wines
If the
filtered.
is
useful in clearing com-
of innumerable
forms are used. They are of two main types. For rough clearing of
very cloudy wines some form of bag filter is usually employed in which
refractory to finings.
the wine passes through a cloth tissue.
and the
filtration imperfect.
filtering surf ace ? the filtration
4b213
As
Filters
The passage
at first is rapid
the solid matter accumulates on the
improves but the passage of the wine
is
4-iO
The
retarded.
first
wine
is
EXPERIMENT
STATION.
passed a second time through the filter and

becomes too slow, the operation must be
as soon as the rate of filtration
stopped and the filtering surface renewed.

For wines containing little sediment, the
must be primed. This

wine first passed
accomplished by putting a
through the filter. The priming is more effective and the output of the
filter much increased if a little infusorial earth free from iron and carlittle
is
bonates
is
filter
finings in the
used with the gelatin.
For the more perfect clearing
of old wines some form of pulp filter is

These are various devices by which the wine is forced through
a mass of cellulose or asbestos pulp and freed from all floating matter.
Some of the best of these, carefully used, remove nearly all the bacteria
used.
present.
Heating.
8.
The heating of wine after fermentation
is
practised for
various purposes and in various ways.
In general its object is to hasten

and facilitate the chemical and physical changes which constitute aging,
to sterilize the wine completely or partially (pasteurization) by the
destruction of micro-organisms or for both purposes at the same time.
Wines will develop more rapidly at high temperatures than at low.

The aging of a wine can often be much hastened with advantage by keep-
warm
room, 70 to 75 F., for several weeks or even months.

This must be done, however, with much caution. Only young wines
ing
it
in a
which are perfectly dry and clear should be subjected to this treatment.
Wines containing unfermented sugar or many bacteria are almost
certain to become diseased
if
kept in a
warm
place after they have
Wines low in alcohol or of delicate conany way may be injured. In any case, the wine will age
too much, become vapid or acquire a sherry taste if kept warm too long.
The precipitation of albuminoid matters is much facilitated by this
heating which is used by some wine-makers in the finishing of Sauternes
containing 1 or 2 per cent of sugar. In this case, the young, clear wine
is placed for several days or weeks in a room or cellar heated to 85 to
90 F. Under these conditions, the wine is extremely subject to bacterial deterioration.
This is prevented either by the use of comparatively large doses of sulfurous acid or by a momentary heating to
150 F. to sterilize the wine before the prolonged heating at 90 F.
ceased alcoholic fermentation.
stitution in
Some sulfurous acid is necessary in order to prevent browning and darkening of the color and the acquiring of a sherry taste. A still higher
heating is used for certain sweet wines to which it is desired to give a
"rancio" or sherry taste. In this case, the wine is heated to 120 or
130
F. for two or three months.
This high and prolonged heating
promotes the chemical changes which produce the "rancio" taste and
golden color due to oxidation and caramelizes part of the sugar, giving
desired character to the sweet wine.
;i
Bulletin 213]
9.
the principles OF wine-making.
Pasteurization.
destruction of
plished by a
all
441
The pasteurization of wine has for
momentary heating
its
object the
accomtemperature of between 140 F.
injurious micro-organisms in the liquid.

to a
It is
and 160 F. or sometimes higher.

As the wine is cooled immediately and remains at the maximum
temperature for only one minute or less, the changes of composition and
character are much less marked than in the case of prolonged heating.
Such changes, however, do occur and the more intensely the higher the
;
temperature of pasteurization. Sound wines are sometimes pasteurized to insure their keeping under unfavorable conditions. They may be
pasteurized into casks for shipping long distances or in hot climates.
Delicate wines are sometimes pasteurized in bottles.
Pasteurization
is
also a useful
means of checking the progress
of
wine before they have injured its quality irretrievWhen an early microscopic examination of the wine shows the
ably.
presence of dangerous numbers of bacteria, prompt pasteurization will
destroy them before they have perceptibly injured the wine. Pasteurization, however, does not render the wine immune, and the sterilized
wine must be run into sterilized casks and protected from reinfection.
The need of pasteurization is proof of the delicate constitution of the
wine and of the need of special care even after the destruction of the
bacterial diseases of
bacteria
it
contains.
any age may be pasteurized but they should always be

Heating cloudy wine always injures its flavor
and often makes it more difficult to clarify. Before heating a cloudy
wine, therefore, it should be cleared by fining or filtration.
Wines
of
nearly or quite clear.
10.
Cooling.
Low temperatures may be utilized to promote the devel-
opment of wine.
As soon
as the
wine
is
completely dry, which should be
within a few weeks after the end of the vintage,
Low
cooled.
organisms, tend to cause
cream of
it is
benefited
by being
temperatures, by diminishing the activity of the micro-
tartar,
and
them
to accumulate in the sediment with the
to increase the limpidity of the
wine at the
first
racking.
The cold of winter arriving at just about the right time for this
purpose, should be utilized by opening the cellar where the young wine
is stored at night and closing it in the day time.
In some countries,
the wine
is
placed outside during part of the
obtain the full benefit of the chilling.

40 F. has been used with success.
Lately
first
winter in order to
35 or
artificial cooling to
The wine should be left at these

low temperatures only so long as is necessary to cause all micro-organisms and excess of salts to accumulate in the sediment and to be removed
by the
first
A rise of temperature
maturing of the wine.
racking.
desirable for the
to 55 to 65 F. is then
442
11.
much
Bottling Wine.
EXPERIMENT STATION.
The object of bottling
is
to preserve the
wine
as
from the action
from further change by protecting it

and oxygen.
A wine, therefore, which has ceased forming a deposit, is perfectly
bright and has reached its optimum quality should be bottled. It is
usually advisable to fine a wine two to five weeks before bottling. It
may be bottled directly from the finings or, preferably, racked carefully
from them as soon as bright into lightly sulfured casks and bottled
after two or three weeks rest.
If bottled too young, the wine will make an abundant deposit in the
as possible
of micro-organisms
bottle, if too old, it will
have
lost
something of
its
quality.
If bottled
and in perfect condition, there will be very little

deposit and this will be slow in forming and will adhere firmly to the
side of the bottle.
The age of the wine will vary in California in
ordinary cases, from one and a half years to four or five years. It is
at the right stage
seldom desirable to keep even the heaviest dry wines in casks longer
than five years and it is possible by special methods to get some light
wines ready for bottling in less than a year.
The bottling should take place under the same atmospheric conditions
as racking, in order to have the sediment as compact as possible and the
wine as free as possible from floating particles or micro-organisms. The
placing of the cask and the drawing of the wine into bottles should be
so arranged that the wine is disturbed as little as possible during the
operation.
Bottles
and casks should be perfectly clean and
sterile.
The former
should be washed in hot water containing ten per cent of carbonate of
and allowed to dry neck down. A final

brandy or a weak solution of meta-bisulfite
is of use in some cases, but should be done with precautions to prevent
more than a trace of the rinsing solution from remaining in the bottle
when filled with wine. The corks should be soaked for twenty-four
hours in warm water and then drained and rinsed with the wine to be
bottled.
Old or inferior corks should be sterilized by immersing for
soda, rinsed with pure water
rinsing, before draining, with
twenty-four hours in a 5 to 10 per cent solution of sulfuric acid before

washing and soaking. They may be sterilized more effectively and
by heating them in a closed vessel in which is placed a small

amount of a 20 per cent solution of formalin. Eight or ten ounces
easily
of formalin in one quart of water
After bottling,- the wine
is sufficient
to treat 1,000 corks.
further protected from access of air by

covering the corks with a layer of hot paraffin or wax. The bottles
is
should then be laid horizontally, care being taken that the small volume
of air which remains in the bottle is not in contact with the cork but in
contact with the glass of the upper side of the bottle.
Wine
bottled in this
then remain with

ately moist
little
and clean
way
will
improve a
little
change for many years
cellar.
if
for a few
kept in a
months and
moder-
cool,
STATION PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE FOR DISTRIBUTION.
REPORTS.
1896.
Report of the Viticultural Work during the seasons 1887-93, with data regarding the Vintages of 1894-95.
1897.
Resistant Vines, their Selection, Adaptation, and Grafting.
1902.
1903.
1904.
cultural Report for 1896.

Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1898-1901.
Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1901-03.
Twenty-second Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1903-04.
Appendix
to Viti-
BULLETINS.
Reprint.
Endurance
of
Drought
in Soils of
No. 128. Nature, Value, and Utilization of

Alkali Lands, and Tolerance of
Alkali.
(Revised and Reprint,
1905.)
133.
Tolerance of Alkali by Various

cultures.
147. Culture
Work
149. California
No. 186. The Oidium of the Vine.
of the Sub-stations.
1907.)
190. The Brown Rot of the Lemon.
191. California Peach Blight.
California.
153. Spraying with Distillates.'

159. Contribution to the Study of Fer-
193.
(Dec.
Fertilizers.
1,
1904.)
165.
Asparagus and Asparagus Rust
194.
Pruning the Sultanina.

Commercial Fertilizers.
Grape Root-worm.
Grape Culture in California
Improved Methods of Winemaking Yeast from California
168.
Manufacture of Dry Wines in

Hot Countries.
Observations on Some Vine Diseases in Sonoma County.
Tolerance of the Sugar Beet for
198.
199.
The Grape Leaf-Hopper.
169.
Alkali.
170. Studies in Grasshopper Control.
171. Commercial
Fertilizers.
(June
30, 1905.)
172. Further Experience in Asparagus
200.
Gum
167.
174.
176.
Rust Control.
A New Wine-cooling Machine.
Sugar Beets in the San Joaquin
Valley.
177.
178.
179.
A New
Method
Red Wine.
of
Grapes.
Bovine Tuberculosis.
Diseases of Citrus Trees in
California.
201.
Commercial
202.
Commercial
(Decem-
203.
Report of the Plant Pathologist
204.
The Dairy Cow's Record and the
205.
Commercial
to July
1909.
1,
Stable.
206.
Fertilizers.
(Decem-
1909.)
Commercial
(June,
Fertilizers.
1910.)
1906.)
180. Resistant Vineyards.
181. The Selection of Seed- Wheat.
207.
208.
209.
The Control of the Argentine Ant.

The Late Blight of Celery.
The Cream Supply.
182.
Analysis of Paris Green and Lead
210. Imperial
183.
Proposed Insecticide
Law.
The California Tussock-moth.
184.
Report of the Plant Pathologist
Wheat
185.
Report
Arsenic.
Valley
in
Cereal
Settlers'
Crop
Manual.
211.
How
Increase
to
the
Yield
in California.
212. California
to July
1, 1906.
of Progress
Investigations.
Fertilizers.
ber, 1908.)
ber,
(June,
(June,
Fertilizers.
1908.)
Making Dry
Mosquito Control.
Commercial Fertilizers.
(Dec,
1907.)
195. The California
197.
in California.
The Best Wine Grapes for California Pruning Young Vines

;
mentation.
Commercial
Vine in
192. Insects Injurious to the
Sugar Industry.
151. Arsenical Insecticides.
162.
Commercial
Fertilizers.
(January, 1907.)
188. Lining of Ditches and Reservoirs
to Prevent Seepage and Losses.
189. Commercial Fertilizers.
(June,
187.
the Arid Region.
White Wheats.
of
CIRCULARS.
No.
1.
Texas Fever.
5.
Contagious Abortion in Cows.
No.
46.
47.
11.
Remedies for Insects.

Asparagus Rust.
Fumigation Practice.
12.
Silk Culture.
51.
15.
Recent Problems in Agriculture.

What a University Farm is For.
53.
19.
Disinfection of Stables.
54.
29.
Preliminary Announcement Concerning Instruction in Practical

Agriculture upon the University
7.
9.
30.
32.
33.
36.
39.
Farm, Davisville, Cal.

White Fly in California.
White Fly Eradication.
Packing Prunes in Cans.
Sugar vs. Beet Sugar.
48.
50.
Suggestions for Garden Work in

California Schools.
Agriculture in the High Schools.
Butter Scoring Contest, 1909.
Fumigating Scheduling.
University Farm School.
Announcement of Farmers' Short
Courses for 1910.
Some
Creamery
Problems
and
Tests.
55.
58.
Farmers' Institutes and University

Extension in Agriculture.
Experiments with Plants and Soils
in
Laboratory, Garden, and
Field.
Cane
Analysis of Fertilizers for Consumers.

Instruction in Practical Agriculture at the University Farm.
59.
Tree
Growing
in
the
Public
Schools.
60.
61.
62.
Butter Scoring Contest, 1910.

University Farm School.
The School Garden in the Course'
of Study.

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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

(Berkeley. Cal., May. 1911)

SUPERINTENDENT OF STATE PRINTING

EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF.

Wickson, M.A., Director and

Pathological Laboratory and Experiment Station.

Horne, B.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist.

Charles Fuchs, Curator Entomological Museum.

Madson, B.S.A., Assistant in Cereal Laboratory.

Assistant in Agricultural Chemical Laboratory.

P. L. McCreary, B.S., Laboratory Assistant in Fertilizer Control.

V. Cruess, B.S., Assistant in Zymology.

THE NATURE OF WINE

THE BIOLOGICAL THEORY OF WINE-MAKING

Causes of variation in character and quality

MICRO-ORGANISMS FOUND ON GRAPES

MICRO-ORGANISMS FOUND IN WINE

Aerobic organisms: 1. Mycodermae

CONTROL OF THE MICRO-ORGANISMS

THE PRINCIPLES OE WINE-MAKING.

The Legislature of the State of California in 1909 passed an act to

on "all matters appertaining

to the viticultural industry pertinent to

the successful conduct of the business that

In accordance with the provisions of this act the Viticultural Division

work undertaken have been:

for various varieties of wine, raisin

and testing of new and promising varieties;

(3) investigation of the nature

wine should be properly made.

is good, some of it very good, but

making good, sound wine. They are seldom injured

diseases or inclement weather

be for the present prejudice against Californian wines, the

unnecessarily inferior wine

THE NATURE OF WINE.

attempts have been

legislators to give a clear definition of wine.

made by authors and

practically all agree

the product of the alcoholic fermentation of the grape."

other fruits or sub-

word and the

in accord with the derivation of the

the usual cellar treatment.

is allowed only within prescribed limits.

an addition that in one case would be

would do harm in another an addition that in one case would

central idea of all additions

must be that they

to ferment very ripe grapes containing over 25 per cent

supplied with a better product.

If the dilution is accurately

and the consumer is in no way defrauded. This

varying composition of good grapes,

assigned, on the theory that grapes which require additions exceeding

these limits are totally unfitted for wine-making.

resolved usually by fixing such

composition for the wine.